GURENTEED !! AD NCERT : MUST TO MUG UP Ula BY OM PRABHU AIIMS DELHI SELECTION LEKE RAHENGE YE WADA HN HAMARAGURENTEED !!! AG TARGET CHAPTER WITH TOPICS DUAL NATURE OF Radiationjand a Matter, X * Introduction * Work Functions of different element © Photoelectric Effect ¢ MostImp graphs of Photoelectric effect SG Sy eis * Introduction ~ « Geiger-Marsden scattering Experiment ¢ Orbits * Atomic Spectra © Bohr Model SELECTION LEKE RAHENGE YE WADA HN HAMARA |ABHY_AlIMS_ DELHI tps. melomprabhuaiimssRADIATION AND © IIE ss Chapter Eleven DUAL NATURE OF 11.1 IntrRopuction =, The Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism and Hertz experiments on the generation and detection of electromagnetic waves in 1887 strongly established the wave nature of light. Towards the same period at the end of 19th century, experimental investigations on conduction of electricity (electric discharge) through gases 97, were important milestones in the understanding of atomic structure. It was found that at sufficiently low pressure of about 0.001 mm of mercury column, a discharge took place between the two electrodes on applying the electric field to the gas in the discharge tube. A fluorescent glow appeared on the glass opposit: to cathode. The colour of glow of the glass depended on the type of glass it being yellowish-green for soda glass. The cause of this fluorescenc was attributed to the radiation which ap; cathode. These cathode rays were di Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested th: of fast moving negatively charged particles. The British physicist J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) confirmed this hypoth: peared to be coming from th iscovered, in 1870, by William| lat these rays consisted of streams i esis. By applyin, mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields across oe cones tube, J. J. Thomson was the first to determine exper n rimentally the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (¢/m)] of the cathode ray hips: youtube.com @OM_PRABHU_ AMS. DELHI ‘ntpsutmelomprabhuaimeda” Dual Nature of Radiati Around the same time, in 1887, it w, : » it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having Small speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to high temperature were Particles. The value of e / mof these paiticles found to emit negatively charged Millikan (1868-1953) the precise measurement of the charge on an electron. He found that the. dy charge on an oil-droplet was always an integral multiple of an elementary charge, 1.602 = 10° C. Millikan’s experiment established that electric charge is quantised From the values of charge (e) and specific charge {e/m), the mass (m) of the electron could be determined. 11.2 Evecrron Emission les) that ductivity. However, the free electrons cannot metal surface. ve forces of the ions. Consequently, the electron can ‘come out of the metal surface only ifit has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull. A certain minimum amount of energy is required to be given to an clectron to pull it out from the surface of the metal. This nimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface ‘the work functionof the metal. It is generally denoted by $,and in eV (electron volt). One electron volt is the energy, gained by an as beenaccelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt, so i f energy 1s commonly used in atomic and nuclear physics. ee een ) depends on the properties of the metal and the of its surface. The values of work function of some metals are cI in Table 11.1. These values are approximate as they are vel itive to surface impurities. : ; ee Note from Table 11.1 that the work ; he minionurn energy required for the electronemission fromthe metal. <<, © can applied the free electrons by any one of the following x wh Intpsi.melomprabhuaimed— 388 hips youtube.com @OM_PRABHU_ AMS. DELHI 4.28 Bab 4.49 ae a 4.65 3.20 gA oe 7 NI 5.15 4.25 Pt 5.65 reas suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy ‘can be imparted to the free electrons to enable them to come out of the ) [Field ld emision}y applying a very strong electric field (of the order of ‘Vm_") toametal, electrons can be pulled out of the metal, as ina park plug. - (ilPhoto-cectic emissior|When light of suitable frequency illuminates ‘metal surface, electrons are emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are called photoelectrons a 11.3 Puorortectric EFFECT a 3.1 ‘Hertz’s observations aay In his experimental investigation on the production of electromagnetic waves by means of a spark discharge, Hertz observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. Light shining on the metal surface somehow facilitated the escape of free, charged particles which we now know as electrons, When light falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the eee of the positive io. in the material of the surface: cident light, the elect Yesitepy ace oe ER ihe te 11.3: Ca Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon photoelect ic emission in detail during 1886-1902. Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations we allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosinf two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit (Fig. 11.1). 4] soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow al ‘ntpsit-melomprabhuaimedrr Dual Nature of Radiationy and Matter Pee area positive eallector plate Alby the elesiiceeid, tmaicctnnal flow through the evacuated glass tube, resulting, i eeu . Thus, light falling on the surface of i nein the currentflow. 5 2 B 2 5 After the discover incident light ty of the electron in 1897, it became evident that the tight causes electrons to be emitted from the emitter plate. Due to negative charge, the emitt ted electrons are pushed towards the collector Plate by the electric field. Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when ultraviolet light fell on the emitter plate, no electrons were emitted at all when the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, called the threshold frequency This minimum frequency Ee on then: \€ material of the emitter plate. 4 : Itwas found that certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium, ete., tesponded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron emission from the surface. However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light. All these photosensitive substancesemit electrons when they are illuminated by light. After the discovery of electrons, these _ électrons were termed as photoelectrons. The phenomenon is called Photoelectric effect. se 5 z 2 ee 28 28 wel fs a8 ae ae ° a8 re ee ae 2 23 es Bo ss se £8 a 11.4 ExpertmentatS TUDY oF P HOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Figure 11.1 depicts a schematic view of the arrangement used for the experimental study of the photoelectric effect. It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C and another metal | Plate A. Monochromatic light from the source $ of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent quartz window is sealed on to the glass tube, which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate the photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and “are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates Cand A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be Teversed by a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector Bri k ieeeative oh respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are yromnaajeoioyd /2t399}9010d /WO/84y jyoctube com! @OM_PRABHU AIMS. DELHI ‘ntpsu-melomprabhuaimedane El ed to it, The emission of electrons caastbANy WY electric current in the circuit. The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is measured by a microammeter (nA). The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can be varied, as can the potential difference V between the emitter C and the collectorA. FIGURE 11.1 Experimental ‘arrangement for study of Photoelectric effect. ight of different frequencies can be used by putting appropriate coloure aati ee Es d filter or coloured .¢ path oflight falling on the emit i - ee 1g on the emitter C. The intensity 11.4.1 Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent Photoelectric current ——> Intensity of light ——» 11.2 Variation of electric current with S Intensity of light = ric current elerating potential wi t with, with light of fixed frequency + called saturation eu; current corresponds to the case when all the Pree ‘re 4 the emitter plate C reach the collector plate A. sal We now apply a. negative (retarding) potential to the plate 4. 390 to the plate C and make it increasingly negative gradually a nm by Tespect When the hip: youtube.com @OM.PRABHU_ AMS. DELHI IntpsiM.melomprabhuaimedin 4a7e en ———— Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Ji veayatas Ss Polarity is reversed, the elec i tr repelled and only the most exqnt Photocurrent—+ Potential V, on the plate A. Or a particular frequency of incident tadiation, the ing) potential V, called the cut-off or stopping potential Stopping potential, terms of photoelectrons is straight fo F y Per ward, Vo All the Photoelectrons emitted from the +— Relarding potential Seatat ae, metal do not have the same energy. od Photoelectric current is zero when the Fl 11.3° Variation of photocurrent with otentat Tor different stopping potential is sufficient to repel even radiation. the most energetic photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy (K,,,,), so that Koa = €Vo (1.1) We can now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but of higher intensity 1, and I, (13 > > 1). We note that the saturation currents are now found to be at higher values. This shows that more electrons are being emitted per second, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. But the stopping potential remains the same as that for the incjdefit radiation of intensity I,, as shown graphically in Fig. 11.3. Thus, y of the inci a —— collector plate intensity of incl 11.4.3 Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential We now study the relation between the ax frequency v of the incident radiation and the peed stopping potential V). We suitably adjust the are same intensity of light radiation at various =, frequencies and study the variation of Ree a photocurrent with collector plate potential. The resulting variation is shown in Fig. 11.4. We obtain different values of stopping potential but Ty the same value of the saturation current for «— Retarding potential Variation of photoelectric current 2 once Glee iiss cin ns. The frequencies of incident radiation. Jam 391 ,yottube com @OM_PRABHU AMS. DELHI Intpsi.melomprabhuaimed © Collector plate potential —> sto] tentii ega Beer seacies of incident radiation. Note fromFrequency of incident radiation (») —> FIGURE, faciation of wea tential V, WYrGuency v of incident radiation for @ RA os nv These obsery, (i) there exists a certain mit Stopping potential is zero, This minimum, cut-off: Fig. 11.4 that the stopping potentials are in the order Vo3> Voo > Vo, if the frequencies are in the order'v, > v, > v,. This implies that greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to stop them completely. If we plot a graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping potential for different metals we get a straight line, as shown in Fig, 11,5. ‘The graph shows that \() the stopping potential V, varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation for a given, photosensitive material, inimum cut-off frequency v, for which the ene Iti diferent forciterent mete? called the threshold frequency Different photose s. ‘nsitive materials reg; is more sensitive than zinc or copper, The sterently to light. Selenium gives differen ultraviolet light give: red light does not, ie Same photosensiti ponse to light of aise sitive substance Stise to photoelectric nt Wavelengths. For effect in copper te ee nents, itis found that, iff ieShold frequency, the pi the expe ceva atten para ‘perimental features and observations {) Fora given photosensitive material and i h (above the threshold frequency), the os eeeney of 4 proportional to t (i) Fora given pl . ae eee 392 hitp:ivwan youtuf. com! @OM_PRABHU AMS. DELHI incident radiation whereas the its intensity (Fig, 11.3). (ii) For a given photosensitive material, th cut-off frequency of the incide: sPequency, below which no emission of photo no matter how intense the incident light is, Al ove the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the i ere exists a certain mini ‘nt radiation, called the imum, ‘the threshold maximum king ‘ntpsiR.melomprabhuaimed eticenergy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity (Fig. 11.5). (iv) The photoelectri instantaneous process withou' apparent time I 0°°s or less), even when th made exceedingly dim. 11.5 JPyorossernie Brora Wave THEORY) or Licut Row OL apposite The wave nature of light was well established by the end ofthe nineteenth Qt COU. century. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were uy Jained in a natural and satisfactory way by the wave picture of light. Reccetepkue light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over foe “ the region of space over which the wave is extended. Let us now see ifthis a wave picture of light can explain the observations on photoelectric tany jon is emission given in the previous section. According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the surface of the metal (over which the beam of radiation falls) absorb the radiant energy continuously. The greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are An oar y the amplitude of electric and magnetic fields. Consequently, the greater the intensity, the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron. I jicture, the | kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the sui increase with increase in intensity. Also, no matter what t cy of radiation is, a suffi tense beam of radiation (over sufficient time) should be able to impart enough energy to the electrons, so that they exceed the minimum energy needed to escape from the metal surface . A threshold frequency, therefore, should not exist. These expectations of the wave theory directly contradict observations (j), (ii) and (ii) given at the end of sub-section 11.4.3. Further, we should note that in the wave picture, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously over the entire wavefront of the radiation. Since a large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed per electron per unit time turns out to be small. Explicit calculations estimate that it can take hours or more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome the work function and come ¢ | This conclusion is again in striking contrast to he photoelectric emission is instantaneous. In short, the wave picture is unable to explain the most basic features of photoelectric emission. 11.6 Enstew’s Puotor.ectric Equation: ENERGY Quantum or RapiaTion r : i aa 1905, Albert Einstein Wis 7anis55) proposed a radically new pia of radianit energy 393 p/wmyoube.com/@OM PRABHU AIMS, DELHI ips metompathusimesAlbert Einstein (1879 - 1955) Einstein, one of the greatest physicists of all time, was born in Ulm, Germany. In 1905, he published three path- breaking papers. In the first paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons) and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect. In the second paper, he developed a theory of Brownian motion, confirmed experimentally a few years later and provided @ convincing evidence of the atomic picture of matter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity. In 1916, he published the general theory of relativity. Some of Einstein's most significant later contributions are: the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Planck's blackbody radiation law, static model of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas of massive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics. In 1921, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his contribution to theoretical physics and the photoelectric effect. oy re) ) 4 i Oye eOn merc) 394 his Planck’s constant and v the photoelectric effect, an electron energy (hv) of radiation. If this juantum of energy absorbed exceeds the minimum ereray needed for te electron to escape from ie metal ane (work function #,), the electron is emitte isnt kinetic energy has energy hy, where frequency of light. In absorbs a quantum of (11.2) i kinetic bound electrons will emerge with ath aximum value. Note that the More tightly a it an the y sett of light ofa given frequency is determined by the number of photons incident per second. Increasing the intensity will increase the number of emitted electrons per second. However, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is determined by the energy of each jhoton. F = Equation (11.2) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation, We now see how this equation accounts in a simple and elegant manner all the observations on photoelectric effect given at the end of sub-section 11.4.3. * According to Eq. (11.2), K,,.,. depends linearly on v, and is independent of intensity of radiation, in agreement with observation. This has happened because in Einstein’s picture, photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a single quantum of radiation bya single electron. The intensity of radiation (that is Proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time) is irrelevant to this basic process. * Since K,,., must be non-negative, Eq, (11.2) implies es Photoelectric emission is possible only if >, or v> v,,where bo ign (11.3) Equation (11.3) shows that the greater the worl function @, the higher the minimum or thresh frequency v) needed to emit photoelectrons. Thee there exists a threshold frequency (= @/h) for the metal surface, below which no photoctew is possible, no matter how intense radiation may be or how longit falls on the surface * In this picture, intensity ofradiation as noted atece, is proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time. The greater the number of energy quanta available, the greater is the number ct electrons absorbing the energy quanta and, greater, therefore, is the number of electrons coming out at the metal (for v > vp). This explains why, for v> y,, photoelectric current is proportional to intensity, tric emission the incident hips youtube.com @OM PRABHU AMS. DELHI hips: melomprabhuaimsd=—— Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter — In Einstein's picture, the basic elementary process involved in photoelectric effect is the absorption of a light quantum by an electron. ‘This process is instantaneous. Thus, whatever may be the intensity i.e., the number of quanta of radiation per unit area per unit time, photoelectric emission is instantaneous, Low intensity does not mean delay in emission, since the basic elementary process is the same. Intensity only determines how many electrons are able to participate in the elementary process (absorption ofa light quantum by a single ¢lectron) and, therefore, the photoelectric current. Using Eq. (11.1), the photoelectric equation, Eq. (11.2), can be written as f. s¥o=hv- $5; for ven, * CED) m9) Thisis an important result. It predicts that the Voversus v curveis a ‘Straight line with slope = (h/e), independent of the nature of the material. During 1906-1916, Millikan performed a series of experiments on photoelectric effect, aimed at ‘disproving Einstein’s photoelectric equation. He measured the slope of the straight line obtained for sodium, similar to that shown in Fig. 11.5. Using the known value of e, he determined the value of Planck's constant h. This value was close to the value of Planck’s contant (= 6.626 = 10 “J s) determined in an entirely different context, yo Eathis way, in 1914f Millikan proved the validity of Einstein's photoelectric f Mi (\j Keun Bt scoation instead roving it. le Successfull explanation of photoelectric effect using the hypothesis oflight quanta and the experimental determination of values of handg,, in agreement with values obtained from other experiments, led to the acceptance of Einstein’s picture of photoelectric effect. Millikan verified photoelectric equation with great precision, for a number of alkali metals over a wide range of radiation frequencies. 11.7\Particie Nature or Licut: THe Paoton Photoelectric effect thus gave evidence to the strange fact that ight in interaction with matter behaved as if it was made of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy h v. Is the light quantum of energy to be associated with a particle? Binstein arrived at the important result, that the light quantum can also be iated with momentum (h v/e). A definite value of energy as well as momentum is a strong sign that the light quantum can be associated th a particle. This particle was later named photon The particle-like rther confirmed, in 1924, by the experiment of on scattering of X-rays from electrons. In ded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to theoretical physics and the photoelectric effect. In 1923, Millilkan was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect. We can summarise the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation as follows: oR hips youtube.com @OM PRABHU AMS. DELHI hip: melomprabhuaimsd Rorbed aioBann re SATs eT Leer (iyPhotons are electric ————"=~Ss=étes of radiation with matteradiation behaves as if it is interaction icles called photons. ener photons momentum p= he/a nd speed othe speed OFE tar frequency ¥ orwavelength A, have rgentum p (= hu/e= h/A), oflight ofa part {é/All photons (shy = and mo! nergy E (shu = he/4) ant Gy increasing the intensity sere radiation may ae ee eas 6 ae ee there is only an increase in the number of i with each photon having oflight of given wavel CaN ‘notons per second crossing @ BV<" E ° a the See ‘Thus, photon energy jg independent of intensity of radiation. ¢ ally neutral and are not deflected by electric and agnetic fields. _ electron collision), the in a photon-particle collision (such as photon- conserved: However, the number total energy and total momentum are’ of photons may not be conserved in a collisio absorbed or a new photon may be created. wn, The photon may be ‘Example 11.1 Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 x10" Hz is ¢ js 2.010" W. (a) What is the produced by a laser. eee emitted cenit ear Solution Seo {a) Each photon has an energy E=hv=(6.63 x10“ J s) (6.0 x10" oS 8 x 1071S us i fl N is the number of photons emitted secon s¢ the ‘the power P transmitted in the beam Ree n tite Pied ae per photon E, so that P= N E. Then ee - 2109) Baoan : 0 x10"° photons per second. ple 11.2 The work functi threshold frequency for cae nee Solution (a) For the cut-offor threshold frequen “ radiation must be equal to work eee eneident ye he Bla h 6.63x10Js ee _2a4x1.6 «10 ® ve 6 5.1610! He thus, for frequencies les: sins Eicon aeteeaas than this threshold frequency, no (b) Photocyrrent reduces to zero, when maximum kin nics the emitted photoclectrons equals the potential aera retarding potential Vo. Einstein's Photoelectric aaa ee 1 isES Hy 1_) Nature of Radiation and Matter as or, A=he/(eV, + @) = (6.63 *10-"s) (3«10'n/s) (0.60eV +2.14eV) = 19.89 *107°Jm_ (74a) 19.89 x10°Jm 9° 274xi.oxo7y —~ 454 nm Orr sang a Example 11.3 The wavelength of light in the visible region is about» 390 nm for violet colour, about 550 nm (average wavelength) for yellow- green colour and about 760 nm for red colour. < (2) What are the energies of photons in (eV) at the [i) violet end, (ii) average wavelength, yellow-green colour, and (iii) red end of the visible spectrum? (Take h = 6.63x10° J s and 1 eV = 1.6*10 “!°J.) (L) From which of the photosensitive materials with work functions listed in Table 1 using the results of (i), (ii) and (iii) of (a), A! | can you build afphotoclectric device that operates with visibl ion ‘Solution : aE eee {a) Energy of the incidént phof6f, B = hy = he/A F E= (6.63x10™J s) (3x10° m/s)/4 -1:989x107°Jm_ a () For violet light, 4, = 390 nm (lower wavelength end) 1.989 «107m 390x10° m =5.10 x 10S 5.10 x10 1.6x10eV 3.19 eV (ii) For yellow-green light, 4, = 550 nm (average wavelength) 1,989 x10 7m. Incident photon energy, E,= —“s5qxi07m > = 3.62x107 J = 2.26 eV (iii) For red light, A, = 760 nm (higher wavelength end) 1,989 «100m 760%107 ma = 2.62x10" J = 1.64 eV (b) For a photoelectric device to operate, we requirericident _ light energy E to be equal to or greater than the work function @, of the material. Thus, the photoelectric device will operate with violet light (with E= 3.19 eV) photosensitive material Na (with g, = 2.75 eV), K (with Boca = 2. and Cs (with g, = 2.14 eV). It will also operate with . yellow-green light (with E = 2.26 eV) for Cs (with @, = 2.14 eV) only. However, it will not operate with red light (with E = 1.64 eV) for any. : __of these photosensitive materials. htpeuvwrn.yotubecom/@OM. PRABHU AIS DELHI htpemelomprabbuaimed Incident photon energy, E, = Incident photon energy, E, = 39!Wave Nature oF MATTER eke Sr8 .¢ dual (wave-particle) nature of light (dectromagnetic Pad sto general) comes out clearly from what we have learnt in this and the _.-preceding chapters. The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena Nar interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in jtoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and’ mentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of a bunch of ticles - the photons. Whether a particle or wave description is best ited for understanding an experiment depends on the nature of the t. For example, in the familiar phenomenon of seeing an object our eye, both descriptions are important Pe gathering and focussing ismof li ¢-lens is well described in the wave picture. sand cones (of the retina) requires the photon (pronounced as de that moving particles of matter shoul a Id Suitable conditions. He reasoned that n of the particle and &s the de Broglie relation and th Thatis, the de Broglie wavel length of a ph i UXO, the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation BYE" BY Ea, (1 1.5) Quantum of energy and momentum BPs photon Clearly, from Eq. (11.5), 2 is mre ener patil large), Forenarp gst BA (arg m) ox of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving ables the de Brogiie ase! calculated: Peed of 20 m gt is easily ete con'ocu prvi ams, peut Mer nace