PRODUCTION &

HANDLING
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PRODUCTION &
HANDLING
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PRODUCTION &
HANDLING

ⓒ All rights reserved. 2021

This reference or guidebook on “Banana Production and Handling”, dealing with various
aspects of cultural and handling practices has been published to support the ongoing
efforts of sustainable high production of this crop. It seeks to bridge the scientific
knowledge gap, and it presents updated information on its cultivation. It is expected that
this attempt would help stakeholders to improve their ability to identify and resolve
constraints relating to banana production. Reproduction and dissemination of the
material given in this booklet for educational or other non-commercial purposes are
authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the
source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for
resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the
copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: The Director,
Narayan Institute of Agricultural Sciences (NIAS), Gopal Narayan Singh University,
Jamuhar (Rohtas) - 821 305, Bihar, India.

Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform
any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information contained
herein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and
include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. The reader is
expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by
the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the
instructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with
such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind,
including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness for particular purpose or
merchantability, nor are any such representations implied with respect to the material set
forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The
publisher and the author shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary
damages resulting, in whole or part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this
material.

Typeset by Doriel Kanu at Text Point, Patliputra - 12, India

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Contents

1 Introduction 6
2 Historical aspects 8
2.1 Origin 8
2.2 The Banana vs. Plantain Dilemma 8
3 Nutritive Value 10
4 Taxonomy 11
5 Plant Morphology 13
6 Varieties 14
7 Propagation 30
7.1 Use of Rhizomes / Suckers 30
7.2 Tissue Culture 30
7.3 Macro-propagation 30
8 Climate 32
9 Soil Requirements 33
10 Planting 33
10.1 Planting Time 33
10.2 Planting Methods 34
10.3 Plant Density 35
10.4 High-density plantings 40
11 Plant Nutrition 41
11.1 Integrated nutrient management (INM) 42
12 Irrigation 43
12.1 Fertigation 44
13 Intercultural operations 46
13.1 Hoeing and Weeding 46
13.2 Mulching 47
13.3 Intercropping 47
13.4 Desuckering 48
13.5 Sucker Selection for Ratooning 48
13.6 Earthing Up 48
13.7 Propping 49
13.8 Trash management 49
13.9 Bunch Covering 50
13.10 Bunch trimming 50
13.11 Debelling (Denavelling) 51
13.12 Mattocking 51
14. Insect pests 51
14.1 Banana Weevil 51
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14.2 Rhizome Weevil 52

14.3 Aphid 53
14.4 Thrips 53
14.5 Scarring Beetle 54
14.6 Leaf Eating Caterpillar and Hairy Caterpillar 54
14.7 Skipper Butterfly (Leaf Roller) 55
15 Nematodes 55
16 Diseases 57
16.1 Fusarium Wilt 57
16.2 Sigatoka (Eumusae) Leaf Spot 60
16.3 Cordana leaf spot 61
16.4 Anthracnose 61
16.5 Pseudostem Heart Rot 62
16.6 Corm rot/Head rot 63
16.7 Bunchy Top 63
16.8 Banana Bract Mosaic Virus 64
16.9 Banana mosaic 64
16.10 Banana Streak Virus 65
17. Physiological disorders 65
18. Bunch Management 66
19. Other Orchard Operations 67
20. Flowering and Fruit Set 67
21. Use of Plant Growth Regulators 67
22. Harvesting 67
23. Fruit maturity standards 67
24. Harvesting Method 68
25. Yield 69
26. Postharvest Handling 69
27. Transport from Field to Pack Shed 70
28. De-handing 70
29. Precooling 71
30. Washing and Clustering 71
31. Packing 72
32. Grading and Sorting 73
33. Transport to Market 74
34. Ripening 75
35. Storage 77
36. Processing 77
37. Marketing 78
38. References 80
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Foreword
The banana-production in different countries contributes significantly to global food
production and trade. Banana industry has registered steady growth in the past 6
decades from 1960 t0 2020. The global production hit a total of 155.2 million tonnes
of fresh banana in 2018 and could register more than fivefold increase in production as
compared to 1961 figures. Most bananas are consumed in the country where they are
produced, most importantly in large producing countries such as India, China, and
Brazil, and in some East African countries where it contributes largely to people’s diets.
Exports represent only 15 to 20 per cent of the global production but this fruit
constitutes a significant portion of the export revenues for many Latin American and
Caribbean countries.
India is the leading banana producing country of the world with annual production
of over 30 million tonnes (2018-19 data). The crop is grown in most of the Indian states.
Perishability is one of the important constraints in banana production and marketing.
Processing opportunities are limited to a great extent in most parts where the crop is
grown.The major production constraints experienced by the farmers are high labour
cost, high price of good quality suckers /or TC plants, inadequate power supply, high
cost of vital inputs like fertilizers, irrigation water, inadequate irrigation during
summer, insufficient credit facilities, improper management of insect pests and diseases,
inadequate postharvest handling facilities and unorganised marketing.
In recent times the growers are now more concerned about the outbreak of some
deadly diseases like Fusarium Wilt Tropical Race 4. Also, production shortfalls brought
about by unfavourable weather conditions due to marked change in climate,
imbalanced fertilization and a high cost of packing and transportation ultimately turn
around the cultivation to a profitability lower than the average. The banana growers
are keen to adopt the latest production technologies to suit their changing needs. This
booklet is intended to produce updated knowledge on all aspects of production and
postharvest handling of banana. Though many important technical aspects of banana
production are discussed, the text is intended mainly for a group of students and field
extension workers who have a considerable background information in agriculture. It
is hoped that this publication will prove to be a good source of information on cultural
aspects and postharvest handling of banana.

P K Ray
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&
1. Introduction

Banana, grown in the tropics and subtropics, is one of the most important fruit crops of
the world. It is valued worldwide for its sweet, flavoured taste, rich source of energy, high
nutritional value, varietal range and availability throughout the year. A wide range of
genetic diversity exists in this crop. There are more than 1000 varieties of bananas and
plantains produced and consumed locally in the world (FAOSTAT, 2018). In fact, bananas
and plantains are the only group of fruits that also constitute a staple food for millions in
African countries. They are consumed fresh, cooked, steamed, roasted, and brewed.
Besides the fruits, the flower buds and inner core of the pseudo-stem are also used as
vegetables as well as for a wide range of therapeutic uses (Luis et. al. 2012). The crop has also
been exploited for fibre production and providing shelter since time immemorial (Uma et
al, 2003). Banana leaves are used as umbrellas, mats, roofing and even as clothing in Africa
and Latin America. In India banana leaves are used for serving food and feeding buffalos
and cattle. Bananas are also processed into puree, juice, fig, jams, canned banana slices
(Thompson, 1995), and beer and wine in Africa (Olaoye et al., 2006). The popularity of the
fruit and its versatile utility led to its adoption and cultivation in more than 135 countries
(FAO, 2019., 2020).
In terms of worldwide production of food crops, bananas and plantains rank fourth
behind rice, wheat, and corn (Häkkinen and Wallace (2011). Vézina (2013), however, found
use of this banana production statistics bit slippery and unrealistic. She analysed the FAO
production or crop ranking data for several years and found that bananas usually ended up
somewhere between the 8th and 10th position after discarding animal products and non-
food crop commodities. Adding plantains didn’t change the ranking.
A total of 155.2 million tonnes of bananas were produced in 2018 out of which 115.7
million tonnes was under bananas (75%) while 39.5 million tonnes under plantains (25%) –
[FAOSTAT, 2018]. Most bananas are consumed in the country where they are produced,
most importantly in large producing countries such as India, China, and Brazil, and in
some East African countries where it contributes largely to people’s diets. Exports
represent only 15 to 20 per cent of the global production but this fruit constitutes a
significant portion of the export revenues for many Latin American and Caribbean
countries. For example, banana exports account for a quarter of Ecuador’s total non-
petroleum exports, and Ecuador accounts for around 30% of world banana market supply.
Ecuador is also the largest supplier of bananas globally and its banana exports in 2018 were
around 6.7 million tonnes (FAO, 2020).
The largest producer India exports almost nothing, whilst Brazil exports very little,
keeping bananas for the domestic market. Production figures presented in Fig.1 clearly
reveals that the bananas are predominantly produced in Asia, Latin America and Africa.
Top ten banana producing countries showing their production in 2018 are listed in Table 1.
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The ten major banana producing countries accounted for more than 60% of total banana
production in 2018. About 95% of the world’s banana is produced in the developing
countries. Over 20% of the world’s banana is produced in India alone. Next to India is China.
Production in both countries mostly serves the domestic market. They are an essential
source of income and employment for many households, as well as being a source of
nutrition and food security for more than 400 million people in the producing countries.
In India, the major banana growing states are in the southern and north-eastern parts of
the country. The crop is grown in homestead gardens and cultivated commercially on large
areas. During 2017-18, Karnataka had the largest area under this crop followed by Kerala,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, but the highest production was recorded
in Andhra Pradesh followed by Gujarat and Maharashtra. Gujarat ranked first in per hectare
productivity, followed by Maharashtra. The Gujarat’s and Maharashtra's higher
productivity is the result of growing high-yielding Cavendish clones in monoculture,
coupled with improved technologies such as high-density planting, use of tissue-culture
planting material and drip irrigation or fertigation practices. Top ten producers in
descending order during 2017-18 are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Banana production during 2017- 2018

Top Ten Banana Producing Top Ten Banana Producing

Sl. Countries in world1 States in India2
No Country Production State Production
(tonnes x (tonnes x103)
103)
1 India 30,808 A. P. 5003
2 China 11,221 Gujrat 4472
3 Philippines 9,359 Maharashtra 4209
4 Colombia 7,288 Tamil Nadu 3205
5 Indonesia 7,264 Uttar Pradesh 3172
6 Ecuador 7,158 Karnataka 2328
7 Brazil 6,752 M. P. 1834
8 Cameroon 5,144 Bihar 1396
9 Congo 5,066 West Bengal 1200
10 Uganda 4,337 Kerala 1119
11 Others 60,803 Others 2870
11 World Total 155200 India Total 30,808

Source: 1- FAOSTAT, 2018, 2019; and 2- GOI, 2019

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Fig. 1: Share of different continents in global banana production

2. Historical aspects
2.1 Origin:
The Musa domestication process started some 7,000 years ago in Southeast Asia. It
involved hybridizations between diverse species and subspecies, fostered by human
migrations, and selection of diploid and triploid seedless, parthenocarpic hybrids
thereafter widely dispersed by vegetative propagation (Perrier, et. al, 2011). Their origin is
placed in Southeast Asia, in the jungles of Malaysia. Indonesia or the Philippines, where
many varieties of wild bananas still grow even today. Historical evidence, however,
suggests the early existence of banana in India. The earliest documentary evidence of
banana is found in the Rig-Veda (approx. 1700 BCE) and the two great Indian epics,
Mahabharata and Ramayana, which date to approximately 1400 BCE (Uma, et al., 2011).
The wild Musa acuminata occurs in Assam, Burma, Southern China or Indo-China region,
Philippines, the Malayan peninsula and archipelago. The centre of diversity of M.
acuminata lies in the Malayan area where four out of five subspecies were found and is thus
considered as the primary centre of origin of cultivated bananas. It has been frequently
reported that the main centre of origin of acuminata types is Malaysia and that of
balbisiana types and their hybrids (e.g., AB, AAB, ABB) is India.
Bananas were reported to have been introduced in Central America in 1516 AD, where it
spread rapidly and attained commercial significance. The spread of bananas to the West
Indian Islands was through Christian missionaries, and wherever banana reached, it
assumed economic importance due to its greater adaptability and commercial value. The
Portuguese along with the Spanish were instrumental in the worldwide spread of bananas
and plantains especially to America (Price, 1995). Hybridization of diploid Musa species,
and subsequent genetic recombination events or gene mutations, generated enough
variation that allowed domestication of the ancient diploid cultivars bearing fruit that
developed through parthenocarpy. Sexual polyploidization (2n x n) was the source for the
almost sterile triploid cultivars, which through vegetative propagation using suckers
move from the centres of origin to new habitats. In this way, after instant domestication of
outstanding strains, the right gene arrangements, particularly in linkage disequilibrium,
were preserved through asexual propagation.
2.2 The Banana vs. Plantain Dilemma:
Bananas are chiefly eaten raw as a dessert fruit, because in the ripe state they are sweet and
easily digested. Plantain fruits are unpalatable when raw and must be cooked, fried.
pounded, roasted, or boiled before consumption. The modern usage of calling the sweet
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bananas that are eaten raw, “banana”, and the starchy ones that are cooked,
“plantain”, arose in English by chance, according to Cheesman (1947a,b; 1948a,b). He
pointed out that both the Spanish word platano, from which the word plantain is derived,
and the word banana, a word spread by the Portuguese, originally applied to all types of
bananas. He also noted that in countries where bananas are indigenous, the local word for
banana is used for cooking and dessert bananas alike. In Hindi too, there is no separate
world to distinguish cooking starchy cultivars and thus, plantains are simply referred to as
cooking bananas. Arabs have introduced the banana from India to Palestine and Egypt,
perhaps in the seventh century AD. It soon became popular in those areas and later spread
to the east coast of Africa at a very early date and subsequently throughout the African
continent. Africans are credited to have given the present name, since the word banana
would be derived from the Arab for ‘finger’.
Gowen (1988) highlighted the apparent ambiguity in using the word "Plantain". The
frequent use of words like "bananas and plantains" has created confusion as to what
plantains are? Contrary to a common perception, plantains are bananas, and they don’t
require a separate name. There appears to be no accepted botanical distinction between
starchy types, that have to be cooked, and sweeter types that are eaten raw (Robinson,
1996). In many languages such as Spanish, where the name plátano refers to both bananas
and plantains, the terms are used interchangeably. Banana cultivar diversity comprises a
plethora of types, which are grown for many different purposes. Dessert types such as the
Cavendish banana can be eaten raw, as they are sweet and easily digestible when ripe.
Cooking types such as plantains are usually starchy even when ripe and need to be boiled,
fried or roasted to make them palatable. Some cultivars can have dual use i.e., eaten raw as
dessert or cooked, Plantains are usually eaten as a vegetable and are cooked prior to
consumption. They are an important component of many dishes in Western Africa and
Caribbean countries.
Anne Vézina (2013) opined that usage of the two names "banana and plantain" in literature
particularly in FAO statistics was ambiguous and highly confusing, as if plantains were not
bananas. It's like saying Europeans and Italians, or Africans and Ugandans. The banana vs
plantain dichotomy perpetuates the misconception that banana refers to dessert bananas
only, and plantain to all cooking bananas, a distinction that doesn't exist in countries
where the banana is native. It does make sense if the meaning of ‘banana’ is restricted to
dessert bananas and the meaning of ‘plantain’ extended to all cooking bananas. But there
are numerous literatures to show even plantains as dessert (AA/AAA) and cooking
(AAB/ABB) types.
Recently, Lescot (2020) has observed that a significant proportion of plantains (cooking
bananas) that come from East African Highland Bananas (EAHB) and constitute a large
group of cooking bananas unique to the region. end up finally in the banana category after
characterization. To put an end to the ambiguity in nomenclature Simmonds (1962)
suggested either to abandon or restrict usage of the world "plantain' but this could never
happen in practice. Both the words are still frequently used in day- to-day conversation and
scientific or general literature on this crop (e. g. Rowe, 1984; Du Montcel, 1989; Gowen,1995,
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Robinson, 1996; INIBAP,1997; and Narayana, 2015). Vézina (2013) discussing the problems
arising due to two different names has put forward a simpler way to fix it by grouping the
cultivars as ‘Bananas dessert’ and ‘Bananas cooking’. But it is difficult to predict when this
age-old dilemma will be resolved. A widely held axiom that “old habits die hard” seems to
be a logical rule of inference in this case. The usage of the term “Plantain” is so deeply seated
in the minds of the people in Africa and several other banana growing countries in Asia
and Latin America that they would continue to recognise certain types/ varieties with this
name only for many more years to come.

3. Nutritive Value
Bananas are perhaps the most consumed fruit in the world. One reason is that it is relatively
inexpensive, and it is also easily digestible by the very young and old alike. Bananas are an
important source of carbohydrate and dietary fibre. They contain high amounts of
essential vitamins A1, B1, B2, and C; minerals such as potassium (Chandler, 1995); and
substantial quantities of starch and hemicelluloses (Ketiku, 1973; Mota et al., 2000).
Cooking bananas and plantains have a greater amount of vitamins A and C (20 mg/100 g)
than bananas. Plantains are revered as a food equivalent across many African countries,
Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Polynesian islands. Although the average global per
capita consumption of banana and plantain is reported as 5.2 kg/person (Nayar, 2010), it is
as high as 239 kg/person in Uganda, 223 in Burundi, 180 in Rwanda, 141 in Gabon, and 131 in
Samoa (FAOSTAT, 2008; OECD-FAO, 2020),), increasing marginally over the past few years.
Bananas are useful for persons with peptic ulcer, infant diarrhoea, celiac disease, and
colitis (Seelig, 1969). Being low in salt and high in potassium chloride, it is a recommended
dietary supplement to lower blood pressure. Bananas are rich in fibre and pectins, which
absorb water and restore bowel movement. Bananas contain benign amino acids that are
useful for the removal of stones in the kidney and gall bladder. Similar functions are also
reported for the central core of the pseudostem, which is either consumed as a salad or
cooked with pulses. The roots of banana are considered to have an antihelmintic effect
(Luis et. al.2012).
Banana fruit has 90 calories per 100 grams fresh fruit pulp and helps in raising the energy
levels quickly. It does not have any protein or fat, therefore, is ideal for children and third
age adults. The fruit is composed of approximately 75% water, 27% carbohydrate, 0.33% fat,
and 1.2% protein. In addition, each gram contains approximately one calorie of energy.
Several vitamins are found in the fruit, which is considered a good source of the vitamins
A, B1, B2, and C. Lee (2008) reported that an average-sized banana had 450–467mg
potassium. Bananas are also high in fibre and a medium-sized banana has about 6 g of fibre.
They contain vitamins. Wall (2006) reported that bananas contained higher concentrations
of lutein than provitamin A pigments, α-carotene and β-carotene. She also showed that
different varieties of bananas could contain different levels of nutrients. The quantity of
different nutrients in bananas is presented in Table 2.
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Table 2: Nutritional Composition of banana fruit (per 100 g Fresh Edible Portion)

Constituents Contents Constituents Contents

Water (g) 74.91 Total lipid or fat (g) 0.33
Carbohydrates (g) 22.8 Glucose (dextrose in g) 4.98
Protein (g) 1.09 Fructose (g) 4.85
Total fat (g) 0.33 Starch(g) 5.38
Dietary fibre (g) 2.60 Vitamin A (IU) 64.0
Calcium (mg) 5.00 Vit. B1-Thiamine (mg) 0.031
Phosphorus (mg) 22.00 Vit. B2- Riboflavin (mg) 0.073
Potassium (mg) 358.0 Vit. B3- Niacin (mg) 0.665
Magnesium (mg) 26.00 Vit. B5- Pantothenic Acid 0.334
Sodium (mg) 1.00 (mg) 0.367
Zinc (mg) 0.15 Vit. B6- Pyridoxine (mg) 8.701
Iron (mg) 0.26 Vitamin C (mg) 0.10
Sugar, Total (g) 12.23 Vitamin E (mg) 0.51
Sucrose (g) 2.39 Vitamin K (μg) 89
Energy (kcal)
Source: USDA (2012)

4. Taxonomy
Bananas are monocotyledonous plants in the genus Musa of Musaceae family belonging to
order Zingiberales and class Monocotyledonae. It is a polyploid crop with over 50 species,
not all of which are edible. Most of the edible bananas known today are derived from two
wild species, Musa acuminata Colla and M. balbisiana Colla (Colla, 1820). The fruits of these
wild plants species are barely edible and contain numerous seeds with only a small amount
of edible pulp (Simmonds, 1962; Simmonds, 1987). The wild species are diploid (2n = 2x =
22), while the cultivated varieties are primarily triploid (2n = 3x = 33) with a few tetraploids
(2n = 4x = 44) that are mainly derived either from natural or artificial hybridization
(Robinson, 1996).
The genus Musa is divided into five sections (Australimusa, Callimusa, Rhodochlamys,
Eumusa, and Ingentimusa) that vary in the basic number of chromosomes (Stover and
Simmonds, 1987; Purseglove,1988). The Callimusa and Australimusa have a basic
chromosome number of x = 10, while Eumusa and Rhodochlamys have a basic chromosome
number of x = 11. Ingentimusa with a single species, M. ingens, has a chromosome number
of 2n = 14. The Callimusa and Rhodochlamys consist of nonparthenocarpic (seed-bearing)
species that have no nutritional value but are important as ornamentals. Australimusa
consists of parthenocarpic edible types, collectively known as Fe’i bananas, with erect fruit
bunches and a red sap that is diagnostic for the section. The section is important for food
and fiber, and a valuable dark red dye is obtained from the pseudostems. The Australimusa
has the highest vitamin A content among all bananas (Englberger et al., 2003a,b).
Among the five sections, Eumusa is the largest group. It is the source of most widely
distributed and diversified present-day edible bananas except for Fe’i bananas of
Australimusa. They are characterized by robust pseudostem; horizontal, angular or
pendulous bunches; and in most cases parthenocarpic fruits. All edible bananas are
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believed to have originated from two species, Musa acuminata designated by A genome
and Musa balbisiana designated as B genome. The relative contribution of each genome has
resulted in various combinations or different genetic constitutions, viz. AA, AAA, AAAB,
AB, AAB, ABB, BB, BBB, ABBB, etc. (Stover and Simmonds, 1987). Musa acuminata (A
genome) is the most widespread of the Eumusa species and is found throughout the range
of the section, with Malaysia (Simmonds, 1962) or Indonesia (Nasution, 1991; Horry et al.,
1997) as the center of diversity. Musa balbisiana is the other wild Eumusa species that had
broad distribution across South and Southeast Asia. Musa balbisiana has adopted to drier
regions but exhibits copious growth in tropical and subtropical forests of India, South
China, Myanmar, Indonesia, Philippines and a few other regions (Valmayor et al., 2002;
Uma et al., 2005).
Intraspecific hybridization between and among the various subspecies of M. acuminata
produced a range of diploid cultivars with AA genomes. Diploid AAs produced triploid
AAA types by mechanisms such as chromosome restitution (Shepherd, 1999). Interspecific
hybridization between AA diploids and M. balbisiana (BB) gave rise to the many AAB and
ABB types (Robinson, 1996). Other genomic groups including AB, ABBB, AAAB, and AABB
also exist (Simmonds and Shepherd, 1955). It is possible that a range of diverse M.
balbisiana genotypes were involved in the hybridizations, creating the variability that is
observed in extant B genome containing banana clones.
Earlier reports indicated involvement of only two genomes (A and B) in evolution of
all edible bananas. M. acuminata (contributing genome A) and M. balbisiana (contributing
genome B). Majority of our dessert and cooking bananas are either diploid (2n = 2x = 22) or
triploid (2n = 3x = 33) getting their genomic constitution from the two species. New
evidence suggests that additional genomes such as the S (M. schizocarpa) and T (M. textilis)
also contributed to the genomes of present day cultivated bananas. The A, B and S genomes
represent Eumusa (with new nomenclature Musa) species possessing 11 chromosomes per
haploid set, while the T genome is representative of Australimusa with 10 chromosomes
per haploid set. Pillay et al., (2001, 2004) have suggested that four genomes—A, B, S, and
T—involved in constitution of cultivated bananas). The A, B, and S genomes are present in
section Eumusa, with the S genome characteristic of M. schizocarpa, and the T genome
confined to the section Australimusa. Most of the modern banana cultivars have one or
more copies of the A and B genomes (Simmonds and Shepherd, 1955), whereas the S and T
genomes occur in only a few genotypes (du Montcel, 1989; Sharrock, 1989; Carreel, 1995).
S u b g r o u p s : Banana clones that share similar characteristics and are considered to
have arisen from a single clone by mutation are classified as subgroups. A list of the
subgroups and the names of important clones that constitute the subgroup can be found
in literature (Stover,1988: Robinson, 1996; and Jones, 2000). In each genomic group there
may be some important subgroups. For example: (a) Dessert Types - Sucrier in AA group;
Gros Michel, Cavendish, and Red in AAA group; Mysore. Silk, Pome and Pisang Raja in AAB
group; (b) Cooking type - Nendran in AAB group: Bluggoe, Pisang Awak and Saba in ABB
group etc. It is worth noting that banana clones with similar genomes may share similar
characteristics but still can be very different. For example, the AAA group contains the
sweet dessert bananas as well as the cooking bananas of the East African highlands. The
latter is starchy even in the ripe stage and is generally cooked before eating. This may
suggest the presence of different A genomes in Musa (Ude et al., 2002 a, b). Various
 13

combinations of the different A genomes produce different characteristics. The

identification of different A genomes remains an interesting research topic. Sequencing of
the Musa genome may be able to provide some answers to this question. Similarly, the AAB
group includes the plantains that are cooked before becoming palatable and the ‘Pome’
subgroup (AAB) that is widely used as dessert bananas in some countries. Although the
clones of the ABB group are rather homogeneous because all clones are cooked, some are
also used as dessert banana, when overripe, in many lacalities. Then they are called dual
types.
Cultivars with the S and T genomes have not spread throughout the world as did those
with the A and B genomes. They have been identified only in Papua New Guinea (Shepherd
and Ferreira, 1984; Arnaud and Horry,1997). Genomic groups with the S genome include
diploid AS, triploid AAS, and tetraploid ABBS, while T genome groups include AAT,
AAAT, and ABBT. Molecular marker methods were used to show that M. schizocarpa and
one or more species of section Australimusa played a role in the origin of some New Guinea
cultivars (Carreel,1995). Further confirmation for the involvement of the S and T genomes
in some of these cultivars was elucidated by genomic in situ hybridization (D’Hont et al.,
2000, 2012).
Several different methods have been used either directly or indirectly to identify the
genomes in Musa. Subsequently a scoring system was established by Simmonds and
Shepherd (1955) based on morphological traits of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana. This
system proved to be successful in characterizing various hybrid genotypes representing
different ploidy levels (Stover and Simmonds, 1987) and described five main genetic groups
(AA, AB, AAA, AAB, ABB) for cultivated bananas (Simmonds and Shepherd 1955;
Simmonds 1962). In the last decade, in conjunction with molecular studies of Musa
accessions at the DNA level (see Bartos et al., 2005), aspects of the taxonomy have been
clarified but a careful treatment of the complementary and contrasting data, along with
judicious filling of gaps in the data, is required to resolve the relationships and phylogeny
in the genus.

5. Plant Morphology
Bananas are large perennial herbs with an underground stem called a corm, which is the
true stem of the plant. They grow commonly up to 3 m in height, with no lignification or
secondary thickening of stems that is characteristic of trees. The corm produces aerial
shoots that arise from the lateral buds and develop into eyes and later suckers. A typical
banana plant grows initially from a baby sucker/or underground corm to the size in which
the fruit are harvested in 12 to 18 months depending on the climate of the place where it is
established. After the fruit is removed the stalk dies or is cut down. In its place one of more
“daughters” sprout as suckers from the same underground rhizome that produced the
mother plant. The suckers, or sprouting corms, are genetic clones of the parent plant.
The cluster formed by the mother plant and the surrounding suckers is referred to as
“mat”. The aerial shoot of banana plant is called a pseudostem and it grows to a height
of 2 –8 m, depending on the variety and the growing conditions. It is very fleshy,
comprising about 95% water (Robinson,1996). The plant is tall and tree-like with a sturdy
pseudostem and large broad leaves arranged spirally at the top. The leaves are large blades
with a pronounced central midrib and obvious veins. They can reach up to 2.7 m in length
 14

and 0.6 m in width. Each pseudostem produces a group of flowers, from which, the fruits
develop in a hanging cluster. The pseudostem consists of large overlapping leaf bases that
are tightly rolled round each other forming a cylindrical structure. The roots that range
from 50 to 100 cm in length are initiated from the corm. The corm also consists of the apical
meristem, from which, the leaves and, ultimately, the flowers are initiated.
On an average, each plant produces 35–40 leaves in its growth cycle. When the plant has
formed on an average of 40 leaves within 9–18 months, the terminal bud of the corm
develops directly into the inflorescence, which is carried up on a long smooth unbranched
stem through the centre of pseudostem emerging at top in the centre of leaf cluster.
Usually, flower development is initiated from the underground true stem (corm) 9 - 12
months after planting. At this stage the last flag leaf unfurls and the banana's true stem, a
green thick extrusion, with a soft conical magenta (dark reddish- purple) bud or
inflorescence (flower-stalk) emerges.
The inflorescence is a compound spike of female and male flowers arranged in groups.
Each group consists of two rows of flowers, one above the other, and the whole collection
is covered by a large subtending bract. The bracts grow between the overlapping scales
surrounding the cone-shaped bud. The bracts and their axillary groups of flowers are
arranged spirally round the axis and the bracts closely overlap each other forming a tight
conical inflorescence at the tip. They fall away gradually, revealing clusters of flowers
inside the cone.
In most cultivars, the female flowers are followed by a few "hands" of neutral flowers
that have aborted ovaries and stamens. The neuter flowers are followed at the terminal ends
by male flowers enclosed in bracts. The male flowers have functional stamens but aborted
ovaries. The female flowers develop into fingers that constitute a bunch. About 12–20
flowers are produced per cluster. The inflorescence generally continues to grow
indefinitely to form the so-called male bud. If it is not cut, this male bud will continue to
grow until fruit maturity and stem withering. In addition to wild species, many cultivars
have male flowers with some degree of pollen fertility.
Individual clusters of fruits are known as hands and individual fruits as fingers. Bunches
depending on genotypes possess 4–15 hands each with at least 10 fingers or more. The
female flowers have ovaries that develop first by parthenocarpy (without fertilization) to
form pulp, which is the edible part of banana. Oblong fruit emerge from the base of the
flowers. The tips of the fruit grow towards the sun, giving bananas their distinctive
crescent shape.
Fruits mature in about 90 - 100 days after flowers appearance. Each bunch of fruits
consists of variable numbers of "hands" along a central stem. Each "hand" consists of two
transverse rows of fruits called fingers. The fruit quality is determined by size (finger
length and thickness), evenness of ripening, absence of blemishes and defects, and the
arrangement of the clusters. Fruit quality standards may differ in different markets. The
plant depending on the variety and climatic conditions of the place generally completes its
life cycle within 12 -15 months.
6. Varieties
Banana varieties exhibit great diversity in their plant morphology, fruiting behaviour,
yields and fruit quality. A rough estimate indicates that natural variability in the genus
Musa consists probably of 500 to 1000 plant types, ranging from species to ecotypes and
cultivars or even more (Luis et. al 2012). This variation is well represented over the world by
 15

means of the numerous field collections and observations. The genotypic variation in fruit
shape and size of some clones is given in Fig.3. The clones or cultivars have a wider climatic
adaptability and most of them are grown at different places with some different names.
Existence of many names and synonyms creates problem in estimating the exact number
of clones available in the banana gene pool. The number of banana cultivars is hard to pin
down. Stover and Simmonds (1987) believe that there are about 300 distinct banana clones,
out of which 150 are primary clones and 150 are easily recognizable mutants. They,
however, are of the view that the true number probably lies somewhere in the range of 200-
500. Robinson (1996) has also supported this count.
Throughout the history of banana cultivation, farmers have selected the best clones that
show the desired phenotypes arising from specific genetic combinations. In the secondary
centres of diversification, mutations played an important role for enhancing variation in
the clones already established and under cultivation in a region for centuries. Some reports
indicate the number of varieties lies between 400 and 500 (Valmeyor et. al. 2000, 2002;
Pillay, et. al. 2001; Ploetz et. al. 2007) However, not all cultivars are genetically unique and
genetic diversity is greatest between subgroups. Major banana cultivars around the world
are listed in Table 3.

Fig.2: Diversity in some banana clones for fruit size

(Adapted from ProMusa Blog; see Vézina,, 2020).

Adapted from: https://bananaroots.wordpress.com/ and Maryani et. al. 2019

 16

Table3: Principal banana dessert cultivars and their geographic distribution

Group Cultivars Type of fruit Distribution

Sub-group AA Pisang Mas, Frayssinette, Dessert, All continents
Sucrier Kirun Sweet
Pisang Lilin ------- Dessert Indonesia,
Malaysia
Samba Samba, Chicame, Dessert, Acid Comoros
Nzumoheli
Sub-group
AAA
Cavendish Lacatan, Poyo, Williams, Dessert All continents
Grande Naine, Dwarf (tropical and
Cavendish subtropical
areas)
Gros Michel Gros Michel, Highgate, Dessert All continents
Cocos
Red Red, Green Red, Pisang Dessert All continents
Glintong
Lujugira- Intuntu, Mujuba, Bwara, Beer and East Africa
Mutika Nakitembe, Mukite Cooking (Uganda),
Colombia
Ibota Yangambi km5, Khom Dessert Indonesia,
Bao,Pisang Saripipi, Lagun Thailand,
Vunalir Africa

Group AB
Ney Poovan Ney Poovan, Safet Velchi, Dessert, India, Africa
Lal Sweet
Kelat Acid

Kunnan Kunnan Dessert, India

Sweet
Acid

Group AAB
Silk banana Silk, Maca, Malbhog, Dessert, All continents
Supari Sweet
Acid

Pome Prata, Foconah, Dahomey, Dessert, India, Malaysia,

Pacovan, Pachanadan Sweet Australia, Brazil,
Acid West Africa
 17

Mysore Pisang Ceylan, Poovan, Dessert, India, Sri Lanka,

Zabi, Sweet Malaysia,
Gorolo, Embul Acid Comoros,
West Indies,
Zanzibar
Pisang Kelat Pisang Kelat, Pisang Pulut Dessert India, Malaysia
Pisang Rajah, Pisang Rajah Bulu Dessert, Malaysia,
Cooking Indonesia
Plantains Dominico, Bobby Tannap, Cooking all continents
Batard, Orishele, Cuerno,
Tanduk
Popoulou/Maia Iho U Maohi, Poingo, Cooking Pacific (French
Maoli Popoulou, Maia Maoli Polynesia,
Hawaii),
Australia,
Ecuador,
Laknau Laknau, Adimoo, Bagatow, Cooking Philippines,
Mugus, Pisang Kastroli Malaysia,
Papua New
Guinea
Pisang Nangka Pisang Nangka Cooking Malaysia
Group ABB
Pisang Awack Fougamou, Bom, Pisang Dessert Thailand, India,
Kepok, Ducasse, Gia Hui, East
Muisa Tia Africa,
Philippines
Bluggoe Bluggoe, Matavia, Cooking All continents
Cacambou, (tropical
Monthan, Barabay, Burro and subtropical
areas)
Pelipita Pelipita Cooking Philippines,
Latin
America
Saba Saba Cooking Philippines,
Indonesia,
Malaysia
Peyan Peyan Cooking India
Group AAAA
Champa Nasik Champa Nasik Dessert
Source: Bakry, et. al. (2009)

Globally, the banana industry is dominated by two main types - dessert bananas and
cooking bananas. The dessert bananas make up 43% of the world production and they are
consumed raw when ripe (yellow), and are distinguished by the sweet, flavoured taste of
the fruit. As the ripening progresses, their skin colour changes from green to bright yellow,
 18

and the pulp becomes softer, tasty and easily digested. With advancement in ripening, it
becomes progressively easier to remove their peel. Cooking bananas make up 57% of the
world’s banana production and because of their high starch content, even in the ripened
stage. They are boiled, fried or roasted to make them palatable. The most well-known
cooking bananas are plantains that constitute 23% of the world’s total banana production.
Other cooking banana types are steamed or cooked when the fruits are green and provides
a starchy staple similar to potato in nutrition.
Usually, all cooking bananas have a mild flavour and starchier in texture. They are tastier
when cooked, generally via boiling, frying, or roasting. Many cooking types are eaten raw
when ripe but they possess inferior taste. Generally, they have thicker skin and somewhat
angular fruits. Their skin takes longer time to turn yellow. In dessert bananas starch
amylose content is below 19%, whereas in cooking banana it exceeds over 21% (Dufour et.
al. 2009). Studies on in-vitro digestion and the structural characteristics of α-amylase
indicate that the starch of plantains has an arrangement of granules more resistant to
enzymes than the starch of dessert bananas (Soares et. al. 2011).
As mentioned earlier in sections 4 of this chapter, banana cultivars are usually divided
into further categories depending upon their genomic constitutions e.g., AA, AB, BB, AAA,
AAB, ABB, BBB, AAAA, AAAB, AABB, and ABBB. In the following paragraphs,
commercially popular and promising cultivars of different genomic groups are described
with their important distinguishing features.
Matti (AA) – Grown in Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. Plants are less hardy, tall with
comparatively thinner pseudo stem. Bunch – large weighing up to 30 kg, 18 hands. Fruits
are small, thin, long with pronounced tip. Pulp good taste. Useful variety for breeding
purpose as it is male and female fertile. Crop duration 12 months under warm tropical
conditions of south India.
Sucrier (AA) – This is the most important edible diploid acuminata cultivar, having small,
sweet, thin-skinned, golden yellow fruits. It is known as ‘Pisang Mas’ in Malaysia and
Indonesia and ‘Bocadillo’ in South America. The plant is resistant to Panama disease and
can withstand wind, although bunches are smaller and the yield poorer than with triploids.
‘Pisang Mas’ is the most important banana cultivar in Malaysia (Robinson,1996).
Ney Poovan (AB) – This is the only popular diploid type grown sporadically and mostly in
kitchen gardens in different states with different names ( e.g. Safed Velchi, White Velchi,
Elakkibale, Chini Champa ). Plant is tall ( 2.8m - 3.0 m ) and pseudostem is thin, slender
and yellowish green colour with uneven brown-black blotches. On an average, it has 9 to 12
hands with 14-16 fruits per hand. Fruits are small (12 cm long and 3.5 cm diameter) slender
with beak and arranged closely round the axis having windblown appearance. The
individual fruit is slightly curved or almost straight with long pedicel fruit has white
coloured pulp. Bunch weight is 12 – 14 kg. Green fruits turn bright yellow upon ripening. It
has good keeping quality and non-detaching nature of fruits from the bunch. Making it
suitable for long distant transportation the peel of fruit is extremely thin (1 mm), light
shining yellow in colour, firmly adhering to pulp, cottony texture, rather dry sweet,
slightly starchy in taste especially when under ripe and emits a delicate agreeable sweet
aroma when fully ripe. It is tolerant to leaf spot and fusarium wilt, but susceptible to
banana bract mosaic virus.
 19

Kunnan (AB) - It is a very common variety grown in Kerala. This is a dual-purpose variety.
Duration is about 16 months. Keeping quality is good. The fruits are used as Dessert and for
making powder for infants as supplementary food. Each bunch of fruit has 7-9 hands
weighing 7 - 8 kg.

Njalipoovan (AB) – It is a popular shade‐loving tolerant variety that has a great demand
among consumers due to its superior fruit quality and it is a delicious variety. It is costlier
than Palayan Kodan. Fruits are used more than the raw ones. The fruits are very sweet and
soft with thin peel. But poor keeping quality and the fruits fall off bunches. It is particularly
suitable for intercropping in coconut gardens both under rainfed and irrigated conditions.
It is less susceptible to most of the pests and diseases and adapted to rainfed cultivation
with ratooning.

Dwarf Cavendish (AAA) – The plant stature is dwarf (1.2 m to 1.8 m in height). Pseudo-stem
is stout and attaining girth of 75-80 cm. Dark black brown blotches appear all along the
stem. The bunch size, fruit length and size are quite good though the keeping quality is
rather poor. On an average the bunch weight is 20 kg with 8-10 hands compactly arranged
with 120 to 140 fruit / bunch. Length of Individual finger is 15 to 20 cm long and 3.0 to 3.5
cm in diameter. Skin is thick and the fruit tapers gradually towards the tip. Pulp is creamy,
soft and its taste is sweet with pleasant flavour. The fruit skin retains the greenish colour
to some extent even after ripening. It is highly susceptible to leaf spot disease, Sigatoka leaf
spot and Banana Bunchy Top. It prone to throat choaking if temperature drops below 10o C
in winter. Grown earlier in several states e.g., Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Bihar,
West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland and Meghalaya but now have been replaced with Grand
Naine or Robusta.

Lacatan (AAA) This is a tall cultivar belonging to Cavendish subgroup. Now it has limited
commercial importance as other members of the Cavendish group are more popular on
account of their performance. However, It has an attractive golden yellow colour when
ripe. The skin can be removed easily with some rags sticking to the pulp, revealing a light
orange to orange pulp. The cultivar has a very aromatic and excellent flavour. Fruit size
ranges from 10 to 20 cm in length.
In general, Cavendish cultivars are high yielding than all other natural clones (Robinson
1996). The varieties in the Cavendish subgroup are separated mainly by differences in
height and bunch and finger characteristics. There is a gradation in height from the
shortest (Dwarf Cavendish) to the tallest. The Cavendish subgroup is responsible for 30 %
of the world’s production of banana fruit. Stover and Simmonds (1987) recognized four
major clone sets distinguished on height: ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ types are the shortest in
stature; ‘Grand Nain’ types are medium dwarfs; and intermediate in height are between
‘Giant Cavendish’ and ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ groups. ‘Giant Cavendish’ types are taller and
‘Pisang Masak Hijau’ types, the tallest. Apart from plant height, clones in the Cavendish
subgroup also differ in other morphological characters such as petiole length, bract
persistence, bunch grade and pseudostem colour.
 20

Robusta (AAA) – Semi dwarf mutant of the tall Lacatan. Plant is semi tall (2.0 - 2.25 m) with
stout, pseudostem with 60-85 cm in diameter. The leaves are widely spaced on the
pseudostem and not spirally arranged together as in Dwarf Cavendish/Basrai. Bunch –
pendulous, 10-12 hands per bunch, 12-15 fingers per hand. Average 100 fruits per bunch, 25-
30 kg. Fruits - large, skin medium thick, ripe fruits drop off easily, fruits - green to dull
yellow, pulp - sweet, juicy, agreeable flower, better keeping quality than Dwarf Cavendish.
Dark green fruits turn bright yellow upon ripening depending on ripening conditions.
Susceptible to leaf spot, corm weevil, rhizome rot and mosaic diseases.. Fruit is very sweet
with a good aroma. Its synonyms are Harichal, Bombay green, Pedda Pacha Arati, and Bor
Jahaji.

Grand Naine (AAA) –It is now the most accepted international variety. It is a superior
selection of Giant Cavendish. Plants are tall in stature and produce long cylindrical bunch.
On an average a bunch weight is 25 kg and it may go up to 32-35 kg, with 10 - 12 hands with
175-220 fruits/bunch. The length of the fruit is 15-21 cm and girth measures 12-13 cm. It is
the most popular variety grown for the export in different countries. Hands are well
spaced, finger orientation is straight, bigger in size but has pronounced ridges even at
maturity but has excellent fruit quality. Fruit develops attractive uniform yellow colour
with better shelf life & quality than other cultivars. Good keeping quality. Attractive
yellowish green colour at maturity.

Red Banana (AAA) – It is the most relished and highly prized variety. Its commercial
cultivation is prominent in Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu and on a
small scale in Konkan region of Maharashtra. Plant is tall and robust. The colour of the
pseudostem, petiole, midrib and fruit peel is deep red in colour. The fruit is of good size
and has a characteristic aroma. The average bunch weight is 20 kg. It thrives well in humid
tropics and at higher altitudes up to elevation of 1300 m above msl. Bunch 20-25 kg, over
100 fruits under good management practices. Fruits - large, spindle shaped, short pedicel,
blunt tip, peel - thick, leathery, red colour, peels easily. Pulp - yellowish, sweet, moderate
but distinct flavour. Fairly tolerant to wilt disease. It is highly susceptible to bunchy top,
fusarium wilt and nematodes.

AAB group
This group of triploid hybrids originated in India; therefore, a wide range of clones and
somatic mutations occurs there. The AAB plantains generally have starchy flesh and at
maturity they are usually unpalatable unless boiled. Other AAB cultivars have sweet fruit
and are used as dessert cultivars.
Rasthali (AAB) - Plants are tall (3.5 to 4.0 m height), stem - yellowish green with brownish
blotches, reddish margins of petiole and leaf sheath. Pseudostem is yellowish green, blotch
appearing only at the base of petiole on both sides. Leaves are pale green with wax coating
on undersurface. It takes 12-14 months for shooting from its planting. Bunch has 8 to10
hands with 12-16 fruits. Bunch is sub horizontal, medium sized, moderately compact. The
fruit reflect negatively geotropic. Fruits are yellowish green throughout their development
but turn golden yellow while ripening. Individual fruit is of medium size having 12-15 cm
long and 3.5 cm in diameter with four angles and extremely short pedicel. The average
bunch weight is about 12 - 18 kg. Fruits are medium, thin skin, yellow in colour flesh firm,
 21

sweet with a pleasant aroma. Fruit skin is moderately thick, smooth and glossy. The pulp
is dull white becoming creamy white on ripening; taste is pleasantly sweet and sub acidic
emits apple like distinct odour when fully ripe. Fruits are detaching at ripening.
Susceptible to sun injury and formulation of hard lumps in the pulp. It is highly
susceptibility to fusarium wilt. Syn. Mutheli, Rasbala, Sonkel, Rasakeli,
Poovan/Champa (AAB) - The plant is tall, hardy and grows vigorously, one of the
distinguishing characters of the plant is the rose pink colour on the outside of midrib, fruit
is medium to small, yellow skin firm flesh with sub-acidic taste, good flavour, good
keeping quality, the average bunch weight is about 15 -20kg. The bunch has 12 hands, up to
18 fingers, 200 or more fruits. Fruits - medium size, cylindrical, pronounced nipple, skin –
thin. It is fairly tolerant to Panama wilt and bunchy top but highly susceptible to banana
bract mosaic and streak virus.

Lal Velchi (AAB) -The name Lal Velchi is given to this variety because of preponderance of
red pigments on the pseudostem. This variety is also known as Sour velchi, Ambut velchi
in allusion to the sub acid taste of the fruit. It has shapely long cylindrical bunch thickly
set medium sized fruits with distinct apices. The bunch is pendent; fruit reflex negatively
geotropic, peduncle and rachis moderately thick and dark green, sparsely pubescent.
Individual finger is medium in size about 12 cm long, 4 cm in diameter and slightly curved
or almost straight. The skin of the fruit is thin (2 mm), orange yellow, firmly adhered to the
pulp. Pulp is of cream colour with orange center and fairly firm, moist with tiny
rudimentary seeds. Taste and flavour markedly sub acidic.
Chakkrakeli (AAB) - Choice variety grown in Tamil Nadu in Kulitalai & Thanjavur regions.
Exceedingly sweet but poor fruit keeping quality. Plant is slender, medium size, petiole
borders open & conspicuously red. Crop duration – 13 months. Bunches with 8 hands of 12
fingers each, 10 kg weight. Fruits - medium size, cylindrical, somewhat 5 cornered non
prominent ridges, pedicel long and tough; thin skin which peels off easily, pulp - yellowish,
juicy, tasty.
Lady’s Finger (AAB) - A small banana that averages 4–5 inches (10–12.5 cm) long, with thin,
light-yellow skin and sweet, creamy flesh. Grows to 5.5m, Produces 7 to 10 hands in
bunches of 10 to 20 kg, Less competition from tropical growers, Higher prices, Rarely
requires propping, More hardy in cold, windy and dry conditions, Fruit does not turn black
after slicing during food preparation, Fruit has acid/sweet flavour, Highly susceptible to
Panama disease, Lower yields per hectare, Quality fruit important for best prices to be
achieved.

Virupakshi (AAB) - Premium variety grown in the lower Palani hills of Kodaikanal range in
Tamil Nadu. Perennial banana of high quality, grown as rainfed crop either as mixed with
coffee or pure plantation. Plants - tall, 4.5 to 5.0m height. Poor yielder, with small bunches
8 -12 kg, 7 - 8 hands of 10 -12 fruits each,80 - 90 fruits per bunch. Fruits - small to medium,
prominently ridged, skin - thick, leathery, greenish yellow and turning black when over
ripe, peels easily. Pulp - white or pale yellow, dry, sweet with delightful flavour. Very good
keeping quality. Fruits strongly attached to pedicel even on ripening. Crop duration is 15-
18 months. It has the characteristic flavour only when they are cultivated in higher
elevation. Perennial system aggravates Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV).
 22

Sirumalai (AAB) - The Sirumalai type grown in the Sirumalai Hills is considered to be an
ecotype of Virupakshi. The only difference is that in the Sirumalai type, pulp is not as dry,
but is juicier to sweeter and richer in flower. Fruit attachment to the pedicel is not as strong
as in Virupakshi. Crop duration 14 months.

Sanna Chenkadali (AAB) It’s a hardy variety. Plant resembles that of red banana with red
coloured pseudostem, petiole and midrib. Bunch medium sized. Fruits - small, slender,
pronounced tip, peel red colour. Pulp - light orange yellow. Performs well even in complete
shade suited for planting in coconut grooves. Tolerant to leaf spot. Crop duration 12
months.

Pachanadan (AAB) - It is a popular variety in Tamil Nadu especially for its cooling effects
in hot tracts in summer. It is well suited as an intercrop in coconut/areca nut garden.
Duration is about 15 months.
The bunch weight ranges from 12-15 kg (after 11-12 months). It is used both when green and
ripe. Pachanadan could be used in the Nendran plantations for gap filling as it comes up
for harvest along with Nendran. It is tolerant to leaf spot and Banana Bunchy Top Virus
(BBTV) diseases, but susceptible to wilt disease.

Safed Velchi (AAB) - This is considered a good quality fruit for table purpose. It is grown
under the shade of arecanut gardens in the South Kanara districts of Karanataka. This plant
height is medium with slender yellowish green pseudostem and can be recognised by the
reddish petiole margin, small fruits, very thin and papery rind and white firm flesh that is
very sweet. The average bunch weight is about 12 kg with about 150 fruits/bunch. The
duration of the variety is about 13 months.

Rajapuri (AAB) Plant is semi tall, having horizontal bunch, glabrous peduncle and rachis.
The bunch is small to medium (12-15 cm long and 3-3.5 cm in diameter). Skin of fruit is
thick, dull yellow. The pulp is creamy white, firm and sweet.

Najanagud Rasabale (AAB) The area of cultivation of Nanjangud rasabale, a special variety
of banana only in and around Nanjangud areas of Karnataka. The Nanjangud rasabale,
which has unique characteristics, is identified by its distinct aroma when it ripens fully.
The fruit is also characterised by its medium size and gall formation in the pulp. A major
characteristic of the fruit is its long shelf life, as it survives for around a fortnight after its
starts ripening. It is more vulnerable to panama wilt, a soil-borne disease, than other
plantain varieties such as yelakki and pacchbale (chikkibale).

Palayam Kodan (AAB) -This is the most widely cultivated variety of banana in Kerala, very
soft when fully ripe, thin skin and delicate flavour but poor keeping quality and the fruits
fall off bunches on storage after maturity. It has a cooling effect on places of very hot and
humid conditions. Bunch weight varies from 12 to 15 kg.
 23

Karpooravalli (ABB) It is a popular variety grown for table purpose in medium rich soils. Its
commercial cultivation is spread over Central and Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. It is
also sweetest among Indian bananas. Plant - stout, vigorous and tall with large leaves, stem
light green with purplish tinge. Bunch 8-9 compact hands, 13-14 fingers per hand, 100 to
120 fruits per bunch. Fruits - medium size, persistent on pedicel even after ripening, skin -
medium thick, yellow with ashy coating. Pulp - sweet and juicy, firm, pleasant flavour. This
variety thrives even in alkaline soils. It can also be raised for leaf production in Tamil Nadu.
It is fairly tolerant to corm weevil but highly susceptible to wilt disease, tolerant to leaf spot
disease and well suited for drought and salt affected areas.. Crop duration 12-14 months.

Monthan (ABB) A culinary variety widely cultivated for processing is also suitable for
cultivation for leaf production in Tamil Nadu. Being hardy, its plant can withstand
drought. Bunch weight is 20–25 kg and bears fingers per bunch. Fingers are large,
irregularly five sided, with prominent ridges and slightly curved, broad at base and
tapering towards apex. Peel is thick, tough and dark green, which changes to yellow when
ripe. Pulp is firm and cream coloured. It is fairly tolerant to nematodes, leaf spot and
rhizome rot diseases. Male flowers without stamens are also used as a popular dish. The
crop matures in 12–14 months. It is highly susceptible to Fusarium wilt disease.

Ney Mannan (ABB) A vigorous cooking type banana variety with robust but medium height
plant height. It bears large and compact bunches, weighing 18 kg with 10 hands. Fingers are
small to medium, plump at base and tapering at apex with irregularly five sided and thick
beaks. Peel is thick, tough, easily removable and dark green, turning orange yellow when
ripe. Pulp is firm white and not very sweet. Vayal vazhai of Tanjore, Mey Vannan of Kongad,
Naattu vazhai of Pannaikkadu

Nendran (AAB) This is an important culinary variety grown largely in Kerala and
neighbouring areas of Tamil Nadu. Fingers are eaten both as ripe and as vegetable in
mature condition. Plant has distinct pink colouration in pseudostem. Bunch is not
compact, weighing around 12–15 kg and having four to six hands with three prominent
ridges. Fingers are large with thick peel and have a distinct neck with thick green skin,
turning yellow on ripening. Fingers remain as starchy even on ripening. Pulp is firm with
mild flavour and medium sweet. Nendran has good keeping quality but is not suitable for
ratoon crop. This variety is highly susceptible to Banana Bract Mosaic Virus (BBMV),
nematodes and borers.
Sakkai(ABB) -It is commercially cultivated under low input conditions owing to its
tolerance to drought, salt and nematodes. It is a dual-purpose variety. Commercial
plantations is seen in Madurai, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts of Tamil Nadu. It is
a medium plant which takes 12-15 months to come to harvest. Bunch weights about 15-18
kg. Fruits are short, stout, fleshy without any knob. It is a dual-purpose variety
commercially cultivated under low input conditions owing to its tolerance to drought, salt
and nematodes, with medium size plants.
Battissa (ABB) Bunch of this variety has 20-25 hands and more than 200 fingers. The fingers
are medium slightly curved with prominent ridges and rounded apex. The rind is thick and
green with whitish pulp. Upper 5 -7 hands have larger fingers. The lower ones are
comparatively smaller. The variety is a heavy yielder. Bunch weight may be around 25 kg.
 24

Savarboni (ABB) Savarboni (Bluggoe type) is a cooking type of banana. The well-matured
unripe banana fruits are used for culinary purpose. The plants grow to a height of 4 m and
girth of 65–70 cm. Initially, they produce one to two side suckers per plant. Bunches of 12–
13 kg can be harvested after 425 days of planting under coconut shade, whereas under open
conditions, it takes 3–4 weeks less duration. Each bunch contains 6–8 hands, with 10
fingers per hand. Each hand weighs 1.75–2.00 kg. Fruits are of big size, weighing 160–175 g,
19–20 cm long and of 3.7–4.0 cm
Bontha (ABB) The cultivar Bontha/ Bankel is same as Monthan (ABB) described by Jacob
(1952). It is widely distributed in all banana-growing states. Bunch has 5-6 hands. This is
the oremost cooking variety of Kerala. The fruits are short slightly curved with prominent
ridges and blunt apex. The rind is thick and green with whitish pulp. The male bud is also
used for culinary purpose, Suitable for entire state.

Bhurkel (ABB) The Bhurkel is a dessert banana having insipid taste and flavour. The
name of Bhurkel is more appropriate as the term „Bhur‟ signifies the ashy bloom on the
skin of the fruit. The plant is stout, tall with yellowish green pseudostem. The bunch is
large, pendant and cylindrical, loose near the base and compact towards the end.
Individual fruit is medium in size and broad at the base and sharply tapering towards the
apex. Skin is very thin with ashy bloom. The pulp is dull white, fairly sweet but lacking in
flavour.
Saba (ABB)
It is an introduction from Phillipines and it is found promising under in saline sodic soils.
It could perform well without any yield reduction in sodic soils with PH 8.5-8.75. Plant with
huge pseudostem and grows to a height of 16-20 feet. It is a sturdy plant and somewhat cold
tolerant. The fruit is large and angular even when ripe. It has a white pulp which is sweet
when ripe although very starchy. It is a cooking banana with medium to large fruits. The
pulp is creamy white, and although the flesh becomes sweet on ripening, fruits are always
cooked before consumption. Synonyms are ‘Pisang Kepok’ in Indonesia, ‘Pisang Nipah’ in
Malaysia and ‘Kluai Hin’ in Thailand. ‘Saba’ is the most important banana cultivar in the
Philippines, but of lesser importance in other countries of South-east Asia.
BRS1 (AAB) It is triploid hybrid of banana by crossing Agniswar x Pisang Lilin developed
at Banana Research Station, Kannara, Kerala Agricultural University. It is a medium tall
plant, supporting 14-16 kg bunch without propping. Elongated fruits turn attractive golden
yellow on ripening. Slightly acid fruits. It has a remarkable early rationing ability
completing four crops in three years. It is a promising hybrid owing to short cropping cycle
resistance to leaf spot, Fusarium wilt and burrowing nematode.
BRS 2 (AAB) It is a hybrid of Vannan x Pisang Lilin developed at Kannara Banana research
station, Kerala Agricultural University. It is medium stature plant. Average weight of
bunch ranges from 15-20 kg with short, stout, dark green Poovan like fruits which are
arranged compactly. Fruits are slightly acidic with pleasant sweet-sour aroma. Tolerance
to leaf spot diseases and nematodes.
Udhayam (ABB) - Selected at National Research Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappalli (TN). A
promising new selection that belongs to Pisang Awak group similar to Karpuravalli banana
(ABB type). Suitable for cultivation in banana growing states viz., Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, North Eastern regions in place of local Karpuravalli banana.
 25

The average yield is 37 kg., with a potential to yield up to 45 kg which is 40 per cent higher
than local Karpuravalli. The plants are comparatively dwarf in stature with a duration of
15-16 months. It has cylindrical bunch with 13-15 hands and 15 - 20 fruits per hand. Fruits
are elongated with 14 -16 cm in length and 10-13 cm in circumference. Field tolerant to
nematode and leaf spot diseases. Highly suitable for processing industry.
Kaveri Sugantham (AAB) - This is a selection from somaclonal variant of tissue cultured
Manoranjitham at National Research Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappalli (TN). Pseudostem
is dark green, dull with black blotches. There were larger black brown blotches appears on
the sides of the petiole base. Plant height ranged from 4.9-5.2 m with a pseudostem girth of
110 cm. Bunch is compact and slightly angular in position. Fruits are dark in green at
maturity and yellowish green at ripening. Mature fruits are dark green and turn green
yellow upon ripening. Average bunch weight is 18-22 kgs with 12-14 hands and 17-20 fingers
per hand as against 13-15 kg in local Manoranjitham. It is resistant to Fusarium wilt. Crop
duration is 13-14 months. Pulp is cream in color and Juicy sweet with intense aroma. The
flavor is comparable with the fragrance of Manoranjitham flowers (Atrabotrys
odoratissimus). Because of its fragrance nature it fetches high prices in the market. Owing
to its unique flavor, fruits are highly suitable for preparing banana ice creams

Kaveri Saba (ABB) - Saba is an exotic introduction and belongs to ABB genomic group and
Bontha subgroup. This is a drought and salinity tolerant variety. Medium statured plant
with 3- 3.5m height. Leaves are dark green and shiny. Bunch is slightly angular in position.
There are 9- 10 hands in a bunch and are loosely packed. Weight of the bunch ranged from
26- 29 kg, and the duration is 360 – 380 days. Fruits are dark green, flattened with blunt tip.
Fruit pulp is starchy. It is grows well both in plains and higher altitudes. Saba is more
suitable for marginal cultivation and saline sodic soils with pH ranging from 8.8 to 9.0.
This can be used for both culinary and dessert purpose. This can be a suitable substitute
for Monthan, Adukku Monthan and Vayalvazhai. It has a longer green life of 7-8 days as
against 3-5 days in Monthan and therefore the consumer preference and prices are high in
the market. Suitable for flour making and resistant starches which could be used in health
and soup mixes, bakeries and extruded products like pasta, noodles etc. It was developed
at National Research Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappalli (TN).

Kaveri Kalki (Namwa Khom) [ABB] - It is an exotic introduction (ITC 0659) belonging to
ABB genomic group and Pisang Awak sub group. Plant is dwarf statured with 2-2.4m height
with about 90 cm circumference at the base. Plant stature is robust and sturdy with short
leaves. Green pseudostem with pink streaks. Leaves are almost erect in position, therefore
suitable for high density planting. Can grow up to 1050 plants per acre with the spacing of
1.85m x 1.85m. Reducing the cost of cultivation as it needs no propping. It exhibits the
shortest duration of 12 months and hence suitable for annual cropping system. Average
bunch weighs around 17-20 kg with 13- 15 hands and 16-18 fruits per hand. having a potential
to yield up to 25 kg. Fruits are of marketable quality with sugary taste with 31o Brix. Fruits
and flowers are highly suitable for preparing value added products like Fig and banana
chocolates and flowers pickle. It was developed at National Research Centre for Banana,
Tiruchirappalli (TN).
5. Kaveri Haritha (ABB) Kaveri Haritha released as Central variety for the states Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and West Bengal. Bunch is huge and cylindrical in
 26

shape. The tightly packed bunch contains 10-11 hands. It was selected at National Research
Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappalli (TN) for higher bunch weight ranging from 28- 30 kgs.
Fruits elongated ended with pointed tip. It has Better cooking characteristics. This is
performing well in all the banana growing areas in India.
6. Kaveri Kanya - Kaveri Kanya has been released as Central variety for the states Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and West Benqal. Medium tall and robust nature
with 2.6 – 2.8m height with 80-90cm girth at the base. Bunch is huge and truncated cone
shape. There are 10-12 hands of fruits in a bunch and are tightly packed. Fruits are
completely turned towards the Peduncle. Bunch weight is ranging from 26- 28 kgs. Fruits
are shorter and thick skinned. It is wind tolerant. It was selected at National Research
Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappalli (TN).
CO-1 (AAB) - It is a hybrid clone released by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore involving three parents - Ladan, Kadali and Musa balbisiana. It is akin to hill
banana Virupakshi in flavour and taste and suitable for growing in the plains and hills up
to 1200 meters elevation. It yields about 22 t/ha. The crop duration is 14 months.
FHIA hybrids; During approximately 50 years of conventional breeding, FHIA (the
Fundacion Hondureña de Investigacion Agricola, which was originally established at a
research station of the US based United Fruit Company in Honduras) has developed an
interesting group of cultivars which are resistant or at least tolerant to Fusarium wilt
disease and black Sigatoka, and with good adaptability to different soil and climatic
conditions. The most important ones are given in Table 4.

Table 4: Characteristics of hybrids developed by FHIA

Hybrid Parents Characteristics

FHIA- 01 ‘Prata Anã’ (AAB) × SH- Resistance to black sigatoka, races 1 and 4 of
(AAAB) 3142 (AA) Fusarium wilt and nematode ( Radopholus
similis ), tolerance to low temperatures and
unfavourable conditions of raining and soil
fertility, strong plants with good architecture,
large bunches and fruits with good texture and
taste.

FHIA-02 ‘Williams’ (AAA) × SH- High resistance to black Sigatoka, present the
(AAAA) 3393 (AA) same plant height of ‘Valery’, however the bunch
characteristics are inferior to this cultivar.

FHIA-03 SH-3386 (ABB) × Generated from the clone Gaddatu ABB, it is

(AABB) diploid SH-3320 (AA) more rustic and productive than the Bluggoes.
Present low stature and bunches that reach to 50
kg and resistance to moko disease and drought.

FHIA-15 Descendent of Resistance to race 1 of the Fusariumpresents

(AAAB) Maqueño Highgate tolerance to black Sigatoka.Good characteristics
hybrid (AAA) (mutant of bunch, resistance to race 1 of Fusarium wilt
 27

FHIA-17 of ‘Gros Michel’), Prata and more tolerant to black Sigatoka than the
(AAAA) Anã hybrid (AAB) Grande Naine, however its plants are higher than
FHIA-18 that cultivar, mainly in the second cycle.
(AAAB) Highproduction, resistant to yellow and black
Sigatokas and fruits present good taste.

FHIA-21 French plantain hybrid Resistance to black Sigatoka and produce larger
(AAAB) (AAB) bunches than to the other False Horn cultivars.

FHIA-23 Highgate hybrid Good characteristics of bunch, resistance to race

(AAAA) (AAA)(mutant of ‘Gros 1 of Fusarium wilt and more tolerant to black
Michel’) Sigatoka than the Grande Naine, however its
plants are higher than that cultivar, mainly in the
second cycle.

AVP-67 Crosses involving Good characteristics to use unripe or ripe,

(AAAB) plantain French type resistant to race 1 Panama disease and tolerance
(AAB) and Maqueño to black Sigatoka.
(ABB)

SH-3640 Prata Anã (AAB) × SH- High production and resistance to black
3393 Sigatoka, partial resistance to yellow Sigatoka
and ripe fruits present very good taste

Source: Rowe and Rosales (1994)

Gold finger (FHIA – 01) [AAAB} It is a synthetic hybrid dessert banana that was released by
FHIA in 1988. This has been developed from the combination of SH-3142 an advanced
cultivar of genome group (AA) x Dwarf Prata (AAB, Pome subgroup) at Honduras. It bears
heavy bunches (20-25 kg) without propping in 14-15 months. Fruits have sub acidic or apple
flavour. It is highly tolerant/resistant to black Sigatoka, Fusarium wilt and apparently
resistant to burrowing nematode but susceptible to yellow Sigatoka leaf spot and other
nematodes. Fruits have a good shelf life without premature detaching. 'FHIA-01' plants are
cold- and wind-tolerant and produce higher quality fruits in sub-tropical, than tropical,
conditions. However, the claim of its resistance to black Sigatoka and Fusarium wilt has
been questioned.
FHIA 18’ (AAAB) - Banana hybrid ‘FHIA 18’ is derived from cultivar ‘Prata Anã’ (AAB), is
developed by Honduras Foundation for Agricultural Research (FHIA), such hybrid stands
out for better yield, ‘Prata anã’- like fruits and resistance to Panama disease and Black
Sigatoka (Smith et al., 2014).
ABBB, AAAB and AABB groups
These three groups are the only natural tetraploids to be found. Pure acuminata or
balbisiana tetraploids in nature have not been described, and hybrid tetraploids are
certainly not common. Bred tetraploids are now being produced in increasing numbers.
 28

‘Klue Teparod’ (ABBB) – This is a robust plant, immune to Fusarium wilt disease and leaf
spot. The fruit flesh has an unpleasant spongy texture when raw but, in Thailand and
Burma, the fruits are cooked to make popular sweetmeats. It probably originated in Indo-
China.
‘Atan’ (AAAB) – This cultivar resembles AAB triploids in some respects. Leaves are
horizontal to drooping which is a typical weak petiole character of tetraploids. Fruits are
short, plump and tart, and the plant is resistant to Fusarium wilt disease.
‘Kalamagol’ (AABB) – This may be the result of a natural cross between ‘Latundan’ and M.
balbisiana, and was found in the Solomon Islands. It has very droopy leaves. Fruits are
small and sweet and the plant is resistant to Fusarium wilt disease and leaf spot.
Hybrid 548-9’ or ‘TMP×548-9’ (AAAB) – This is a product of the conventional breeding
programme of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria. It is a
cross between the black Sigatoka-susceptible ‘Dwarf French’ plantain female parent ‘Obino
1’Ewai’ (AAB) and the wild diploid banana pollen parent ‘Calcutta 4’ (AA). This tetraploid
hybrid plantain is resistant to black Sigatoka and higher yielding than the female parent.
‘Pacovan Ken’ (PV4268), ‘Vitoria’ (PV4281), ‘Japira’ (PV42-142), and PA42-44 – These are
AAAB hybrids developed and recommended by EMBRAPA, Brazil, with good yields and
resistance to black and yellow Sigatoka and also to Fusarium wilt (Silva et al., 2008).

Eig.3: Fe'i bananas are unique for their yellow colour

pulp. They have followed a parallel but separate
domestication path from the edible bananas derived
from species in the Musa section. In this figure on the
left is a Fe'i banana, called 'Wore' in Papua New Guinea
and on the right is its presumptive wild ancestor Musa
maclayi, a species in the Callimusa section. Fe'i
bananas' have bright yellow to orange pulp, which
indicates high levels of carotenoids that the body
converts to vitamin A. They are well known across
Papua New Guinea by a common name 'Yelo Pispis
Banana' (Vézina, 2020). Sap from its pseudostem is deep
red and often used for colouring fabrics.

Biofortification of Banana Varieties

Biofortification of banana, especially in terms of provitamin A, Fe, and Zn is possible and
can potentially minimize health problems caused by the deficiency of micronutrients in
the world’s low-income populations. The accessibility of the fruit and the facts that it is a
staple food of millions of people, especially in Africa, suggests that banana can play a
fundamental role as a health-promoting food. There is enough genetic variability for
micronutrients, making genetic improvement and biofortification of banana possible
(Edson Perito et. al. 2011; Patel et. al. 2016; Kaur et.al., 2016). At NRCB, Trichy some superior
lines with long shelf life (>10 days) and high carotenoid content have been identified (NRCB,
2021).
 29

Varieties for Leaf Production

Apart from its commercial dual utilities for dessert and cooking purposes, other banana-
based industries have not gained much prominence. The leaves are used for packing and
serving food and feeding cattle. The leaf production has proved advantageous due to its
sustainable demand throughout the year. This is a year-round sustained source of income
for the farming families. The banana leaf industry is thus an important banana-based
businesses in the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh. The annual turnover of the leaf industry is estimated to be Rupees 128 million
(Singh 1996) approximately equivalent to 1/7th of the annual turnover of the banana
industry. Uma et.al. (2003) have suggested that following varieties perform better, if
selected exclusively for leaf production.

Elavazhai (BB) - Is a wild diploid variety grown in the Western Ghats. Although it bears a
bunch with seeded fruits it is highly suitable for marginal lands, exhibiting a high degree
of resistance to leaf spot diseases, and is conventionally used as a shade crop in areca
plantations. Being diploid it has erect leaf orientation and accommodates a greater number
of plants per unit area.
Kunnan (AB) - Is a popular variety of Kerala and Tamil Nadu and is a suitable variety for
mixed cropping systems as it tolerates shady conditions. It has a shorter life cycle, is semi
tall in stature, with profuse suckering (producing thick and succulent water suckers) and
is tolerant to nematodes and leaf spot diseases. It bears a good bunch of 14–16 kg with
parthenocarpic edible fruits with a delicious taste.
Poovan (AAB) - This is the second largest cultivar of commerce in banana industry. It is a
hardy cultivar with good bunches and a unique sweet–acid blend, suitable for ratooning,
has selective tolerance to leaf spot diseases and is resistant to Fusarium wilt. This survives
even under marginal conditions unlike other commercial Cavendish clones.

Saba (ABB) - An exotic variety originating from the Philippines, suitable for marginal
lands, has dual utility, high yielding, substitute for Chakkia group (ABB), requires less
care, exhibits tolerance to leaf spot diseases and field tolerance to Fusarium wilt. This
cultivar expresses a strong stability for yield over generations and hence needs fewer
replanting sequences over time.
NRCB Selection-1 (ABB) - A single plant selection of NRCB, a high yielder with 40-45 kg
bunches and good marketability. Expresses good phyllochron over others of the Pisang
Awak subgroup, suited for a 1+3 cropping system (1 plant crop+3 ratoons). Expresses good
yield stability and tolerance to leaf spot diseases.
Borkal Baista (ABB) - A collection from the north-eastern states, collected during NRCB
exploration programmes (Uma et al. 2001). This is a culinary type, a high yielder even under
marginal conditions, suited for backyards, exhibits high tolerance to leaf spot diseases, has
a better phyllochron and needs minimum care.
Peyan (ABB) - Suitable for backyards and mixed cropping systems, it is a choice variety,
suitable for the fresh leaf market and is highly prized for its medicinal values. It is slightly
longer in duration compared with other backyard varieties. It exhibits field tolerance to
Fusarium wilt and a high degree of tolerance to leaf spot diseases,
 30

Kechulepa (ABB) - Suitable for the fresh leaf market, produces a robust bunch with good
quality and dual-purpose fruits with high TSS (30–31O B). It is a choice variety of north-
eastern India, has tolerance to leaf spot diseases and field tolerance to Fusarium wilt.

7. Propagation
7.1 Use of Rhizomes / Suckers
Bananas are propagated vegetatively using suckers or rhizome. The plant has a reduced
underground stem, called the rhizome (corm), which bears several buds. Each of these
buds sprouts and forms its own pseudostem and a new bulbous rhizome. These daughter
plants are called suckers. The mother plantain plant produces two types of suckers, i.e., (i)
sword suckers and (ii) water suckers. Sword suckers have a well-developed base and conical
shape with narrow sword-shaped leaf blades at early stages. Such suckers weighing 1.5–2
kg developed at flowering stage of parental plant having 2–4 months age is best planting
material. They produce healthy and fruitful pseudostem when mature. The height of the
sucker should range between 50 and 70 cm. Very young tiny suckers (or peepers) are not
used as they produce late and poor crops.
Water suckers have short pseudostems and broad leaves. Water suckers are not strongly
attached to the rhizome, thus, they generally produce weaker plants and less fruits. Well-
developed rhizomes with dormant lateral buds and dead central bud are also used. After
cutting the parent plant, the rhizomes are removed from the soil, stored in a cool and dry
place for about two months. During the resting period, the remaining part of pseudostem
at the bottom falls off, leaving prominent heart bud. Conical rhizome should be selected,
whereas flat rhizomes should be rejected. It should be of 3–4 months age at planting. Since
banana is highly unstable in genetic constitution, the suckers or rhizomes should be
selected from plants, which are healthy, having all the desirable bunch qualities and
yielding ability of the specific clone. The rate of multiplication of suckers is slow and
variety dependent. Suckers or corms may be infected with diseases and pests and thus there
are chances of getting them transferred to new fields.
7.2 Tissue Culture
Banana plants are also propagated through tissue culture technique. The main advantage
of tissue-culture technology lies in the production of high-quality and uniform planting
material that can be multiplied on a year-round basis under disease-free conditions
anywhere irrespective of the season and weather (Vuylsteke,1989; Strosse, et. al. 2004;
Deepika, et. al. 2018). However, the technology is capital, labour, and energy intensive.
Normally, disease-free plantlets with three to four leaves are supplied in pots for raising
secondary nursery. Plants are initially kept in partial shade, and as they harden, shade is
reduced gradually. Tissue cultured plants require potting up and growing on in a nursery
under shade before transplanting into the field. This will enhance survival especially where
irrigation is not available. After 6 weeks, the plants do not require any shade.
Usually, two months of secondary nursery is good enough before the plants are to be
planted in the field pits. However, there are difficulties in adoption of tissue culture
material because of the high cost of the material in comparison to conventional planting
material. Further, the chance of getting soma-clonal variation is also associated with tissue
cultured plants (Israeli et. al. 1995; El-Mahrouk, et. al. 2019). Alternative low-cost
 31

macropropagation techniques for producing large numbers of planting material in a

relatively short time will benefit farmers who consider the high cost of tissue-cultured
plants prohibitive. Recently some reports are available to show opportunities for marked
reduction in production cost of both micro- and macro-propagated banana plants (Njukwe
et. al. 2013; Majuja et. al. 2017; Ntamwira et. al. 2017). A 90% resource cost reduction in tissue
culture of banana was achieved by replacing tissue culture grade sucrose and Gelrite in the
medium with locally available commercial sugar and a starch/Gelrite mixture or sago (39.39
% of agar cost), cotton fibre support allowing 60.22 % of agar cost (Majuja et. al. 2017).
Starches of corn or potato could partially substitute for Gelrite and agar. Low- cost options
can lower the cost of production without compromising the quality of the micro-
propagules and plants.
7.3 Macro-propagation
In recent past, for small-scale farmers who are unable to afford the cost of tissue culture
planting material, a low-cost multiplication technique termed “macro-propagation” has
been advocated as an effective alternative method. It requires less capital and skills to
produce large numbers of better-quality banana planting materials. Depending on variety,
one corm can yield an average of 10 plants, which can be increased by a factor of 3–4
through scarification i.e. removal of the apical meristem of emerging lateral buds
(Vuylsteke,1989; Strosse, et. al. 2004; Singh et. al. 2011). The technique involves processes
like decapitation or cutting off pseudostem of the suckers, decortications of the corms and
hardening of the plantlets that emerged from the corm.
In this technique repression of apical meristem stimulates the regeneration of lateral
meristem (Sajith, et. al., 2014; Saraswathi et al., 2014). Increased suckering rate can be
achieved through complete or partial decapitation on a field grown plant or a detached
corm (Baiyeri and Aba, 2005, 2007; Dayarani, et.al. 2013). It can produce 50-60 plantlets as
against 6-10 suckers by a mother plant. The complete process of macro-propagation takes
5-7 months (including a hardening period of 45 days) for production of suckers ready for
planting. However, the length of this period may vary with the prevailing temperature at
the time of planting of the corms for propagation.
Macro propagation is achieved by two methods and could be adopted either in the field
conditions (in-situ) or in the nursery (ex- situ). For ex-situ production, healthy suckers are
decapitated just above the juncture of the corm and aerial shoot and corms or rhizomes
weighing 1- 1.5 kg are collected. The remnants of the pseudostem and roots are removed
and external layer of the corm is scraped using a sharp knife, to ensure freeness from all
nematodes and other root-borne pathogens. The corm is surface sterilized by dipping in
0.3 % bavistin for 15 min, allowed to dry. The apical meristem is removed to a depth of 2 cm
leaving a cavity of 2 cm diameter in the rhizome. The corm is then decorticated giving 6-8
cross cuts and incised up to 0.25-0.50 cm depending on the sucker size. They are planted in
a nursery bed or pots containing saw enriched with sterilized vermicompost, biofertilizers
and rooting hormones like IBA (2,500 ppm).
After 30-35 days of first decortication, 3-4 buds emerge from the mother corm,
depending on the variety. When the side shoots on the corm attain a height of 15-20 cm
with 3-4 leaves, secondary or second decortication is done by heading them back with a
sharp knife followed by 3-4 transverse cuts. This encourages production of multiple shoots.
Third decortication is again attempted after 20-25 days but with greater care as the shoot
 32

buds are located very close. Thus, by the end of 140-150 days, a total of 50-60 shoots are
produced from a single corm.
When the lateral sprouts on the corm attain a height of 8-10 cm, they are hardened off by
shifting to pro-trays containing equal parts of cocopeat and vermiculite and after
sufficient watering left in a shade net (70 % shade) at 80-90 % humidity. High humidity is
achieved by intermittent misting. Sprouts are usually maintained in the pro-trays for a
period of 15-20 days and then shifted to polythene bags of size 6”x 4” and thickness of 120
gauge for secondary hardening. At this stage, the plants are maintained at 50 % shade and
40-50 % humidity (Patel and Rath, 2018). Watering is done on alternate days and the plants
are ready for field planting in 30-45 days. Planting the decapitated and decorticated corms,
weighing 1-1.5 kg, in the month of October, taking sawdust containing Bacillus subtilis as
initiation media and treating the corms with 40 ppm BAP results in production of higher
numbers of uniform tertiary suckers that are ready for field planting after few (3 - 4) weeks.
For in- situ production, accelerated growth of suckers on the selected mother corm in
the field is induced chemically by pouring 4 ml of 40 ppm BAP into the decorticated cavity
and covering the individual mats with a mixture containing equal parts of sandy loam and
poultry manure to 5 cm above the ground level. Such chemical induction of lateral buds
could be done on the first-generation suckers and continued up to third generation
suckers. This method leads to the production of 45-50 shoots in a short span of 4 -5 months.
The suckers are separated from the mother corm and subsequently rooted in sterile soil
medium under intermittent misting for hardening and better stand in the field. Use of
selected local materials for macro-propagation of good quality planting materials is highly
cost-effective (Ntamwira et. al. 2017).
8. Climate
Banana requires hot and humid tropical climate. The warm moist climate throughout the
year without strong winds is most suitable for its growth. In India, banana is grown in the
regions from humid tropics to humid subtropics and semi-arid tropics and from the sea
level up to an elevation of 2000 m above mean sea level. and has a high light requirement.
Full sun shine is beneficial for optimum plant development and yields. Bananas grow best
in areas with 2,500 mm or more of well-distributed rainfall per year. If the rainfall is not
well distributed throughout the year, the plant needs irrigation during the drier part. At
least 1000 mm annual rainfall is required for its survival.
A temperature range of 15–38°C occurs in most production areas. The optimum
temperature for better growth and fruiting is 270 C. Likewise, the optimum for dry-matter
accumulation and fruit ripening is 20 0 C and 90% relative humidity and for the appearance
of new leaves about 30°C. As the fruit ripens, internal starch gradually turns into sugar. At
temperatures above 38°C growth stops and leaf burn is noticed. No evidence exists that
photoperiod influences flowering. However, increasing the photoperiod from 10 to 14 h
increases the rate of new leaf appearance, probably due to more photosynthesis.
The production site should be frost-free as the frosts will kill leaves and sometimes
plants. Temperature below 100C is not suitable for the plant since it leads to a condition
called “throat-choke” or impeded inflorescence and bunch development. In cooler climate,
crop duration is prolonged, sucker production becomes slower and bunches become
smaller (Morton,1987). Plants are very susceptible to wind damage; thus, it is advisable that
they should be planted in sufficient shelter or in a block so that the plants may protect one
 33

another. Banana is a water-loving crop and large areas of banana are found along the major
river basins and in areas where availability of water or rainfall is plenty. Irrigation is needed
if rainfall is inadequate or irregular.
Soil moisture is the most important factor involved in development of banana root
system. Extreme climatic conditions (severe drought or heavy rainfall), without effective
measures to protect the banana root system, can result in its gradual deterioration of the
roots. In areas with rainy and humid climates, whose soils have high organic matter
contents with high water retention, bananas generally experience root and corm rot. In
areas subject to severe drought, the deterioration of the root system is a consequence of
either a lack of, or an inadequate, irrigation system and an insufficient supply of good
quality water.
9. Soil Requirements
Although bananas grow well over a wide range of soils; soil texture, depth and drainage are
important considerations in selecting the soil for growing the crop. The ideal soil should
be 0.5–1.0 m in depth, well drained, fertile and moisture retentive and rich in organic
matter. The plants grow optimally in soil with a pH range of 6.5 to 7.5. Banana root system
deteriorates when the soil has more than 60% coarse fragments by volume, high sand
content (loamy sand or sand of coarse or very coarse size), very high clay content or with
coarse and very coarse blocks. The effective soil depth should never be less than 30 cm and
restricted by continuous rock, massive clay or a shallow permanent water table.
Saline soils are unsuitable. Soils with high soluble salt concentrations showing
electrical conductivity greater than 4 dS/m and high exchangeable sodium (PSI > 30%) and
soluble sodium (RAS > 30) contents should be avoided. These conditions can be devastating
for the plant depending upon the characteristics of rainfall and cultural practices. Adding
organic amendments is essential in sandy and heavy soils to improve water retention
capacity and porosity, respectively. Drains are essential to control large amounts of runoff
from high intensity rain that removes topsoil and nutrients and to avoid ponding of water.

10. Planting
Setting up a profitable long-term banana plantation requires careful planning and
development. Whether it is establishing a new plantation or replanting an existing one,
mistakes made at this stage are difficult and costly to correct. Layout of the plantation is
important as it ensures higher yields due to reduced losses of soil and plant nutrients
including fertilisers and reduces expenditures on maintenance of roadways and inter-row
passage ways required for essential machinery operations for various aspects of crop
management. Better access to roads minimises postharvest bruising in transit to the
packing shed. High velocity wind caused significant damage to the plantation. To protect
plants from strong wind, provision for a windbreak is to be made. With major damaging
winds coming from the southeast, south and west, windbreak protection on at least these
sides of the plantation is essential. The best option is to use existing stands of timber trees,
otherwise windbreaks may have to be established before planting.
10.1 Planting Time
In India, planting season varies from area to area and in most parts, very cold or hot seasons
are unsuitable (Jacob,1952; Hord and Spell, 1962;). Planting during winter leads to initial
exposure to unfavourable conditions of hot summer and heavy winds during critical stages
 34

of growth. In general, planting time varies according to the climatic conditions of the place
where banana is grown. It is intended that the planting season should be such that the
plants do not experience very harsh weather conditions impinging growth during critical
stages (Simmonds, 1966). In south India, banana is planted in garden lands during January
– February and November – December and in wet lands during February – April, sometimes
extended up to May. Hill Banana is planted right from April to August. In North Eastern
Part particularly in subtropical North Bihar planting is done in June – July or up to early
August. The planting in September - October is avoided as this exposes young plants to low
temperatures in winter. Extending the planting date after mid-August leads to extended
life cycle of the plant crop and low yield due to slow growth of plants during winter and
subsequent summer due to extremely low and high temperatures. However, planting
banana before commencement of the monsoon is reported to help the plant’s build up for
rapid growth and establishment before onset of the cold weather. The market situation is
also important in deciding the time of planting or allowing daughter sucker in a standing
plantation for the ratoon crop. In Bangladesh, September-October and February-March are
the two main seasons for planting bananas. (Hossain, 2014). The land should be ploughed
deeply, harrowed and levelled properly before planting.
10.2 Planting Methods
In general, bananas are planted adopting any of the two main methods of planting, namely,
holes (pits) and furrows (Simmonds, 1966). Pits of 0.5 m3 or 0.6 m3are dug for planting the
rhizomes. This is very common method but laborious and expensive. With dwarf or semi-
dwarf varieties no earthing up is required as planting is sufficiently deep. The larger pit
sizes of 2 feet cube gave the heavier bunches and hands than the pit sizes of 1.0- or 1.5-feet
cubes and the sucker production increased with pit size (Ahmed and Mannan, 1970).
Robinson (1995) reported that shallow planting depth could cause a plant to dry out and
thereby induce a superficial root system in both mother plant and the suckers. Bakhiet et
al (2003) observed differences in the time to corm germination when type of planting
material differed. Days from planting to shooting, and from planting to harvest of the
mother plant crop, significantly decreased with increasing planting depth; but, the time
from shooting to harvest did not statistically differ.
Depth of planting varies with type of soil and planting material (Robinson, 1995). Since
growth of suckers usually takes place from the middle and upper parts of the corm, there
is a tendency for successive shoots to be borne close to the soil surface and even above the
soil surface (Simmonds, 1966). In plants established from suckers, root system is
adventitious, and unfavourable conditions increase sensitivity of the plant to water stress.
Reducing the extent of root system tends to result in plants less securely anchored. Such
plants are prone to toppling under the weight of an early maturing bunch, especially, in
windy or wet seasons. Planting depth of 60cm resulted in significantly shorter interval
between harvests. Planting in deep holes seem to hasten flowering, whereas maturation is
controlled by temperature during bunch development, as observed by Robinson (1981);
whereas, Fraser and Eckstein (1998) reported a tendency for longer cycle with deep
planting, using tissue culture derived banana plantlets. Here, bunch weight increased with
planting depth, the largest bunch been observed at 60cm. Number of hands per bunch and
bunch weight in plants planted in 60cm holes was significantly higher; number of fingers
per hand, however, did not vary with planting depth (Bakhiet and Elbadri, 2005). Bunch
 35

mass and the number of fingers were higher in ‘Nanicao’ plants planted at 30cm depth,
than in those planted at a lesser depth of 10cm (Manica, 1976; Obiefuna, 1983).
The pits are filled with 10-20 kg of well-decomposed farmyard manure and 500 g neem
cake along with top soil. The roots of selected sword suckers are trimmed off and the
decayed portion of corm is removed out in order to avoid suckers from nematodes and
weevils. To avoid wilt disease in wilt susceptible varieties, the infected portion of corm may
be dipped in 0.1% Emisan solution for 5 minutes. The corms, before planting, are soaked
for few seconds in a mixture of 550 ml Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) + 40 litres of thin
clay slurry for disinfection. This treatment will form a coat on the corm in a persistent
nematicidal preparation. In place of DBCP, carbofuran can also be used at 40 g/sucker at
planting time and again applied at the 4th month of crop growth. The suckers are planted
at the centre of pit and the soil is then pressed around the sucker to avoid hollow air space.
Planting is followed by light irrigation.
In case of furrow planting, furrows of 20–25 cm depth are opened by a tractor driven
ridger at a required distance and rhizomes are planted in the furrows. In this method,
earthing up needs to be done frequently to cover the exposed rhizomes. Compost or FYM is
applied to the soil at the time of field preparation.
For tissue-cultured plants, the recommended planting depth is 10cm deeper than their
level in the polybags. The smaller size of in-vitro plantlets and pared suckers make it
possible to establish a banana plantation using shallower planting holes. Reducing the size
of planting hole may accelerate establishment of plants, given that the root-bearing zone
is located at the level of a mineral rich topsoil layer. Deep planting increased bunch weight
and reduced time to flowering, over successive ratoon crops (Mustaffa and Kumar, 2012)

10.3 Plant Density

Choosing the correct planting density is vitally important for maximizing the yield
potential of the plantation. For the highest possible yields of good quality fruit, there is an
optimum plant density which should be maintained for the life of the plantation. This
optimum, however, varies for each particular locality, cultivar, soil type and management
level. These factors in turn interact with more specific determinants of density choice, such
as whether production is for high yield or fruit quality, prevailing climate, plantation
vigour and plantation life.
High density planting can be adopted for higher productivity by planting two or three
suckers per hill at a spacing of 1.8 x 3.6m accommodating 3200 and 4600 plants/ha
respectively for Cavendish varieties (TNAU, 2004)
Optimum density that is defined as the density at which gross margin per hectare per
annum is maximized over the entire plantation life varies with locality, cultivar, soil type
and fertility, and management level. Choice of spacing depends upon cultivar and, further,
varies from region to region depending upon cultural practices of the area. In recent past,
there has been considerable emphasis on high-density planting. Total yield and net returns
can be increased per unit area by adopting closer spacing as this also reduces weed growth
and provides protection against wind damage. The yield gain in high density planting is
achieved due to greater number of bunches per unit area.
In India, planting of banana cv. Amritsagar at 6 X 6 ft spacing yielded 63.8 % more fruits
than those at 8 X 8 ft however; the wider spacing recorded the heaviest fruits and bunches
 36

(Ahmed and Mannan, 1970). Under West Bengal conditions in cv. ‘Jahajee’, highest profit
was obtained from double dose of fertilizer at closer spacing of 2mx2m (Sharma and Roy,
1972). Under the same conditions in cv. ‘Giant Governor’, decrease in plant density from
2500 pl/ha to 1125plants/ha, induced early flowering and fruit maturity.

Table 5: Plant population under various planting systems

Method of planting Spacing (m) Density (Plant
/ha)
1. Conventional planting
i) Dwarf Cavendish 1.5 x 1.5 4440
ii) Robusta and Nendran 1.8 x 1.8 3080
iii) Rasthali, Poovan, 2.1 x 2.1 2260
Karpuravalli, Monthan
2. High-density planting
a) Paired-row planting system
i) Dwarf Cavendish 1.2 x 1.2 x 2.0 5200
ii) Robusta, Grand Naine,
Poovan, Rasthali and Ney 1.5 x1.5 x 2.0 3800
Poovan
b) 3 suckers/hill (each 1 foot
apart at the corners of a
triangle)
Robusta 1.8 x 3.6 4500
Nendran 1.8 x 3.0 5550

Weight of bunch and other yield parameters increased with decrease in plant density
(Chattopadhyay et al, 1980). In Hill Banana, under Coorg conditions yields were 32, 39 and
50 t/ha for 2.4mx2.4m, 2.4mx1.8m and 1.8mx1.8m spacing respectively (Mustaffa, 1983). In
‘Robusta’ (AAA), ‘Nendran’ (AAB) and ‘Monthan’ (ABB) bananas, root number increased
with increasing density. Number of roots was greatest at flowering and, ABB had higher
number and longer roots than AAA/AAB (Mohan and Madhava Rao, 1984). In Basrai
banana, the highest yield was 67.82 t/ha at 1.5mx1.2m spacing than plants spaced at
1.5mx1.5m or 1.5mx1.8m (Singh and Kashyap, 1992).
At Vellayani in Kerala, a spacing of 1.75mx1.75m was adjudged the best for Nendran (Anil
et al, 1995). In Basrai banana in Anand, Gujarat, highest yield (93.27 t/ha) was obtained at a
spacing of 1.2mx1.2m. The combination of narrow spacing (1.2mx1.2m) and 15th June
planting, recorded highest yield of 107.7 t/ha (Natesh Beena, et. al. 1993). However, as a
general rule, an ‘in row’ plant spacing of less than 1.5 m is not recommended for any density
scenario, since the emerging bunch on one plant may clash with the emerging bunch
and/or the selected sucker on the neighbouring plant (Robinson. 1996).
Planting two suckers per hill at 2mx2m spacing (5000 pl./ha) with higher doses of
nutrients, i.e., 360:250:500g NPK recorded highest bunch weight and economic yield than
three suckers per hill with conventional planting and lower dosage of nutrients in Robusta
 37

grown under sandy clay loam soils of Chikmagalur in Karnataka (Thippesha et al., 2007).
Observations on incidence of leaf spot indicated that 3 suckers/hill recorded least incidence
(Selvarajan et al, 2001). However, maximum nematode population was recorded in
planting three suckers per hill and was least in the paired row system (Anon., 2001). Final
decision on the most suitable optimum planting density will rely not only on marketable
yield but also on profit margin and convenience of the planting system adopted.
For hot, dry areas receiving higher heat units/heat stress, high density of > 3000 plants/ha
is recommended whereas, for mild subtropics with cold winter, comparatively low density
with < 2000 plants/ha is advisable. In plantations with short life-spans of 1 or 2 cycles, much
higher optimum density is recommended, whereas for longer life-span plantations (five or
more ratoons), lesser density would be ideal (Mustaffa and Kumar, 2012).
The yield increased with increasing density from 1120 to 3360 and for fresh consumption,
a density < 2500/ha is recommended In South Africa, light transmission through the
canopy was found to be 14% under 2222pl/ha and 30% under 1000 plants/ha and a LAI of 6.3
was attained at 2222 plants/ha (Robinson and Nel, 1985 a). In ‘Williams’ banana, yield in
higher densities (1666 plants/ha) were distinctly higher (51.0 to 56.4 t/ha/year) than in the
lower density (1250 pl/ha), i.e., 39.1 to 48.9 t/ha/year in Burgershall and Levubu stations of
S. Africa (Robinson et al, 1985b).
In Brazil, among densities ranging from 625 to 2500 plants/ha, the best results were
recorded in 2500 plants/ha (37t/ha) (Lichtemberg et al, 1986). Closer spacing of 1.5m
between plants made it difficult to select the next sucker (Daniels et al, 1987). At Amiad and
Ginosar, Israel, a rectangular 3 x 2.8m layout was used and 2, 3 or 4 plants planted per hole
(2381, 3571 and 4091/ha). Average bunch weight decreased from 35-36kg to 27.5kg, and total
yield increased from 80-82t to 112t/ha. Time between flowering and harvest was distinctly
longer the higher densities (with extremes of 120 and 160 days) because of a lag of about 4
leaves under high density (Israeli and Nameri, 1988).
At San Carlos, Brazil, first and second harvests were best at high densities (hexagonal
planting, 1,720 plants/ha) or double-rows (1704 plants/ha) compared to the traditional
density (1,111 plants/ha). The hexagonal, monoculture system was most productive in the
third cycle. In Colombia, under HDP of accommodating 3332 to 5000 plants/ha, flowering
was delayed by 3 to 5 months, but was compensated by higher yields. Yield from high-
density plot in double rows (2,587 plants ha 1) was 1035 boxes/ ha against 680 boxes from a
triangular plan (1,600 plants/ha). In South Africa, ‘Williams’ banana was grown under
densities of 1000, 1250, 1666 and 2222 plants/ha for 5 successive cycles. The yield was
significantly higher in 2222/ha in all the cycles. However, spread of the harvest increased
with density, indicating a strong competition. Density of 1666/ha was finally
recommended for reasons of cost (inputs), income, less spread of harvest and ease of
operation (Robinson and Nel, 1989b, 1989 c).
Under South African conditions, based on plant vigour, optimum density per hectare
for ‘Williams’ was between 2005 and 2339; for ‘Valery’, ‘Grand Naine Central America’ and
‘Grand Naine Israel’, it was between 2339 and 2618; and for the smaller ‘Dwarf Cavendish’
plants, it was 2618 plants/ha. The in- vitro plants of ‘Grande Naine’ planted at 5.0m x 2.5m
spacing with three plants per hole (2,400 plants/ha), twelve months later a new planting
was inserted between the existing plants. The first crop took 14 months and the second 12
months to mature. Annual yields of 73.1 t/ha and 77.7 t/ha, with more than 90% of fruits
qualifying as ‘Extra’ (Cabrera et al, 1997).
 38

However, it is vitally important that the appropriate planting density be chosen, first,
because it is one of the major determinants of annual yield per hectare, and, secondly, once
the density is initially chosen, it cannot easily be adjusted at a later stage. Therefore, for the
highest possible yields of good quality fruit, there is an optimum plant density which
should be maintained for the life of the plantation. This optimum varies according to each
particular locality, cultivar, soil type and management level. These factors in turn
influence the more specific determinants of density choice which are: (i) prevailing
climate; (ii) level of plantation vigour; and (iii) expected plantation longevity
(Robinson,1996). The optimum density can therefore be defined as ‘the density at which
cumulative gross margin per hectare per annum is maximized over the entire plantation
life’. Plantation vigour is another factor strongly influencing density choice.

Table 6. Plant spacings and densities in subtropical Australia

Variety Spacing Spacing Plants / ha
between between rows
plants (m) (m)
Cavendish 1.8 - 2.1 3 - 3.5 1361 - 1852
Ladyfinger 3 - 4 3.2 – 4 625 - 1041
Goldfinger 2.5 - 3 3 1111 - 1333
Source: Schelfhout, (2014).

Canopy characteristics such as leaf area index (LAI) and transmission of

photosynthetically-active radiation (PAR) can be used to correlate with optimum density.
Stover (1984) quotes LAI values in Honduras of 6.1 for vigorous 'Valery' banana at 1900
plants/ha and 4.5 for mediocre 'Valery' at 2100 plants/ha. Transmission of PAR to ground
level was 2 and 13%, respectively.
Turner (1984) states that there is little point in increasing density to a peak LAI of greater
than 4.5 in New South Wales. Thus, one would tend to conclude that in plantations of
different vigour, densities should simply be adjusted to attain the optimal LAI. However,
the vigour potential of the plantation is critically important here. With very vigorous
'Williams' banana in South Africa, the peak LAI (at flowering) for maximum gross margin
per hectare was 5.0, and this occurred at 1666 plants/ha (Robinson and Nel, 1989b).
However, in a Williams plantation of mediocre vigour, a high density of 3333 plants/ha was
required to increase LAI to 5.0 and at this density, yield and especially gross margin were
severely suppressed (Robinson and Nel, 1989b). Maximum gross margin was achieved at
1333 plants/ha at which density LAI was only 2.5. Thus, it is not possible to compensate for
lack of vigour in a weak plantation, by simply increasing density to achieve a higher LAI.
At the high density required for this, individual plants and bunches become retarded and
undersized.
In respect of plantation life, it can be clearly demonstrated that a short life of one or two
cycles will permit a much higher optimum density than a plantation which continues for
five or more ratoon cycles (Robinson and Nel, 1989b). In general, spacing too closely has a
greater number of disadvantages than spacing too widely. These are:
1. Yield/annum becomes progressively lower as the plantation ages.
2. Harvest spread widens very quickly thus crop timing potential IS rapidly lost.
 39

3. As density increases, input costs per hectare rise due to increased use of props, bunch
covers, fertilizers, nematicides and labour. Gross margin analysis has to take this into
account.
4. There is a scarcity of healthy follower suckers at high density as the plantation ages. As
a result, spatial arrangement can degenerate from a systematic to a random situation in
which both accessibility and physiological efficiency are lost.
5. Reduced plantation accessibility causes greater management problems.
There is generally close agreement in literature from the tropics, that yield per hectare of
ratoon bananas is increased at higher plant densities but that individual components of
yield such as bunch mass, hands per bunch, finger mass and finger length are reduced
(Azouz et al., 1971; Venero and Marquez, 1979; Chundawat et al., 1983; Chattopadhyay et al.,
1985; Venero, 1985). Similar relationships were also found in the semi-tropics by Daniells et
al. (1985, 1987a), and more recently in the cooler subtropics by Robinson and Nel (1989a, b).
In the plant crop, yield and cycle time at high density are clearly not representative of the
plantation response to high density as expressed in ratoon cycles. Much of the
experimental work on banana densities is thus of limited value since only the plant crop
was analysed (Azouz et al., 1971; Echeverri-Lopez and Garcia-Reyes, 1981; Mustaffa, 1983;
Venero, 1985). When the plant crop alone is considered, or specifically in the case of single
cycle plantations, a very much higher density can be used before marketable yields are
maximized. Thus, Israeli and Nameri (1988) achieved 113 t/ha gross yield of 'Williams' when
grown from tissue culture at 4090 plants/ha for one cycle. Fruit quality was similar to that
at conventional ratoon densities. However, when 'Williams' yields were annualized and
cumulated over several ratoon cycles, much lower densities were found to be optimal such
as 2100 plants/ha in North Queensland (Daniells et at., 1985; 1987a) and 1666 plants/ha in
Burgershall, South Africa (Robinson and Nel, 1989b).
The importance of quoting banana yields on an annual basis in density comparisons is
evident when comparing productivity in tropical and subtropical regions. Robinson and
Nel (1989b) determined that first ratoon gross yield/annum of 'Williams' at 1666 plants/ha
in the subtropics was 79t/ha/annum (bunch mass 47kg; cycle duration 12.1 months). In the
tropics, first ratoon yield/annum of AAA 'Robusta' at 1570 plants/ha was 87 t/ha/annum
(bunch mass 31 kg; cycle duration 6.7 months) (Holder and Gumbs, 1983b). In this case, a
short cycle duration more than compensated for the smaller bunches. Basrai (AAA) banana
produced highest yield at 4444 plants/ha under subtropical north Bihar conditions (Ray et.
al. 2001).
Harvest distribution is important when manipulating fruit supplies to coincide with
seasonal market shortages in the subtropics (Robinson and Nel, 1986). In Queensland,
Daniells et at. (1987a) reported an increased plant to plant variability at high density,
resulting in an uncontrolled spread of harvest. Similarly, in South Africa, Robinson and
Nel (1989b) found that harvest timing could be effective up to the second ratoon at 1000
plants/ha, up to the first ratoon at 1666 plants/ha and only with the plant Harvest
distribution is important when manipulating fruit supplies to coincide with seasonal
market shortages in the subtropics (Robinson and Nel, 1986). In Queensland, Daniells et at.
(1987a) reported an increased plant to plant variability at high density, resulting in an
uncontrolled spread of harvest. Similarly in South Africa, Robinson and Nel (1989a) found
that harvest timing could be effective up to the second ratoon at 1000 plants/ha, and up to
the first ratoon at 1666 plants/ha.
 40

Planting densities from 1000 to 3000 plants/ha are used in triangle, rectangle, single- or
double-row cropping patterns. Double rows combine higher density with a 3.5 m alley for
access. The actual density depends upon cultivar and climate. Higher densities are used in
hot, dry localities to generate the necessary shade and microclimate for maximum yields.
The vigour of a plantation is related to the canopy characteristics, leaf area index and yield.
If only one growth cycle is to be used, a higher density may be planted (3000 plants/ha), for
three or more growth cycles; a lower density is recommended (2000 plants/ha) for highest
gross margin. Export bananas are usually planted in equilateral triangles or in double rows;
in a few cases a square arrangement that is 2.4 m × 2.4 m is used.
The equilateral triangle (hexagonal) system allows for a better use of space; normally the
sides of the triangle are 2.5 or 2.7 m, resulting in 1800–2000 plants/ha. In the double-row
system, two closely planted rows are separated by a wider space from the next double row.
The double rows are 1 m apart; the plants are at 2.25 m in the row and 3.75 m is left between
the double rows, giving a total of 1840 plants/ha. This system allows for the movement of
small equipment in the field and makes harvest easier by allowing a cable system to be set
up parallel to the double-planted rows, from which the bunches are hung with strings to
avoid the pseudostems from falling over because of the fruit weight and damaging the
bunch. Orientation of double rows N to S or E to W does not significantly affect yield
(Belalcazar, et. al. 1994). More important is to orient rows to avoid erosion in fields planted
on a slope and wind damage from the prevailing winds.

10.4 High-density plantings

In recent years, especially with plantains, a system using high-density planting and a single
harvest developed in Colombia (Belalcazar, et. al.1994) is now being used in Central
America. The field is prepared and planted in double or single rows in a rectangular
arrangement, with 3333 to around 4000 plants/ha. To achieve 3333 plants in the double-row
system, there would be 1.2 m between the twin rows and 1.5 m in rows, with 2.8 m between
the double rows. In single-row arrangement, the plants are 1.50 m in row and 2.0 m between
rows. For 4000 plants/ha, the distances between double rows and single rows are reduced.
When 50–60% of the plants are harvested, the new planting can be started with corms or
plants in bags planted into the space between the double or single rows; once harvest has
finished the old plant stumps are eliminated.

The big advantage of this, aside from higher yields, is that harvest time can be decided
in advance, to avoid harvesting and marketing fruit when market prices are depressed
because of oversupply. Additionally, since plants become more susceptible to Sigatoka
after flowering, a high-density planting system limits disease incidence in the first part of
the cycle and reduces the need to spray for disease control. The system is more appropriate
for plantains, which normally do not last as long planted in the field as export bananas, and
are normally replanted after two or three harvest cycles. If a fixed harvest season is
important, the new planting can be done in a different field if the original field is not ready
for replanting. The system has also been successfully implemented for dessert bananas.
 41

11. Plant Nutrition

Bananas are a high yielding and rapidly growing crop requiring large amounts of fertiliser
to maintain productivity. It is estimated that a crop of fifty two tonnes in one hectare
removes 320 : 32 : 925 kg N : P2O5 : K2O every year (Lahav and Turner, 1983). Uptake of
nutrients was higher in sucker grown banana plants compared to tissue culture plants due
to greater accumulation of dry matter by the former. The nutrients uptake studies in
banana reveal that a crop giving 40–60 t/ha yield removes nitrogen 250–300 kg, phosphorus
25–40 kg and potassium 800–1000 kg (Lahav and Turner, 1983; Martin-Prevel, 1987).
This clearly indicates that the potash and nitrogen requirement of banana is much
higher as compared to phosphorus. Nitrogen deficiency causes slow growth, pale leaves,
reduced leaf area, thin roots and reduction in the sucker production. Phosphorus
deficiency leads to poor root development, rotting of corm, poor growth and bad colour of
leaves. Potassium stimulates early shooting, increased number of hands, finger size and
improves quality and shelf life. It also imparts tolerance to diseases and reduces water
uptake. Deficiency of potassium leads to improper bunch filling. Low calcium levels are
thought to be associated with maturity bronzing of fruit and other physiological disorders.
Calcium and boron deficiencies are often associated with very dry or very wet seasonal
conditions.
Demand for nutrients increases in the plant crop as the plants approach bunching, and
the ratoon following) crop suckers are being set. Excess suckers are removed to reduce
interplant competition. After bunch harvest, cut off pseudostems at a height of 1.5 m to 2
m, retaining the old pseudo-stems to provide nutrients to the ratoon suckers. If lack of
water is the major limitation to growth, then growth cannot be improved by the addition
of more fertiliser. Since there is minimal growth during winter months in subtropics, there
is little response to nitrogen and potassium fertiliser applied during this period.
Fertiliser needs should be determined by using soil and leaf analyses, which is done once
a year. This allows to determine how effective the fertiliser application program has been
and what changes might be necessary for a particular plantation. For shoot analysis, the
petioles of third opened leaves from apex are taken at the bud differentiation stage. Banana
leaf samples are normally taken just before or following floral emergence and when all the
female hands are visible (Martin-Prevel, 1977, 1987). Most often, lamina of the third leaf is
sampled for tissue analysis. However, samples of central vein of the third leaf and petiole
of the seventh leaf are also used (Mustaffa and Kumar, 2012). Ramaswamy and
Muthukrishnana (1974) reported a level of 3.3 % N to be optimum in Robusta banana.
Arunachalam et al (1976) showed that adequate levels of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in banana leaf
ranged from 3.18-3.43, 0.46-0.54, 3.36-3.76, 2.3-2.4 and 0.25-0.28 % respectively. Ram and
Prasad (1988) observed an increasing trend in content of nitrogen up to flowering in
banana. According to Ray et al (1988), leaf content of 2.8:0.52:3.8% NPK at shooting was a
good indicator for satisfactory productivity in Robusta banana. Soil samples are drawn for
analyses after 6 - 8 weeks of fertilizer application in a standing plantation.
Nitrogen, which is readily leached from the soil, is applied in 6 – 8 splits or more if
fertigated. Where irrigation is available, fertigation can be the most efficient way of
applying many nutrients. Do not apply too much water during fertigation since nutrients
can be washed down the soil profile and out of the root zone, making them unavailable to
the plant. Potassium is applied three times a year, unless mixed with nitrogen or in
 42

fertigation, when more frequent applications can easily be made. Phosphorus, calcium
(lime), and magnesium need only be applied once a year as per plant’s requirement. The
preferred forms of nitrogen fertiliser are calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate or potassium
nitrate. It is essential to irrigate after application of urea because it can volatilise into the
atmosphere in hot dry weather. In case of furrow planting, broadcast fertiliser evenly over
the entire inter-row area.
The nutrient requirement of banana in calcareous soil of Bihar was met with application
of 10 kg farmyard manure, 200–250 g nitrogen, 60–70 g phosphorus and 300 - 400 g potash
per plant per year (Ray et. al.,1993). Full dose of phosphorus and potash is applied at the
time of planting, while nitrogen is applied in three equal split doses. Nutrients should be
placed 60–75 cm away from the pseudostem in shallow basins made around the plant.
Application of nutrients should be completed before 6 months after planting suckers in
order to harness higher yield and quality fruits. Zinc sulphate 0.5%, ferrous sulphate 0.2%,
copper sulphate 0.2% and boric acid 0.1% sprayed in combination at 3, 5 and 7 months after
planting helps in increasing yield and quality of banana. However, soil nutrient status
particularly with respect to level of micronutrients should be done before applying these
fertilizers. Use of biofertilizers has been warranted considering the soil health and
sustainable production. Azospirillum and phosporus solublizing bacteria (PSB) 25 g each
per plant at the time of planting is recommended for increasing production along with
organic sources, i.e., 10 kg farmyard manure or 5 kg vermicompost at the time of planting.

11.1 Integrated nutrient management (INM)

Continuous use of chemical fertilizers in banana fields affects soil health, thereby reducing
organic matter content and beneficial soil microorganisms. Considering the present
concerns on soil health and environmental security, there is a need to opt for integrated
nutrient management involving sources of organic manures, organic cakes and bio-
fertilizers, including mycorrhizae, besides chemical fertilizers. Hence, an integrated
nutrient management (INM) system needs to be followed with the aim to achieve efficient
use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with organic manures. In INM, a combined
application of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients, maintains plant nutrients in soil
and improves nutrient-use efficiency, which is essential for sustainable higher
productivity. Organic matter acts as a source and a sink for plant nutrients besides
providing an energy substrate for soil micro-organisms. Thus, it enhances activity of soil
flora and fauna, as well as the intrinsic soil properties, soil nutrient capital and water-
holding capacity.
If organic manures like Compost or FYM is not available in sufficient quantity, the gap in
application must be met with green manuring or use of vermicompost, bio-fertilizers and
other commercial organic formulations. Bhalerao et. Al. (2009) observed that combined
application of 100 % recommended dose of NPK along with 10kg FYM per plant and
Azospirillum and Phosphate solubilizing bacteria 25g per plant increased pseudostem
height, girth took, minimum days to flower and crop duration, and yield attributes.
Similar trend was reported by Mustaffa et. al. (2004); Hazarika and Ansari (2010); and
Badgujar et al (2010) in banana. In recent times, much attention has been given to
integrated use of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers for sustainability in terms of
crop productivity and soil fertility.
 43

Combined application of nitrogen (300g), potassium (200g), Karanj cake (1000g) and
Planofix (150 ppm) significantly improved the quality parameters such as TSS, acidity,
sugars, and sugar: acid ratio and ascorbic acid (Singh et al, 2000). Naby and Sonbaty (2005)
found that application of FYM with mineral NPK gave highest fruit chemical properties
(TSS and total sugar) in banana. Balakrishnan et al (2006) reported that application of 75
%RDF + 25 %RDF through vermicompost increased pulp weight, peel weight, and lowered
pulp:peel ratio in cv. Poovan. Application of 50 %banana compost + 50 % mineral fertilizers
enhanced fruit quality in terms of increased total soluble solids, total sugars, lower starch
and total acidity (Eman et al, 2008). Thangaselvabai et al (2009) recommended application
of Azospirillum along with NPK in two splits for increasing fruit quality in cv. Rasthali.
Application of vermicompost and castor cake each @ 3kg per plant produced superior
quality fruits and enhanced shelf life in cv. Grand Naine (Patel et al, 2010).

12. Irrigation
Banana, requires a large amount of water as evident from high moisture content of
pseudostem and leaves. It has been estimated that the banana plant is comprised of about
95% water (Robinson,1996). Furthermore, it is a plant with a rapid growth rate, high
consumption of water, shallow and spreading roots distribution, roots with weak
penetration strength into the soil, poor ability to draw water from drying soil, low
resistance to drought, and rapid physiological response to soil water deficit.
These factors indicate that banana is sensitive to even slight variations in soil water
content and that irrigation scheduling is critical. It is estimated that a good crop of banana
requires 25mm/week for satisfactory growth (Purseglove,1988). The total water
requirement of banana plants is about 900- 1200mm for an entire life cycle and this can be
met through both natural precipitation (rainfall) and supplementary irrigation. In the
tropical conditions, banana plantations may consume 900-1800 mm water in the 10
months from planting to harvest (Stover and Simmonds, 1987). This amounts to a
consumptive use of 3.0 - 6.3 mm/day depending on the combination of temperature,
humidity, radiation and wind.
In the banana growing regions, effective rainfall and supplementary irrigation /
irrigation need varies widely. Rainfall distribution is highly variable in India and thus
water requirements of the banana are met with supplementary irrigation in most of the
states. More than 90% of growers make use of supplementary irrigation for good yields and
quality. In Honduras, parts of Ecuador, Colombia and Windward Islands, the total
precipitation range is 1500 - 3500mm distributed over 8 months, a condition that warrants
drainage during monsoon; whereas, there is a need for supplementary irrigation during
dry summer months (Jaramillo, 1984). However, in Costa Rica and Panama, there is a well
distributed rainfall of 2500-4500mm and, thus, no supplementary irrigation is required. In
contrast, in Israel, the entire water need is met through supplementary irrigation (1050-
1500 mm/annum). In Semi-tropics, irrigation of banana plantations during dry months
increased yield by 15-20 % (Daniels, 1984).
In winter, irrigation is provided at an interval of 7–8 days, while in summer, it should be
given at an interval of 3-4 days under warm tropical climate (Mustaffa and Kumar, 2012).
However, during rainy season, irrigation is provided if required, as excess irrigation will
lead to root zone congestion due to removal of air from soil pores, thereby affecting plant
 44

establishment and growth. In all, about 70–75 irrigations are provided to the crop. In
garden lands, furrow and basin system of irrigation is followed.
The water holding capacity of the soil, effective rooting depth of the plant, and the
depletion percentage of total available water allowed before irrigation, determine the
amount of water to apply, while crop coefficient together with the evapotranspiration data
determine the irrigation interval. For banana, replenishment of evaporation losses up to 80
percent was found to be optimal for realising higher yields. With 90 percent evaporation
replenishment (ER) there could be a saving of 25 percent in recommended application of
potassic fertilizers (Ray et. al. 2010b). A rough guide to plant water needs is from 50
l/stool/week at establishment to 200 l/stool/week at bunching. These amounts should be
applied in one or two watering per week.
Flood, furrow or basin irrigation is still practised in some parts of India and some other
banana producing countries but these systems are becoming obsolete as soil levelling is
costly, water distribution is uneven, saturated conditions can be created on heavier soils,
fertilizer distribution is uneven and nematodes are spread in the moving water. The most
common irrigation system for bananas is micro-irrigation. This includes microspinner,
microjet and drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is used very efficiently now for commercial
banana plantations. The main advantage of is that a large area can be irrigated
simultaneously from a single control point with this system. Labour requirement is,
therefore, minimal, uniformity of application is high, a specific root-zone area can be
continuously wetted and any desired cycle time can be chosen. In addition, water loss by
evaporation is low, especially with drip, and soluble fertilizers can be applied easily and
efficiently through the system directly to the root zone.
Drip irrigation has distinct advantages in respect of minimizing water loss and
controlling salinity in dry climates. However, there are certain disadvantages when
compared with micro-spinners. For example, water quality is more important and extra
filtration is required due to the fine pores of the drippers. Drippers wet a smaller volume
of soil and the wetting pattern is in a 'ball' shape which is not related to the natural rooting
pattern of banana. Roots become concentrated in the drip zones which must therefore be
kept constantly moist to avoid water stress. Dripper blockages induce water stress very
rapidly and such blockages are difficult to detect in the field.
Banana under drip irrigation performed better in growth and flowered earlier in
comparison to that under surface irrigation Application of urea through the irrigation
system was more efficient and significantly more yields were obtained with fertigation
than with hand-broadcasting on soil surface (Arscott, 1965, 1970). In Israel, banana
cultivation with very frequent irrigation was seen to be very successful (Lahav and Kalmar,
1981). In Hawaii, drip irrigation doubled the yield as compared to a well-maintained
sprinkler system (Young et al, 1985). Hegde and Srinivas (1989) observed that drip irrigation
is superior to the conventional basin-irrigation in terms of ensuring more vigorous
growth, higher yields, minimal weed growth and highwater use efficiency. In addition to
economy of water use, drip irrigation activates uptake of nutrients. There is a savings of
58% of water and increasing yield by 23–32% under drip as compared to basin system.

12.1 Fertigation
Fertigation is the practice of application of soluble fertilizers with irrigation water,
typically through a drip system or a micro-sprinkler. Water, fertilizer placement, and
 45

application frequency are managed more efficiently compared with the conventional
application method. A well-designed fertigation system can reduce fertilizer application
costs considerably, and supply nutrients in precise and uniform amounts to the wetted
irrigation zone around the plant where the active feeder roots are concentrated. Applying
timely doses of small amounts of nutrients to the plants throughout the growing season
has significant advantages over conventional fertilizer practices. Further, loss of nutrients
through leaching, volatilization, evaporation and loss of phosphorus and potash by
fixation in the soil can be minimised to the greatest extent with application of water
soluble /or liquid fertilizers through drip irrigation.
Banana responds very well to fertigation, and can achieve early flowering with high
production per unit area. Fertigation increases fruit yield by 25–30% besides saving labour
and time and ensuring uniform distribution of the nutrients. At Coimbatore, under the
garden land system, highest bunch weight (26 kg) was recorded under conventional
planting with 50% N and K fertigation and 3 suckers/hill with 100 % (110:330 g/plant) N and
K fertigation. Planting 2 suckers per hill at a spacing of 1.8mx1.8m (6000 plants/ha) with
50% RDF fertigation was found to be highly economical. It gave a maximum total yield
(135.78 t/ha) with high cost–benefit ratio of 3.75. At Thrissur with Nendran (AAB), planting
2 suckers/pit (3086 plants/ha) with 75% fertilizer recorded significantly higher bunch
weight and total yield (31.90t/ha) than the control (20.90t/ha). At Jalgaon, Grand Naine
(AAA) grown under conventional planting recorded earliest flowering (287.7days).
Maximum bunch weight (14.95kg) was recorded in 3suckers/hill with 75% N and K
fertigation. Total yield of 82.8 t/ha was recorded in 2 plants/hill with 75% N and K
fertigation. For export quality fruits (over 20cm length and 12cm girth), 3 suckers/hill under
Paired Row system with 75% N and K fertigation was found superior (Anon., 2008).
Robusta banana grown under sandy-loam conditions of Coimbatore, irrigation @ 25
litre/day and fertigation with 100% RDF of 200:300g N& K recorded the most vigorous plant
growth, earliest flowering and harvest, highest bunch weight (44.53 kg) and yield (111.33
t/ha) under the normal planting system. HDP population of 5000 pl/ha + 40 liters of
water/day + 75% RDF fertigation (450:675g N & K plant-1) recorded yield increase of 209.7%
over conventional planting (Mahalakshmi, 2000). Based on trials conducted at the National
Research Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappalli, in commercial cultivars of banana, a weekly
fertigation schedule has been developed (see Table 7). Application of N, P and K through
fertigation influenced vegetative growth, number of hands and fingers, bunch weight and
fruit yield in banana (Hedge and Srinivas, 1991). Significantly higher plant height and girth
was observed with application of nitrogen and potassium, each at the rate of 200g per plant
(Srinivas, 1996). When fertilizers were applied to soil conventionally under HDP,
increasing plant density and reducing fertilizer dose did not show any complementarities.
There was sharp decline in yield with reduction in RDF at higher (i. e. 4444 or
4629plants/ha) densities (Ray et al. 2010a).
Fertigation gives flexibility in application of fertilizers to meet specific crop
requirements at various stages of growth. Application of N in the form of urea, and K in the
form of Muriate of Potash (MOP) through the system, could be advantageous. MOP may be
dissolved in water and kept overnight to facilitate complete dissolution, while urea can be
dissolved instantly. These fertilizers allowed into the system on either daily or weekly basis
and may be stopped 10-15 days prior to harvest of bunches. Apart from straight fertilizers,
specific formulations of water-soluble fertilizers needed for the banana crop (based on crop
 46

growth stage) can also be used in fertigation. Commercially available fertigation-grade

water soluble fertilizers are found highly effective in banana even in places where quality
of irrigation water is not fully suitable for the drip system.

Table 7: Water requirement in banana at different growth stages

Sl. Crop-growth stage Duratio Quantity of
No. n water (litre
(weeks) /plant)
1 After planting / Ratoon 1-4 4-8
2 Juvenile phase 5-9 8-10
3 Critical growth stage 10-19 12
4 Flower bud differentiation 20-32 16-20
stage
5 Shooting stage 33-37 20 and above
6 Bunch development stage 38-50 20 and above
Source: Mustaffa and Kumar (2012)

Banana under drip irrigation performed better in growth and flowered earlier in
comparison to that under surface irrigation Application of urea through the irrigation
system was more efficient and significantly more yields were obtained with fertigation
than with hand-broadcasting on soil surface (Arscott, 1970). In Israel, banana cultivation
with very frequent irrigation was seen to be very successful (Lahav and Kalmar, 1981). In
Hawaii, drip irrigation doubled the yield as compared to a well-maintained sprinkler
system (Young et al, 1985).
Under drip irrigation, banana plants flowered 15 days earlier and recorded higher yields
with higher finger, hand and bunch weight as compared to basin-irrigation (Hedge and
Srinivas, 1991). Daily or weekly fertigation significantly increased the yield compared to
monthly fertigation, but no advantage was seen with daily over weekly fertigation on
loamy soils. Banana is a heavy feeder both in respect of nutrients and water. Fertigation
proved successful in commercial banana cultivars like Robusta (Mahalakshmi, 2000),
Nendran (Pandey et al, 2001) and Ney Poovan with fertilizer and water economy and
fertigation can save 20 to 30 % on fertilizer while improving yield and quality compared to
conventional fertilizer application (Srinivas, 1996). Thadchayini and Thiruchelvan (2005)
obtained highest yield (41,000kg ha-1) in the drip system, 31 % higher than in surface
irrigation.

13. Intercultural operations

13.1 Hoeing and Weeding
The purpose of hoeing or light digging the banana field is to remove weeds as they grow
fast when the plants are young and getting established in the field. A period of the first 6
months of growth is most critical for weed growth in plant crop. Regular weeding is
important during the first 6 months. In ratoon crops grown up plants tend to shade out
most weeds. As weeds compete for fertiliser, water and light, harbour pests and rodents
and make it more difficult to detect pests and diseases their removal is required at any
 47

stage, if the weed population exceeds a threshold limit. Normally, three - four hoeings a
year are effective in controlling weeds.
Chemical weed control involves use of herbicides but it is recommended that this should
be combined with mulching and ground covers wherever possible. Pre-emergence
application of diuron 1 kg a.i./ha or glyphosate 2 kg a.i./ha is effective in controlling grasses
and broad-leaved weeds without affecting the yield and quality of the crop. Integrated weed
management by including cover crops, judicious use of herbicides, intercropping and
hand weeding, wherever necessary, will contribute to increased production. Double
cropping of cowpea is equally effective in suppressing the weed growth. Integrated
approach which consisted of growing cowpea in the interrow space and its incorporation
into the soil at flowering stage and one spray of Glyphosate @ 2.0 kg a.i./ha produced the
best results. Spray of Paraquat (Gramaxone) @ l.8 kg a.i./ha gives temporary relief from
weeds.
Mechanical weed control by cultivation or shallow digging / hoeing is generally not
recommended on the steeper slopes because of erosion and root damage. Herbicides are
often applied using either low volume knapsacks, or tractor-drawn pump units fitted with
a handgun or lance. Sprayers using hydraulic nozzles of the flat fan or flood jet type or
controlled droplet applicators (CDA) are also used. The hydraulic nozzles are most suitable
for contact type herbicides while the CDA applicators offer some advantages for systemic
herbicides. It is important to identify the swath of spinning disc type CDA sprayers to avoid
contact with banana suckers and stems, particularly for herbicides such as glyphosate.
Care needs to be taken to ensure correct application rates by calibrating spray jets to
achieve the desired result and to minimise chemical costs. Further, while spraying
weedicides care is required not to get drift on to the plants nor to inhale the spray, as the
chemical will damage both plant and human alike.
13.2 Mulching
Mulching has major implication for conserving soil moisture with ancillary benefits like
suppression of weeds and regulation of plant microclimate. Use of paddy straw, wheat
straw and banana straw as a mulch material (12.5 kg/plant) in banana orchards is cost
effective apart from addition of organic manure to the soil. It is useful in increasing the
bunch weight and conservation of soil moisture. The mulch is applied at the beginning of
summer (February). Plastic mulching is now widely applied in commercial cultivation of
banana in India.
13.3 Intercropping
Intercropping in banana field at early stages of growth. with crops like maize; vegetables
such as radish, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, hot pepper, brinjal and okra, cowpea, and
yam bean; flower crops such as marigold and tuberose; and fruit crops like papaya has been
found to be remunerative in different banana growing areas. It is adopted to check weed
growth, improve soil health and to generate additional income to the farmers. In coastal
regions of Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh, banana is grown in coconut and areca
nut plantations with tall cultivars, as mixed cropping. It is a widely adopted practice in
South India. In Bihar, marginal and small farmers with holdings less than a hectare grow
bananas. They usually grow turmeric and ginger as intercrop to ensure better return from
their plantings. Banana is also grown as a filler plant in the young or newly established
orchard of mango, litchi or guava. Leguminous vegetables, beetroot, elephant foot yam
 48

and sun- hemp can be grown successfully as intercrops. Cucurbitaceous vegetables are not
selected as they creep up to top and start interfering with the plant’s vital physiological
processes.
13.4 Desuckering
During the life cycle, a banana plant produces a number of suckers from the axillary buds
of the underground rhizome. If all these suckers are allowed to grow, they grow at the
expense of main plant vigour and its productivity, and hence, the sucker growth should be
discouraged. Desuckering is the practice of removing unwanted suckers emerging from
the mother plant leaving the sucker that is retained for the next cropping or a ratoon crop.
Proper sucker selection can reduce problems associated with bunches which fill in winter,
helps control the crop cycle and maintain plant densities in a field.
Desuckering is done in several ways. A common method is to cut the suckers off with
a knife or spade at ground level or just below. These cut suckers regrow and are cut again
next round. Regrowth can be stopped by rouging out the centre of the cut surface and
pouring in 2-3ml (half a teaspoon) of kerosene oil. If the sucker is more than 30 cm or, at
peeper stage, this should kill most suckers. Use of 2, 4-D amine diluted 1: 20 (5% a. i.) @ 0.5
ml per chopped sucker is also an effective means to check the sucker growth.
Desuckeration must be done regularly at monthly interval. A gouging tool (a bar or
desuckering shovel) is also used to destroy the sucker or detaching it from the mother
corm.
In case of monocropping, where only single plant crop of banana is taken, usually all
the suckers, which arise by the side of the plant, are removed, as they will compete with
mother plant for nutrients, resulting in reduction of bunch size. Hence, suckers, which are
produced by the plant in excess are removed periodically to ensure better growth and
bunch development of mother plant. In perennial production system, the setting of
followers at proper time will ensure good ratoon crop for a better harvest. The plant may
produce 5 to 10 suckers in one life cycle and, in most management systems, only one is
allowed to develop at a particular age of the mother plant to have a ratoon crop.
13.5 Sucker Selection for Ratooning
One healthy sucker or single follower is selected after 8-10 months of planting or at
flowering stage. It means all suckers are removed until the parent plant is about to bunch,
and then select the next sucker on the uphill side of the parent or along the row. This
method allows you to manipulate the time of harvest to coincide with better prices. In some
areas two suckers are allowed to grow at one time. Stage of selection is such that any mat
will comprise a bearing mother plant, a larger daughter sucker and a small granddaughter
'peeper’. In this way three generations are maintained at one time in a mat. In favourable
climatic, nutritional and soil moisture conditions, up to two bunches per year can be
produced. The sucker to be selected for ratoon crop must be strong and vigorous. Such
suckers should be strongly cone shaped having a broad base and produce narrow sword
shaped leaves until it is more than1 m in hight. The selection of suckers to remain also
depends on the harvest period aimed for.
13.6 Earthing Up
Earthing up is an important practice followed in banana cultivation. It provides support to
the base of the plant and helps to develop good root system and protect the plants from
lodging. Earthing up should be done during rainy season to avoid water logging and
 49

provide good drainage. With good crop management practices tall AAB and ABB cultivars
acquire huge plant stature and are highly prone to lodging in rainy season. For such
cultivars this practice is more relevant.
13.7 Propping
The bearing plants may lodge and uproot due to heavy bunch load. Support or propping is
required to prevent the bunched plant from toppling during wet and/or windy conditions.
The banana plants are traditionally staked with bamboo, Eucalyptus, or Casuarina poles.
Cultivars like Ney Poovan or Chini Champa seldom requires propping and Dwarf
Cavendish occasionally requires propping. Props or ties should be applied as soon as
possible after bunches appear at the top of plants. Plants are either propped using one or
two timber props, or making a resting crotch with bamboo poles.
As the supports are placed against the stems on leaning side of the bunch emergence, it
has a disadvantage of causing bruising injury to the bunch. These are now replaced with
the use of polypropylene strips for supporting the pseudostem. In this method, the strip is
fastened to the neck of bearing plant and the two ends of the strip are tied to the base of
neighbouring plants on the side opposite to the leaned direction. This reduces the cost of
propping as well as the bruising injury to the bunch. If tying, two lengths of baling twine
are tied from the bunch stalk to the base of the two plants. Black or orange polypropylene
twine is used. Twine ties are more common because of cost savings, but can restrict
movement through the plantation. Propping operation is carried out in areas with high
wind speeds. Tall varieties and cultivars, which produce heavy bunches, need propping
during the course of bunch emergence.

13.8 Trash management

Regular, routine removal or de-trashing of dead leaf is done to encourage growth and
vigour of the plant and reduce the incidence of leaf and fruit diseases. Dead leaves harbour
fungal spores which spread leaf spot and speckle and leaf trash reduces the penetration of
sunlight and heat to the corm. This further slows the growth of the sucker, thereby
delaying bunching. Banana trash on the soil surface helps reduce erosion by protection
from raindrop impact and slowing rainwater runoff. It also helps to control weeds and
improves moisture retention. Breakdown of leaf litter improves soil condition and fertility.
Pruning of surplus leaves helps in reducing the disease from spreading through old
leaves. Leaf pruning can change light and temperature factors of microclimate. Pruning of
leaves before bunch initiation delays flowering and harvesting cycle. For obtaining
maximum yield, a minimum of 12 leaves are to be retained (Satyanarayana, 1986; Robinson
et.al. 1992; Turner 1994). Remove only dead leaves and leaves with more than 30% of the leaf
affected by disease. Old leaves that are still green and without disease are still functional
and removal of these leaves, particularly in winter, can stress the plant. Cut the leaf with a
sharp cane knife on a long handle or a reaping hook on a similar handle. Detrash on a
regular basis. A monthly routine is recommended; it is easier to cut leaves that are still alive
and turgid than ones which are completely dead. Care must be taken to avoid cutting into
the pseudostem. Note that unless butt sprays of chemicals are being used for banana weevil
borer control, it is not essential to keep the trash away from the base of the plants, however
where this is done it has the advantage of making egg laying less attractive and more
 50

difficult. Trash is beneficial in improving root health and growth. It also helps in
protecting plants from severe cold during winter in subtropical climate.
13.9 Bunch Covering
Bagging (bunch covering) is a cultural technique used by planters where export quality
bananas are grown. This practice protects bunches against cold, sun scorching, attack of
thrips and scarring beetles. It also improves certain visual qualities of the fruits. Bunch
covering can be practiced with dry leaves, gunny bags or polyethylene sleeves. It is done
after the emergence of last hands of the bunch. Covering the bunch with dried banana
leaves is practiced in many commercial banana growing countries as a measure to avoid
any damage to the fruits and protect the fruit from insect attack, thereby ensuring better
bunch quality.
Covering bunches with hessian bags protect them against winter-chilling and improve
finger quality. Paper bags have also been used, although to a limited extent. They are not
durable and sturdy and thus no longer in use. In recent years, the practice of covering the
bunch with polythene sleeves during development to protect fruits intended for the export
market has gained momentum. Transparent polyethylene sleeves with 2% ventilation are
used to cover the bunches immediately after opening of the last hand. Bagging is also done
to protect bunches from low temperature effect. Polythene bunch covering advances fruit
maturity by 7-10 days.
Bunch covers are also effective against sunburns and blemishes caused by wind-blown
dust and by birds (Samson, 1980). Chillet and Jannoyar (1996) reported that bagging raised
the temperature around bunches and reduced the shooting-to-harvest interval under cool
subtropical and temperate conditions, as its use changes the microclimate around the
bunch. Bunch covers are thus especially effective in increasing yields of bunches maturing
during winter months. Even in other parts of the year, the net effect of covering bunches
is better quality fruit and increased marketable yield, thereby fetching better returns to the
growers.
13.10 Bunch trimming
Bunch trimming is done to remove smaller fruit from the bottom of the bunch. The
practice helps maximise the production of larger fruit that generally receive higher prices.
Bunch trimming also speeds up the filling of the fruit and is essential in the cooler
subtropical areas where low temperatures restrict the capacity of the plant to fill all fruit
on the bunch adequately during winter. The amount of trimming varies from half of the
last hand of winter emerged bunches trimmed during September/October. Bunches are
best trimmed as soon as the flower bracts lift to reveal the bottom hand.
It is usual practice to leave a couple of fruit on the lowest hand to avoid rotting back of
the bunch stalk. Severe trimming requires a compromise between enhanced fruit size and
lower bunch weight. Bunch trimming can be used to promote quicker filling of fruit and
reduce the incidence of dull fruit, which can be a problem if fruit mature during the cooler
winter months. However, there is yield reduction by 5 % with trimming one hand per
bunch, and by 13-15 % with trimming two hands (Irizarry et al., 1991). These yield declines
occurred without accompanying improvement in fruit grade. Thus, bunch trimming is not
a universally recommended practice as it leads to financial loss (Daniels et al, 1987b).
Bhakthavathsalu and Azak (1977) found that not only was fruit appearance better and
disease infection less with floral removal on 'Robusta', but fruit maturity was advanced by
 51

several days. Removal of the male flower bud or 'bell' is also commonly practised as a
routine operation.

13.11 Debelling (Denavelling)

The part of the inflorescence which consists of male flowers only, is invariably termed in
different parts of the world as 'male bud’, ‘heart’, ‘bell’ or ‘Navel’. This has apparently no
role in the normal bunch formation or development. Therefore, the male bud is pruned off
soon after the completion of female phase or bunch formation, leaving a 10 cm length of
the barren axis. Once the process of fruit setting is over, the inflorescence rachis should be
cut beyond the last hand, otherwise it grows at the cost of fruit development. This helps in
early maturity of the bunch. The removed male buds can be used as vegetable. Bells can be
conveniently removed when bunch trimming is done. Bells of some cultivars produce large
amounts of nectar and attract several insects. It is therefore best to remove them as early as
possible.

13.12 Mattocking: The practice of cutting pseudo-stem partially after harvesting of bunch
is called mattocking. A staggered cutting schedule is followed for removal of pseudo-stem
after harvesting the bunch. The pseudo-stem is not removed in one stroke but cut at three
stages within 3 months of bunch harvesting. The idea of retaining a part of the pseudo-
stem is to supply nutrients contained in the pseudo-stem to the followers.

14. Insect pests

14.1 Banana Weevil
Banana weevil, also known as Pseudostem weevil (Odoiporus longicollis) affects most of
the commercial cultivars of plantain. The grubs or larvae of the insect do the damage. They
bore into the corm below ground to feed. When there are many weevils, tunnels occur
throughout the corm, and into the pseudostem. Exudation of sap is the initial symptom,
and blackened mass comes out from the holes made by the weevil larvae. The presence of
small holes and jelly exudation on the stem indicates the activity of grub inside the stem.
Its feeding makes the pseudostem hollow, and the apical region from this point is broken
down due to gush of wind.
Infestation by the banana weevil begins at the base of the outermost leaf-sheath and in
injured tissues at the lower part of the pseudostem. Initially the young grubs make several
longitudinal tunnels in the surface tissue until they are able to penetrate to adjacent inner
leaf-sheaths; they then bore into the pseudostem base and rhizome/corm, but also into the
base of suckers and into roots. Larval tunnels may run for the entire length of fallen
pseudostems. Infested plants have dull yellow green and floppy foliage. Young infested
suckers often wither and fail to develop. As the infestation progresses, the severely affected
plants break or topple alone with the bunch, and finally, the whole plant dies. The banana
pseudostem weevil attacks the plant during flowering and bunch formation stage and
causes severe yield loss by preventing the bunch development.
To manage the pest, follow clean cultivation, remove and destroy the older and dried
leaves. Use tissue-cultured plants to establish new plantings. If tissue-cultured plants are
not available, use suckers for plantings that are free of the weevil. Examine the planting
material carefully, taking slices from the corms to check for larvae, pupae and tunnels. If
 52

any of these are found, reject the source of planting material. Do not replant weevil-
infested areas while old corms are still in the ground. Remove the old corms and leave
the land fallow for at least 3 months (preferably longer) before replanting. Hot water (54°C
for 20 minutes) treatment done for the control of nematode in corms is also likely to destroy
weevil eggs and grubs. After harvest when plants fall, remove them rapidly and do not
allow them to become weevil breeding sites.
Spray of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), Beauveria bassiana (1x107 CFU/ml) @ 3 ml/l
at 5th, 6th and 7th month after planting + stem trapping (30 cm longitudinal split of banana
pseudostem) swabbed with Beauveria bassiana @ 10 ml/trap (3 ml liquid formulation/l of
water) at 5th month after planting effectively bring down stem weevil infestation and
enhance fruit yield. Also, spray of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora @ 1x109 IJs/l water at 5th,
6th and 7th month after planting reduce the stem weevil infestation.
Collect the adult weevils by using banana pseudostem traps and destroy them. Old
pseudostems can be cut into lengths of 30 cm and split each length, and placed on the
ground near the corm bases with the cut surface downwards. Adult weevils are attracted to
the cut stems or corms for shelter, to feed and to lay eggs. When the eggs hatch the life cycle
cannot continue as the cut pieces dry out and the grubs die from desiccation. The weevils
can be collected by hand and destroyed. The efficiency of the traps depends on their
numbers and frequency of trapping. Swabbing chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5 ml/l at 5th, 6th and
7th months after planting is effective for the management of banana pseudostem weevil.
Apply 3 g carbofuran granules per stool or spray with quinalphos 0.05%. Injecting
monocrotophos 2 ml /plant in opposite direction, one at 60 cm height and the other at 120
cm above ground level at 30° angle on either side of the plant works well if the infestation
is noticed after 7 months of planting. Do not use insecticides from the same group for more
than one year. Examples of those chemicals registered include chlorpyrifos, fipronil,
bifenthrin and imidacloprid. An aggregation pheromone (sordidin) that attracts both
sexes is available and used for monitoring (4 traps/ha) and mass trapping (20 traps/ha).
In Cuba, the fungus Beauveria bassiana is reported to be effective against the banana
weevil in combination with ants (CABI, 2000). Some nematodes, (Steinermaand
Heterorhabditis spp.) attack both adults and grubs in the field, but economic cost and their
efficacy limit their use on a large scale (Gold and Messiaen, 2000). Applications of neem
powder effectively controlled weevils and nematodes in on-farm trials and in farmer's
fields in Kenya. Application of 60 to 100 g of neem seed powder or neem cake at planting
and then at 4 months intervals significantly diminished pest damage and increased yields.
Application of over 100 g or neem oil was phytotoxic (harmful to plants) and uneconomical.
14.2 Rhizome Weevil
Adult of Rhizome weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) is a hard-shelled beetle, which is
almost black in colour and is commonly found between leaf sheaths. The insect is 9 to 16
mm long and 4 mm wide. It moves freely in the soil at the feet of banana plants or in plant
debris. Adult is nocturnal and very sensitive to drying. The pest is spread mainly via
infested plant material. The adults do no damage. The grubs or larvae of the insect do the
damage. They are creamy-white legless grubs with red-brown head. The larvae bore in the
corm, reducing nutrient uptake and weakening the stability of the plant. Attack in newly
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planted banana stands can lead to crop failure. In established fields, weevil damage can
result in reduced bunch weights, mat die-out and shortened stand life. Damage and yield
losses tend to increase with time. In advanced stage of infestation, plant shows tapering of
stem at crown region, reduction in leaf size, poor bunch formation and choked throat
appearance due to grub damage in corms (Gold and Messiaen, 2000). Plant growth is
reduced and fruit production decreased. Tunnels may be visible in corm as rounded holes
up to 8 mm in diameter. Wilting of plants occurs followed by destruction of root system,
and ultimately, death of the plant occurs.
Most commonly, weevils are monitored by trapping adults, mark and recapture
methods and damage assessment to harvested or dead plants. Clean cultivation is of
paramount importance. So, start the cultivation with uninfected healthy sucker or
rhizomes. Before planting clean and trim the selected suckers and treat with hot water to
kill eggs and grubs. Wash the suckers properly and dip in 0.25% solution of chlorpyriphos
20 EC before planting. Dip the suckers in 0.2% monocrotophos for 30 minutes to protect
the rhizomes from weevil attack. Avoid mattocking in weevil endemic area. Use
longitudinal cut stem trap of 30 cm size @ 25–45/ha and also place longitudinal split banana
traps 100/ha with biocontrol agents like Beauveria bassiana or Heterorhabditis indica 20
g/trap.
IPM options for banana weevils include habitat management (cultural controls),
biological control, host plant resistance, botanicals, and (in some cases) chemical control.
The most important cultural controls are clean planting material in new stands, crop
sanitation (especially destruction of residues), agronomic methods to improve plant
vigour and tolerance to weevil attack and possibly, trapping. Use of Neem cake is effective
in minimising spread of the insect (Musabyimana, 1999; Musabyimana et.al. 2001). Tissue
culture plantlets, where available, assure the farmer with weevil-free material. Suckers
may be cleaned by paring, hot water treatment and/or the applications of
entomopathogens, neem, or pesticides. Trapping of adult weevils with pseudostem or
corm traps can reduce weevil populations, but material and labour requirements may be
beyond the resources of many farmers. The use of enhanced trapping with pheromones
and kairomones is currently under study. A combination of clean planting material,
sanitation, and trapping is likely to provide at least partial control of banana weevil.
14.3 Aphid
This pest is particularly important, as it is the vector of virus causing bunchy top disease.
Banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) is soft-bodied and red-brown to almost black in
colour. Colonies of aphids are usually found in the crown region at the base of pseudostem
or between the outer leaf sheaths. Colonies are often inclined by ants and their populations
can build rapidly during warm weather. Plants become deformed with curling of leaves. In
severe cases, galls may be formed on the leaves. Follow clean cultivation of plantain as a
preventive step. Use of healthy planting material like tissue culture plants. Follow crop
rotation and avoid ratoon cropping. Collect and destroy the plants infected with bunchy
top to prevent its spreading. Apply 10 g carbofuran 3 G in the leaf axils after 75 and 165 days
of planting. Spray the plants with dimethoade 0.03% or oxydemeton-methyl 25 EC 0.05%
at first sign of attack.
14.4 Thrips
Recently, different species of banana thrips were causing damage in banana plantations,
resulting in economic loss in terms of quality. Among them, leaf thrips, Helionothrips
 54

kadaliphilus infests on the lower side of banana leaves, while flower and fruit thrips, Thrips
hawaiiensis and red rust thrips, Chaetanophothrips signipennis affect the cosmetic value
of the fruits. There is no loss in productivity of banana due to thrips complex infestation,
but the fruit quality deteriorates, leading to lower market rate grades. Also, another thirps,
Asprothrips navsariensis (Thripidae: Dendrothripinae) causes damage to leaves.
Thrips damage the plantain plants by oviposition on young fruits, which causes brown
freekling at maturity, and in severe cases, the skin becomes rough. The leaves become
yellow and fruits appear rusty. In severe cases, the skin develops longitudinal cracks, and
sometimes, the fruit may split. The taste and texture of the fruit within peels remain
unaffected but the external appearance of affected fruits reduces their marketability.
Providing protection by covering the whole bunch length wise but checking the fruits
regularly under the bunch cover helps to ensure that there is no damage. Introduce
ladybird beetles and predacious mites to control nymph and adult thrips and ants to prey
on pupae in the soil.
Use Paecilomyces spp. and Verticillium lecanii fungi to infect the thrips as well. Remove
the flower bud once all the hands are opened. Apply liquid formulation of Beauveria
bassiana @ 10 ml /l of water to kill the pupating thrips in the soil. Bud injection with
azadirachtin (5 ml/l water) @ 2 ml/bud or imidacloprid (0.6 ml/l water) @ 1 ml solution/bud
at the emergence of banana flower reduce the damage of rust thrips and improve cosmetic
value of marketable fruits.
14.5 Scarring Beetle
Leaf and fruit scarring beetle (Basilepta subcostata Jacoby) is reported to inflict
damage to banana leaves and fruits in different locations. The adult beetles feed on various
weeds, as well as the young unfurled leaves of banana trees. They also eat on the young
fruit, making scars and spots on the skin that deforms it and makes it unmarketable. The
insect lives in heart of the pseudostem within the roll of central leaf. Occurrence of this
pest is usually more during the rainy season. In case of severe scarring of the fruit skin, the
infested fruits fetch very low prices in the market. Occurrence of this pest is very common
in eastern states like Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.
Management practices include clean cultivation, spraying of bio-pesticide, chemical
insecticide and covering banana bunches with polythene bag at the time of flowering of
banana. However, integrated management of the pest is a better option. Remove grassy
weeds from the field margins and follow clean cultivation by removing grasses and weeds
from the orchard. The soil application of Beauveria bassiana (1×107 cfu/ml - 3 ml/l of water)
(IIHR) @ 200 ml/plant + bunch spraying with application of acephate 75 SP (0.1125%) @ 1.5
g/lit of water just after first hand opening, followed by bunch cover with polypropylene bag
reduce the banana scarring beetle population and fruit injury and ultimately improve the
quality of fruits and marketable yield.
14.6 Leaf Eating Caterpillar and Hairy Caterpillar
Larvae of leaf eating caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) and hairy Caterpillar (Pericallia
ricini) feeds on new emerging and unfurled leaves and also on lower surface and devitalize
it. Caterpillars remain hidden inside the leaf whorls and after emergence of leaf, the
symptoms of larval feeding can be seen on the infested leaves in the form of series of large
holes in line. The adult moth lays eggs in masses on the lower surface of leaves and newly
emerged caterpillars feeds vigorously on the lower surface of leaf and the affected portion
 55

turns rough and appears reddish brown. It is minor and sporadic pests and management
practices can be followed only in moderate to severe damage. Otherwise, at initial period
of infestation, collection and destruction of egg masses and caterpillar reduced the
population. Also, field sanitization and removal of alternate host weeds and installation of
pheromone traps minimized the chances of incidence.

14.7 Skipper Butterfly (Leaf Roller)

Skipper Butterfly (Leaf Roller), Erionota torus, was firstly cited at Thatterkadu Bird
Sanctuary, Ernakulum dist. (Kerala) during June, 2013. Later 2014 onwards, reported in
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Larvae damage fully opened banana leaves by
cutting leaf lamina inwards along the leaf margin and rolling the cut portions of the leaf in
the form of a big cigar shape. Leaf rolls observed to hang along the leaf margin on the
damage plants. The whole leaf lamina is cut into many rolls leaving behind skeletonized
leaf or only the midrib of the leaf with numerous leaf rolls observed under severe damage,
which reduce banana productivity due to delayed fruit maturity and reduced bunch size.
Monitoring the incidence at early crop vegetative stage is necessary to avoid spread as well
as remove alternate and collateral hosts. Follow crop rotation to break pest carry over cycle.
Foliar application of Bt @ 3 ml/lit (1x108 cfu/g) or chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.3 ml/lit at
the onset of monsoon reduce the pest population.

15. Nematodes
Numerous nematode species parasitise banana roots and corms. They are now recognized
as an important soil-borne pathogen causing decline in banana yield. The affected plants
do not respond to fertilizer, irrigation or cultural practices. A total of 71 species of
nematode belonging to 33 genera have been reported to infest banana, of which, only six
species are pathogenic. The most destructive is burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis)
followed by lesion nematode (Pratylenchus coffeae). The other nematode parasites of
banana are spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus multicinctus), root-knot nematode
(Meloidogyne incognita), cyst nematode (Heterodera oryzicola) and reniform nematode
(Rotylenchulus reniformis). Pratylenchus coffeae is also present in the hottest zones. The
nematodes have proved to be a limiting factor in banana production in many countries.
Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus spp . are migratory endoparasites whose full
biological cycle lasts for 20-25 days in root and corm tissues. Juvenile forms and females
are always mobile and can leave the roots when conditions are no longer favourable. These
migratory forms can then colonise other roots. As they move within and between cells,
these nematodes feed on parenchyma cell cortical cytoplasm, destroying cell walls and
creating tunnels that become necrotic and can extend to the whole of the cortex. Root and
corm necrosis may be aggravated by other pathogens (fungi and bacteria). In particular,
fungi of the genus Cylindrocladium are pathogenic and can cause lesions similar to those
made by nematodes. The combination of the two pests may cause very serious damage
under certain conditions.
Nematodes by themselves can only move about 1 meter per year. But unintentional
movement may occur in planting materials, on equipment, through irrigation water, etc.
Once introduced, eradication of R. similis from the soil is virtually impossible and
populations will build up more or less rapidly after planting. Therefore, prevention of
infestation and spread should be a priority. Tissue-cultured plantlets are the only planting
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material source guaranteed to be absolutely free of nematodes and should be the only
method allowed for the introduction of banana plant material into virgin land. If tissue-
cultured materials are difficult to obtain, planting materials from clean nursery blocks can
be used.
Paring or treaming of corms followed by hot-water treatments (52-55°C for 15-20
minutes) has been a common and effective practice, but it is labour intensive and requires
careful monitoring of temperature and exposure time as these are is critical to be efficient
and to limit the negative effects on the plants. Planting material disinfestation using
chemicals can also be achieved by dipping plant material in a nematicide solution, e.g. cold
fenamiphos (100 ml of Nemacur® 400 in 100 l of water) for 10 minutes. Thoroughly clean
and trim all planting material for optimal adherence of the nematicide.
“Pralinage” technique i. e. the use of a nematicidal mud mixture which permits
instantaneous coating of the plant. It is recommended to use either bentonite (15 kg in 100
l of water + 400-500 g of active ingredient) or a natural clay (proportion of clay to be mixed
with water must be adapted). This method has the advantage that the treated material can
be removed immediately from the dip and there is much less splashing of dangerous
chemicals.
Application of amendments (mulching, manure, agricultural wastes) or any other
measures that improve soil fertility and root development may increase plant tolerance to
nematodes and minimizing damage. Adding of organic materials also improves the
microbial activity and thus acts as a natural biological control. Improved drainage is also
an important factor in reducing nematode damage in high-rainfall regions. Control
methods involving the application of chemicals (mainly organophosphorus compounds
and carbamates) that carry substantial sanitary and environmental risks are still used in
intensive plantations. For this reason, in spite of their efficacy and very easy application,
their use will be increasingly limited in favour of alternative control measures. These
include cultural practices improving soil fertility (tillage, crop rotation with paddy,
irrigation, organic ameliorators, etc.) that indirectly improve plant tolerance to pest
pressure. Grow marigold (Tagetes spp.) as an intercrop cum trap crop in banana field to
reduce population of root lesion nematode and to increase yield. Growing sunhemp or
chrysanthemum 45 days after banana planting and incorporating into the soil 1 month later
also helps in checking the population. Applying neem or Pongamia cake 300 g per pit +
carbofuran granules 20 g per pit at the time of planting along with the bioagent vesicular-
arbuscular (VA) mycorrhiza Glomus fasciculatum 50 g culture and bacterium Pasteuria
penetrans 100 g culture per pit has been found very effective in managing the nematodes.
Two widely confirmed sources of resistance to R. similis are Pisang Jari Buaya and
Yangambi Km 5 (AAA). The resistance of Pisang Jari Buaya has been incorporated into the
parental lines used in the breeding of improved hybrids and is the source of resistance
found in FHIA-01. Other possible sources of resistance or lower susceptibility include
Pisang Batuau (AA), PisangOli (AA), Pisang Mas (Sucrier, AA), PisangLidi (PisangLilin,
AA), and Ney Poovan (AB). Paecilomyces lilacinus is a fungus that parasitizes eggs,
juveniles and adults of R. similis. It can be applied as dip, soil drench or incorporated into
the soil. Liquid and powder formulations containing P. lilacinus and Paecilomyces
oxalicum are marketed commercially. Purified extracts of Penicillium oxalicum,
Penicillium anatolicum and Aspergillus niger have shown high nematicidal activity.
 57

Strains of the bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens have been found to inhibit the invasion
of banana roots by R. similis.
Nematicides are generally non-volatile organophosphates or carbamates. Their mode of
action is mainly nematostatic, which means they do not kill nematodes, but act on the
nematodes’ nervous system and interfere with their ability to hatch from eggs, move,
penetrate the roots, feed and reproduce. Nematicides are applied as granules on the soil
surface around the mat. Emulsifiable compounds are applied as liquid sprays or through
irrigation systems. In order to avoid build-up of resistance of the nematodes to the
chemicals, alternation with different compounds is recommended. It is important to
always immediately irrigate after application and not apply nematicides when flooding
occurs. The optimum application time, dose and frequency are determined by nematicide
efficiency, environmental conditions, as well as pathogenicity of local nematode strains
and population dynamics. In most production areas, nematicide applications vary between
2 to 3 g of active ingredient per mat and 2-3 applications per year. Though nematicides are
generally effective in controlling nematodes and are easy to use, they are expensive, highly
toxic and may have a negative impact on the environment.
If nematode population is very high in the field, crop rotation with paddy, sugarcane,
green gram or sun hemp is recommended to reduce the nematode population in banana.
Fallowing the land for three months after banana harvest and summer ploughing
effectively suppress the nematode population. Growing sun hemp prior to planting banana
and after flowering incorporates them into the soil. Paring the corm surface by trimming
away necrotic lesions and sucker dip treatment with Nimbicidin or Juerken @ 15 ml / litre
(1.5%) of water for 30 minutes. Apply neem cake @ 250g /plant at the time of planting and
at four months after planting with any one of the bio-control agents viz., Pseudomonas
fluorescens / Trichoderma viride / T. harzianum / Pochonia chlymydosporia /
Purpureocillium lilacinum @ 20 g/plant at planting and 3rd and 6th month after planting
or apply Carbofuran @ 25-30g/plant at the time of planting and at 3 months after planting.
If tissue culture plants are used, apply 10-15g of carbofuran at time of planting and 20g
/ plant at third and fifth months after planting. Grow marigold (Tagetes erecta and T.
patula) as intercrop in banana. Different cultivars of banana viz., Robusta, Grand Naine,
Poovan, Rasthali, Ney Poovan, Red Banana, Virupakshi and Nendran are susceptible.
Banana varieties like Karpooravalli, Monthan, Nattupoovan, Kunnan, Pey kunnan, Pedali
moongil, and Pidi Monthan are tolerant to different plant parasitic nematodes (NRCB,
2013).

16. Diseases
Bananas are affected by a number of fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases. The major
diseases affecting bananas are Fusarium wilt, banana bunchy top virus (BBTV), leaf speckle
and leaf spot (also called yellow Sigatoka). Sooty blotch, sooty mould and. A large number
of banana viruses affect banana in different regions, with some becoming more
predominant in some areas. Similarly, a number of minor diseases and physiological
disorders also occasionally affect bananas. Several postharvest diseases such as
anthracnose, crown rot, squirter and cigar end may also cause substantial losses.
16.1 Fusarium Wilt
Fusarium wilt of banana, popularly known as Panama disease, is a lethal fungal
disease caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). The
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disease has been posing a serious threat to banana production in all parts of the world for
long. It has been popular with the name Panama wilt as it is responsible for the complete
elimination of the Gros Michel cultivar from Central America (Costa Rica and Panama) in
1890 (Stover, 1962). The pathogen spread in the soil rapidly due to the wide adaptation of
Gros Michel by the farmers. It favoured popularity of other Cavendish clones as they had
resistance against the pathogen. But within 20-30 years these cultivars also succumb to the
production due to the evolution of a new devastating form of the pathogen i. e. Race 4
(Ploetz, 2015).
Initially, yellowing of lower leaves from outer blades is seen on infected plants. The
chlorosis begins at the edge and progresses to the midrib. The leaves and petiole turn
yellow entirely and hung down around the pseudostem. Others leaves wilt gradually and
sagging downwards, but the centre leaf stays green and stand erect or tall at the top of the
plant. The basal region of the Pseudostem gets separated in immature plants at an early
stage, and later splitting of the pseudostem progresses towards the tip of the pseudostem.
When the infected pseudostem & rhizome were sliced longitudinally/transversally,
internal symptoms were evident. The longitudinally sliced pseudostem & rhizome had
dark dots and streaks with white interior tissue, indicating vascular discolouration. The
blockage of the vascular bundle leads to the withering of the foliage (Ploetz, 2006). Infected
vascular bundles, on the other hand, displayed a profoundly stained black colour and
brown pigments in cases of severe infection in majority of the cases (Singh and Ray, 2006;
Yin et al., 2011; Shukla and Singh, 2019; Thangavelu et al., 2019; Damodaran et al., 2019). The
pathogenic strains of Foc are classified into four races based on the differential response of
cultivars on which they cause disease.
Race 1 strains cause disease in Gros Michel, Silk, Pome and Pisang awak cultivars, among
others.
Race 2 affects the Bluggoe subgroup (ABB, cooking bananas).
Race 3 strains were reported to affect Heliconia species, and to a lesser extent Gros Michel
and seedlings of Musa balbisiana.
Race 4 was originally coined to designate the strains that attack Cavendish cultivars.
Originally classified as race 4, these pathogenic isolates were later reclassified as
subtropical race 4 (STR4) to distinguish them from the isolates that cause Fusarium wilt in
the tropics in the absence of predisposing factors, which then became known as Tropical
Race 4 (TR4).
The TR4 also attacks cultivars susceptible to races 1 and 2, and additional cultivars such
as Barangan (Lakatan subgroup, AAA genome group) and Pisang Mas. In 2019, TR4 has
spread to most banana-producing countries in the world. In 2019 TR4 was shown to be a
distinct species, instead of a pathogenic strain of Fusarium oxysporum, and was
renamed Fusarium odoratissimum (Maryani, et al. 2019). It has a wider host range than just
Cavendish cultivars as it also causes disease in groups of cultivars susceptible to races 1 and
2, such as Gros Michel, Silk, Pome and Bluggoe (Vézina, 2021).
The race concept has been criticized for being an imperfect measure of pathogenic
diversity and for not reflecting genetic relationships, but is nonetheless considered useful
to describe host reaction and new disease outbreaks. The common cause of the spread of
the disease is the movement of plant material (suckers and corms) from susceptible,
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infected plantations. The fungus is commonly spread through infected planting material,
infested soil and water.
The fungus enters the plant through the roots and colonizes the xylem vessels thereby
blocking the flow of water and nutrients. Disease progression results in the collapse of
leaves at the petiole, the splitting of the pseudostem base and eventually plant death. In
plants affected yellowing and wilting of the leaves typically progresses from the older to
the younger leaves. The wilted leaves may also snap at the petiole and hang down the
pseudostem. The disease appears at later stages of plant growth, i.e., 4–5 months after
planting. It is most serious in poorly drained soil. Greater incidence of the disease has been
noticed in poor soil with continuous cropping of banana. The solution best adapted to the
continued production of bananas in infested soils is replacing susceptible cultivars by
resistant ones. Recently, Zheng et.al. (2018) and Zorrilla-Fontanesi et. al. (2020) have also
reiterated that our strategies must include diversification of the agrosystems to increase
crop resilience, as well as use of precision breeding approaches to rapidly assess and
introduce disease-resistance genes to develop stable and complete Foc resistance in
commercial banana cultivars.
The fungus cannot be controlled using fungicides and cannot be eradicated from soil
using fumigants. Drainage, environmental conditions and soil type influence host-
pathogen interactions. The solution best adapted to the continued production of bananas
in infested soils is replacing susceptible cultivars with resistant ones. Gros
Michel, Silk, Pome and Pisang Awak cultivars are generally resistant to race 2 strains but
susceptible to races 1 and 4 strains. Cavendish cultivars are generally resistant to races 1 and
2 strains but susceptible to race 4 strains. The FHIA improvement programme has
produced hybrids that are resistant to races 1 and 4, while the Taiwan Banana Research
Institute (TBRI) has released Giant Cavendish tissue-culture variants (GCTCV) that display
varying levels of resistance to TR4 (Infomusa, 2012) . In field trials conducted in
China, FHIA-01, FHIA-02, FHIA-18, FHIA-25, Pisang Jari Buaya, Rose (AA), and to a lesser
extent GCTCV-119 and FHIA-03, have shown resistance to TR4 (Huang et. al. 2005). Since
the disease is spread in infected planting material, infested soil and drainage water, great
care needs to be taken.
Using tissue cultured planting material is the best way of ensuring that Panama is not
spread into disease free sites. If replanting is to be done in infested soils, follow at least 3–
4 years crop rotation with paddy, avoiding inclusion of sunflower or sugarcane in rotation.
Use disease-free healthy planting material. Application of bioagents such as Trichoderma
viride or Pseudomonas fluorescence in soil and neem cake (Azadirachta indica) 250 kg/ha
to the pit are helpful in restricting the fast spread of the disease. Dip the suckers in 0.1%
carbendazim solution followed by bimonthly drenching starting from 6 months after
planting. Avoid moving soil between farms, for example by vehicle tyres, shared
machinery, implements and on footwear.
At planting time suckers should be pared (removal of outer skin with sharp knife) and
immediately dipped in carbendazim (0.1%) for 30-45 minutes and planted. As soon as the
sign of wilt infection is noticed, drenching of carbendazim (0.1%) @ 3 -5 litres per plant for
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3-5 times at 15 days interval and pseudostem injection of 3 ml of carbendazim 0.1% solution
at 3rd 5th and 7th month after planting for all the plants (both infected and apparently
healthy) can help minimizing the impact of the disease. Soil application of rice chaffy grain
formulation of endophytic Penicillium pinophilum + rhizospheric Trichoderma
asperellum @ 100g/plant or Jaggery based liquid formulation of Trichoderma asperellum +
B. flexuss @ 2 litres/plant for 3 times (at the time of planting, 2nd and 4th month after
planting) has also been recommended. In advanced stage of the disease, inject the wilt
infected plants with a weedicide 2-5 ml/ plant into the pseudostem and after the death of
the plants, burn them using rice husks.

16.2 Sigatoka (Eumusae) Leaf Spot

Banana production is confronted with two main types of leaf streak disease: Yellow
Sigatoka and Black Sigatoka. They are caused by parasitic leaf fungi. The pathogen of
Yellow Sigatoka is Mycosphaerella musicola and that of Black Sigatoka
is Pseudocercospora fijiensis, formerly known as Mycosphaerella fijiensis (InfoMusa,
2017). The Black Sigatoka is more virulent than yellow sigatoka. The Black Sigatoka disease
(BSD) does not immediately kill banana plants, but by interfering with photosynthesis it
can negatively impact bunch weight. Under favourable conditions for the fungus, and
without chemical control, no functional leaf might be left at harvest and as a result yields
can be reduced by 35 to 50%. BSD also shortens the fruit's green life, the time between
harvest and ripening. Fruits harvested from heavily infected plants ripen prematurely and
unevenly, and as a result become unsuitable for export.
The Yellow Sigatoka is of major concern in India, while black Sigatoka is a serious disease
in Africa, Central America, South America and Mexico. In India, the disease is most serious
in coastal areas where rainfall is high. The first symptom of infection in yellow Sigatoka is
the presence of light yellowish spots on the leaves. In case of yellow A small number of
these yellow spots enlarge, become oval and their colour changes to dark brown. Later, the
centre of the spot dies, turning light grey surrounded by a brown ring. In severe cases,
numerous spots coalesce, killing large parts of the leaf. Infection occurs through stomata
of the young leaves, the lower surface being much more important than the upper. The
extensive defoliation results in delayed flowering and reduction in number of hands and
fingers. The disease inflicts serious yield loss. Fingers do not fill out properly and often
remain immature even after attaining the time of full maturity. The quality of plantain is
drastically reduced. Usually, rainfall, dew and temperature determine the production and
movement of sigatoka inoculums.
A new fungal species, Mycosphaerella eumusa, that may be responsible for a new, even
more aggressive form of Black Sigatoka, seems to be spreading in Asia and the Indian
Ocean. Although the risk of natural spread of Sigatoka spores by wind does exist, the
spread of the disease from one zone to another is usually the result of uncontrolled
transfers of germplasm and propagating materials. The fungus that causes the disease
destroys the foliage. The disease takes the form of small elongated black streaks that soon
 61

become necrotic. Necrosis spreads and may destroy all the leaves of the plant before the
bunch is cut. This results in smaller yields and very ripe fruits that are unsellable.
Unlike Yellow Sigatoka, Black Sigatoka spreads rapidly and is very difficult to control.
Depending on the country, the strategies used and production conditions (climate, crop
management sequences, etc.), the management required ranges from just a few
interventions to more than 50 sprayings per year. In areas where the pathogen is present,
the inoculum can be maintained at a low level using cultural practices such as drainage,
weeding, proper fertilization, planting density and deleafing to reduce inoculum. Remove
the infected leaves regularly once in a month starting from 2nd month of planting and
destroy by burning or dumping in manure pit.
The Sigatoka leaf spot can be effectively controlled by combining deleafing and
chemical treatment. Spray the plants three times with Bordeaux mixture 1% along with
linseed oil 2%, carbendazim 0.2%, propicanozole 0.1% or mancozeb 0.25% with sticking
agent at 10–15 days interval. It is recommended to alternate between systemic and contact
fungicides to delay the development of resistance to the fungicides. Another management
strategy is that first remove severely affected leaves and destroy it by incineration or bury
it into the soil. After that spray petroleum based mineral oil 1% + any one of the fungicides
viz. propiconazole (0.1%) or carbendazim + mancozeb combination (0.1%) or carbendazim
(0.1%) or trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole (1.4g/litre) 5-7 times at 25-30 days interval to
controls the eumusae leaf spot disease effectively beside increase in the yield by 20% or
even more (NRCB, 2013).
16.3 Cordana leaf spot
Although the disease is common worldwide, it has generally little impact on production.
It is caused by two Neocordana fungi that are often found as secondary invaders of leaf
lesions caused by other fungi. The two Neocordana species responsible for Cordana leaf
spot symptoms are: Neocordana musae , formerly Cordana musea2 and originally
described as Scoletrichum musae3 ; and Neocordana johnstonii1 , formerly Cordana
johnstonii4 , which causes a disease very similar in appearance. Cordana leaf spot caused
by N. musae is found in banana plantations all over the tropics. Cordana leaf spot caused
by N. johnstonii was reported in Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Norfolk Island,
Lord Howe Island), Indonesia (Papua province), Malaysia (Cameron Highlands),
Philippines and Tonga.
The most characteristic symptoms of the disease are on the leaf. They are large, pale
brown, oval to fusiform necrotic lesions with pale grey concentric ring patterns, with a
dark brown border surrounded by a bright yellow halo separating the lesion from the
healthy leaf tissue. Often, lesions coalesce into large necrotic patches. The leaves ultimately
turn brown and dry out. The leaf spots caused by N. musae are larger and oval to elliptical
in shape, while those caused by N. johnstonii are generally smaller and become more
fusiform with age.

16.4 Anthracnose
This disease is caused by a fungus (Gloeosporium musae). It can attack the crop at any stage
of growth. The symptoms appear as large brown patches covered with a crimson growth of
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fungus. The spread of the disease is through airborne conidia and numerous insects
visiting banana flowers frequently. The disease is favoured by high temperature and high
humidity, wounds and bruises. The diseased fruit turns black and shrivels. To control
maintain proper sanitation in banana field. Follow proper post-harvest practices.
Facilitate proper drainage and weed management in the plantation. Remove distal bud
when all the hands opened to prevent infection. Store fruits at 13- 14°C to minimize the
disease in cold storage. Spray the plant with 1% Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is still
young. Dip the fruits after harvesting in Mycostatin 440 ppm, Aureofungin-sol 100 ppm,
or carbendazim 400 ppm.
The same fungus is also responsible for several storage diseases e. g. wound anthracnose;
ripe-fruit (quiescent) anthracnose and crown rots. The wound anthracnose and ripe-fruit
(quiescent) anthracnose are due to Colletotrichum musae, while crown rots result from a
larger parasite complex consisting of Colletotrichum musae and other organisms like
Fusarium, Verticillium, Botryodiplodia, etc.
In case of Ripe-fruit (quiescent) anthracnose, brown lesions develop on fruits after
ripening and subsequently in the sales channel. This disease rarely has serious commercial
consequences. However, in Wound (non-quiescent) anthracnose, broad brown lesions
occur on fingers wounded during harvesting or packing period. The symptoms are
observed when fruits are unpacked after long transport and have serious commercial
consequences.
Crown rots are fungi that spread from cut surfaces when fruits are prepared at the
packing stage. Anthracnose results mainly from contamination by Colletotrichum
musae in the field. It is not possible to detect infected fruit with the naked eye at harvesting
but a test can be performed more than three weeks before cutting. Fruits are infected
mainly during the first month of flowering.
Spores are spread by water and develop on the organs when they start to decompose (old
leaves, bracts and above all flowers). Control of the disease must begin in the field and then
continue in the packing shed. Hands can be contaminated by crown rot at various stages
in the chain. This greatly complicates the implementation of control measures, but hand
contamination by washing water is probably the main cause. Sometimes, in addition to
Collettotrichum, Lasidiplodia sp and Fusarium sp. are also found associated with the
Anthracnose complex. Anthracnose complex of banana can be managed by spraying with
Nativo @ 1 gram /two litre of water or spray SAAF/ Carbendazim @2 gram per litre of water
immediately after the bunch emergence. However, chemical control of these diseases does
not always yield satisfactory results and the post-harvest treatments raise two crucial
problems—the risks of residues in fruits and the processing of fungicide discharges near
packing stations.

16.5 Pseudostem Heart Rot

This is a minor fungal disease caused by Botryodiplodia sp., Gloeosporium sp. and
Fusarium sp. The first indication of heart rot is the presence of heart leaves with part of the
lamina missing or decayed. In severe cases, the inner crown leaves first turn yellow, then
brown and finally the plants die. To manage the disease maintains proper sanitation in
field. Facilitate proper drainage and weed management in the orchard. Spray the plants
with 0.2% Captan, Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78.
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16.6 Corm rot/Head rot

This is a bacterial disease but causing concern in particular localities. The causal organism
is Pectobacterium carotovorum, earlier it was known as E. carotovora subsp. carotovora. It
weakens the rhizome or corm. The disease symptom is characterized by a massive soft
odorous rot of the centre or a portion of a rhizome. It progresses to upward portion of the
pseudostem and destroys the growing point, which in turn causes internal rot and
discolouration of the vascular tissues. Yellowing and wilting of leaves are noticed.
Sometimes, this disease is confused with Fusarium wilt. The affected young plants show
leave yellowing and heart rot symptoms. The infected rhizome is cut open, yellow or brown
coloured water soaked bigger spots with dark brown margin can be seen. Severely infected
rhizomes may have characteristic symptoms such as decay of corm tissues, cavity
formation and brown ooze with foul smell. Severely affected plants may topple down at
maturity (Stover, 1972).
For management of Corm rot/Head rot first uproot and destroy the affected plants to
manage the disease. Use healthy suckers. Drench with Pseudomonas fluorescens @1-2
litres per plant (50g/lit of water at 0th + 2nd +4th +6th months after planting) and growing
sun hemp in the interspaces for 2- 3times till 5th months after planting may be followed
for managing the disease (Or) Apply bleaching powder @ 6g/plant (at 0th + 1st +2nd +3rd + 4th
month after planting) and growing sun hemp in the interspaces for 2- 3 times till 5 months
after planting may be carried-out. In severe infection drench the field with bleaching
powder @ 25 gram/plant.

16.7 Bunchy Top

Viral diseases of the banana (dessert and cooking types) have spread increasingly in recent
years as a result mainly of rapid plant movement to meet the demand for diversification.
Banana bunchy top disease can cause losses of 90 or even 100 per cent of production. It is a
viral disease caused by the Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV). The BBTV is a circular single-
stranded DNA virus (18-20 nm in diameter). The disease gets its name from the bunchy
appearance of infected plants. Bunchy top is considered to be the most devastating viral
disease affecting bananas. All cultivars are believed to be susceptible. There are no known
sources of resistance to the virus. To the extent their reaction varies, it's in the time taken
for the symptoms to develop. It is spread by a viruliferous aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa).
The aphid carrying the virus feed on a healthy-plants and the disease is easily transmitted.
The virus is also spread through infected planting materials. Infected plants cannot
recover and will serve as a source of viral particles unless they are destroyed.
The most characteristic symptoms of an advanced infection appear when the leaves
become progressively dwarfed, upright and bunched at the top of the plant, with wavy and
chlorotic margins that tend to turn necrotic. Initial symptoms may be difficult to detect
for a novice due to their inconspicuous nature. The first symptoms are dark green streaks
on the lower portion of the leaf midrib and later on the secondary veins. Removing the waxy
white coating on the midrib makes it easier to see the streaking. The symptoms are most
severe and distinctive when the infection arises from the virus moving from the parent
plant to the suckers. These plants are typically stunted (under 1 m) and rarely produce fruit.
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There is no cure for bunchy top. Regular inspections to detect and remove
infected mats (the rhizome and its attached suckers), and replanting with virus-
indexed tissue-culture plantlets, which have been screened in a lab and certified 'virus-
free', are the basis for good management. Treat the suckers with malathion 0.2% and
mancozeb 0.3% before planting. Infection levels can be reduced by regular inspections and
prompt removal of infected mats, detrashing (removal of dead leaves hanging down the
plant), use of BBTV-free planting material and varietal mixtures. Dwarf varieties of banana
are more susceptible to this disease. Growers should also watch out for alternative hosts of
the virus (such as Canna, Heliconia, Strelitzia), as well as for alternative hosts of the aphids
(Colocasia, Canna, Zinger etc).
Control involves killing all aphids on the plant and eradication of the infected plant
including attached suckers. Remove alternate hosts, weeds and unwanted suckers from
nearby areas to reduce the aphid population. Eradicate the diseased plants, suckers and the
clumps or destroy using 4 mL of 2,4-D (50 g in 400 mL of water) and spray the plants with
monocrotophos 2 mL, phosphamidon 1 mL or imidachloprid 0.50 mL or methyl demeton 1
mL/L of water to control the vectors. Injecting the plants with 4 mL of Fernoxone solution
(50 g dissolved in 400 mL of water) or monocrotophos 1 mL/plant diluted in 4 mL of water
provides protection against this disease.
16.8 Banana Bract Mosaic Virus
This disease is caused by Banana bract mosaic virus (BBrMV). BBrMV belongs to the
genus Potyvirus in the family Potyviridae. The virus is known to infect only banana and can
be transmitted in a nonpersistent manner (i. e. retained by the vector for a short period) by
at least three species of aphids namely Pentalonia nigronervosa, Aphis
gossypii and Rhopalosiphum maidis. The virus can also be transmitted by infected
planting material. Its common name comes from the characteristic mosaic symptoms on
the flower bracts. Yellow mottling or whitish streaks are seen on the pseudostem according
to the variety infected. Infection can result in growth defects, reduced suckering and
misshapen fruit. Severe incidences can lead to fruit rejection and consequently leads to
economic losses to the tune of 40 -50%.
Bract mosaic was first noted in the Philippines in 1979 (Magnaye and Espino, 1990). In
1966, a disease with the same symptoms, but unkown etiology, had been reported as
Kokkan disease in Kerala, India (Samraj et. al. 1966). The causal agent of Kokkan disease was
later confirmed to be BBrMV (Rodoni et. al. 1997). The disease has also been reported in
other banana growing countries. Mosaic patterns on the bracts of the inflorescence are
diagnostic. Green or red streaks or spindle-shaped lesions can appear on leaf petioles and
sometimes on the mid-rib of new leaves (not to be confused with nitrogen deficiency).
Chlorotic streaks on the leaf blade can also indicate infection. Sometimes the only
symptom is on the leaf sheaths. Peeling back the dead outer leaf sheaths will reveal spindle-
like streaks on the exposed pseudostem. Chlorotic streaks may also appear on bunch stems.
16.9 Banana mosaic
It is caused by the Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV). Infected plants display leaf
chlorosis and mottling of the main vein and the pseudostem. The disease is characterized
by the presence of typical mosaic-like or discontinuous linear streaking in bands extending
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from margin to midrib. Rolling of leaf margins, twisting and bunching of leaves are found
at the crown. The presence of dead or dying suckers is noticed in advanced stage. Secondary
infections may appear in the form of bacterial rots in the sheaths forming the pseudostem.
The leaves are narrower and smaller than normal and the infected plants are dwarf and lag
behind in growth. Such plants do not produce bunches. The virus can be spread by a broad
range of aphids. The disease can also be spread by pruning tools. The primary transmission
is through the use of infected daughter suckers from diseased plants, and the secondary
spread of the disease is through melon aphid, i.e., A. gossypii. To manage the disease keep
the plantain field weed free. Use disease-free healthy planting material. Avoid growing
pumpkin, cucumber and other cucurbits between the rows of plantain. Provide dry heat
treatment to suckers at 40°C for a day to inactivate the virus. Spray the plants with methyl
demeton 0.03% at 3–4 weeks interval to control the vectors.

16.10 Banana Streak Virus

A prominent symptom exhibited by banana streak virus (BSV) is yellow streaking on leaves,
which becomes progressively necrotic, producing a black streaked appearance on older
leaves. The virus is transmitted mostly through infected planting materials, though citrus
mealy bug (Planococcus citri) and pink sugarcane mealy bug (Saccharicoccus sacchari) are
also believed to transmit it. The disease may inflict economic losses from 40 to 60 percent,
Shoot tip culture does not eliminate it from vegetatively propagated materials. Bunch
choking, abortion of bunch and seediness in fruits are seen in infected plants. Diseased
plants may be stunted, fruit distorted with thinner peel and bunches small in size.
Management involves use disease-free healthy planting material, Removal of the diseased
plants from the field and destroying them or burying them into the soil and spraying the
plants with monocrotophos 2 ml or phosphamidon 1 ml/l of water to control the virus
vectors.
For management of viral diseases of banana first identify the infected plants based on their
external symptoms and remove along with the underground corm. Always use of virus
indexed certified tissue culture plants and plant only disease-free suckers. Spray systemic
insecticides to control the vectors which help in preventing the spread of the disease. Keep
the field free from weeds and don't cultivate cucumber mosaic virus susceptible crops as
inter crop. To avoid loss due to bract mosaic and streak virus affected plants, apply 25-50 %
more recommended dose of fertilizers and 10kg FYM/ plant.

17. Physiological disorders

17. 1 Kotta Vazhai
The word Kottai means seed. It is a disorder of unknown aetiology. The enlarged ovules are
present in fruits. It can be controlled by spraying 2,4-D 120 ppm.
17. 2 Yellow Pulp
This disorder is characterized by abnormal and pre-mature development of plantain fruits.
Excess of potassium in relation to nitrogen and sulphur deficiency is the main reason of
this problem. Application of sulphur reduces this incidence in plantain.
17. 3 Degrain
This physiological disorder is seen in ripe fruits, which become drooped from bunches due
to rotting of the pedicels.
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17. 4 Goose Flesh

This disorder is observed on peel of the ripe banana fruit showing wilted and shrivelled
appearance and subsequently the peel turns to brown. It is mainly noticed during dry
winter season when atmospheric humidity falls to a relatively low level.
17.5 Underpeel discolouration (UPD)
UPD consists of a reddish-brown streaking in the vascular tissue just below the epidermis
of the fruit. It is visible in green fruit only by peeling back the epidermis with a knife. UPD
usually indicates the fruit has been subjected to chilling temperatures at some stage. More
precisely, the chilling may occur in the field when night temperatures drop below 13°C for
several hours, which is a common occurrence in subtropical banana areas. All exposed fruit
are affected but fruit approaching harvest stage are the most severely affected. Fruits with
severe UPD will not ripen bright yellow, but will have a dull grey/yellow colour due to the
brown streaks in the peel masking the normal bright yellow colour. Eating quality is
usually not affected, but such fruits are not suitable for export markets.
17. 6 White Leaf Disorder
This disorder much relates to unbalanced nitrogen content in soil and plant. The younger
leaves of the plant show white discolouration.
17. 7 Choke Throat
This is due to low temperature and occurs during winter months in subtropical climate. In
this case plant inflorescence trying to emerge through the top of the pseudostem is
inhibited by leaf petioles with short internodes which have become compacted and
congested at the opening. The emerging bunch is deformed and stunted and tends to
orientate itself horizontally rather than hang vertically. This problem is most severe with
AAA ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ in which leaves easily become ‘rosetted’ and compacted at the top
of the pseudostem during cold weather. Growers with ‘Dwarf Cavendish’ in cool areas
should adjust planting time and ensure that it will not induce peak flower emergence
during winter.
17. 8 Ripe Fruit Breakdowns
This phenomenon may be related to ‘yellow pulp’ in the tropics which is attributed to
various stress conditions in the plantation. In the subtropics, the physiological problem of
ripe fruit breakdown is due to exceptionally high maximum temperatures of between 40
and 45°C occurring from just before to just after flower emergence. Exposed banana
bunches in weak, poorly managed plantations are the most severely affected. Fruits
develop normally on the plant, but, after ripening, they have an exceptionally short shelf
life of only 2 days before the pulp collapses into a liquid-mushy consistency and the fruit is
inedible. Normal fruit would have a shelf life of about 1 week after ripening (Robinson and
Galán Saúco, 2010)

18. Bunch Management

The male bud is removed after the completion of female phase. It serves a dual purpose,
i.e., (i) saving of movement of food into unwanted sink and (ii) avoiding thrips attack on
fruits, which remain underneath the male bud. De-handing at sixth or eighth hands
improves the fruit quality parameters to meet the export standards. Banana Research
Station, Jalgaon has recommended the two sprays of potassium dihydrogen phosphate
0.5% + urea 1% on plantain bunch 5 and 20 days after last hand opening, which helps in
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improving the overall quality of bunch, enhancing maturity and yield of banana. The
bunches are then covered with perforated (2–6% vent) 100-gauge polyethylene bags, which
protect the bunch from thrips, beetles, dust, rains and from low temperature during
winter, scorching sun in summer and enhances the maturity with increased yield.
19. Other Orchard Operations
Plantation of plantain should be kept clean by removing the unwanted plant parts such as
dried, diseased and decayed leaves and pseudostems after the harvest. During winter
months if temperature goes below 10°C, the plant growth is adversely affected. Under such
circumstances, irrigation is to be provided at night or smoking is to be done by inducing
fire.
20. Flowering and Fruit Set
The shoot meristem transforms into an inflorescence at about the time when the eleventh
last leaf has been produced, and then, the inflorescence emerges after about a month. The
inflorescence, classified as a compound spike, and the peduncle emerges upwards through
the centre of pseudostem before bending down under the weight of developing spike.
Three types of flower such as hermaphrodite, female and male are observed on the same
inflorescence. Female flowers are larger with well-developed trilocular ovary, long style
and reduced staminoides. Male flowers have well-developed anthers and abortive ovary
with slender style and stigma. Usually, fertile pollen grains are absent in edible plantain.
The fruit of triploid plantain cultivars are parthenocarpic (develop without fertilization).
The fruit is botanically called as a berry without any seed.
21. Use of Plant Growth Regulators
In order to improve the grade of bunches, 2,4-D 25 ppm may be sprayed after the last hand
has opened. This also helps in removing seeds in certain varieties. Applying 2,4-D 30 ppm
at 7 days after shooting reduces the number of days required for maturity by 15–20 days and
enhances the yield by 43 t/ha. After full development of bunch, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate 0.5% and urea 1% or 2,4-D 10 ppm is to be sprayed on the bunches so that finger
size may be improved.
22. Harvesting
The duration of crop varies from 12 to 16 months, depending on genetic constitution of the
cultivar, climate of the place where it is grown and cultural practices followed to raise the
crop. Functional leaf area on the plant during bunch development and the distance of
market for which harvest is intended also influence the harvesting date. Temperature plays
major role in deciding the duration required for bunch maturity. A bunch usually takes 90–
100 days in tropical summer climate whereas it may require150 days to be mature after
shooting in a subtropical winter climate. Applying irrigation to the banana plantation
should be stopped well in advance of the harvesting date, preferably a week to facilitate
drying of soil for the movement of labour, harvesting, loading, etc.
23. Fruit maturity standards
The quality or the potential quality of bananas is established at harvest and is largely
determined by the stage of fruit maturity at which the banana is harvested and the method
used to harvest the bunch. The most common index of maturity is based on the fullness of
fruit fingers of the banana. Fruit maturity standards in banana, however, vary from place
to place depending on the distance of market and anticipated green life of the fruits of a
particular variety. Green life is the period between harvesting and the visible stage of the
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climacteric phase (yellowing of the fruit and softening of the pulp). In the case of ‘Grand
Nain’ for export, green life is measured at 14°C, which is close to the transport temperature.
The higher the storage temperature the shorter the green life. For each 10°C increase,
green life is halved (Lassoudiere, 2007). The bunch can be harvested at full maturity for
immediate ripening and local marketing. For short-distance transport of green fruit, 90%
of full maturity can be used, and for medium-distance transport by truck, 75% maturity is
normally used. Another term for referring to 75% maturity is when fingers are ‘three-
quarters round or three-quarters full’. At this stage fingers still have pronounced ridges but
with convex planes between them.
For long-distance transport by ship, less than 75% maturity is required as it takes
sufficiently longer time to reach the destination. At the “three quarters full” or “three-
quarters round”, the fingers are still angular. The fingers are full when they are well
rounded. The intermediate between “full” and “full three-quarters,” is referred to as “high
three-quarters” or “heavy three-quarters”. Bananas harvested at full maturity will develop
good peel and pulp colour, with full aroma and flavour at the ripe stage. Fruits harvested
at an immature stage are of poor quality upon ripening. Harvesting at an advanced stage of
maturity on the other hand, may be unsuitable for long distance shipment since ripening
will occur during shipment and result in fruit having a shorter shelf life.
These maturity standards are critical because allowing fruit to become overmature
during hot weather can lead to premature ripening during transport. Conversely,
harvesting too immature in cool weather can lead to several kilograms loss of bunch mass
and extended ripening requirements (Robinson, 1996). As judgement of 75, 80 or 90%
maturity is based entirely on individual’s own perception and his experience on working
with the crop, it is difficult to maintain accuracy and consistency with this subjective
method. For better accuracy, counting days required from flower emergence to harvest and
checking the finger diameter with a calliper are followed.
The width of individual fingers in a bunch has been used to determine the harvest
maturity. Usually, a predetermined finger from the bunch is used and its maximum width
is measured with callipers, hence it is referred to as the calliper grade (Thompson, 1996).
The length of the same finger may also be measured for the same purpose. As top hands
mature quicker than bottom hands, calliper measurement is always made on the middle
finger of the outer whorl of the second hand to have a standardized measurement. For
Cavendish group of bananas this measurement has to be between 31 and 41 mm.
The harvest stage of maturity depends on the market for which the fruit is intended
(Thompson and Burden, 1995). Bananas harvested for export or for regional or local
domestic marketing will be harvested at different maturity stages to avoid premature
ripening; the shorter the estimated transport time, the higher the maturity stage will be
expected to be for harvest. The cooking banana bunch should be harvested at tender and
immature stage for vegetable purpose. However, in smallholder units, harvesting is
usually done when the bunch is fully mature, because this is the consumer preference and
it is important to maximize fruit mass for subsistence purposes. For commercial cooking
types destined for the export market, it is necessary to follow almost similar procedures to
bananas.
24. Harvesting Method
When the bunch is commercially mature for harvesting, they are cut to separate from the
mother plant using a long, sharp knife-blade sometimes attached with a pole. Harvesting
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is best done by teams of two people. One person cuts and the other carries. Banana bunches
are harvested by nicking the pseudostem at about head height to allow the bunch to fall
slowly to the carrier’s shoulder. Taller varieties such as Alpan, Kanthali, Chakkrakeli are
best nicked higher up the stem than shorter varieties. The bunch is then cut from the plant
and carried to a transporter vehicle or to the nearest cableway point, depending on the
transport method used. A shoulder pad improves worker comfort and reduces bunch
bruising. The bunch should be cut in one stroke 25- 30 cm above the first band. The cutter
then cuts the top portion of the pseudostem and leaf canopy into pieces before moving to
the next plant.
25. Yield
Yield of banana depends on several interacting cultural, environmental and genetic factors
such as variety, ploidy level, plant density, soil fertility and crop management practices.
Varieties differ significantly in their yield potential. Yield potential of different
commercial varieties of banana grown in India has been given earlier in section 7 of this
chapter. As the ploidy level increases there is a marked increase in the yield per unit area.
The average yield of banana is 50 - 60 t /ha. Higher yield up to 80–100 t/ha can be obtained
under high density planting with high yielding varieties and good cultural practices. The
varieties belonging to Cavendish group are known for their higher yields and superior fruit
quality. Customers’ demand and the market sale price greatly influence selection of
varieties by the growers in a particular area. Some varieties have regional preferences and
even though their yield potential is lower, they are cultivated and fetch higher price in the
market due to specific quality characters and greater demand.
26. Postharvest Handling
Post-harvest handling operations refer to operations used to prepare the bananas for
marketing. These operations can be done in the field, in collection centres or in a
packinghouse. The packing area must provide adequate protection from sun and rain, and
must be kept clean at all times. All workers must apply good practice and observe good
hygiene. The banana is a living entity. Even after harvest, it is still alive hence it is subject
to continued change until it completely deteriorates. A number of changes take place
inside the fruit that influence its appearance, flavour, texture and nutritive value, and that
cause it to age and subsequently to rot and decay. While some changes are desirable (e. g.
changes associated with ripening such as sweetness), many bring about quality
deterioration. Harvested bananas are susceptible to attack by insects and decay-causing
organisms. Attack by decay-causing organisms can promote the rapid deterioration of
bananas. Rough handling of bananas can create wounds that could serve as entry points for
microorganisms. Bananas that come into direct contact with the soil are susceptible to
microbial contamination which could pose a food safety risk and lead to illness in humans
when consumed. These post-harvest changes cannot be stopped but can be slowed down
within certain limits through the application of good post-harvest management practice.
The good post-harvest handling practices are thus important in maintaining the quality
and assuring the safety of the banana fruit as it moves through the supply chain from
producer to consumer. Over-ripening, and mechanical damage caused by bruising and
compression are the main causes of losses in banana supply chains. It has been reported
that postharvest losses of banana are relatively high in many developing Asian countries
as facilities required for packaging, low temperature storage and transport are inadequate
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to meet the requirements. Post-harvest losses are estimated to be 8-9% at farmer’s level, 20-
25% at whole-seller’s level and 15% at retailer’s level (FAO, 2011). The total loss may be in the
range of 30 to 40% in some cases. This loss can be saved to a greater extent if all postharvest
operations are done with necessary precautions and proper care.
27. Transport from Field to Pack Shed
This operation should be done carefully to avoid mechanical injuries to fruits. The bunches
should not come into contact with each other, neither should any external pressure be
exerted on bunches or hands. The use of rigid trays or shoulder pads for transporting cut
bunches inside the plantation to the cableway is imperative for commercial plantings
established for export purpose. This is common in Latin American countries. The shoulder
pads or trays should be kept clean, free of latex, sand or soil particles, or any other
substances which can cause bruising to leave stain/ or scratch marks on the fruits. The
cableways greatly facilitate banana harvesting and postharvest handling and reduces
chances of mechanical injury to the fruit during transportation to the packing house. This
facility is also used to take fertilizers and other materials to the fields. However, cableway
systems are not appropriate for smaller plantations set for domestic trades due to the high
capital cost of installation. Also, cableways are not well suited to variable terrain for
logistical reasons. However, smaller cableway units of reasonable cost are now being
integrated into the high technology of banana production even for domestic trade.
Harvested bananas must not be exposed to the sun as this will lead to rapid moisture loss
and rapid ripening. Shade can be provided by using a canvass tent in the field or by covering
with layers of banana leaves. Banana bunches must be placed on top of cushioning material
when being transported from the farm to the collection site or packing shed, in order to
avoid bruising and injury. Field-de-handed bananas are easier to handle in the field since
they can be neatly piled with banana leaves as separators and cushions; when transferred
in bunches, there is an increased likelihood of mechanical damage. Stackable plastic crates
are the best field containers since they provide adequate protection to the fruits.

28. De-handing
De-handing is the separation of hands and removal of the stalk of the banana. This is done
to minimise mechanical injuries that might occur due to handling of a heavy weight, large
size bunch De-handing is best done with a de-handing knife that is curved to fit the crown
of the banana. Some bananas destined for the local market are de-handed with about 10 cm
of the stalk retained. Clean gloves should be used when de-handing bananas. When this is
done in the field itself, one man cuts off the hands while the other man holds the bunch to
provide support. The hands are placed individually, finger tips downwards, on foam-
padded trailers which are drawn as a train slowly to the pack shed. Where cableway is used
the bunches from the field are brought straight to the de-handing area. Removal of dry
flower parts, if not done earlier in the field is done at this stage. Hands are cut smoothly
from the peduncle using a special sharp, curved blade knife. A large chunk of the crown
(pedicel pad) should be left attached to the hand to safeguard against crown rot infection
and facilitate handling. The cut hand is then placed in a de-handing tank of water.
In many commercial plantations of banana which produce fruit for the local market,
harvested bunches are kept in the field on a plastic sheet or mat sometimes overheating
during the day for many hours. They are then picked up and stacked either vertically or
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horizontally on trailers for transport, with only a bed of banana leaves for protection
(sometimes a foam mattress). Bunches are then offloaded manually and hung in the pack
shed. With these systems, there is inevitably some lateral pressure on bunches and
bruising of fingers during transport. Since they are handled more roughly than the export
fruit, and the damage is clearly evident on their skin after ripening. Although local markets
may be more tolerant towards mechanical damage/ spots or black scar on the peel,
premium prices are still paid for fruits which are clean and blemish-free.
Bananas either dessert or cooking to be sold commercially in smallholder situations are
normally packed as whole bunches into lorries or other vehicles, and are transported
unprotected over long distances to the market and sold loose. More often banana leaves are
used for wrapping the bunches as well as separating the stacking layers on the lorries/
trucks. Considerable mechanical damage is inevitable under this situation. Cutting of
bunches into hands and packing in reusable cardboard boxes is an alternative to reduce
damage during transport to market. It also extends storage life since boxes can be moved
easily to ventilated shelters at any stage. Packing fruits in semipermeable, sealed plastic
bags was shown to extend green life considerably at ambient temperatures, due to the
modified atmosphere effect.
29. Precooling
Being a tropical crop banana is grown under high temperature climatic conditions. If
harvested on a sunny day during midday time the fruits acquire lots of heat which is
detrimental to storage of fruits. Bananas are of a high-water content and when harvested,
bananas can no longer replace the water that is lost from the peel. They are, therefore,
subject to shriveling and weight loss resulting in a loss in their marketable weight and their
visual quality, if stored under conditions of low humidity. The moisture content of the
banana must be maintained in order to retain the quality of the fruit.
It is better to cut bunches during cooler periods. This means from early to mid-morning
or during overcast weather. Do not expose harvested fruit to direct sunlight as this quickly
causes serious overheating and even burning. Keep harvested bunches out of the sun and
as cool as possible. Harvested bunches should be transported to the pack shed without
delay and should be shaded during transport. Pack sheds in hot areas should be insulated
against heat, especially on the roof, west wall and east wall. Insulation can be achieved with
reflective foil, polyurethane foam or polystyrene sheeting. Bunches arriving at the pack-
shed should be immediately cooled in cold water dips or moved through a lateral spray race
to remove field heat. Packed fruit should be pre-cooled to 13°C before placing them into a
refrigerated van for a long-distance transport to ripening facilities.

30. Washing and Clustering

Bananas must be washed in clean water in a wash tank to remove: (i) dirt from the fruit
surface; (ii) latex which exudes from the cut surface of the crown; and (iii) fungal spores
which are present on the fruit and which may cause crown rot. It is usual for a common
dishwashing detergent to be diluted in the water, at an approximate dosage of 200 ml/100 l
water for small tanks without water renewal or 20–40 ml/100 l water for bigger tanks (>9
m2) with frequent water renewal. It is also common to add aluminium sulphate (alum) to
facilitate healing of cut surfaces and precipitation of latex and other organic residues.
Dosage varies from 100 to 400 g/100 l water (500 g/100 l in small tanks). These quantities are
increased in hot weather when latex exudation increases. If removal of latex poses a
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problem, it may be necessary to wash bananas in two tanks – washing in the first tank to
remove dirt, followed by delatexing in a solution containing 1 percent alum. Bananas for
export are treated alternatively by floating in water or dilute sodium hypochlorite solution
to remove latex, which causes black peel staining. “Hands” are cut into units of 4–10
fingers, graded for both length and width, and carefully placed in polylined 18 kg boxes for
export.
Hands may remain in the washing tank for 15–20 min to ensure complete removal of latex.
Extended periods of washing should also be avoided because this can result in the
absorption of water by the bananas. Then they are removed and broken into clusters of four
to eight. Small, defective, damaged fingers are discarded at this stage. Clusters are dried
and then disinfected by transferring into cluster tanks containing thiabendazole or similar
authorized fungicide at the appropriate dosage. After fungicide treatment, brand stickers
are placed on the concave face of the banana in the centre of the cluster or on all the fingers
in a cluster. Then the cleaned, treated and branded clusters are sent to the packing area
through a conveyor system.

31. Packing
Bananas are packed so as to protect them from damage until they reach the final
destination. Usually, thick or tough cardboard cartons are used to pack whole hands,
clusters or singles. Particular size and quality gradings exist for marketing in different
countries. Therefore, depending upon variety, specific packing methods are used for the
various size grades and the carton size varies with weight capacity ranging from 12 to 20
kg, depending on countries and markets. Cartons must be strong enough to withstand the
forces of palletization and be well ventilated to maintain an even temperature during
refrigerated shipment. Hands or clusters should be packed in a neat, regular pattern to
reduce movement and avoid rubbing.
The cartons must be full but not overloaded. Pads (usually kraft paper or plastic) are
inserted to insure protection between fruit rows. Polyethylene film liners are commonly
used in export fruit cartons to reduce water loss during transport and to provide some
protection from chafing damage. Air may also be vacuumed out of the liner to remove
oxygen. Materials used inside the package must be new, clean and must not cause any
external or internal deterioration of the produce. Use of materials such as wrapping papers
or adhesive labels bearing commercial markings is allowed provided the printing and
labelling is done with non-toxic ink or glue. Packages must be free from any foreign matter.
At some places bunches are also padded with leaves. Packing of hands or fingers in 100
gauge polyethylene bags with 0.2% holes enhances shelf life. The shelf life of bananas can
be enhanced by treating with Waxol (12% wax emulsion). The weight loss and spoilage can
be reduced by fungicidal wax emulsion. In many countries like India, Bangladesh,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Egypt, major part of the banana production are
transported, ripened, distributed and offered for sale as whole bunches, from which the
customers choose the hands they want. Good bulk packaging is done to maintain the
quality during transport and subsequent handling and distribution of bananas. Rigid
containers such as plastic crates or wooden crates are used for the bulk packaging of
bananas since they provide adequate protection against compression damage during
transport.
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Plastic crates have a smooth inside finish and can be easily cleaned. They are also
stackable and reusable/returnable. Although more expensive than traditional packaging
containers, such as woven baskets, plastic crates are reusable and economical in use over
the long term. When wooden box is used, lining materials (such as newspaper) are placed
between hands of bananas and the crate is lined with fresh banana leaf sheaths (trunk) to
prevent damage to fruits caused by the rough inside finishing of the crates. Over-packing
should be avoided since it leads to bruising and compression damage of the bananas.
Wrapping with green leaves or plastic sacks are also commonly used for the bulk packaging
of bananas. However, their use is not recommended since they do not provide adequate
protection to the bananas.
32. Grading and Sorting
Grading is the process of classifying the produce into groups according to specific criteria
accepted by the industry such as quality and size. Sorting on the other hand, is the
grouping of bananas based on the criteria of the one classifying the bananas. Usually, no
definite set of standards is followed during sorting for local domestic trade. Bananas are
generally sorted prior to sale. Freedom from mechanical damage, foreign matter, decay,
freshness, maturity, and size are some of the quality criteria considered during sorting. No
established quality standards are followed in local markets in India. Price is merely based
on agreement of both parties (supplier and buyer). Although specific quality standards are
not normally required, local markets and institutional buyers, particularly hotels and
supermarkets demand unblemished fruits of better quality and grade. In tropical areas
postharvest handling of banana is very abusive and fruits with blemishes are normal. The
degree of fruit ripeness on the selling stall decides the intensity of the blemishes on the
peel.
For exports, bananas are commonly sorted according to size (length of fingers). Bananas
are classified into three classes: (i) Extra; (ii) Class 1; and (iii) Class 2 based on size and
external appearance-smoothness, freedom from defects or blemishes and decay. Fruits
graded for these classes differ in tolerance levels for defects, both in number and size per
box. Minimum requirements in all classes are subject to special provisions and tolerances
limits. Generally, the bananas must be: green and unripened, intact, firm and sound; clean
and practically free from visible foreign matter, and from pest or disease damages; pedicel
intact, without bending, fungal damage or desiccation, and pistils removed; free from
malformation or abnormal curvature of fingers; and practically free from bruises and
damages due to low temperatures, and also free of any foreign smell and/or taste, and from
abnormal external moisture.
The grading in case of cooking bananas is also done according to size, appearance and
number of fingers, arrangements of hands and maturity stage of fruits. Usually, the
cooking types are graded into two grades, i.e., Class I and Class II. Market quality standards
vary widely, with export bananas having the most stringent standards. In large measure,
this is related to consumer preferences and the condition of the bananas received at the
market. The WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius Banana Standards (CODEX STAN 205)
provides fairly detailed guidelines and codes of practice to ensure that bananas being
marketed are of good quality and safe for health (FAO, 2005).
If these quality standards are applied strictly for sorting, grading, packing etc.,
consumers can trust the safety and quality of bananas they buy and similarly importers
 74

trust that the materials they ordered will be in accordance with the pre-set specifications.
Export markets for bananas particularly in the EU and USA are very strict regarding
variety, fruit quality, packing, use of chemicals, presentation and marking specifications.
There are also minimum requirements for hands and clusters. Contents of each package
must be uniform and consist exclusively of bananas of the same origin, variety and/or
commercial type, and quality. The visible part of the contents must be representative of the
entire package. The most commonly used fruit size classes for Cavendish banana are shown
in Table8.
Banana fruits destined for US markets must be longer than for the EU market. The
minimum acceptable length for US export market is 203 mm measured on the middle
finger of the outer whorl of each hand, before putting fruit through the pack-shed
processes. If the middle finger does not make the 203 mm minimum, the entire hand is
unmarketable and is discarded. In addition to minimum finger length, the fruit must be
totally blemish-free. These are very stringent standards and, in some pack-sheds, the
proportion of discarded fruit (shrinkage) can reach 30%. There may be periods in which a
fruit shortage on the export market will permit a relaxation of standards to allow fruit
shorter than 203 mm to be marketed. Shorter fruits are commercially acceptable in local
subtropical markets of Australia and South Africa but a premium is still paid there for
clean fruit longer than 200 mm.
Table 8 : The three size classes for Cavendish( Grand Naine) banana

Class Length Minimum Minimum

(mm) diameter Circumference (mm)
(mm)
Extra 220 + 41 128
Class
Class-I 195 -220 35 110
Class- II 150 -195 32 101
Source: FAO 2005
.
Quality standards are not available for cooking bananas. Cooking bananas have a tougher
skin than bananas and so there is less danger of causing harm to them by improper
handling. In general, they should be treated the same way as bananas, but in most
instances, they use less elaborate systems for harvest, transport to the packing house and
packing than for dessert bananas.

33. Transport to Market

Transportation is one of the critical stages in the banana supply chain. Poor transport
conditions, rough handling, and delays in transportation contribute to losses in banana
supply chains. Fruit is transported as palletised loads. While the number of farms with cold
storage facilities is increasing, most fruit is cooled in cold stores at transport depots before
dispatch. After packing, banana cartons are palletized in order to reduce handling damage.
For local markets, pallets of cartons are loaded on to lorries for transport to ripening rooms.
For export, refrigerated trucks take fruit to ships where the pallets are transferred to
refrigerated holds. Refrigerated transport is essential to prevent green fruit from initiating
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the ripening process before arrival at the destination. Placement of fruits into the cold
chain should not be delayed more than 24 h after harvesting (commonly called the ‘cut to
cool’ period), but the most efficient systems can reduce this time to 8 h. A temperature of
13–14°C is required for Cavendish bananas to prevent ripening without causing chilling
damage, and 10–12°C may be better for bananas of the ‘Pome’ subgroup. Apparently, the B
genome confers more resistance to cold both in the field and during transport
(Lichtemberg, 2001) and thus ABB cooking types are thick skinned and comparatively more
hardy than dessert types. Renewal of air to avoid ethylene accumulation is necessary
during transport. The recommended rate of air renewal is 30 times the volume of the
container/h (Lassoudiere, 2007). Ventilation and refrigeration should be started before
loading the refrigerated container of reefer vans.

34. Ripening
The banana is a climacteric fruit and like other climacteric fruit, ripening initiation is
through ethylene biosynthesis via ACC (1-aminocyclopropane 1-carboxylic acid)
biosynthesis. After a development phase during which the fruit increases in size and
accumulates starch, the fruit growth ceases when being fully mature, and the ripening
process is initiated by a quick rise in respiration rate. During ripening, starch is converted
to sugars, the fruit softens, the skin color often changes from green to yellow, chlorophyll
is degraded, and a specific flavour also develops (Marriott et al., 1981). A 7-point colour
index scale describes the various stages in the ripening of banana: 1 = all green; 2 = with trace
of yellow; 3 = more green than yellow; 4 = more yellow than green; 5 = green tips and necks;
6 = all yellow; and 7 = yellow with brown flecks (Nakasone and Paull 1998). Harvesting is
usually done at colour stage 3 or 4. After the respiration rate peaks, it falls in a post climatic
phase. The respiratory climax (climacteric) is identified by rapid O2 uptake and CO2
evolution to a maximum rate of 250 mg CO2 kg/h from a preclimacteric low of around 30
mg CO2. The time taken to reach this maximum from the pre-climacteric state depends on
temperature, humidity and ethylene concentration, and the ripening process is accelerated
when the respiratory maximum is attained. Subsequently, the respiration rate decreases
progressively to reach zero at the physiological death of the fruit. Once initiated, the
climacteric is irreversible.
Bananas are usually harvested in the pre-climacteric phase i.e., at the mature green stage.
It represents the period from harvest until the visible stage of the respiratory climacteric.
It is a period of low metabolic activity and the commercial objective is to prolong this
period for as long as possible. Harvesting at an early stage of fruit maturity and storing
fruits at low temperature control (13°C) during transport of bunches can extend this period.
It is also possible to extend the pre-climacteric by hormonal treatment (gibberellin) or by
modified/ controlled atmosphere (CA) storage and/or ethylene scrubbing. Sealed
polyethylene bags, widely used to delay banana ripening, can reduce water loss, reduce O2
concentration and increase CO2 concentration, all of which extend the pre-climacteric. The
reduction of O2 and increase in CO2 reduce the respiration rate, and the increased CO2 also
inhibits the synthesis of ethylene. High humidity delays the internal synthesis of ethylene
by preventing water loss. Gibberellins, reduced temperatures, and modified atmospheres
have all been reported to delay the onset of banana ripening (Kapoor and Turner 1976;
Taylor 2001).
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Dessert bananas are allowed to ripen and are chiefly eaten raw when they have low
starch, high sugar and developed flavour. Cooking types have high starch content and are
eaten when green or ripe after boiling, frying or roasting. The conversion of starch to sugar
during ripening of cooking-type bananas is less complete than in dessert bananas. When
bananas are allowed to ripen naturally, it is difficult to predict when fruit will be ready to
eat. Controlled ripening makes this prediction easier. If the ripening is done under
controlled conditions, the quality and market value of the product increases appreciably
due to even ripening of the entire lot at a time. Bananas are commercially ripened in closed
chambers with air renewal, controlled temperature and humidity, ethylene injectors, and
equipped with sophisticated instruments for monitoring CO2, temperature and relative
humidity.
Hands are precooled in refrigerated containers into cardboards cartons with pad and
polybag in packing stations to avoid bruising and stored at 13◦–14◦C and 90–95% relative
humidity, prior to ripening at 14◦–20◦C using exogenous ethylene-nitrogen mixture
(Lassoudiere, 2007; Arvanitoyannis and Mavromatis, 2009). After 24 hours of exposure to
ethylene gas (500– 1000 ppm azethyl solution), the room is ventilated to hasten the
ripening process. Ethylene is supplied from compressed gas cylinders, ethylene generators
or ethylene-generating chemicals, such as ethephon.
Commercially, bananas are treated with about 100 ppm ethylene for about 24 h under
controlled temperature and humidity conditions and ventilation to prevent carbon dioxide
(CO2) build-up. Newer systems pressurize the room to allow uniform ethylene distribution
and temperature. Temperature control allows fruit to be ripened on a specific schedule to
colour stage 3 for distribution in from 4 days at 19°C to 10 days at 14.5°C.
Depending on initial temperatures chosen, ripening time to colour Stage 4 can take
from 4 days (18°C) to 8 days (14°C). For ripening in 4 days, bananas are placed for 2 days at
18°C, followed by 1 day at 16°C and the last day at 14°C. For ripening in 6 days, bananas are
placed for 4 days at 16°C, 1 day at 15°C and the last day at 14°C, and for 8 days ripening, the
temperature should be kept at 14°C during the 8 days (Lassoudiere, 2007). According to
Lichtemberg et al. (2008), the ideal starting temperature for Cavendish bananas is 18°C
compared with 16°C for the ‘Pome’ subgroup. If initial ripening temperatures are too high
(>25°C), the fruit develops a soft, ripe pulp while the skin colour is only greenish yellow
(called ‘green ripe’). Conversely, temperatures below 13°C cause chilling in which the peel
develops a greyish-yellow colour due to discolouration of latex vessels. Uneven ripening
can be caused by low temperatures and/or insufficient ethylene. The humidity control also
has a significant impact on the final skin colour developed and flesh softening.
In local markets, where controlled ripening chambers are not available, fruits are
ripened by covering with a tarpaulin or cloth after inserting a packet of calcium carbide
(0.3 g/l) to generate acetylene. Although acetylene has physiological effects similar to
ethylene, it is a 100 times less effective analogue of ethylene. So higher quantity of
acetylene is required to produce the same results. On account of its carcinogenic
properties, the use of calcium carbide has been banned legally long back but still the
chemical is being used for ripening of fruits at many places. This practice must be
discontinued. A uniform, even ripening can be achieved by quick dipping of the fruits in
Ethrel solution at 1000 ppm for 10 seconds (Sriniwas et.al. 2013).
 77

35. Storage
Bananas are not stored bananas below 13oC. These temperatures damage green or ripe
bananas. A domestic refrigerator is far too cold. Bunches of green bananas stored at 14 to
16oC give off almost no heat or ethylene and can be stored for at least 2 weeks without
ripening naturally. Ripening bananas give off heat and ethylene. They should not be stored
near green bananas as the ethylene produced can cause the green bananas to ripen. Fruit
ripened at temperatures above 26oC do not develop the full yellow skin colour like
commercially ripened fruit even though the pulp ripens normally. This is called green ripe
stage. Do not store or transport with other ethylene-producing fruit. The fruits of cooking
types/ varieties can be stored for 3 weeks at 13°C temperature and 85–95% relative humidity.
The fruits should not be placed in refrigerator as the fruits may turn black at low
temperature.
As mentioned earlier their postharvest life can be increased by storing them in controlled
atmosphere (CA) storage. The CA requirements for bananas have been defined by Kader
(2001) as 12–16°C, 2–5% O2 and 2–5% CO2. This combination also increased green life of
mature-green bananas stored at 14°C to 4–6 weeks compared with 2–4 weeks under normal
conditions (Kader, 2002). Ethylene scrubbers, such as KMnO4, are also used to prevent
ripening, particularly in association with CA and low temperature storage. Growth
regulators such as auxins, gibberellins cytokinins, jasmonates and poly-amines are known
to retard ripening of fruits and may have some potential application in bananas.

36. Processing
The need for processed banana products has not been high in many countries since fresh
bananas are readily available throughout the year. Due to this reason, the development of
processed products from bananas has been slow compared with that of other crops.
However, in countries where a huge quantity of banana is produced annually and the
marketing facilities are not well organized, farmers incur losses in many ways. The exact
quantity of postharvest banana losses in different countries is not known but in general
losses of fruits and vegetables in the tropics are reported to be as high as 40–50% (Mejia,
2003). One report estimated that 40% of bananas produced in Brazil are lost after harvest
(Agrianual, 2003). Postharvest banana losses vary from country to country according to
market chains and modes of consumption. To protect the interests of the farmers and
minimising the postharvest losses processing of bananas has been given high priority in
many countries.
Banana can be processed into different value-added products and traded throughout the
world. Dehydration is one of the oldest methods that has been used extensively to preserve
bananas as banana fig and chips. Now commercial production of banana flour has gone up
substantially as it is increasingly used in preparation of foods like chapatis and breads.
Other popular processed banana products are dehydrated flakes and banana powder.
Banana puree is used in dairy products, bakery, beverage and baby food. Plantains are
usually processed into chips and the peel can be used in pickles. The male bud can also be
pickled. The process has been transferred to several entrepreneurs for commercialization.
Different processed products can be made from postharvest rejects of green or ripe
bananas. Chips and banana flour are mostly prepared from green bananas (Poiani et al.,
 78

2008). The most common products derived from ripe banana pulp include purée, nectar,
sweets, concentrated and clarified juice, ‘figs’, alcoholic drinks, ethanol and vinegar. From
a study made by INIBAP (2006) in nine important banana producing countries, it is
calculated that approximately 5% of bananas and 24% of plantains are processed. The most
important processed banana product is banana purée which is canned ripe pulp with no
sugar or preservatives added. A large volume of rejected Cavendish bananas is converted
into banana purée in Latin American Countries like Costa Rica, Jamaica, and Honduras.
The purée can, in turn, be used in dairy products, baking, beverages and baby food. Sliced
ripe bananas in cans with syrup is another important product. These are used for desserts
and fruit salads. The important dried banana products are figs, made from drying ripe
whole fingers, and flour, ground from dried whole green fruit.
Banana flour, both from green and ripe fruit, enriched with sugar, powdered milk,
minerals and vitamins, is widely used in baby foods. The discovery that banana flour has a
low glycaemic index has the potential of increasing the utilization of banana flour,
especially for controlling diabetes. It is mixed with wheat /ragi or some other flour and used
for making breads, chapatis, cakes, biscuits etc. Banana essence, extracted from ripe fruit,
is a clear, colourless liquid which has an agreeable, concentrated aroma and is used in
desserts, juices and drinks. In African countries banana wine and beer are very popular and
produced on commercial scale (Adeniji, 1995; Akubor, et. al. 2003; Rietveld, et. al. 2013).
Other processed products of banana, which are not so important commercially, are: (i)
powder made from grinding dried ripe fruit; (ii) juice extracted from ripe pulp with
enzymes; (iii) jams made from cooked ripe pulp; (iv) flakes, which are dried, thin ripe slices;
and (v) alcoholic beverages (liqueur).
The most important processed products made from plantains are chips, sweets, boiled
and roasted plantains sold on the street. Unripe bananas, or preferably cooking types
/plantains, can be sliced thinly and fried in vegetable oil to produce savoury chips which
are packed in sealed moisture-proof bags. Among current technologies developed for the
valorisation (value addition) of sorted bananas, several attempts were reported earlier
using culled and normal fruits for the production of chips, flakes, powders, figs, beverages
and several other products in addition to usual animal feed use (Zhang et al., 2005;
Narayana and Pillay, 2011). When trying to improve the utilization of unexpected cull green
and ripe bananas, additional postharvest technologies such as precooked and vacuum-
stored slices, frozen and intermediate banana flours, pasteurized and acidified pulp/puree,
clarified juices and fructose syrups, fermented beverages, jams, and jellies, are also
reported (Garcia et al., 1985; Hernandez-Uribe et al., 2008; Mohapatra et al., 2010a,b,c). The
fact that alcohol can be produced from banana also suggests that banana could be used for
the production of biofuel.

37. Marketing
Marketing is one of the most important factors in determining the success of banana
production. A developed and well-organized marketing brings producer and buyer / trader
closer and to the same level of advantage. In many Asian and African Countries growers
sell their total produce in local or district markets for domestic consumption. They are not
engaged in export trade. Their income from domestic marketing is lower as compared to
the export trade. Resources and logistic support are either inadequate or lacking
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completely. India is the world leader in banana with annual production of about 31 million
tonnes but the quantity that is exported to foreign countries doesn’t reach even 2% of the
total production.
According to a case study by Maersk Line (2011) high levels of domestic banana
consumption were a factor in creating less of an incentive for export. With the rise in the
Indian middle class, the domestic requirement for export quality bananas may well
increase, adding further constraints to export sector development. For the export to
continue to grow over the coming 10 – 20 years, it needs to offer exporters economic
benefits that the domestic market cannot match. In the recent years sincere efforts have
been made to enhance infrastructural facilities to increase the shelf-life of bananas by
suitable postharvest handling practices, pre-treatments, cold storage, so that post-harvest
losses are minimised and the export of banana can be promoted to long-distance countries
through sea route.
Naveen et. al. (2015) studied comparative efficacy of three banana marketing channels
viz.: (I) Producer  Village level trader  Wholesaler  Retailer  Consumer; (II) Producer
 Wholesaler  Retailer  Consumer; and (III) Producer  Wholesaler  Vendor 
Consumer in Karnataka. They found that even though the producer’s share of in the
consumer’s rupee was lower (41.59 %) in channel-I than Channel- III (50.90%), the farmers
preferred channel- I, because they received cash immediately at the farm gate after the sale
of the produce to the known village level trader. Market intermediaries enjoy lions’ share
and producers are hard hit. The producer’s share in consumer’s rupee is less due to presence
of several commission agents and intermediaries in the supply chain. The marketing
through Growers’ Cooperatives is prevalent only in two or three states namely Gujrat and
Maharashtra. In other states traditional supply chain operates.
Esendugue et.al. (2017) reported that in developing Asian countries the major problems
in marketing are due to lack of good agricultural practices, which affects overall quality,
distribution, and marketing of this important fruit. Thus, to ensure better profitability to
the growers marketing efficiency needs to be improved for all sorts of postharvest
activities. Assembling, handling, packing, storage, transport, processing, wholesaling,
retailing and export of banana as well as accompanying supporting services such as market
information, instructions regarding fruit grades and various quality standards, creation
and sharing of crop specific trade data, financing and risk management are to be upgraded
suitably on priority with substantial public - private investments.
As regards global marketing scenario, it is evident from the FAO report that global
exports of bananas in 2019, excluding plantain, reached a new record high of an estimated
21 million tonnes, an increase of 10.2 percent compared with 2018 (FAO, 2020). Data for the
year 2019 indicate that strong supply growth in Ecuador and the Philippines, the two
leading exporters, was again chiefly accountable for this rise. Fast growth in demand from
China and Turkey, two key emerging destinations for banana shipments from Ecuador,
were mainly behind this rise. The Philippines ranks as the largest exporter in the Asian
region, accounting for approximately 90 percent of total export volumes from Asia. Its two
major markets continued to be China and Japan in 2019, which were reported to have
absorbed around one third of Pilipino exports each in 2019. Africa’s exports come mainly
from two countries Côte d’Ivoire and Cameroon. In 2019, It declined by an estimated 2.5
percent from the reported volumes in 2018, to approximately 790 000 tonnes, as a result of
significant disruptions to supplies from Cameroon (FAO,2020).
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