Production Logging

Manual
A. INTRODUCTION – THE
THE RESERVOIR

A.1 INTRODUCTION - TTHE

HE Here the questions are different. Here the em-
RESERVOIR phasis is on production, fluids and pressures.
We need to know:
In the first “half” of a well’s life, it is drilled,
cased, cemented, perforated and completed. • Production flow rates
• Perforation efficiency
• Fluid mix
• Zone Production
• Pressures

Different techniques are employed. Well test-

ing, production logging and reservoir monitor-
ing tools are used to answer most of the ques-
tions. Some specialist devices such as
corrosion monitoring tools may be required.
Lithology?
Porosity?
Cement Quality? This phase of the well's life lasts for a much
Saturation? longer time, often years; hence there will be a
Fig. A1: Life of a well - Part 1 number of surveys during this time.

In the multiple well case the problem is com-

In an open hole well evaluation the questions plicated, the questions become related to the
asked are simple, where is the oil and how space between the wells, the reservoir scale.
much is there. The question is effectively,
where will we perforate? How much hydrocarbon is in these wells? Where is it?

Is there communication What is the extent of this reservoir?

between these reservoirs? How much will it produce?
Will it require enhanced
recovery techniques?

Fig. A2: Life of a well - Part 2 Fig. A3: Reservoir Questions

Are the zones connected, are the beds con-

In the second “half” of a well’s life the well is tinuous and so on. These questions cannot be
produced, there may be workover activity and easily answered by measurements taken in a
recompletion. single, or indeed, many wells. Interwell meas-

(01/97) A-1
Introduction to Production Logging

urements (well tests or crosswell seismic) A.2 FLUIDS

provide some of the answers. These tech-
Liquids are defined as fluids relatively free to
niques are often, difficult to do and give in-
flow but restricted enough by cohesive forces
conclusive answers. so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume.
In addition, there is the question of time, how
Gases are defined as fluids relatively free to
long will it produce, will the fluid mix change,
flow but unresrtricted by cohesive forces so
are there any production problems develop-
as to have no definite volume.
ing. The latter questions can only be an-
swered with surveys and tests over the pro-
Reservoir fluids need to be described in a dif-
ducing life of the reservoir.
ferent way from the rocks. The first definition
is one of contacts, where the fluids would be
The lithology of a reservoir is important in
in equilibrium. These are the gas-oil-contact,
open hole evaluation and the measurement of
the oil-water-contact and the gas-water-
the amount of hydrocarbon in place. There are
contact. The latter is only possible in a well
two major reservoir lithology types, clastics with gas and water (no oil). The second defini-
and carbonates.
tion is the oil in place, the amount of hydro-
carbon in the reservoir. The final definition is
Clastics are composed of sandstones and
one of the hydrocarbon properties, the gas-
shales, the latter of limestone, dolomite and oil-ratio; how much gas is in the oil. Due to the
evaporites such as salt or anhydrite. Sand-
complexity of the hydrocarbons in the reser-
stone reservoirs are usually regular in forma-
voir there are many other parameters which
tion while carbonate reservoirs have very ir- are needed to fully describe the fluids.
regular structures. Flow from the this type of
reservoir rock is often from fractures which
A reservoir normally contains either water or
can lead to irregular flow patterns and even hydrocarbon or a mixture. The hydrocarbon
flow from only those few perforations which
may be in the form of oil or gas. The specific
intresect with the fracture.
hydrocarbon actually produced depends on
the reservoir pressure and temperature. Other
The sandstones are often completed on multi- gases can be found in wells, these include,
ple small zones of differing permeability. This
helium, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide.
may mean that only some of the higher per-
In most cases these occur as traces together
meability zones actually flow.
with the hydrocarbon and water normally
found.
The description of the reservoir rock is usually
simple, sandstone or carbonate.
The formation water is uniquely described by
its salinity which may be fresh or salty. Using
the reference of seawater with a salinity of
around 30000 ppm chlorine, this varies from
500 ppm to 250000 ppm; a wide range.

The amount and type of fluid produced de-

pends on the initial reservoir pressure, rock
properties and the drive mechanism. The ma-
jor rock property involved in production is the
permeability.

(01/97) A-2
A.2.1 Hydrocarbon Classification H H H
Hydrocarbons vary widely in their properties.
H C H H C C H
The first classification is by fraction of each
component. This ranges from a dry gas which H H H
is mostly C1 (methane) to tar which is mostly
PARAFFIN SERIES, METHANE AND ETHANE
the heavier fractions. The black oil normally
found is between the two extremes, with some H H
C1 and some heavier fractions. C
H NAPTHALENE SERIES
H
Every hydrocarbon extracted from a reservoir C C
H H CYCLOPENTANE
is of a different composition.
H C C H
Typical hydrocarbons have the following H H
composition in Mol Fraction:
H

C
Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+ AROMATIC SERIES
Dry gas .88 .045 .045 .01 .01 .01 H C C H
BENZENE
Condensate .71 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08
Volatile oil .6 .08 .05 .04 .03 .2
H C C H
Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42
Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8 C
Tar/bitumen 1.0
H
Table A1: Hydrocarbon Types
Fig. A4: Hydrocarbon Structure

"The ratio of the density of the gas to that of

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of car- air at the same temperature and pressure".
bon atoms in the molecular chain. Gas specific gravity with respect to air should
not be confused with the specific gravity with
Another way to describe the hydrocarbons is respect to water.
by the mixtures of the groups of hydrocarbon
structure types. The three major groups are Oil is more complex than gas and has to be
shown. The simplest and most abundant is the defined in a more complete manner. The Gas-
paraffin series, with the more complex struc- Oil Ratio, GOR (symbol Rs) is a measure of
tures in varying proportions. how much gas is in the oil and hence how
light it is. This is measured at a specific pres-
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane, CH4. sure, for example the reservoir pressure.
Some heavier gases make up the rest. Gas The API gravity is a weight.
can contain impurities such as Hydrogen Sul-
phide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific gravity The table gives some typical values:
which is defined as:
GOR API Gravity
Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70
Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70
Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50
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Introduction to Production Logging

Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40 ent depends on the specific gravity with re-
Heavy oil 0 10-30 spect to water.
Tar/bitumen 0 <10
Table A2: Hydrocarbon Classification

The specific gravity of an oil is defined as

 141.5 
API =   − 131.5
o

 specific gravity(60 F )
o

A.2.2 Reservoir Pressures and

Tem
Temperatures
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled
by the gradient in the aquifer. The pressure in
the reservoir is controlled by the aquifer as it
is assumed that it is, somewhere, connected
to surface. This means that the pressure in the
water is effectively continuously controlled by
the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient
depends on the salinity of the water, the tem-
perature and the regional tectonic stresses. It
is usually constant over a large area. Al-
though, high pressures exist in some reser-
voirs.
Fig. A6: Reservoir Temperatures
The chart shows three possible temperature
gradients. The temperature can be deter-
mined if the depth is known. Temperature in
wells depends on a regional gradient. There
can be local “hot spots” where this is sharply
increased. The temperature is measured dur-
ing each logging run. Local knowledge is im-
portant.

Temperatures gradients are greatest near the

edges of the plates and lowest near the cen-
tres of the old continental plates as these are
the thickest points of the crust.

A.2.3 Hydrocarbon Phases

Fig. A5: Reservoir Pressures
The pressures in the oil and gas depend on
the gradients (densities) of these fluids. The
difference in gradients with the water gradi-
(01/97) A-4
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.:
gas or oil. In a reservoir oil and gas exist to-
gether at equilibrium, depending on the pres-
sure and temperature. The behaviour of a res-
ervoir fluid is analyzed using the properties;
Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT).
There are two simple ways of showing this:
• Pressure against temperature keeping
the volume constant.
• Pressure against volume keeping the
temperature constant.

The pressure and temperature are two quanti-
ties that can be easily measured. Thus it is
useful to describe the fluids behaviour during
production in these terms. Experimentally it is
easier to measure pressure and volume hence
the classical experiment is done using these
parameters at a constant temperature.
Fig. A7: PVT Experiment
The easiest experiment is to keep the tem-
perature constant, measuring volumes and
pressures.
The fluid used is a pure, single component hy-
drocarbon. (This is not found in a reservoir
fluid which consists of a number of compo-
nents.) Starting in the liquid and increasing
the volume, the pressure drops rapidly with
small changes in volume until the first bubble
of gas occurs. This is the Bubble Point.
Further increase in the volume causes no
change in the pressure until a point is reached
where all the liquid has vaporised.
This is the Dew Point.
Increasing the volume beyond this point
causes the pressure to drop, but much slower
than with the liquid phase.
The experiment is conducted at different tem-
peratures. The final plot of Pressure against
Temperature is made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the
Bubble Point and Dew Point, (for a single
component they coincide).
Fig. A8: Pressure temperature phase diagram for a
single hydrocarbon component
This is a plot for the single hydrocarbon com-
ponent used in the experiment. The Vapour
pressure curve terminates in the Critical Point.
This is a unique point for any substance, pure
or a mixture. This is the point at which all
properties of the coexisting gas and liquid
phases become identical.
At pressures and temperatures above the
critical point, for a single-component system,
there is only one fluid present and, depending
on the pressure and temperature, the fluid
may have the properties of a liquid or a gas.
The plot describes how this fluid behaves with
changing pressure and temperature.
If it starts in the liquid and the pressure is re-
duced, keeping the temperature constant, it
will cross the vapour pressure curve and be-
(01/97) A-5
Introduction to Production Logging
come a gas. Starting as a liquid at constant
pressure and increasing the temperature will
also change it to a gas.
Reservoirs do not have simple single-
component hydrocarbons. There is now an
envelope where two phases, oil and gas, exist
in equilibrium. This is due to there being both
heavy and light components in the fluid. The
Bubble Point and Dew Point curves still meet
at the critical point.
The critical pressure and temperature are no
longer necessarily the maximum pressure and
temperature (cricondentherm) at which liquid
and gas can co-exist. The shape of the enve-
lope and location of the critical pressure, criti-
cal temperature, maximum pressure, and
cricondentherm are determined by the com-
position of the mixture.
The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase dia-
gram for an oil reservoir is used to describe
how the oil at reservoir conditions behaves
when it is produced to surface (Figure A9).
Fig. A9: Phase diagram for an oil reservoir
Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of
pressure and temperature.
(01/97) A-6
If the reservoir is produced at a constant tem-
perature until the fluid reaches the wellbore,
the line to Point 'B' is drawn. This represents
the flow of fluid from the reservoir to the bore-
hole.
The fluid travelling to surface now drops in
both temperature and pressure arriving at the
"separator conditions" (s) with a final volume
of oil and gas.
Gas condensates, as the name suggests, start
as a gas and condense out some liquid (Figure
A10. This type of gas reservoir is commercially
very good as the liquid can easily be sold.
Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir conditions.
The reservoir is produced at a constant tem-
perature from C to D. Fluids flowing up the
well now drop in temperature and pressure,
crossing the Dew point line and liquid con-
denses out.
At separator conditions (s) the result in both
liquid and gas on the surface.
Fig. A10: Phase diagram for a retrograde condensate
gas reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A (in Fig-
ure A10). Producing the well to separator con-
ditions B does not change the fluid produced.
 tions of the same system, the percent of liquid
The point B is still in the "gas region" and and gas present at the end will be determined
hence dry gas is produced. by the pressure-temperature path taken.

This is the final diagram for the reservoir flu-

ids. This is a dry gas which never enters the
envelope under any normal producing condi-
tions.
For an adiabatic expansion, where no heat is
added to keep the temperature constant, the
temperature of gases tends to increase for
pressure drops above maximum pressure and
decrease (normal Joule-Thompson effect) for
pressure drops below maximum pressure.
A.2.4 Fluid Volume Changes
As described, fluids at bottom hole conditions
produce different fluids at surface:
• Oil becomes oil plus gas.
• Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a
Condensate.
• Water stays as water with occasionally
some dissolved gas.

Each reservoir fluid has a unique phase dia-

gram that usually changes with time (e.g.,
production). The relationship of the reservoir
fluid system, at reservoir pressure and tem-
perature, to its critical pressure, critical tem-
perature, and phase diagram determines the
state the fluids are in and the production
mechanism that may be encountered. The
pressure-temperature path taken by the fluids
from the reservoir to the stock tank or produc-
tion facilities will determine the percent of gas Fig. A11: Fluid changes from downhole to surface
and liquid present at a given time.
The volume change has to be quantified. Sur-
Another factor to consider with a multi-
face volumes are measured (production
component system has to do again with the
rates); these need to be converted to down-
dual processes of phase change and solubil-
hole conditions in order to compute how much
ity. When fluids are separated at the surface
has been produced at reservoir conditions
either a flash or a differential process is usu-
and hence how much is left. This change in
ally considered. A flash process is one in
volume between downhole conditions and the
which the composition of the system does not
surface is described by the Formation Volume
change. In a differential process, gas is re-
Factor:
moved as it is liberated and the composition of
the system is constantly changing. The com- Volume at Downhole Conditions
position of the system at a given pressure and FVF =
Volume at Reference Conditions
temperature will then determine which com-
ponents will change phase and which compo- Bo = formation volume factor for oil.
nents will come out of solution with a further Bw = formation volume factor for water.
pressure-temperature change. Therefore, Bg = formation volume factor for gas.
even though the final pressure and tempera-
ture may be the same for two different separa-

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Introduction to Production Logging

Bw is around 1, as water is nearly incom-

pressible. Bo is measured in a PVT laboratory
experiment, it is just over 1, a typical value
would be 1.2.

Bg can be measured in the laboratory or using

empirical charts. This figure depends very
much on the pressure and is always very
small, in the order of 10-3. (See appendix at
the end of this section for methods of
calculating these factors).

A.2.5 Saturation
The porosity of a formation has to be split be-
tween the fluids occupying the pore space. Fig. A12: A unit volume of the reservoir rock is divided
Saturation is the name given to the fraction of into its matrix, and fluid parts. The total fraction of fluids
is the porosity•••. This is further split into the fractions
a given fluid. of each fluid present
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction
of its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a
given fluid. The graphical representation in Fugure A12
shows the simple porosity model split now be-
Volume of specific fluid tween water and hydrocarbon. The volume of
Saturation = a fluid is the porosity times the saturation.
Total pore Volume

Definitions
Sw = water saturation.
So = oil saturation.
Sg = gas saturation.
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation
= So + Sg

Saturations are expressed as percentages or

fractions, e.g. Water saturation of 75% in a
reservoir with porosity of 20% contains water
equivalent to 15% of its volume.

(01/97) A-8
A.3 FLUID
FLUID FLOW Laminar flow is a smooth flow in which fluid
Fluid flow in the casing and/or the tubing de- elements follow paths that are straight and
pends on the fluids flowing from the reservoir. parallel to the walls containing the fluid. The
An oil with a high gas-oil ratio will produce a velocity of the fluid varies from 0 at the con-
lot of gas somewhere on its journey to the tainer wall to a maximum at the center for a
surface, a low GOR oil will produce less gas. If pipe or wellbore. The velocity profile shape is
there is water production as well, three phase parabolic.
flow will exist in the tubing as the gas comes
out of solution and two phase (diphasic) flow Turbulent flow is characterized by random,
in the casing/tubing before the gas has come irregular movement of the fluid elements
out of solution. throughout the fluid except at the container
These flow regimes cause problems for meas- wall. The velocity again varies from 0 at the
urements. wall to a maximum at the center, but with a
much flatter profile. Velocity profiles for lami-
Flow in the casing and/or tubing is broken into nar and turbulent flows are illustrated in Fig-
different regimes from Bubble flow, gas bub- ure A14.
bles in oil, to mist flow, oil droplets in gas (Fig-
ure A13). The actual flow regime encountered
in the well depends on the flow velocities and
gas-oil ratio.
velocity = 0
at pipe wall
More than one type of flow will be present in
the well as the pressure change and more gas Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
come out of solution.
Fig. A14: Flow occurs in two types, laminar flow and
FLOW REGIMES turbulent flow. The profile is different and hence so is
102
the flow measured by the tools

Reynolds number, Nre can be used to deter-

LIQUID VELOCITY

10
REGION I mine if flow is laminar or turbulent.
REGION II REGION III
N

ρvd
IO
SIT

N re =
AN

µ
TR

1
BUBBLE FLOW

PLUG FLOW
SLUG FLOW
MIST FLOW
Where:
10-1 1 10 102 103
GAS VELOCITY

Fig. A13: Fluid phases in the wellbore

•••= fluid density
v = average fluid velocity
d = pipe diameter
•••= fluid viscosity
A.3.1 Single Phase Flow
Single phase fluid flow is the simplest type of If Nre is greater than approximately 4,000, the
flow; even so, it can cause problems with sen- flow is turbulent. The relationship of Reynolds
sor response. Single phase flow can be di- number to flow rate is illustrated in Figure A15.
vided into two basic types of flow: laminar
and turbulent.

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Introduction to Production Logging

10000
Reynolds Number v Flow rate
for 1.0g/cm 3 fluid

Turbulent flow
v is what a flowmeter attempts to measure.
transition zone

The velocity profile may not be symmetric due

1000 to pipe ovality, pipe roughness, proximity to
fluid entries, or other causes.
Reynolds number

Laminar flow

The velocity a tool sees will depend not only

on the actual fluid velocity profile, but also on
100
tool size (spinner size) relative to pipe size,
tool centering, tool configuration (cages and
pipe od
3
centralizers), and whether annular flow is a
4
5
factor (in-line spinners and tracer tools). (Fig-
6
8
ure A17).
10
10 100 1000
Flow rate in barrels/day
Diverter flowmeters do not eliminate all of the
Fig. A15: Chart to determine the flow type depending on
above problems because of leakage around
the flow rate and the pipe size
and through the diverter elements or petals,
but diverter flowmeters can minimize some of
Figure A16 illustrates the ratio of average ve- the problems.
locity to center velocity versus Nre for water
or air in a smooth pipe. For a given set of conditions, spinner speed
is a function of fluid velocity, viscosity, den-
9.0
8.0
7.0
sity, blade angle and condition, and bearing
6.0
5.0
friction.
4.0
x1000 Reynolds Number

3.0

2.0

1.0 Turbulent Flow

.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4

.3
Transition

.2

Laminar flow

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5
Average Velocity
Centre Velocity

Fig. A16: The flowrate at the centre is different from the

average flowrate depending on the flow type. The chart
shows how this changes with Reynolds number and
hence the flow type

The average or superficial velocity v , for

laminar flow from Poiseuilleus law, can be
calculated as follows:

4q q
v= =
πd2 A
(01/97) A-10
 Qh = heavy phase flow rate
Yh = heavy phase hold up
Qt = total flow rate
Vs = slippage velocity
A = flow area

Slip velocity is the reason water holdup is not

equal to water cut. This will be covered in
more detail in the section on multiphase flow
interpretation.

In a deviated well the situation is further com-

plicated as the fluids will gravity segregate
unless the flow velocity is high enough to en-
sure complete mixing.
Slippage
Velocity
vs ft/min
140

120

100

80

60

40
40Þ
30Þ
20 20Þ
10Þ
0Þ
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Vw

Fig. A18: The chart shows the changes in slippage ve-

Fig. A17: Flowmeters measure different flowrate de- locity with hole deviation (Vw is the water or heavy
pending on the flow type and also their position in the phase) velocity
borehole
Figure A18 is the result of flow loop work relat-
ing slip velocity to hole angle for kerosene and
water flow in a five inch pipe with the water
A.3.2 Multiphase flow
flow not over approximately 400 B/D. A few
Multiphase flow is a much more complex phe- degrees of deviation can make large changes
nomena than single phase flow. Unless the in flow regime.
fluids are a homogeneous mixture, the phases
will move at different velocities. The light
phase will move faster than the heavy phase
because of the density difference between
the two phases. This difference in velocities
is called the slip velocity.

Qh = Yh Qt - Yh (1 - Yh) Vs A

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Introduction to Production Logging

Multiphase flow discussion has been limited

to two phase flow for two reasons. First,
models or correlations describing three phase
flow of oil, gas, and water are limited. Sec-
ond, sensors do not exist to properly measure
three components. Under the proper condi-
tions, tool combinations using both density
and capacitance measuring devices can be
used for quantitative interpretation in a three
phase environment.

Fig. A19: Flowmeters may read two different types of

flow in deviated wells

A flowmeter in segregated flow may exhibit a

response resembling downflow (Figure A19).
The light phase moving up the high side of the
pipe will drag heavy phase with it. Some of
this heavy phase will fall out and flow down
the low side of the pipe. This can occur
where the heavy phase is water, even if no
water is being produced at the surface. A
spinner, as in the diagram, may see this down
flow. What other sensors see will depend on
whether they get a representative fluid sample
in their measuring section.

The temperature of a moving fluid at any point

in a well is a function of many parameters.
Occasionally, simplifying assumptions can be
made and a temperature log may be used
quantitatively for flow rates. It is usually much
better as a qualitative indicator of fluid quanti-
ties and types.

When fluids undergo a sufficient pressure

drop, some energy is expended in the form of
sound. These sounds can be related at times
to fluid types and quantities. The energy ex-
pended per unit time is proportional to the
pressure drop times the flow rate.

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A.4 PERFORATION
PERFORATION
Perforation is the most popular method of res-
ervoir completion. The objective is to create a
path for flow from the formation to the well
through the casing and cement. The require-
ment is thus for a hole to be made in the cas-
ing, cement and into the formation for a short
distance. Standard perforations have an en-
trance hole of about 0.4” and a penetration of
around 20”.
It is made using a perforation gun system.
Gun systems use three components:
• Detonator - primary high explosive
ignited by heat or shock
• Primacord - secondary high explosive ig-
nited by the detonator, burns at 8400
m/sec
• Shaped charges - create the perfora-
tions, detonated by the primacord.
The detonator starts the reaction, the prima-
cord propagates it and the shaped charge
makes the holes.
Shaped Charges are the most important part
of the system. They were developed shortly
after World War II from the military bazooka
weapon.
There are three basic elements of a shaped
charge (Figure A20):
• case (Steel or Aluminium).
• cylinder of high explosive & a primer.
• conical metallic liner.
Case
Primacord
Primer
Charge
Explosive
Charge
Liner
Fig. A20: Shaped charge design
It was found that the conical shape produced
a depression/hole in a metal target. The addi-
tion of the liner increased the efficiency of the
system. Modern liners are made of powdered
metal and leave a powder residue at the end
of the perforation. A typical charge has only
about 20 grams of explosive material.
Slug Jet
p=100GPa
500 m/s
Tip
7000 m/s
Fig. A21: Jet Formation
The explosion forces the liner to flow inwards
and out. It forms into a characteristic shape,
the jet (Figure A21), which is moving rapidly
and has extremely high pressures at the tip.
The pressure causes the material in the path
of the jet of metal to move out of the way cre-
ating the perforation tunnel into the formation.
The dimensions of the perforation, length of
the tunnel, and the diameter of the entrance
hole are linked and depend on the geometry of
the shaped charge.
If the liner opening is widened the entrance
hole size increases but the penetration de-
creases. These type of charges are used for
applications such as gravel pack.
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Introduction to Production Logging
There are a number of decisions to be made in
the planning of a perforation job.
The first is which perforation method to use:
• overbalanced or
• underbalanced.
Overbalanced perforation is made with the
wellbore pressure higher than the reservoir
pressure and so there is invasion once perfo-
rated. Underbalanced perforation means that
the reservoir produces once the perforation is
made.
In the first case the well is controlled using
the normal rig blow out prevention system. In
the latter special pressure control equipment
may be required.
The next question is the type of gun system;
• casing guns
• through tubing guns or
• tubing conveyed guns.
These three systems are summarised as fol-
lows;
Casing Gun
• Well Pressure > Formation Pressure
• Overbalanced perforating
• Large diameter carrier gun
• Carried on an electric line.
The advantage of a casing gun completion is
that all perforation material is carried inside
the carrier hence it is protected from the well
fluids. The resulting debris is also brought out
of the well in the same carrier. The carrier can
be either re-usable or not depending on the
type of operation being performed. The more
complex gun types are all “throw-away” type
carriers. The disadvantage of overbalanced
perforation is that the mud in the well bore will
enter the well as it is at a higher pressure.
Through Tubing
(01/97) A-14
• Well Pressure < Formation Pressure.
• Completion and final surface production
equipment, or a temporary completion
and testing facilities are in place
• Underbalanced perforating, with pres-
sure control equipment
• Through tubing gun (small guns)
• Gauges can be run with the string
• Carried on an electric line.
Through tubing perforation eliminates the in-
vasion problem and gives the formation the
chance to flow immediately. The disadvantage
is that smaller guns have to be used, which
means either smaller charges in a small car-
rier, or larger charges exposed to well fluids
and debris left in the well. The choice depends
on the type of well being perforated.
Tubing Conveyed Perforating
• Perforation gun is carried on either the
drill pipe or on tubing.
• Well Pressure < or > Formation Pres-
sure
• Large interval of perforation in one run-
in-hole
• High explosive content, perforation
spacing
• Gauges can be run at the same time.
Tubing conveyed perforation (TCP) connects a
carrier gun to the end of the drill pipe or tub-
ing. The gun can be fired by a number differ-
ent types of detonators such as drop bar,
pressure firing heads or inductive coupling.
The choice depends on the conditions and
type of well.
The advantages of this method are mainly the
long interval(s) possible and the possibility of
a simultaneous well test using downhole
gauges.
The final decisions on the perforation are the A.5 APPENDIX
shot density, the number of shots per foot, spf,
Fluid parameters
(the current maximum is 21 spf.) and the Phas-
Various fluid physical properties affecting
ing - the directions of the perforations (Figure
production logging are changed by pressure
A22). This ranges from 0_ to 30_/60_.
and temperature and these changes need to
calculated.
The number of shots per foot depends on the
application and the reservoir parameters. The
There are several reasons for wanting to cal-
objective is to obtain the best flow efficiency
culate these changes. One is to be able to
most economically. Computer programs exist
calculate downhole fluid densities for use in
which allow the reservoir engineer to select
holdup calculations. Another is to be able to
the best combination of shots per foot and
convert downhole flow rates to surface rates
phasing. Gravel pack completions normally
and vice-versa. Another is to be able to cor-
have very high shot densities.
rect sensor response for fluid effects. Also, it
Shaped charges is helpful to know how many fluid types will be
shots
per present downhole when logging.
foot
The physical properties of usual interest are
solubility, formation volume factor, bubble
point pressure, compressibility, natural gas
deviation factor, density, and viscosity.

A number of charts, nomographs, and equa-

tions are available to estimate the properties.
However, they are empirical and may not ac-
curately describe a particular hydrocarbon
90° phasing Perforation system and should be used only if a more ac-
Directions curate model for the fluids in question is not
available.

The publication “Fluid Conversions in Produc-

tion Log Interpretation” contains all the rele-
vant charts together with examples on their
use.

Fig. A22: Perforation characteristics are the number of

shots per foot of gun (spf) and the phasing of these
shots

(01/97) A-15
B. PRODUCTION PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS

B.1 SATURATION permeability leaving hydrocarbons behind the

Saturation, as well as having a “radial” com-
ponent in the form of invasion has a time com-
ponent. As the reservoir is produced the water
moves in to vacate the space left by the pro-
ducing oil. This process continues until the oil
saturation equals the residual value.
water front.
Measuring water movements helps to detect
and survey the rise of the water/oil contact,
locate water fingers which could give un-
wanted water production.

Invaded
Virgin Zone
Zone

oil
oil

water
water

Matrix
OIL

Fig. B1: Saturation in a reservoir is broken down into

the virgin and invaded zones during the drilling and
open hole phase. During production the saturation WATER
changes reflect the movements of the reservoir fluids.

Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or High Permeability

Layer
all of their peripheries by aquifers. The aqui-
fers may also be so large compared with the
reservoirs they adjoin as to appear infinite for OIL
all practical purposes, and range down to
those so small as to be negligible in their ef-
fect on reservoir performance. When pressure
decreases due to oil production, the aquifer
reacts to offset or retard pressure decline
providing a source of water influx or en- Fig. B2: This, multiple zone reservoir, is now product-
croachement. ing water from one layer. Water fingering in this higher
permeability zone has created the problem.
Water may be injected to supply external en-
ergy to improve the recovery of hydrocarbons. A reservoir consisting of multiple layers and
The injected water may advance evenly or completed in several together can eventually
may channel through the streaks of better give rise to a situation as pictured in Figure

(01/97) B-1
Introduction to Production Logging
B2. The high permeability layer is producing
water.
B.1.1 Crossflow
Thief zones can be defined as those zones
that are considered open to the wellbore ei-
ther by perforations or openhole completion
which due to zone pressure differences re-
move fluids from the wellbore. The pressure
differences are caused by zones depleting
faster due to higher permeability. Hence, in
the illustration above, the middle zone may
become a thief zone as it produces.
P1
High Permeability
Layer P3>>P2
P2
P3
Fig. B3: Crossflow from a lower zone to a higher one.
This phenomena happens in any direction.
(01/97) B-2
In the case of a production well the thief
zones are generally most noticeable when the
well is in a shut-in surface condition. In this
condition the higher pressure zones will tend
to feed fluid into the lower pressure zones.
In some cases this could be a hydrocarbon, in
other cases water, but in all cases it generally
makes the surface production rates unusable
in predicting individual zone balance of mate-
rial equations. It also reduces the potential
production of the well and reservoir.
In the case of injection wells the thief zones
on an injection profile may appear as higher
injectivity zones, depending on their relative
permeability to the other injection zones. In
most cases these thief zones will continue to
take fluid from other zones, even when the
surface injection rate is zero. This can largely
distort any balance of material calculations if
only the surface rates are applied to all the
downhole zones.
In either the producing or the injecting profile
it is important to know the dowhole profile of
the well for both the active and passive sur-
face conditions. In a producing well a thief
zone could be decreasing the overall surface
production of hydrocarbons, or downhole it
could be dump flooding a potential hydrocar-
bon zone with water. In most situations the
most serious effects of a thief zone on overall
well productivity will be in those areas where
the wells are on quota and may, therefore, be
shut in for a large percentage of the time. In
injection wells specific zone pressure may not
be as well supported as believed if only injec-
tion profiles are monitored and no attention is
paid to the shut-in state.
B.2 CEMENTING
Cementing of the casing in place is one of the
most vital operations in the drilling phase. It is
necessary to have a perfect seal between
zones to avoid unwanted fluid production or
reservoir contamination. Cement slurry is
pumped behind the casing to the required
height. It is left to set for some time before any
other operations.
Unwanted fluid
flow
The cement quality has to be evaluated before
the completion and any repairs made at that
Bad Cement
time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
any measurement in cased hole.
One of the major difficulties in cementing is
the presence of gas zones. These will cause
problems if precautions are not taken during
the cement job.

B.2.1 Channeling
Channeling is generally defined as the ability
of fluids to move in the region of the produc- Fig. B4: A cement channel from the lower zone to the
tion casing annulus because of a lack of hy- upper results in the production of unwanted fluids.
draulic isolation between the casing and the
cement or the cement and the formation.
Channeling may occur in three conditions.
In injection wells channeling can permit the
These conditions are:
injected fluid to enter undesirable zones, thus
• Oil or gas well with water channeling up
reducing the overall effectiveness of either
from a lower zone
secondary or tertiary recovery systems. Pres-
sure maintenance and flushing will not neces- • Oil or gas well with water channeling down
sarily prolong the productive life of a well; in- from a higher zone
stead, it may actually shorten the productive • Oil well with gas channeling down from a
life by providing a breakthrough into the higher zone
wrong zones.

Channeling in producers can lead to the pro-

duction of unwanted fluids; i.e., water from
wet zones or gas from the gas cap or gas
zone. In some cases this unwanted production
can render a well totally nonproductive.

(01/97) B-3
Introduction to Production Logging

B.3 CORROSION ages. Five different mechanisms are known to

contribute to chemical corrosion:
Corrosion encountered in the Oil Industry in-
a) Direct chemical attack
volves several mechanisms, generally classi-
fied into three main categories: b) H2S attack (Sour corrosion)
c) CO2 attack (Sweet Corrosion)
• Electrochemical Corrosion
d) Hydrogen attack
• Chemical Corrosion
e) Bacterial attack
• Mechanical Corrosion
B.3.3 Mechanical Corrosion
B.3.1 Electrochemical corrosion
There are two basic mechanisms for me-
This type of corrosion is caused by phenom-
chanical corrosion:
ena that involve passage of current between
a) Stress Corrosion
one or several metals and an electrolyte, with
transfer of ions and electron (Figure B5). b) Erosion Corrosion

Electrochemical corrosion accounts for the B.3.4 Production Problems and

majority of observed downhole casing corro- Cor
Corrosion
sion, and is mainly detected on the outer cas- There are many potential problems caused by
ing walls. Metal is attacked in four different the numerous corrosion mechanisms. Any of
ways: the components of the completion string can
leak – packers, tubings, etc., (see Figure B6).
a) Generalized Galvanic Corrosion This will cause mixed production which could
b) Crevice Corrosion lead to further problems such as crossflow.
c) Pitting Corrosion
d) Intergranular Corrosion.
Conductor
_
e

Anode Cathode Tubing

Leak
Packer
Leak

Metal ions (M+) Electrolyte

Fig. B5: General mechanism for electrochemical

corrosion

Fig. B6: Leaks in the tubing and packer cause

B.3.2 Chemical corrosion production problems.
This type of corrosion involves chemical reac-
tion which may not produce appreciable volt-
(01/97) B-4
The casing string(s) could leak allowing fluid Fig. B7: Corroded casing allows fluids to escape back
to escape into another layer. This not only into a reservoir zone.
causes a loss in production but could con-
taminate water zones (Figure B7).

Casing
Leak

(01/97) B-5
Introduction to Production Logging

B.4 APPENDIX: CONDI

CONDITIONS
TIONS PROMOTING COR
CORROSION
ROSION
The conditions of the well tubulars, together with the presence of oxygen-rich, saline and corrosive
fluids play a major role in the corrosion initiation and propagation. Figure B8 shows the conditions
that promote the various corrosion mechanisms and Figure B9 locates them with respect to a sche-
matic completion string.

DOWNHOLE Poor Single Saline/

Collars oxyg. Form. Solid
TYPE Condt. Cement Joint Move.
OF Metal Casing Casing Fluid B.H.
CORROSION Prop. Anom. Stress Corrosive
Fluids
Galvanic
Electro- Crevice
Pitting
chemical
Intergranular

Chemical
H2 S
Chemical C O2
Bacteria
Hydrogen

Stress
Mech.
Erosion

Fig. B8: Conditions promoting corrosion

(01/97) B-6
B.4.1 Conditions
• Poor quality cementation: In a poor cement
job, casing is exposed to saline formation wa-
ter, acting as an electrolyte. Some shallow
formation waters contain dissolved oxygen
which accelerates corrosion rates. Non-
sulfate resistant cement (construction ce-
ment) breaks down rapidly and exposes the
casing to corrosive aquifer water.
• Metal properties: Most casings show varia-
tion in metallic properties, from joint to joint,
across the same joint, and from joint to collar.
This produces galvanic cells, and is seen on
electromagnetic logs as a variation in joint
conductivity and magnetic permeability.
• Casing anomalies: localized casing anoma-
lies can promote galvanic and pitting corro-
sion.
• Corrosion at collars
collars: collars are normally
stressed and distorted, and present gaps.
They often are starting points for galvanic, pit-
ting, and crevice corrosion.
• Casing stress: Stressed sections of casing
can accelerate corrosion because of their dis-
torted lattice structure. Hydrogen cracking
occurs when hydrogen ions diffuse into the
stressed metal.
• Saline formation fluids: they act as an elec-
trolyte and promote electrochemical and
chemical corrosion. Notice that overall corro-
sivity of saline solutions increases with salin-
ity to about 5% NaCl, and then decreases be-
cause of reduced oxygen solubility. Above
15% NaCl, the saline solution is less corrosive
than fresh water.
• Oxygenated fluids: either meteoric forma-
tion waters or injection water not treated can
cause electrochemical and chemical attack.
Notice that, for carbon steel, oxygen dissolved
in water is about 80 times more corrosive than
CO2 and about 400 times more corrosive than
H2S.
• Borehole corrosive
corrosive fluids: Spent acids,
brines, or H2S and CO2 in the production
stream can promote chemical corrosion.
• Fluid and solid flow: Erosion corrosion is
caused by high velocity fluids, turbulence,
sand production.
• Bacterial growth: Anaerobic Sulfate Reduc-
ing Bacteria synthesize H2S and promote
chemical and pitting corrosion.
B.4.2 Measures to prevent or remedy
corrosion
Several measures are available to prevent or
remedy corrosion in completion strings. They
are listed here for information and not dis-
cussed in any details as each one is the do-
main of specialists:
• Engineering design
• Selection of materials and alloys
• Coatings
• Good cementing
• Choice of completion fluids
• Inhibitors and biocides
• Cathodic protection
• Run tubing and casing patches
• Workover to replace tubulars
• Tie-back liners
• Changes in completion
Useful elements to design prevention and re-
medial programs can be obtained from corro-
sion evaluation and monitoring using wireline
logging tools.
(01/97) B-7
Introduction to Production Logging

STRESS
ACID

OXYGENATED/
SALINE FLUIDS POOR
CEMENT

CORROSIVE
ANNULUS FLUID

BIMETALLISM
H2S CORROSIVE
CO2
FORMATION
+ FLUID
STAGNANT H2O
FLUIDS

Fig. B9: Location of Corrosion in Wells

(01/97) B-8
C. MONITORING
C.1 INTRODUCTION
Monitoring is a term applied to the continual
checking of a parameter. In the reservoir con-
text applied to production logging this has
three different types;
• saturation monitoring
• cement monotoring
• corrosion monitoring.
Saturation monitoring follows the changes in
fluid content of the reservoir. This is important
in production logging when investigating wa-
ter (or gas) flows.
Cement quality is important when investigat-
ing unexplained fluid flows. Corrosion checks
the status of the casing and tubing giving prior
warning of potential problem areas such as
leaks.
C.2 SATURATION MONIT
MONITORING
ORING
To achieve optimum hydrocarbon recovery,
the monitoring of water saturation at regular
intervals is essential. This is achieved by
measuring the water saturation in different
portions of the field and then drawing contour
maps of iso-saturation curves.
Measuring water movements helps to detect
and survey the rise of the water/oil contact,
locate water fingers or bypassed hydrocar-
bons, estimate the residual oil saturation and
evaluate the efficiency of water-flooding pro-
jects. Proper monitoring allows to take the
necessary steps to maximise the final recov-
ery.
In the left hand well in Figure C1 there is a
breakthrough in some of the layers, they have
depleted faster. They have higher permeabili-
ties and will now produce water. An additional
problem of crossflow may occur if these zones
have lower pressures than the others.
Monitoring would see this problem early in the
reservoir’s life allowing it to be dealt with in
time.
WATER AND
SOME OIL OIL
Fig. C1: Saturation changes through the reservoir layers
cause problems if some beds have a higher
permeability.
(01/97) C-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Porosity %
50 0
original water
in place
P
e
r
f Lithology?
o Cement quality?
Remaining
r
hydrocarbon Fluids ?
a
t
i Hole size
o
n Fig. C3: Factors affecting cased hole monitoring tools
s
displaced hydrocarbon
A number of unknowns affect both tools;

• PNC - fluid salinity, lithology

• C/O - lithology
• Both - hole size, cement quality,
borehole salinity/fluid

When the formation water is not sufficiently

saline or when its salinity is unknown, the
Fig. C2: This figure shows the change over time of the
amount of hydrocarbon in the layers. Zones with poten-
carbon-oxygen method provides a more reli-
tial problems will show greater depeletion than the rest. able answer, and the PNC data may not be
interpretable.
A reservoir consisting of multiple layers and
C/O measurements are best in carbonates be-
completed on several together can eventually
cause it also contains carbon, giving a better
give rise to a situation as pictured in Figure C2.
statistical measurement.
Reservoir evaluation and saturation monitor-
In large holes both tools have problems. Poor
ing through casing are generally performed in
cement will add to the problems as the fluid
two ways. One measures the decay of thermal
behind the casing may be unknown. In the C/O
neutron populations (TDT-P*, pulsed neutron
case the borehole fluid is not a problem for the
capture) and the other determines the relative
large tool, however it must be known for the
amounts of carbon and oxygen in the forma-
smaller device. The borehole capture cross
tion of inelastic gamma ray spectroscopy, as
section is measured with the PNC tools but in
used in the GST* or RST* (induced gamma ray
some cases it may cause problems.
spectroscopy). Because chlorine has a large
neutron capture cross section, the PNC tech-
C.2.1 PNC Interpretation
nique provides good results in areas with
The log reading is a linear mixture of the ma-
highly saline formation waters.
trix and the fluid:
Both use an electronic source and pairs of
detectors measuring gamma rays.

(01/97) C-2
Σ log = Σ f φ + (1 − φ )Σ ma
The fluid term can be expanded to:
Σ f = Σ w S w + (1 − S w )Σ h
Hence if •w, •ma, •h and the porosity, • are
known the saturation Sw can be obtained.
The equation linking the log reading and the
formation is linear. The unknowns are the cap-
ture cross sections for the water, hydrocarbon
and matrix plus the porosity. The latter can be
measured with the tool but it is preferable to
use open hole data.
The capture cross-section for the matrix is
easily found if the lithology is known.
Lithology Capture Cross Sec
Se c tion
Limestone 7cu
Sandstone 4.2cu
Dolomite 4.7cu
Salt 754cu
Anhydrite 12.5cu
Clay (pure) 14-24cu
Table C1: Matrix capture cross sections
The matrix capture cross sections come from
the lithology of the formation. One problem is
the presence of clay. Both the quantity and
type are important as some clay minerals have
a high capture cross section compared to
sandstone.
The capture cross-section of the hydrocarbon
depends on its type, oil or gas, temperature
and pressure and GOR. Charts in the standard
Chart Book can be used to determine the cor-
rect values.
The capture cross-section of the water de-
pends on the salinity. There is also a minor
temperature and pressure dependence.
The values can be obtained from the Chart
Book if the formation water salinity is known.
The values for the fluids are easier to find as
they depend on known phenomena.
Σ w
Σ log
Sw = 100% .
Σ ma
Σ H
Sw = 0%
POROSITY
Fig. C4: Crossplot of Porosity versus capture cross-
section used to find the parameters and compute the
water saturation
An alternative to using charts to find the pa-
rameters is to use a crossplot of capture cross
section, • against porosity, ••(Figure C4).
From equations 1 and 2
If • = 0, the intercept is at •ma.
If • = 1, and Sw = 0, the intercept is •h.
If • = 1, and Sw = 1, the intercept is •w
Once the parameters have been found the
equation can be solved for Sw.
The problems with using this type of log is that
there has to be a good contrast between the
hydrocarbon point and the water point for this
technique to work. This requirement limits the
technique to high salinity formation waters.
(01/97) C-3
Introduction to Production Logging

The matrix point can be difficult to find in a

shaly formation if there are no 100% shale
zones.

The value of Sw can be seriously affected if

there are any elements with a high capture
cross-section in the water. An example of this
is gadolinium with a capture cross-section of
30000. A small amount will increase the Sw
significantly. Using the graphical method
should eliminate this problem.

Gas and oil have very different capture cross-

sections. The correct one has to be used.

Time lapse is a standard technique of monitor-

ing wells. A base log is run shortly after pro-
duction. The log is interpreted and can be
matched to the open hole evaluation, thus
checking the chosen parameters. Some time
later, a monitoring log is run. The change in
saturation is then given by:

∆Σ
∆Sw =
φ (Σ w − Σ h )

The matrix term has dropped out.The resulting
saturation is more accurate than a stand-
alone value.
The base log has to be run late enough for the
filtrate to have dissipated but early enough so
that depletion is not significant. The match
with the open hole evaluation fixes such prob-
lems as uncertainty with the shale content or
the porosity. The only match is saturation.
Fig. C5: Time lapse saturation monitoring example
Figure C5 shows an example of time-lapse
monitoring. The open hole computed log is
displayed with three computed TDT logs that
were run over several years. The rise in the
oil/water contact between logs runs is obvi-
ous. Water fingering has also developed in an
upper high-permeability zone.

The difference between the monitoring log This type of survey is normally performed in
and the base log is the depletion. several wells of the same reservoir. This al-
lows one to map the water saturation and
monitor the water front advances.

Time-lapse maps of saturation values over an

entire reservoir area provide a powerful aid in
predicting future performance of the field. The
(01/97) C-4
three time lapse maps shown in Figure C6
were made over a number of years and show
the progression of a waterfront in a single
zone in this carbonate formation.

Fig. C7: Errors in the computed saturation for an error in

the capture cross section

This a similar chart to the previous example,

this time with the porosity as the changing
quantity. In this case a 6p.u. error in porosity
again gives a 40% error in the saturation.

Fig. C6: Time lapse map

The main areas of water encroachement can

be clearly seen. The maps were constructed
using open hole and TDT log data from 40
wells. Similar maps can be made for each
layer or sublayer to monitor water movement.

Figure C7 shows the relative errors in the

computation of the saturation with changes in
the capture cross section accuracy. Using the
chart, for a 1 cu error in •, at 20% hydrocarbon
volume the error in saturation is around 40%.

Fig. C8: Errors in saturation computation with errors in

porosity

If the pulsed neutron is used alone (no open

hole data) the combination of these errors
could result in a large discrepancy. Using the
open hole measurement for the porosity is a
fisrt step in improving the accuracy of the
technique. The addition of an early monitoring

(01/97) C-5
Introduction to Production Logging

run to compare with the original open hole

values and subsequent monitoring passes Sw=0, Yo=100

gives the best possible answers.

C.2.3 Carbon Oxygen Logging

Far C/O ratio

Sw=0, Yo=0 Sw=100, Yo=100

Sw=100, Yo=0
Near C/O Ratio

Fig. C10: Crossplot of the Far C/O versus the Near C/O.
The plot end points give the relative amounts of each
element in the borehople and the formation

The smaller tools have a plot which has less

spread and the near and far detectors “see”
almost the same thing, hence it can only dis-
tinguish the formation percentage. The bore-
hole fluid must be known in this case.

C.2.4 Example

Fig. C9: Spectra of some of the elements by induced

gamma ray spectroscopy

The first stage of the measurement computes

the individual elements from the spectra (Fig-
ure C9). This is very statistical. The next step
takes large windows over the expected car-
bon and oxygen peaks to give a statistically
good measurement. The combination of these
two gives an accurate carbon- oxygen ratio
which can then be transformed into satura-
tion.
Fig. C11: Initial field map showing the original oil water
The plot in Figure C10 is of the Far C/O ratio contact
against the Near C/O. The combination gives Figure C11 shows the original oil water con-
both the formation water percentage Sw and tact (OOWC) at X370 ft . The field has 12 oil
the borehole percentage Yo. This plot is for wells which have produced a total of 7 million
the RST-B* tool, which has the ability to com- barrels and have estimated remaining re-
pute both the formation and borehole per- serves of another 9 million barrels. Initial pro-
centages. The shape of the plot depends on duction from these wells oscillated from 650 to
the lithology. 1360 BOPD and most had early water produc-

(01/97) C-6
tion due to the active water drive in the reser-
voir.
The drastic increase in water production
forced the closure of all producers with the
exception of well A-1, which was still produc-
ing aroung 800 BOPD with no water. The wa-
ter production per well is shown in the struc-
tural map (Figure 12). The large proportion of
unrecovered reserves from these 12 wells and
the belief that water production was caused
by localized coning tempted the operator to
consider re-entry horizontal wells to tap the
remaining reserves.
Fig. C12: New map after high water cut in the
production

The lack of accurate production data and sur-

veys of any type in the watered-out wells
prompted the use of the RST tool for surveys
designed to locate the oil water contact
(OWC). Well A was selected for the survey
since it is located downdip fromm the wells
abandoned due to excessive water produc-
tion. The nearby well A-3 was producing 75%
water until it was shut in June 1993.

(01/97) C-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. C13: Monitoring log run in the field shows oil remaining at the top of the well

(01/97) C-8
This new level of the oil-water contact con- Porosity %
50 0
firmed additional recoverable reserves which
easily justify a horizontal well re-entry pro- original water
in place
gram. Two wells have now been selected, A-2 P
e
and A-3, to tap part of these additional re- r
serves. f
o
Remaining
r
hydrocarbon
a
t
i
o
n
s
apparent displaced
hydrocarbon

Fig. C14: Final map with the correct new oil-water-

contact
This shows the new OWC after the surveys
and the trajectory of the two wells planned to
tap the reserves.
C.2.5 Problems in saturation
moni
mon itoring
A major problem in carbonates is the
composition. In the cased hole this becomes
more difficult as it affects the interpretation
directly in the figure of the matrix capture
cross section. If the composition is known
from the open hole logs the value is easily
obtained. If there is no open hole data
available the best method is a graphical
solution. In the lower porosities this may be
difficult to handle.
Fig. C15: Depletion seen on the monitoring log could be
simply an acid effect
Hydrochloric acid is used in the stimulation of
carbonate formations. The residual products
of the reaction contain chlorine. The pulsed
neutron capture measurement reacts to this
element. In the normal case this is contained
only in the water, hence the tool “sees’ the
difference between oil and water. The moni-
toring log is run soon after the original open
hole set. The depletion seen on this diagram is
false as it corresponds to acidised zones seen
by the tool as water, i.e. depletion. This effect
does not dissipate until the zone actually pro-
duces water.

(01/97) C-9
Introduction to Production Logging

Difference Σ2 - Σ1 = Acid Effect Gamma Ray Open Hole

Capture Cross section Σ Gamma Ray Cased Hole
60 0
0 200

x100 original GR
x50

Scale effect
x100
x200

x150

x300

Fig. C16: Base log compared to first monitoring log dis-
tinguishes the acid effect
The solution to the acid effect is to run a log
soon after completion. This log is compared
with the open hole saturation (Figure C16). Any
difference seen at this stage is due to the acid
effect. This figure is then used in future jobs to
eliminate the erroneous indication of water
influx.
Fig. C17: Gamma ray peaks on the log are due to radio-
active scale build-up
Carbonate reservoirs often exhibit high and
random gamma ray regions in cased hole.
Compared to an open hole log these are com-
pletely anomalous (Figure C17). The problem is
caused by the build up of radioactive scale on
the insides of the casing. This scale is formed
from barium and strontium salts precipated
out of produced formation waters. The amount
of these substances is small and will not
cause a problem for any other evaluation.

(01/97) C-10
C.3 CEMENT MONITORING
MONITORING
The cement quality has to be evaluated before
the completion and any repairs made at that
time. It is also essential to properly evaluate
any measurement in cased hole.

There are two varieties of tool in current

use:

• Cement Bond Log (CBL) - Variable Density

Log (VDL)
CBL measures the amplitude of signal
reflected from the casing wall. The
higher the amplitude the lower the
amount of cement.

VDL image of the recorded wavetrain. The

only log to see beyond the first casing
into the formation.

• Pulse Echo type tool

measures the acoustic impedance of
the casing-cement interface using
ultrasonics.

The latter tool is either segmented using indi-

vidual transducers or rotating covering the
entire casing Fig. C18: Typical CBL-VDL log. The first track has the
gamma ray curve for correlation, plus a casing colar
locator. The second track has the cement bond log. In
The cement bond log-variable density tool this presentation good cement is shown by the shading.
uses a standard sonic tool to make the meas- The final track contains the VDL.
urement. (Refer to Figure 18.) This is the tradi-
tional tool and serves well to identify the qual-
The VDL looks at the complete wavetrain
ity of the cement job. The amplitude of the first
hence sees further into the casing formation
arrival reflects how much energy has been
interface. The Variable Density trace is a
absorbed by the casing. If the casing if free,
valuable part of cement bond logging. As it
no cement, most of the signal is reflected. If
looks at the entire wave-train it contains in-
the casing is well cemented, little signal re-
formation not seen by any other measurement.
turns.

It has an added advantage in seeing the bond

from cement to formation, which the other
tools cannot, using the Variable Density Log
(VDL).

(01/97) C-11
Introduction to Production Logging

first arrivals
later arrivals from
from casing cement
casing formation
interface
interface

Fig. C19: The VDL is a method of displaying the full

wave.

The log is simply made by looking at half of the

wavetrain with black (or a colour) for the
peaks and white (or a colour) for the troughs
(Figure 19). The colour or even grey images
show a much clearer picture of how the wave
is being affected by the casing(s), cement and
formation. It is possible to identify, free pipe,
fast formations and the formation-cement
bond using this curve.

The pulse-echo tools use either an array of

ultrasonic transducers or a single rotating
transducer. Both methods produce a “map” of
cement quality around the borehole (Figure
20). Combining both types of tools provides the
best possible picture of the cement quality.
Fig. C20: This is part of the display of an ultrasonic ce-
ment evaluation tool. It shows the entire casing in
tracks one and three, with brown indicating cement
and blue water or no cement. The red colour is gas.

The display shows a typical log with the entire

casing shown in tracks one and three. Brown
indicates cement and blue water or no ce-
ment. The red colour is gas. The second track
shows a composite picture of the cement
quality giving a percentage bond at a given
depth. Here yellow is cement and blue water.

(01/97) C-12
C.4 CORROSION MONITORING
MONITO RING stances, no single tool can give quantitative
information about the corrosion situation. In
A range of different wireline logging tools is
multiple strings, outer string conditions must
available for monitoring the conditions of cas-
ings. also be monitored.

It is therefore advisable to acquire data from

The main tools described in the previous sec-
more than one corrosion tool, and combine
tions can be categorized into three main
the information to accurately describe the
groups: (1) Ultrasonic Tools, (2) Electrical and
casing conditions. Time lapse measurements
Electromagnetic Tools, (3) Mechanical Tools.
may also be necessary to refine the interpre-
These tools use different physical principles,
tation and detect the advance of corrosion.
and have different ranges of application and
Location of corrosion and tool combinations
different environmental limitations. Their azi-
more likely to detect and quantify it are sche-
muthal and vertical sampling rates, and their
matically shown in Figure C21.
resolution are also different. In most circum-

CORROSION MONITORING TOOLS

Inner Outer
casing casing
Fig 9-1
inner casing outer casing
external corrosion pits & holes
METT + PAT
time lapse UCI
PAT

inner casing outer casing

internal corrosion metal loss
METT METT + PAT
PAT time lapse
TGS-MFC

tubing
internal PAT
corrosion inner casing TGS-MFC
pits & holes (internal)
TGS/MFC UCI
METT
single casing PAT
external corrosion CET
UCI

CORROSION single casing METT

PREDICTION PAT
internal corrosion
---- CPET ---- CET
TGS-MFC
UCI

Fig. C21: Corrosion occurrence and tool selection

(01/97) C-13
Introduction to Production Logging

Tool Definitions
METT* - Multi Frequency Electromagnetic Thickness Tool
PAT* - Pipe Analysis Tool
TGS* - Tubing Analysis Sonde
MFC - Multi Fingered Caliper
UCI* - Ultra-Sonic casing Inpection
CET* - Cement Evaluation Tool
CPET* - Cathodic Protection Evaluation Tool

TGS /
METT MPAT PAT
CPET CET UCI
MFC
INTERNAL CORROSION
EXTERNAL CORROSION
SINGLE
PITS ON OUTER WALL
PITS ON INNER WALL
CORROSION RATE TL TL TL
CASING
CATHODIC PROTECTION EVL.

TOTAL CORROSION TL
DUAL CORROSION RATE TL
Inner
CORROSION LOCATION: Casing
INNER OR OUTER STRING ? TL
CASING
AIR OR GAS
FILLED BOREHOLE
COND- CIRCUMFERENTIAL up to 7''
MFC
TGS
ITIONS COVERAGE
9 5/8 ''

GOOD FAIR TL = Time-Lapse

Fig. C22: Corrosion tool applications

Corrosion cannot be avoided. Proper evalua- • obtain as much information as possible

tion of corrosion is an aid in managing it, and
in reducing the cost associated with preven-
tion and repairs of corrosion damage.
For a successful evaluation of corrosion it is
recommended to:
• understand the geological environment, the
formation type, the fluids present around
the casing.
about the well completion.
• plan base logs early in the life of a well to
obtain an undisturbed time-zero picture.
• select the proper combination of corrosion
measurement tools, adapted to the well
environment.
• use results from one well to refine the ac-
quisition program and the interpretation of
other wells in a field.

(01/97) C-14
D. DEFINITION OF PRODU
PRODUC
DUCTION
LOGGING
D1 DEFINITION OF PRO
PRODUCTION
DUCTION
LOGGING
Production logging is the measurement of
fluid parameters on a zone-by-zone basis to
yield information about the type and move-
ment of fluids within and near the wellbore.
Production logging is intended primarily for
measuring the performance of producing
wells. It provides diagnostic information, pin-
points where fluids such as water, oil and gas
are entering a well and gives an indication
about the efficiency of the perforations.
Traditional production logging involves four
measurements - flow, density, temperature
and pressure. However, only the flow and
density readings are used in traditional quanti-
tative production logging analysis. Tempera-
ture and pressure data have normally been
used in a qualitative way to compute in-situ
flow properties and locate zones of entry of
fluid into a well.
D.2 HISTORY OF PRODU
PRODUCTION
CTION LOGGING
Modern Production Logging is far from the
early beginnings of the technique, with highly
accurate sensors all on a single tool with si-
multaneous acquisition. However a lot of sen-
sors go back some considerable time. Tem-
perature surveys were first used in the mid
1930s. One use was the estimation of the top
of the cement behind the casing. The setting
process of the cement is an exothermic reac-
tion, it gives off heat. Hence the temperature
sensor “sees” where there is cement in the
well. (Note; this method is still used, in order
to work well the log has to be run less than 12
hours after the cement has been pumped.)
By the late 1950s and early 1960s the basic
sensor types had been developed as individ-
ual tools. The surveys required a seperate
pass to obtain flowmeter, gradiomanometer,
temperature and so on. 1970 saw the sensors
packaged together in one tool, meaning a
more efficient single run in the hole. The indi-
vidual measurements still had to be run one at
a time. By the end of the decade advances in
electronics allowed everything to be re-
corded in a single pass across the zone of in-
terest. This had many advantages not least the
savings in time.
Improvements continued through the 1980s to
the present day with better sensors, espe-
cially pressure gauges, and deployment meth-
ods. The latest tool uses completely new
technology to measure a flow profile for the
individual fluid phases all around the borehole.
(01/97) D-1
Introduction to Production Logging

D.3 USES OF PRODUCTI

PRODUCTION
ON - Completion Efficiency
LOG
LOGGING
3. Diagnose well problems
Production Logging is put to many uses de-
pending on the reservoir type, well conditions - Water entry
- Gas entry
and the perceived problem. (See Figure D1).
- Leaks and mechanical
Some of the major ones are:
problems
- Flow behind casing
1. Evaluate completion performance
- New wells
4. Other
- Injection wells
- Guidance for workover
- Re-completions
- Information for enhanced oil
recovery projects
2. Monitor reservoir performance & variations
- Identify boundaries for field
- Flow profile
development
- Well test

(01/97) D-2
 Casing
Leak

Tubing
Leak
Packer
Leak

P1 o il

P2>>P1

Bad Cement

Unwanted
P2 fluid flow

Fig. D1: Common problems encountered in the producing wells.

Some are due to mechanical problems others to the reservoirs

(01/97) D-3
Introduction to Production Logging

D.4 PRODUCTION LOGGING

LOGGING
MEASURE
MEASURE MENTS

D.4.1 Tools
Production logging tools consist of a number
of sensors which make the measurements in-
side the well (Figure D2). The main types are:

1. Flowrate (fluid velocity) measurement

- Spinner rotation

2. Fluid density measurement

- Differential pressure
- Gamma ray attentuation

3. Well bore temperature

- Variance in resistance

4. Well bore pressure

- Strain gauges
- Crystal gauges

A number of auxiliary measurements are used Flowmeter

to augment or assist in the analysis of the ma-
jor logs. They are:

- GR /CCL for correlation

- Caliper (mechanical)
- Fluid sampling
- Noise Logs
- Tracer surveys
- Water Flow Log
Fig. D2: A typical production logging tool string contains
a number of sensors

(01/97) D-4
D.4.2 Applications of specific Up
meas
mea surements Gradio Run
Each sensor has some specific uses, most are Down
utilised in combination, however, to give a to- Temperature Run
600
tal answer for the well/reservoir.

1. Flowmeter

Perforations
- Determine producing zones
- Stimulation evaluation
- Secondary recovery Spinners
- Flow potential evaluation (SIP,
AOF)
700

2. Temperature
- Location of production or injection
zones
- Monitor frac performance
- Gas entry
- Fluid movement behind pipe
- Fluid conversions
800

3. Fluid Density Fig. D3: A typical production log.

- Determine volumetric flow in two
phase flow
- Show entry points in three phase
flow

4. Pressure
- Well test analysis (kh, skin)
- Reservoir extent, boundaries
- Fluid conversions
- AOF, SIP determination

(01/97) D-5
Introduction to Production Logging

D.5 PRODUCTION LOGGING

LOGGING D.6 LOGGING AND INTERPRET
INTE RPRETA
RPRETATION
ENVI
ENVI RONMENT PRO
PROCEDURES
The production logging environment is very The procedure to ensure a successful produc-
different from that of open hole logging. Firstly tion log is simple and can be broken down into
in place there is normally a completion, which three steps,
can take many forms. The reservoir zone may
be open hole, perforated casing or gravel - programming the job,
pack. There may be single or multiple zones - running the job and
and single or multiple tubings. - interpreting the data.

The log is normally run in dynamic conditions, D.6.1

D.6.1 Programming the job
the well is flowing mixtures of liquids and The first step starts with defining the problem:
gases. e.g. Oil production is falling, water cut
is increasing.
- Oil, water, polymers.
- Methane +, N2, CO2, H2S, He. Then list and quantify symptoms and well
conditions, for example:
(Quite often there are solids present - forma-
tion, frac propant, paraffin, scale, diverter • Water Cut has increased from 2% to
balls, etc.) 15% in six months
• Total production has fallen from 800 to
Hence care and attention has to be taken in 500 B/D
the logging program so that the maximum in-
• GOR - 350 cu ft/bbl
formation is obtained to answer the problem.
• Tubing head pressure - 1200 psia
• Oil gravity - 30 oAPI
• Gas gravity - 0.7

Then define sensors needed and technique

necessary to gather required data. (Mechani-
cal configuration of the well must be consid-
ered.) This may include:

• Fluid velocity, density, pressure, and

temperature need to be measured
• Data is to be taken vs depth and vs time
with the well flowing and static
• 5 1/2-in. casing set to 9550 ft. 0˚ deviation
• 2 7/8-in. tubing set to 9350 ft.
• Perforations - 9400-9450 / 9460-9475
• Fill (TD ?)

(01/97) D-6
Then determine if there is a reasonable possi- Choose a Single or Biphasic interpretation
bility of solving the problem with available model. Select Computer interpretation or
sensors. For instance: manual. In both cases the general equations
are the same.
• The well is producing above the bubble
point (down hole) and downhole water Qh = Yh Qt - Yh (1 - Yh) Vs A
production is greater than 10% of the to- Ql = Qt - Qh
tal downhole flow.
Qt - Total flowrate
D.6.2 Running the job Qh - Heavy phase flowrate
The second step starts with gathering all the Ql - Light phase flowrate
required data. Yh - Heavy phase holdup (decimal percent
by volume)
• Calibrate the tools Vs - Velocity of the light phase relative to
the heavy phase
• Maintain depth control
A - Cross-sectional area
• Record data optically and magnetically
Finally produce the answer (see Figure D4).
D.6.3 Interpreting the data

Fig. D4: The result of a production log interpretation

(01/97) D-7
Introduction to Production Logging

D.7 PRODUCTION LOGGING

LOGGING
OPERATIONS
Production logging sensors are available in
many configurations depending on their in-
tended use.
Communication between the operating com-
pany and the service company is very impor-
tant for successful production logging. In any
form of well servicing, good communications
are wise; but, in production logging, good dia-
logue is critical to solving production prob-
lems. It is also essential for acquiring good
base data to more accurately monitor well
performance and to solve future production
problems.
Gamma Ray Log
The other half of depth control is a gamma ray
log run in casing simultaneously with a casing
collar log. The gamma ray in casing is depth
matched to the openhole logs; therefore, the
casing collars that were recorded simultane-
ously will be on depth, or correctly depth
matched, relative to the openhole logs. Any
subsequent services run in casing with a cas-
ing collar locator that is depth-matched to the
Gamma ray plus collar log will be on depth
with the openhole logs.
Casing Collar
Locator

Although there are many types of sensors, this Gamma Ray

does not necessarily imply that several trips

into the well will be needed to solve a particu-
lar problem. Acquisition of the various forms
of data can often be accomplished with one
trip into the well by multiplexing the signals
from the combined tool string. In addition to
rig time savings and convenience, the re-
duced number of trips into the hole can pro-
duce less disturbance of the production pro-
file as a result of fewer pressure releases with
the surface pressure control equipment; this
helps assure that all the sensors are logging
the flow conditions with simultaneous meas-
urements.

D.7.1 Depth Control

Flowmeter

Casing Collar Locator Section

Figure D5 shows a combination tool. The tool
has several production logging sensors and a
casing collar locator section. As with most
tools run in casing, it is very important that
casing collars be recorded. Collars are the Fig. D5: Standard tool string showing the casing collar
only positive depth control link between the locator and gamma ray
production logging sensors and the formation
strata.

(01/97) D-8
This procedure is necessary for the depth
measurement accuracy required for perforat-
ing, plugs, packers, etc. If cement evaluation
is run, a gamma ray and collar locator are
usually combined with the cement evaluation
tool, typically a sonic device, to acquire depth
control data simultaneously with cement in-
formation. These logs are not absolutely es-
sential if the production logging tool string
contains a gamma ray section; however, the
gamma ray - collar log is usually run for perfo-
rating accuracy far in advance of the decision
to run production logging tools that may con-
tain a gamma ray.

(01/97) D-9
E. FLOW VELOCITY: SPINNER
SPINNER TOOLS
E.2 SPINNER TOOLS
E.1 INTRODUCTION Spinner devices utilize a spinner or impeller,
E.1.1 Basic Flowmeter Uses which is essentially a fan blade turned by the
flowing fluid. This is the same principle that
• Determine producing zones causes an unplugged window fan to turn in a
• Stimulation evaluation breeze and allows a car engine to move a car
with an automatic transmission although there
• Secondary recovery
is no direct coupling between the engine and
• Flow potential evaluation (SIP, AOF) the wheels.

E.1.2 Flow Measurement In the flowmeter application, the spinner revo-

Downhole flow velocity surveys are usually
made with spinner devices. However there
are a number of other methods of measuring
the flowrate:
• Tracer surveys
• Noise Logs
• Water Flow Log
These methods will be dealt with in the Sec-
tion on Other Sensors. Under certain condi-
tions flow metering can also be accomplished
using data from fluid density and temperature
devices. These surveys are much less com-
mon.
lutions generate electrical currents or pulses
that are measured by the surface equipment
and converted into spinner revolutions per
second (rps). Knowledge of a particular spin-
ner performance allows the conversion of the
rps into fluid flow velocity.
E.2.1 General Tool description
The flowmeter is used for flowrate evaluation
and recording production or injection profiles.
It uses a spinner, centrally located in the cas-
ing.
The rate of rotation of the spinner, rps, is a
function of the velocity, vf, of the incident fluid.
rps = f(vf)

A permanent magnet is attached to the shaft

of the spinner which is mounted between hy-
draulic bearings (refer to Figure E1). The rota-
tion of the spinner induces an a.c. signal in a
pickup coil.

The output sinusoidal voltage, V, and fre-

quency, •, are proportional to the rate at which
the spinner rotates.

V • rps, • • rps

Electronics detect and count the zero cross-

ings of the sinusoid.

(01/97) E-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Electrical
Connection This configuration can result in less accuracy
due to the small diameter; however, their sim-
pler operation can produce better reliability.

The small diameter may allow eccentering in

Magnet casing; this can cause erroneous flow sam-
pling in deviated holes where gravity segrega-
Pickup Coil
tion of fluids occurs.
Spinner

V T

Fig. E1: The general principle of a spinner tool. Fluid

moves past the spinner causing it to rotate.

E.2.2 Types of Spinner Devices

Spinner devices are of the following three ba-
sic types:

• High Flowrate Tools

• Low to Intermediate Flowrate Tools
• Low Flowrate Tools
Fig. E2: Continuous Flowmeter Tool*.
E.2.3 Continuous Flowmeter
High Flowrate Tools or Continuous Flowmeters Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
(Figure E2) descend through tubing and per- Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
form their function below tubing without Makeup Length (in.) 24.0
changing their shape for the measurements.
Type (CFS*) H/N J/P K/Q

Tool OD (in.) 1 11/16" 2 1/8" 2 7/8"

Weight (lbs) 7.0 7.5 8.0
Spinner OD (mm) 31 42 61
Spinner Pitch(mm)
2 blades 41.2 41.2 41.2
4 blades 123.6 123.6 123.6
Slope (rps/100ft/min)
2 blades 11.1 11.9 11.2
4 blades 4.0 4.5 4.6
Threshold (ft/min)
2 blades 10.3 10.9 2.7
4 blades 4.7 3.5 1.0
Resolution (rps) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Range (rps) <200 <200 <200
Accuracy (%) 10 10 10
Table E1: Continuous Flowmeter Tool Types.

E.2.4 Low to Intermediate

Intermediat e Flowrate
Tools
Low to Intermediate Flowrate Tools or Fullbore
Flowmeters (Figure E3) descend through tub-
ing, then they expand their spinner diameter
by unfolding their blades to occupy most of
the inner casing diameter.

Strong centralizers protect the spinner blades

from striking the casing wall. These fullbore
Fig. E3: Fullbore Flowmeter Tool*.
flowmeters are more complex mechanically
than the other continuous devices, but they
offer less probability of erroneous flow sam- Maximum Pressure (psi) 20000
Maximum Temperature (°F) 392
pling from eccentering. They give far better
Weight (lbs) 11
results in low flowrates than the other types of Makeup Length (in.) 35.1
continuous tools.
FBS–
FBS– C*
They also cause less pressure drop across the The high resolution kit increases the number
tool than the petal or basket type devices, of magnets from the standard 2 to 6. This ef-
which facilitates less alteration of the natural fectively multiples the response by a factor of
fluid flow path in the well while logging. Being 3.
a continuous device, these tools supply more
complete readings in less logging time than FBDS-
FBDS-A*
the station-type instruments. - Full bore spinner giving sense of rotation
- Active sensor and electronics upper sec-
tion.

(01/97) E-3
Introduction to Production Logging

- Can be adapted from existing FullBore are not logged or sampled. Diverter flow-
Spinner. meters were preceded by the packer flow-
Uses same cage and blades as FBS. meters that used wellbore fluids to inflate a
bag around the tool; though quite complex and
- Output signal independent of rotation
no longer generally available, the packer
speed: sensitive at very low rotation
flowmeter was an excellent step toward low
speeds.
volume logging.
- Better resolution than existing FBS-C
- 20,000 psi / 175 degC / 1-11/16" diameter.

Casing Size (in.) 1 5 6 5

4/ 6/ 9/
2 8 8
Cage OD (in.) 4 5 6 8
Spinner OD (in.) 2.75 3.5 5.0 7.0
Spinner Pitch 120 73 35
(mm)
Slope 5.2 4.3 7.2 5.7
(rps/100ft/min)
Threshold (ft/min) 2.5 0.8 3.24 9.0
Range (RPS) <100
<100
Table E2: Fullbore Flowmeter Tool Types.

E.2.5 Low Flowrate Tools or

Diverter Flowmeters
Low Flowrate Tools or Diverter Flowmeters
descend through tubing, they then expand
their effective diameter below tubing to divert
the flow through an orifice containing a small
diameter spinner (Figure E4).
Fig. E4: Petal Basket Flowmeter Tool
These devices have good fluid sampling char-
acteristics because the majority of the fluids • Petal Basket Flowmeter Sonde (PBFS–
moving in the casing must go through the A/B/C*)
spinner section; however, they may also cre-
ate pressure drops or changes that can cause – Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
fluid flow outside the casing if zone isolation
– Maximum Temperature (°F) 300
does not exist due to poor cement or vertical
fracturing. – The tool must be stationary before opening
the basket to take a reading.
These devices usually have an umbrella con- – The basket may be opened and closed un-
figuration that diverts the fluid into the orifice; der surface control.
this generally results in a non-continuous or
station-type of data collection. This requires
more logging time and also creates the risk of
omitting valuable data from the intervals that
 Types A B C

e
ns
Weight (lbs) 30 30 30

po
es
Mode 4

kR
Makeup Length 86 74 74

ea
oL
(in.)

r
Ze
OD (in.) 1.69 2.13 2.13
Minimum Flow 50 60 70
(bbl/d)

3
e
od
M
Maximum Flow 1500 2770 4500
(bbl/d)
Table E3: Petal Basket Flowmeter Types.

2
de
Mo
• Petal Basket Flowmeter Response
1
de
Mo

Mode 1
At low rates, the heavy phase segregates in
the tool/casing annulus. Pressure unbalance
causes leaking through the petals.
Mode 2 Fig. E5: Petal Basket flowmeter response.
At intermediate rates the petals start to leak
upwards, the magnitude depending on the to- • Inflatable Diverter Tool (IDT–A*)
tal rate.
Mode 3 Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
At high rates, the upwards leakage stabilizes Maximum Temperature (°F) 300
at a constant value, independent of the total Weight (lbs) 30
flow rate. The spinner rotation becomes a lin- Makeup Length (in.) 86.0
ear function of the total flow rate. Minimum Flow (bbl/d) 50
Mode 4 Maximum Flow (bbl/d) 1500
Above a certain rate, the petals become de-
formed and the response becomes non-linear. • Standard CFS spinner

(01/97) E-5
Introduction to Production Logging

Accuracy (%) 10

Basket Size Small Large

Min Casing (ins) 1 7
4 /
2
Max Casing (ins) 7 5
9 /
8
Max Flow (bbl/d) 1800 1000

E.2.6 Horizontal Flowmeters

Horizontal Flow (across the wellbore) is
measured by a fourth spinner flowmeter type.
These devices, though not common, can help
determine the presence or absence of pro-
duction from individual perforations, when
perforation spacing is sufficient. These tools
do not generally offer flow profiling over long
intervals due to the plane of the spinner op-
eration.

It is designed to operate when struck by a

horizontal force coming out of a perforation,
and it will not operate in a vertical flow condi-
tion or in an openhole condition.

Fig. E6: Inflatable Diverter Flowmeter tool. This device

uses the standard continuous flowmeter spinner.

– The basket is controlled from surface.

– The inflatable ring, controlled from surface,
minimizes the leaking past the petals.

• Packer Fluid Analyser Tool (SPFT–A*)

Max Pressure (psi) 15000

Max Temp (°F) 350
Max Flow (bbl/d)
Basket Open 2000
Basket Closed 10000
Max Deviation (°) 60
Single phase (bbl/d) > 100
Q in two phases (bbl/d) > 30
o
Q in two phases (bbl/d) > 400
w
E.3 CALIBRATION AND INTER
INTERPRETATION
OF SINGLE-
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW USING
SPINNER DATA
E.3.1 Percentage Contribution of Each
Zone
Spinner revolution rate varies with fluid
flowrate. This relationship is generally linear
for continuous flowmeters, including fullbore
flowmeters, and it is generally non-linear for
petal-basket flowmeters; therefore, in single-
phase flow (oil only, gas only, or water only),
the flow profiling interpretation technique is
essentially the plotting of spinner data, in
revolutions per second, such that the per-
centage flow contribution of each zone can be
read directly from the plot (assuming fluid vis-
cosity and density are consistent throughout
the interval).
For continuous flowmeters, where revolu-
tions per second (rps) are linear with flow
rate, the technique consists of plotting rps on
the log. For petal-basket flowmeters, where
revolutions per second (rps) are not linear
with flow rate, the technique consists of plot-
ting flowrate from an appropriate chart on the
log.
Fig. E7: Petal Basket chart converting spinner output to
flowrate.
E.3.2 Absolute Flow Rates
Spinner rate is a function of fluid viscosity and
density, in addition to velocity; therefore, addi-
tional care must be taken if absolute
flowrates, rather than percentage contribu-
tions, are desired from the flowmeter data, or
if percentage contributions are desired in an
interval with varying viscosity or density. This
is true even in single-phase flow. Under these
conditions, the technique used for determin-
ing absolute flowrates is the use of downhole
calibrations.
(Note: When interpreting station-type data,
and during the data acquisition, it is wise to
never assume that flow contribution is linearly
spread across a perforated interval; it is quite
common to find the majority of fluids being
contributed by a small percentage of the per-
forations, possibly one or two holes in a zone
with dozens of perforations.)
E.3.3 Downhole Calibrations
The ideal response of the spinner is a flowing
well would give a straight line plot through the
origin (Figure E8).
Spinner
rps
Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity
DOWN UP
Fig. E8: The ideal response of the spinner with fluid ve-
locity.
(01/97) E-7
Introduction to Production Logging

velocity in the opposite direction to give the

All fluids in the well are viscous to some de- final calibration plot.
gree. The effect of this is to “shift” the curves
away from the ideal line (Figure E9). The slope Spinner
of the line remains the same as this is only de- rps
pendent on the spinner geometry.
increasing
mechanical viscosity
Spinner effects
rps

Tool Velocity Tool Velocity

UP DOWN
increasing
viscosity
increasing
viscosity
Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity
DOWN UP

increasing Fig. E11: This is the final plot with tool velocity substi-
viscosity tuted for fluid velocity.

The down passes in producing wells are posi-

tive revolutions per second (rps). The up
Fig. E9: The effect of viscosity is to change the spinner passes are negative, if logged faster than fluid
response away from the ideal line.
flow, and positive, if logged slower than fluid
An additional effect of friction on the spinner flow. These plots (Figures E10, and E11) are for
start up alters the curve at the beginning. This a stationary fluid and a moving tool, hence
is the “Threshold” of the tool (figure E10). represent zero flow. In a flowing well the line
will be shifted to the left on the plot as the ve-
Spinner locity seen by the tool is now a combination of
rps the tool velocity plus the fluid velocity, Vf. (Fig-
ure E12).
increasing
mechanical
viscosity
effects Spinner
rps
Fluid Velocity Fluid Velocity
DOWN UP Vf
Midpoint
w
Flo
Tool Velocity ro
increasing Ze
viscosity UP

Vf Tool Velocity
DOWN
Vf
ow
Fl
Fig. E10: Mechanical effects are seen at very low ro
Ze
flowrates. It is effectively the flow needed to start the
spinner.

As the spinner is reading the fluid moving past

it, the fluid velocity can be replaced by the tool Fig. E12: Flowing fluids add their velocity to that of the
tool changing the flow away from the zero calibration
line.
Fluid moving in pipe flows faster in the center
of the pipe than it does near the casing wall.
Centralized flowmeters measure the flow in
the center of the pipe. As a result, the spinner
reading will be higher than the average fluid
velocity in the casing. A correction factor has
to be introduced to take this effect into ac-
count.
Vaverage = C * Vf
velocities (the preferred technique), then the
spinner threshold value is established by
translating the up/down graphs to position the
plot origin halfway between the x-axes inter-
sections of the down calibration line and the
up calibration line.

The constant C, has been computed by ex-

periments in flow loops. A typical value is 0.83.
(See Appendix 1 for more details).
Once the fluid velocity is found the flowrate, q,
(downhole) can be computed.

q = C ∗ Vf ∗ A
where,
C = velocity profile correction factor,
commonly 0.83.Better, use chart.
A = Area of flow. Use chart1 to convert
ft/min to flowrate for given casing.
Vf = Fluid velocity from zone calibration line.

Fig. E13: Spinner example.

E.3.4 Practical Downhole Calibra
Calibra tions
In practice when performing downhole cali-
brations for absolute flowrates, a plot is con- Typically, a plot is constructed from data just
structed using several logging passes. The above a set of perforations, where the flow
passes should be both up and down at various will be stable. In the data shown in Figure E13,
cable speeds. The cable speed in feet per mi- these would be the points labelled A, B, C and
nute is plotted on the x-axis for the various D. A straightline function will exist with a ver-
passes. tical offset from the origin proportional to the
flowrate at the point where the data were
If a sump (region of no flow below all perfora- taken.
tions) exists which can be logged, the calibra-
tion data will establish the threshold value.
(The assumption here is that the sump must
have the same fluid viscosity /density for the
calibration to be valid.)

If the calibration passes are logged such that

the down passes yield positive spinner veloci-
ties, and the up passes yield negative spinner

1
Charts are available for all common casing sizes.
(01/97) E-9
Introduction to Production Logging

In this example the casing was 7", 29 lbs/ft and

the velocity for 1000 bbl/day is 18.7 ft/min,
hence the flowrates are:

QA = 320x(1000/18.7)x0.83 =14203 bbl/day

QB =215x(1000/18.7)x0.83 = 9543 bbl/day
QC = 80X(1000/18.7)x0.83 = 3551 bbl/day

Note: In the data set above there were some

“spin reversals”. This occurs when the veloc-
ity of the tool is slower than the velocity of the
fluid.
Spinner, rps

Fig. E14: Crossplot from the spinners above.

The plot then becomes a calibration chart.

The fluid velocity can be read off the x-axis as
tool moving
the difference between the threshold and the slower than
reading. the fluid
(+ rps)
In this example (Figure E14) the threshold is 0,
hence the fluid velocity can be directly read
Spinner
off the charts.
Reversed

Taking the reading at point C as an example,

the difference between the line for this point
tool moving
and the zero flow line (D) is 80 ft/min. This is faster than
easily found by starting where line C crosses the fluid
the y-axis and going across until line D is (- rps)
reached and then reading down to the x-axis.

In a similar manner the values for B and A are

found to be 215 ft/min and 320 ft/min respec-
tively.
To translate this fluid velocity into the flowrate
the relationship between fluid flow volumes
and fluid velocity for a specific casing inside
diameter has to be determined. This is found
by consulting the appropriate chart (see chart
at end of this section).
Fig. E15: Spinner reversals.
E.3.5 Two-
Two-Pass Technique
For percentage contribution calculations in
varying viscosity conditions, whether from
multiphase flow or single-phase flow with
multiple viscosities, a special technique called
the two-pass technique can be applied (Figure
E16). This technique consists of running a
continuous flowmeter pass against the flow
direction and a flowmeter pass with the flow
direction, but faster than the maximum fluid
flowrate. The two passes are then normalized
and shifted to overlay at the bottom of the
well, where no fluid flow occurs.
The amount of separation between the two
passes, after shifting, measured in log divi-
sions is linearly proportional to fluid velocity.
One hundred percent flow is at the point of
maximum deflection, which is usually above
all perforations on producing and injection
wells. Thief zones complicate the interpreta-
tion somewhat, but the principle remains the
same.
Fig. E16: Two passes of spinner, up and down are over-
lain to eliminate the effects of changing viscosity.
A distinct advantage of this technique is that it
cancels the effect of viscosity changes.
These changes are essentially shifts in rps
readings of the same amount and direction on
both passes. Thus, the separation remains
independent of viscosity effects.
If the "centerline" is defined as a line halfway
between the two curves, a centerline shift to
the right is a viscosity decrease; a centerline
shift to the left is a viscosity increase. If abso-
lute fluid velocity is desired from the two-pass
technique, and if multiple calibration passes
have been run, it can be computed from the
following equation:
 ∆rps 
Vf = 0.83 
 Bu + Bd 
Where:
Bu is the up calibration line slope in rps per
foot per minute.
Bd is the down calibration line slope in rps per
foot per minute.
Bu and Bd can, and often will, be slightly dif-
ferent numerically.
Although the foregoing comments focus on
fluid viscosity changes, the effects / assump-
tions regarding fluid density changes are simi-
lar.
E.4 SLIP VELOCITY
The rise rate of fluids of different densities
makes interpreting data acquired in multi-
phase flow more complex. This difference in
rise rate is called slip velocity. Slip velocity
causes a need for additional data to profile
each phase.
This is accomplished by adding fluid density
information from a fluid density survey and by
using additional charts for the velocity of each
phase based on the composite fluid density,
composite fluid velocity, and slip velocity.
Multiphase interpretation techniques will be
(01/97) E-11
Introduction to Production Logging

discussed in the section on Fluid Density Typical Downhole Fluid Properties:

Tools.
Density/gm/cc Viscosity/cp
E.5 SPECIAL CONSIDER
CONSIDERATIONS
ATIONS
OIL 0.6 - 1.0 0.2 - 10
When working with flowmeter data, particu- WATER ~1.0 0.2 - 1
larly data being used for the downhole cali- GAS 0.05 - 0.2 0.01 - 0.07
bration chart or the two-pass technique, great
care must be exercised to compensate the
E.7
E.7 EXAMPLES
interpretation when there is:
Example 1
• Fill-up to the lowest perforation, which Using the following flowmeter log determine
prevents normalization in the sump the percentaqge flow rate for each producing
level. Assume constant speed and single
• Flow below the lowest perforation, i.e., a phase flow.
leaking plug, etc.

• Perforations above the bottom of the tub-

ing tail pipe

• Spinner reversal on the up passes being

used in the calibration chart for a produc-
ing well or down passes for an injection
well. (This is a problem only if an interpre-
tation is attempted in an interval where a
spinner reversal has occurred - and is not
included in the calibration chart data.)

• Production of fluids of varying viscosity

and/or density.

E.6 REQUIREMENTS
It is impossible to analyze or calibrate flow-
meter spinner data unless information on the
well, fluids and conditions is complete. Hence
the requirements are:

• All Relevant Data

Example E1: Spinner log.
• Cement Bond Logs
• Surface Rates
• PVT
• Well History Example 2
• Coherent Explanation Construct a flowmeter calibration curve from
• Experience the following data in zones A and B of the dia-
gram.
 5 +39 +13 120(down)
7 +41 +15 140(down)
2 +19 - 50 (up)
4 +16 - 80 (up)
6 +15 - 100 (up)

Determine the flowrate in bpd if the spinner is

recording 15rps. Tool speed is 67 ft/min. As-
sume a fluid velocity of 34.4 ft/min for 1000bpd.

Example 3
1) Construct the flowmeter calibration plot
from the following data. Note as there is no
zero flow line this will have to be created.
A pass rps cable speed
1 +8 50 (down)
3 +10 100 (down)
5 +12 150 (down)
2 +2 50 (up)
4 -2 180 (up)
6 -4 220 (up)
7 -6 250 (up)

2) Determine the flowrate above all the perfo-

rations if a fluid velocity of 29.9 ft/min is
equivalent to 1000 bpd.

B 3) If a single pass was logged down at 60

fr/min between the perforations and produced
a spinner reading of +6rps, what is the
flowrate at that point.

4) At another point in the well three spinner

passes gave the following:
Example E2: Well Diagram.
pass rps cable speed
1 +4 40 (down)
3 +7 100 (down)
5 +9 140 (down)

Determine the production at this point.

Example 4
pass zone A, rps zone B, rps cable speed This well is producting gas and liquid at sur-
1 +32 +5 50(down)
face.
3 +35 +11 100(down)

(01/97) E-13
Introduction to Production Logging

Given the spinners recorded in the well determine the thief zones and the production zones in this
well.

Example E4a: Flowing Spinners.

Example E4b: Shut-in Spinners.

(01/97) E-15
Introduction to Production Logging

Appendix 1: Flow Regimes Classifica

Classific ation
Appendix 2: Maxis* Calibration
The
Th eory

Threshold Intercept Ratio [TIRA]

TIRA =NTHR/(NTHR – PTHR)

:normally > 0.5

Total Fluid Velocity [VT]

Fig. E17: Calibration factor versus Reynolds number. VT = – VPCF•((1 – TIRA)•(NINT – NTHR) +
TIRA•(PINT – PTHR))
A curve-fit for this plot yields the following:

Define:
m = log10(NRe)

0.000 < m < 3.200 C = 0.5

3.200 < m < 3.348 C=1.0135m– 2.7432
3.348 < m < 3.554 C=0.4440m– 0.8360
3.554 < m < 3.850 C=0.1405m+0.2390
3.850 < m < • C=0.0400m+0.6260

In most cases C = 0.83 will give satisfactory

results (± 5%)

Example NTHR - Negative threshold

• = 0.7 g/cm3 PTHR - Positive threshold
m = 0.5 cp NINT - Negative intercept
D = 6.184 in. (7", 29 lbs/ft Liner) PINT - Positive intercept
VPCF - Velocity correction factor
q(bbl/day) v (ft/s) N C
Re

100 0.031 2088 0.6214

200 0.062 4177 0.7477
500 0.156 10441 0.7868
1000 0.312 20883 0.7988
1500 0.467 31324 0.8058
2000 0.623 41766 0.8108
5000 1.558 104414 0.8268
10000 3.116 208828 0.8388
15000 4.673 313241 0.8458
20000 6.231 417655 0.8508
E.8 ANSWERS Note: There are times when the zero flow
Example 1 curve cannot be logged due to debris in the
1) compute the spinner deflection for the well, not enough sump or a different viscosity
maximum flow (top of the log) compared to fluid below the perforations. In this case the
the zero flow zone at the bottom. line has to be created using the data from the
This gives 14 rps. full flow and the threshold of the device. It is
drawn parallel to the full flow and goes
2) Find the additional spinner deflection in through the threshold.
each of the other intervals, A, B, C.
These are: Example 3
1) The response curve is drawn both for the
positive and negative quadrants, parallel to
A = 3.6RPS line through the data points. It should go
B = 2.1RPS through a threshold. The threshold is com-
puted by taking the mid point between the
C = 8.3rps positive and negative lines and moving this to
the origin.
3) Determine the percentage contribution of
each zone. 2) The calibration line crosses the y-axis at
5rps, this corresponds to 120 ft/min on the re-
A = 3.6/14 = 25.7% sponse curve.
B = 2.1/14 = 15.0% The flowrate is thus
C = 8.3/14 = 59.3%
= (120/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 3331 bpd.

Example 2 3) 6 ft/min corresponds to 140 ft/min using the

The zero flow line should cross the x axis at a response curve. At a tool speed of 60 ft/min
threshold value of 6 ft/min. this gives the average fluid velocity

The intersection of 15 rps with the response = (140-60)*0.83 = 66.4 ft/min

curve gives a flow velocity of 140 ft/min.
Therefore the peak fluid velocity The flow rate is then

= 140 - 67 ft/min = 73 ft/min = (66.4/29.9)*1000= 2221bpd

Correcting for the shape of the flow to obtain 4) the calibration line for this pass crosses the
the average velocity y-axis at 2 rps. This corresponds to 60 ft/min
using the response line. Hence the flowrate is
Average velocity = 73 * 0.83 ft/min
= 60.6 ft/min = (60/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 1666 bpd.

The flowrate in bpd = (60.6/34.4)*1000

Example 4
= 1762 bpd.
The spinners are overlaying below 10408 indi-
cating zero flow here.

(01/97) E-17
Introduction to Production Logging

The down spinners decrease around 10350’ terval. The increase at the top of the latter
before increasing again. zone is due to production here.

The conclusion is that the top of the second The shut-in pass below shows the picture
set of perforations or the bottom of the third clearly. Production from the lower perforation
set is taking fluid produced from the lower in- is flowing into the second set of perforations.

Fig. E18: Average Fluid Velocity vs. casing Size.

 F. FLUID DENSITY MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS

F.2 THE GRADIOMANOMETER

GRADIOMANOME TER FLUID
F.1 FLUID DENSITY MEASUR
ME ASURE
ASUREMENTS DENSITY TOOL
The main purposes for making a density F.2.1 Basi
Basicc Theory
measurement are; The gradiomanometer tool uses the pressure
differential between two pressure sensors
• Determine volumetric flow in two phase spaced a known distance apart; e.g., two feet;
flow to infer the density of the fluid between the
• Show entry points in three phase flow. sensors.

There are two major types of fluid density
tools:
• Gradiomanometer* fluid density tool
• Nuclear fluid density tool (gamma ray ab-
sorption).
There are several types of pressure sensors
that can be used in the gradiomanometer ap-
plication; these are discussed in some detail
in the Pressure Tool section.
electronic cartridge

A third tool type works on a principle other transducer

than fluid density, it is the capacitance or wa-
tercut tool.

upper sensing bellows

slotted housing
spacing
2 feet
floating connecting tube

lower sensing bellows

expansion bellows

Fig. F1: Typical gradiomanometer device.

The example tool shown in Figure F1 uses a

bellows system. The bellows will compress
(01/97) F-1
Introduction to Production Logging

with pressure. The lower set of bellows will P1 – PA = •sogh

be slightly more compressed than the upper P1 = PA + •so gh
set. The mechanical linkage between the bel-
lows is constructed such that a rod moves in
proportion to the difference in compression thus,
between the two sets of bellows.
P2 – P1 = PA + •gh – [PA + •sogh]
A magnetic plunger on the end of the rod gen-
erates a signal in the transducer coil propor- and,
tional to the rod movement. This allows the
coil output to be calibrated in terms of fluid P −P
ρ = 2 1 + ρ so
density. gh

F.2.2 Theory of measurement where,

P1, P2, PA and PB are described in Figure F2

and
g = acceleration of gravity
•so = density of silicone oil at bottom hole
conditions

The calibration is only valid in undeviated

holes as the pressure differential between the
bellows is proportional to the vertical separa-
tion.

F.2.3 Deviated Wells

When a well is deviated, the density from the
Gradiomanometer should be corrected as fol-
lows (Figures F3 & F4).

P2 = PA + •gh•cos•
P1 = PA + •sogh•cos•
P2 − P1
Fig. F2: Gradiomanometer scematic. = ρcosθ − ρso cosθ
gh
P − P1
ρ= 2 + ρso
Assuming no deviation: ghcosθ

P2 = PB = PA + (PB – PA)
PB – PA = •gh
P2 = PA + •gh
P1 = PA + (P1 – PA)

(01/97) F-2
 F.3 OTHER EFFECTS
To make optimum use of the Gradiomanome-
ter measurements, corrections to the re-
corded data are sometimes necessary. The
gradiomanometer reading is not exclusively a
function of fluid density (•f). The true relation-
ship is:

•gradio = •f (1 + K + F),
Where
K is a kinetic term and
F is a friction term.

In cases where the flow is less than 2,000 B/D

in casing, the friction term is negligible; there-
fore, •gradio closely approximates •f.

Fig. F3: Gradiomanometer in a deviated well.
F.3.1
F.3.1 Friction Term
Besides deviation effects, friction due to tool
movement in a moving fluid has an effect on
the pressure readings across the two ports for
the •p transducer. This friction term is associ-
ated with very high fluid velocities, which oc-
cur with high flowrates and small casing or
tubing sizes.

This effect is defined with the following equa-

tion:

(dP/dL)Friction=0.8085 fM•v2/D

dP = Pressure Drop (psi)

dL = Length (ft)
Fig. F4: Correction chart for the gradiomanometer in fM = Moody friction factor1
deviated holes. • = Fluid Density (g/cm3)
v = Fluid Velocity (ft/s)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter (in.)

1
The dimensionless Moody friction factor, fM, may be pre-
dicted satisfactorily from the iterative Colebrook equation:

1/√fM = 2log(D/e) + 1.14 – 2log(1 + 9.34(D/e)/(NRe√fM))

where,
e = Absolute Roughness (distance between
peaks and valleys)
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
e/D = Relative Roughness (dimensionless)
NRe = Reynolds Number
= 7.742x103Dvr/m
e/D may be obtained from charts.
(01/97) F-3
Introduction to Production Logging

This correction is not made during data acqui- the tool produces additional pressure drops
sition but may be estimated from charts (Fig- when the point of acceleration is between the
ure F5) or using PL quicklook. two ports. In this case the kinetic term causes
a sharp increase or kick in the gradio reading.
The chart contains the estimated friction cor- Other kinetic kicks may be observed at points
rections for most ranges requiring correc- of fluid entry, such as single perforations, or
tions. To use the chart, enter the downhole any turbulent area in the casing.
flowrate at the depth where the gradio read-
ing was taken on the y-axis and intersect the (dP)Acceleration = •vL(dv/dL)
proper casing line drawn diagonally across
the chart. (dP/dL)Acceleration = 0.013474•v(dv/dL)
10 5

5/8
" dP = Pressure Drop (psi)
9

5/8
" dL = Length (ft)
8 "

"
6
5/
8
v = Fluid Velocity (ft/s)
Downhole flow rate

5/8
7
• = Fluid Density (g/cm3)
7" D = Pipe Internal Diameter (ins)
m = Fluid Viscosity (cp)
5"
" "
1/2 1/2
5 4
10 4
F.3.3 Acceleration (yo-
(yo-yo)
Acceleration of the silicon oil column from tool
yo-yo causes a pertubation to the measure-
ment due to additional localised forces across
the delta-p sensor.

F.3.4 Jetting
Jet ting effect
Pressure from jet entries impinging on the
10 3
1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.0 pressure ports result in localised anomalies
ρgradio / ρ
on the fluid density.
Fig. F5: Gradiomanometer friction effect correction
chart.
An advantage of the pressure differential sys-
The •gradio/• ratio can be read from the x-axis tem is that it has a very smooth readout com-
at the point of intersection. pared to the nuclear systems that exhibit sta-
Then, divide the •gradio:• ratio value into the
•gradio reading to obtain the corrected • value. tistical variations.

F.3.2 Acceleration (kinetic term) A disadvantage of the pressure differential

The kinetic term is observable when the ve- system is the fluid flow around the tool can
locity of the fluid across the upper part of the cause friction effects that alter the apparent
gradio is significantly different from the veloc- pressure differential, which produces errone-
ity across the lower part. This is commonly ous fluid density readings.
observed when logging into the tubing, where
the fluid velocity greatly exceeds the velocity
in the casing. Acceleration of the fluid around

(01/97) F-4
F.4 CURRENT GRADIOMAN
GRADIOMA NOME
OMETER
TOOL
A strain gauge diffused on a silicone diaphram
will distort if any pressure difference is ap-
plied across it. This pressure difference is re-
lated to the density of the fluid in the wellbore.
The Gradio sensor is a bridge circuit strain
gauge differential pressure transducer. The
sensor is voltage excited and its output signal
is input to a VCO.
The two pressure ports are spaced 21" apart.
The tubes are filled with silicone oil (DC-200)
of density 0.97 gm/cc at atmospheric condi-
tions. Traps eliminate water or gas contami-
nation of the silicon column The output is cor-
rected for deviation, if a deviation value is
entered in the software. A built-in temperature
sensor allows corrections due to temperature
variations to be applied automatically. The
characterisation of the sensor is done at the
time of manufacture.The gradiomanometer
section is a detachable module and may easily
be removed from the sonde for maintenance.
The measurement range of the sensor is 0 to 2
gm/cc.
• temperature from built-in RTD
To calculate •, the measurement is averaged
over 7.5 ft, with an assumption that the tool
motion is eliminated. This gives output AZ. The
deviation angle,•, is calculated as follows:
cos• = AZ / g
The output AZC2 is the accleration averaged
over 1 ft.
It is used to correct the gradiomanometer for
yo-yo.
F.4.2 Pressure sensor Calibration
A Master Calibration is performed with an
oven and dead weight tester every 6 months.
For proper tool operation, the coefficients ob-
tained from the master cal, along with the
PCOR table, must be entered correctly at the
time of logging.
Gradiomanometer specifications:
Silicon diaphram with a diffused strain gauge
(Endevco or PSOI)
Sensor
2
Range Resolution Accuracy

F.4.1 Yo-
Yo -Yo correction Density 0–2 0.004 0.04
3
This is done using a built in accelerometer. (g/cm )
The monoaxis servo-accelerometer provides
a measurement of the acceleration Az along
the tool axis:

Az = g * cos • + At

where:
g = 9.80665 m/sec2
• = angle between tool axis and vertical
At= tool motion term
The output from the gauge is converted to an
acceleration using:
2
• manufacturer's coefficients Endevco delta-P sensor is calibrated to 125 degC
The PSOI gauge is calibrated to 175 degC
(01/97) F-5
Introduction to Production Logging

F.5 THE NUCLEAR FLUI

FLUIDD DEN
DENSITY TOOL* relies on radioactive decay, the readings are
subject to statistical variations. It should also
The nuclear fluid density tool (Figure F6) oper-
be noted that the measured quantity is the av-
ates on a similar principle to the formation
erage density of the flowing mixture; thus, it is
density tools; i.e., a source of gamma rays is
subject to the same holdup effects as the gra-
positioned with respect to a detector of
diomanometer.
gamma rays so that the wellbore fluid acts as
an absorber. A high count rate indicates a
F.5.1 Specifications Nuclear Fluid Den-
Den-
fluid of low density, and a low count rate indi-
simeter (NFD–
(NFD–B*)
cates a fluid of high density.
⊇
3 0.2 – 1.2
Range (g/cm )
3 0.01
Accuracy (g/cm )
3 1.25
Resolution (g/cm /decade)
Minimum Casing (ins) 5.0
Maximum Casing (ins) 12.0

High energy g-rays from a Cesium (Cs137)

chemical source reach the detector through
Compton scattering. The count rate measured
at the detector will depend on the electron
density of the fluid around the tool.

Source collimators are available for fluid den-

sity measurement and gravel pack monitoring.

Fig. F6: Nuclear Fluid Density tool.

The advantage of the nuclear fluid density tool

over the gradiomanometer is that its meas-
urement is not affected by wellbore deviation
or by friction effects. However, since the tool
(01/97) F-6
F.6 THE CAPACITANCE (DIELECTRIC OR
WATERCUT) TOOL
The third group of widely used tools for distin-
guishing water from hydrocarbons depend for
their operation on the difference between the
dielectric constant of water (• 80) and that of
oil or gas (•6). A simple way to find the dielec-
tric constant of a fluid is to use the fluid as the ⊇
dielectric between the plates of a capacitor.
The capacitance may be found by classical
methods such as including it in an RC network
and finding the resonant frequency.

A conventional design is shown in the Figure

F7. Two cylindrical metal tubes are arranged
so that wellbore fluids flow through the annu-
lar space between them. The raw readings of
such a device are in terms of a frequency.
Each tool will have a calibration graph to con-
vert a measured frequency to a watercut
value. These tools behave well, provided that
the continuous phase is oil. In practice, the
measurement may become unreliable if the Fig. F7: Capacitance tool schematic.
watercut in the flowing mixture exceeds 30%.

fHUM = 1/R1(C1 + CHUM) F.6.1 Specifications Hold-

Hold-Up Meter
Me ter
(HUM–
(HUM–D*)
fHUM(air) • 13000 Hz
fHUM(water) • 6000 Hz Maximum Pressure (psi) 20000
fHUM(oil) • 11000 Hz Maximum Temp. (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 25
CHUM = CmCt/(Cm +Ct) Makeup Length (ins) 72.0
Yw Range (±%)
Ct = 2p•t•rL/ln(r1/r0) Yw Accuracy (±%)

Cm = 2p•m•rL/ln(r2/r1)
Ct = Capacitance of the teflon
CHUM = Capacitance of the HUM
Cm = Capacitance of the mixture
•t = Dielectric constant of the teflon
•m = Dielectric constant of the mixture
•r = Dielectric constant of free space
r0 = 0.66 cm
r1 = 0.73 cm
r2 = 1.25 cm
L = 0.50 m

(01/97) F-7
Introduction to Production Logging

F.7 FLOWRATE CALCULATIONS

CALCULATIONS USING Vo
Vw
FLUID DENSITY AND A SLIP MODEL
To calculate the flowrate using fluid density,
the relationship between the heavy and light
phases must be examined. This is called the
Bubble Flow Model (Figure F8).

The bubble flow model assumes that the light

phase (oil) will rise at a velocity greater than
the heavier phase (water) due to the differ-
ence in density. This velocity difference is
called the slippage velocity, vs.

vs = vo – vw

The volume of casing occupied by water at

any given depth is defined as the water
holdup, Yw.
Vo=Vw+Vs
Yw + Yo = 1 Vw

The water hold up must not be confused with

the watercut which is the rate of water pro-
duction compared to the total production ex- ywA (1-y w A)
pressed as a percentage.

The total flowrate (Qt) is composed of both the

light phase flowrate (Qo) and the heavy phase
flowrate (Qw). This can be written: Water Oil

Qt = Qo + Qw

(Note: Qo can be replaced by Qgas, where

applicable.)

Fig. F8: Bubble Flow Model.

The flowrate of the heavy phase (Qw) is equal

to the percentage of the heavy (Yw) multiplied

(01/97) F-8
by the casing area (A) multiplied by the veloc-
ity of the heavy phase (vw). That is:
Qw = Yw.A.vw
The velocity of the heavy phase (vw) contains
only one component.
The light phase flowrate (Qo) is equal to the
product of the percent of light phase (1-Yw)
multiplied by the area of the casing (A) multi-
plied by the velocity of the light phase (vo).
The equation is:
Qo = (1-Yw).A.vo
The velocity of the light phase (vo) is com-
posed of the heavy phase velocity (vw) and the
slip velocity (vs).
Rearranging the expression becomes:
Qo = (1-Yw)A(vw + vs)
= Avw - A vw Yw + (1-Yw) vsA
Adding Qo and Qw, Qt becomes:
Qt = A vw + (1-Yw) vsA
Rearranging,
Qt − (1− Yw )vsA
vw =
A
Therefore,
Qw = yw Qt - Yw (1-Yw) vsA
Since Qt = Qo + Qw,
If Qw equals zero, then Qt = Qo
If Qo is substituted for Qt in the above equa-
tion the following expression is derived:
0 = YwQo-Yw(1-Yw)vsA
rearranging, this becomes:
Qo = (1-Yw)vsA
This equation may be expressed as:
QL = (1-Yw)vsA
where QL is the light phase flow rate hence
the equation is applicable to both oil and gas
relationships.
The calculation of the cross sectional area
associated with the holdup must take into ac-
count the presence of the device that is mak-
ing the measurement.
If,
A* = ( /4)(D2 – dt2)1/144
QL = (1-Yw)vsA*(BPD)
A* = Effective Area for holdup measurement
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
dt = Gradiomanometer Diameter
vs = Slippage Velocity
D = Pipe Internal Diameter
Yw =Water Holdup
The water holdup, Yw, may be obtained from
the Gradiomanometer response as follows:
•gradio = Yw•w + Yo•o
= Yw•w + (1 –Yw)•o
Yw = (•gradio – •o)/(•w – •o)
(01/97) F-9
Introduction to Production Logging

The remaining unknown, the slippage velocity,

vs, may be obtained from experimental corre-
lations. (Use Figure F9 for liquids. In gas wells
use 60 ft/min, if no other information is avail-
able.)

Fig. F10: Slippage velocity charts for deviated wells.

In deviated wells these charts can be used

(Figure F10).

Fig. F9: Standard chart for slippage velocity.

(01/97) F-10
F.8 SUMMARY
•gradio is influenced by following effects:
•Pelevation : desired effect, gives •f
-requires deviation correction since
•P ~•fghcos•
Log outputs from current tools are available
deviation corrected or not.
•f is progressively less accurate as deviation
approaches 90˚
•Pfriction : fluid friction on tool/casing
•Pkinetic : fluid acceleration between
measuring ports due to fluid
entries or diameter changes.•
•• ••••••••gradio gives a kick
•gradio = • f. <va>. Dva / gh
kinetic
There are also local effects from perforation
jets, turbulence, and non-axial flow.
Tool Yoyo : acceleration of silicon oil column
is corrected in by the latest tool using as ac-
celerometer output.
Hence:

– negligible for Q < 2000 b/d •P measured by tool =

see chart to estimate effect on 111/16"
tool; + •P from elevation
– assumes •=0, monophasic and
roughness 0.0006" + •P from friction

+ •P from tool yo-yo

Current logging software does not remove
friction to present on log but PL quick look
+ •P from kinetic effect
programs interpretation can estimate it.
+ •P from 'jetting' qualitative only

(01/97) F-11
Introduction to Production Logging

F.9 EXAMPLES
Example F1
Using the following recorded gradiomanometer data compute the heavy phase hold up above perfo-
rations A and B.

Example F1: Gradiomanometer log.

(01/97) F-12
Example F2
Gradiomanometer reading is 0.63 g/cc
Deviation = 30˚
Flowrate = 20000 bpd
Casing = 7”, 26#

10 5

"
5 /8
9
"
5/8 "
8
5/8
6
"
Downhole flow rate

5/8
7

7"

5"
" "
1 /2 1 /2
5 4
10 4

10 3
1.01 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.50 2.0
ρgradio / ρ

Example F2: Gradiomanometer Flow Correction Chart.

Questions
Correct the gradio reading for the deviation and flow rate.

(01/97) F-13
Introduction to Production Logging

ANSWERS
Example F2
Example F1
Deviation
The spinner indicates the extent of the cross-
flow to be from 2470.5 to 2414.6 feet. As the
•cor = •gradio/cos•
down flowmeter has a higher value than the
up pass the fluid must be moving upwards.
• = 30˚
By logging shut in and/or flowing passes at cos• = 0.87
three different flowrates (minimum) the spin-
ner can be calibrated. •cor = 0.63/0.87 = 0.72

The average velocity can be estimated as density = 0.72 g/cc

= (difference between the up and down spin- Flowrate

ners)/ (Bu+Bd)
From the chart,
= (0.42)/(0.053+0.058)*.83 = 3.14 ft/min.
•cor /• = 1.027

2) According to the shut in temperature • = 0.72/1.027 = 0.70 g/cc

passes theis zone is taking some of the fluid
from 2469.5 - 2470.5 feet.

3) The fluid flowing back from 2469.5-2470.5 is

at or near the geothermal temperature for that
depth and the fluid warms the borehole as it
flows up to 2415 feet.

(01/97) F-14
 Appendix HUM Models

Segregated Model

CHUM = AYw + B

Parallel Model

CHUM = A/[B•ln(CYw + D) + E]

Yw = (r32 – r22)/(r32 – r12)

Dispersed Model

CHUM = A/[(B/••m) + C]

Mixing Laws

•m = •wYw + •o(1 – Yw)

•m = •wYw2 + •o(1 – Yw) 2
•w • 80.5
•o • 4.0
•g • 2.0
•fw = 94.88 – 0.2317T + 0.000217T2
•w = •fw – 0.1556 – 0.413S + 0.00158S2
Fig. F11: Hold up meter models.
T = Temperature (°F)
S = Salinity (kppm)
(01/97) F-15
G. OTHER SENSORS
G.1 PRESSURE
G.1.1 Uses of Pressure
• Well test analysis (kh, skin)
• Reservoir extent, boundaries
• Fluid conversions
• AOF, SIP determination
G.1.2 Pressure Measurement
Tech
Tec h niques
There are many different ways of measuring
pressure. All pressure transducers operate on
the principle of converting pressure to me-
chanical displacement. This mechanical dis-
placement is then converted to an electrical
signal that can be used by measuring systems.
The mechanical displacement is accom-
plished by the use of a force-summing device,
a mechanism by which the force of pressure
is balanced by an opposing force. This bal-
ancing force can be generated by displace-
ment in the force summing device, or it can be
externally generated.
Force-summing devices take many forms. The
diaphragm, the bellows, and the bourdon tube,
are all of which are typical summing devices.
Regardless of the type of force-summing de-
vice, the displacement or generated force is
coupled to a transduction device.
The transduction device converts the dis-
placement or generated force into an electri-
cal signal or signal-generating form. That is,
the force can be converted directly into a
voltage or current signal, or it can take on an
intermediate form, such as a change in resis-
tance or a change in flux path length. A few
transducers combine the force-summing ele-
ment and the transduction element into one
unit.
Transducers combining the two elements are
classified as direct-exposure transducers.
This class is best typified by the Hewlett-
Packard gauge in which a vibrating quartz
crystal is directly exposed to the pressure so
that the mechanical deformation occurs di-
rectly in the transduction device.
All other types of transducers are classified as
indirect-exposure devices.
Indirect exposure devices are typified by the
thin film strain gauge. In this gauge, the force-
summing device is a diaphragm and the trans-
duction device is a thin film strain gauge
bridge mounted on the back side of the dia-
phragm. The bridge configuration converts
pressure-induced resistance change into an
output voltage signal.
A more detailed discussion on transducer
types is given in the Appendix.
G.1.3 Strain Gauge Transducers
The transduction element in the strain gauge
transducer is a resistor that is mounted in to
the force-summing device so as to cause the
resistor to be sensitive to strain. When the
force-summing device undergoes a displace-
ment, the strain-sensitive resistor changes its
physical length, thereby causing change in
resistance. This may be expressed as:
∆R
GF = ∆L R
L
where
(01/97) G-1
Introduction to Production Logging

GF = Gauge Factor
•R = Change in frequency
R = Unstrained resistance
Various types of strain gauge transducers
have different gauge factors.
There are four basic types of strain gauge
transducers. These four types with their cor-
responding gauge factors are shown in Table
G1. A rule that applies to these transducers is:
the larger the gauge factor, the higher the
output of the device.
•L = Change in length
L = Unstrainged length
Pressure correction for temperature is deter-
mined during Master Calibration, and ac-
counted for by the surface acquisition system,
using the PCOR table.
This unbonded resistive four arm strain gauge
has a built in Resistance Temperature Device
(RTD).

Type Gauge Factor

Unbonded Wire 4
Bonded Foil 2
Thin Film 2
Semiconductor 80-150
Table G1: Types of strain gauge transducers.

The gauge used in the standard tool is an un-

bonded wire transducer made of a tube sens-
ing member with a strain wrapped around it.

Two sets of strain wire are wrapped around

the upper part of a tube exposed to pressure,
and two other sets wrapped around the lower
part of the same tube, not exposed to pres-
sure. The active and reference windings on
the outside of the cylinder are kept in nitrogen
at atmospheric pressure.

The pressure applied causes the active part

of the cylinder to distort which changes the
resistance of the active winding.

A Wheatstone bridge is formed, the output of

which is a voltage function of the pressure
seen by the transducer. The pressure trans-
ducer output (voltage) will vary with tempera-
ture for any constant pressure.
Fig. G1: Strain Gauge Transducer.

(01/97) G-2
A third order polynomial equation is used to
model its response:
P(V) = MG + MHV +MIV2 +MJV3
P: Absolute pressure (psi)
V: Ratio between output and exitation
voltage
Mi: Sensor coefficients
The sensor coefficients are a function of tem-
perature and are modelled as folows:
Mi(Rt) = Mi3 Rt3 + Mi2 Rt2 + Mi1 Rt + Mi0
R t: Resistance value of RTD in ohms.
The sensor characterisation is done at the
time of manufacture and a Master Calibration
is done using a dead-weight tester. Correc-
tions are automatically applied by the soft-
ware.
Advantages of this transducer are its excel-
lent accuracy, insensitivity to temperature and
good long-term stability and good dynamic
response, but with reduced measurement ac-
curacy and resolution. Disadvantages of this
transducer are sensitivity to shock and vibra-
tion, hysteresis, and limited frequency re-
sponse.
Three gauges are available: 5 Kpsi, 10 Kpsi
and 20 Kpsi.
G.1.4 Current developments
"Alpha" gauge replacement for the strain
gauge.
The "Alpha" gauge is a thin film transducer,
consisting of a resistor pattern making up an
active bridge.
The thin film strain gauge transducer, consist-
ing of a resistor pattern that is vapor or sputter
deposited onto the force-summing element.
Some units have the resistors mounted on a
diaphragm, and others have them mounted on
a beam that is linked to a diaphragm by a push
rod.
Advantages of this transducer are excellent
long-term stability, excellent accuracy, low
hysteresis, and high temperature range.
Disadvantages are low output level and high
costs.
Specifications of the "Alpha" gauge:
pressure rating 17,000 psi
pressure accuracy +/- 17 psi
pressure resolution 0.1 psi
temperature rating 175 degC
Table G2: Alpha gauge specifications.
G.1.5 Vibrating Crystal Transducer
In vibrating crystal transducers, a crystal is
forced by external electronic circuits to oscil-
late at its resonate frequency. When external
stress is applied to the crystal via mechanical
linkage to the force-summing element, the
resonate frequency of the crystal shifts in
proportion to the stress. In at least one trans-
ducer of this type the force-summing element
is the crystal itself.
This is a direct-conversion type transducer in
which the transduction element is also the
force-summing element. The vibrating crystal
is usually manufactured out of quartz because
of its excellent elastic properties, long-term
stability characteristics, and ease of vibra-
tional excitement.
The way the quartz crystal is cut (the orienta-
tion of the crystal faces) determines its reso-
(01/97) G-3
Introduction to Production Logging

nant frequency and its sensitivity to pressure corresponds to a pressure range of 0 psi to
and temperature. 12000 psi.

The quartz measure crystal is also sensitive to

temperature. A reference crystal isolated from
well pressure but not borehole temperatiure is
used to compensate for temperature effects.
Its oscillator runs at 4.992 Mhz.

A mixer derives the difference frequency of

the two crystals, which is 8 kHz to 25 kHz.

The relationship between pressure and fre-

quency, as a function of temperature, for the
crystal pair, is defined by 16 unique coeffi-
cients.These coefficients are calculated
yearly, during the tool's master calibration,
performed in a dedicated oil bath calibration
cell. The pressure range during calibration is
from 200 to 11000 psi.

This device has the following specifications:

Maximum Pressure (psi) 12000

Maximum Temperature (°F)
2813B 300
2813C 350
2813E 350
Weight (lbs) 22.0
Makeup Length (ins) 57.6
Resolution/1sec (psi) 0.01
Repeatability (psi) 0.4
Fig. G2: Crystal Gauge schematic.
Range (psi) 200 – 11000
Table G3: HP gauge specifications.
Advantages of the vibrating crystal transducer
are its excellent accuracy, resolution, and
long-term stability. psi Reading(%) Temp (°F)
0.5 0.025 1.8
1 0.1 18
Disadvantages are its sensitivity to tempera- 5 0.25 36
ture and high cost.
Table G4: HP Accuracy at thermal equilibrium.

The Hewlett Packard Gauge is used. Borehole

pressure distorts a quartz crystal, which is The most recent HP gauge has an improved
controlling an oscillator. The measure crystal dynamic response to a step change in tem-
resonates from 5.000 MHz to 5.017 MHz, which perature.

(01/97) G-4
G.2 TEMPERATURE MEASUR
MEASURE
UREMENT
TECHNIQUES
G.2.1 Uses of Temperature Data
• Location of production or injection zones
• Monitor frac performance
• Gas entry
• Fluid movement behind pipe
• Fluid conversions.
G.2.2 Temperature Measurement
Most temperature tools work on a similar
principle, utilizing the varying electrical con-
ductivity of a thin wire that accompanies
changes in ambient temperature.
In the standard the variations in resistance of
a platinum resistor are measured using a
Wheatstone bridge.
Temperature
sensitive
resistor
Fig. G3: Temperature tool.
The changing resistance is modelled as fol-
lows for temperatures in excess of 0 °C,
Rt = R0(1 + AT + BT2)
A = a(1 + 0.01d) B = – ad•10-4
T = Temperature (°C)
Rt = Resistance in Ohms at temperature, T
R0 = Resistance in Ohms at 0°C (453W)
a = 3.91x10-3
d = 1.49
This quadratic in T may be solved in real time.
In practice the sensor measurement range is -
13˚F to 347˚F. This corresponds to a sensor
resistance of 408 to 759 Ohms. The nominal
resistance is 453 • at room temperature of 32
degF. the temperature resolution is 0.0014˚ F if
the log is recorded at 1800 fph.
G.2.3 Temperature Log Interpretation
Temperature Log interpretation is often quali-
tative. For example the qualitative evaluation
of fluid flow as indicated by departures from
the geothermal gradient. The geothermal
gradient is the natural, fairly linear, increase in
temperature with formation depth. Given the
opportunity to stabilize under static condi-
tions, a borehole will exhibit the geothermal
gradient; therefore, actual temperature read-
ings that depart from the geothermal gradient
accompany flow conditions, which can be in-
ferred from these readings.
The temperature survey can see behind pipe(
as do the tracer, noise logging and Water
Flow Log). Usually, the distinction cannot be
made regarding flow in casing versus flow
behind casing. A flow survey inside the casing
has to be used in conjunction to fully evaluate
the situation.
Another important use of the measurement is
to supply the temperature (T) portion of PVT
type equations and charts. Temperature in-
formation is critical to the determination of
gas expansion/compression, GOR, and oil
shrinkage from downhole to surface condi-
tions and vice versa.
(01/97) G-5
Introduction to Production Logging

The following illustrations and cases demon- Spinner Temperature

strate some of the many uses of the tempera-
ture log.
G.2.4 Case 1 Flowing wells

Liquid geothermal
gradient

Spinner Temperature

geothermal
gradient gas
flow

Water
Flow Fig. G5: Well producing Gas.

In this case the well is producing gas through

the perforations. Once again the spinner re-
acts to the flow. The temperature exhibits an
initial decrease before increasing as in the
liquid case. The perforations are producing
Fig. G4: Well producing liquid.
liquid giving a change in the spinner. The tem-
perature increases above the geothermal gra-
Gas dient towards an asymtote.

This is due to the adiabatic expansion of the

gas as it entres the borehole.

G.2.5 Case 2 Channeling

Liquid

(01/97) G-6
 Spinner Temperature
Spinner Temperature

geothermal geothermal
gradient gradient

Water Flow
behind Flow
casing behind the
casing

Fig. G6: Liquid Channeling.

Fig. G7: Gas Channeling.

In the case of a liquid channeling behind the
casing the temperature will show an increase
before the spinner reacts to the flow. The lat-
ter device only measures inside the casing
while the temperature sees both inside and
outside.
Once again, in the case of gas there is an ini-
tial decrease in the temperature. The log sees
a small decrease as the gas enters the space
behind the casing as the expansion here is
small. There is a larger effect as it enters the
borehole, seen as well by the spinner.

G.2.6 Temperature Profile Examples

Gas The following examples show some of the
uses to which temperature profiles can be put.
The catalogue is not exhaustive but serves as
templates on which to base interpretations.

(01/97) G-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. G8: A leak zone above the perforations. The fluid

leak produces an anomalous drop in temperature.

Fig. G10: This shows the standard profile expected un-

der normal producing conditions.

Fig. G9: Time lapse temperature profiles are used to

detect which reservoir layer is gaining or losing fluid
due to crossflow. In this example layer A is probably
communicating with layer B.

Fig. G11: Crossflow from an upper to lower zone pro-

duces this temperature profile.

(01/97) G-8
 Fig. G13: Caliper tool.

A typical caliper tool is illustrated in Figure

Fig. G12: This is the opposite to the previous example G13. Calipers, of course, are very important in
as this time the crossflow is from the lower zone up- openhole or new well logging because so
wards. many interpretation parameters require hole
diameter information.

G.3 CALIPER TOOLS A recent advance in sonic technology has

created devices called acoustic calipers.
G.3.1 Caliper measurement
These tools use ultrasonic sound waves that
Caliper tools are manufactured in many con-
echo off the inside casing wall and return to
figurations; but, the basic operation is similar
the tool. The time for this round trip, along
throughout the industry. Most caliper tools
with fluid travel time information, generates
use a system of two or more arms or fingers
excellent, accurate caliper data, usually in
that are mechanically coupled to a variable
several directions across the pipe. These sys-
resistor with a voltage output proportional to
tems are generally better than mechanical
the arm/finger position. The position is pro-
calipers for identifying corrosion problems
portional to hole diameter.
and other defects resulting in minor dimension
changes.

G.3.2 Caliper log example

In production logging in cased hole and open-
hole (barefoot) completions, the caliper infor-
mation is essential to the interpretation of
spinner and tracer data for flowrate calcula-
tions. (An exception to this is when using
petal/basket and packer flowmeter devices as
(01/97) G-9
Introduction to Production Logging
these tools force the fluid through a known
orifice or passageway, which negates the
need for caliper information.)
Caliper
Casing/ hole size
change
Spinner RPS
Fig. G14: Caliper and Spinner logs in changing casing
size.
At first consideration, one might assume that
flowmeters in cased wells would not require a
caliper log; however, partially collapsed cas-
ing can cause flowmeter anomalies that are
very mysterious without hole diameter data.
Also, seriously corroded casing can create
other questions that are difficult to answer.
Caliper logs provide clues that help.
The example in Figure G14 shows a typical
case where the casing size changes, chang-
ing the fluid velocity and hence the spinner
response. Without the caliper information this
could be misinterpreted as a flow increase.
Max Pressure (psi) 15000
Max Temp (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 25
(01/97) G-10
Makeup Length (ins) 76.5
Range (ins) 2 – 18
Resolution (ins) 0.06
Accuracy (ins) 0.1
Table G5: caliper Tool Specifications.
G.4 ALTERNATIVE FLOW
MEASURING DE
DEVICES
The spinner flowmeter is the most common
device for measuring the flowrate in wells.
However, there are some cases where other
techniques are better, for example the detec-
tion of flow behind casing.
Three principle methods are:
• Water Flow Log*
• Noise Logging
• Tracer Surveys
G.4.1 Water Flow Log
Uses of the water flow log include:
• Detection and quantification of water flow-
ing in cement channels.
• Identification of water flowing in the tubing
annulus
• Low water flowrate measurement
The Water Flow Log (Figure G15) is an exten-
sion of the Saturation Monitoring tools meas-
urement. It employs a pulsed neutron genera-
tor to activate a small volume of the oxygen in
the water in and around the borehole. The
activated isotope is N16 which has a half life of
around 7 seconds. As it decays it emits a high
energy gamma ray.
If the water is stationary the decay of the ex-
cited nuclei is predictable and exponential. On
the other hand, if it is flowing, the motion of
the excited volume is monitored by each of the
tools three detectors (Near, far and Gamma
Ray). Even very low flow creates a discern-
able trace over the background.
Fig. G15: Theory of Water flow logging

(01/97) G-11
Introduction to Production Logging

The tools software analyses the recorded

gama ray profile and computes the flow veloc-
ity in ft/min. A volumetric flow is also esti-
mated.

The red curve on these examples is the nor-

mal decay expected. The dark blue curve is
the actual decay measured, normal decay
plus flowing water signal.

The blue area under the curves shows the

flowing signal. The program has estimated
flows in these two cases, one inside and one
outside the casing.

Flow can be detected from very low to very

high velocities and flowing in either up or
down directions (Figure G17).

Fig. G16: Examples of flow detected by the Water Flow

Log.

Fig. G17: Tool configurations for upflow and downflow.

(01/97) G-12
The advantages of this method of flow meas-
urement is that no radioactive material is in-
troduced into the well. The disadvantage is
that it only measures the flow of water.
G.4.2 Noise Logging
Uses of Noise Logging include:
• Channels behind casing
• Producing perforations
• Tubing or casing leaks
• Zones of lost circulation while drilling
Noise in a well that causes tool response is a
function of the acceleration, or turbulence, of
a fluid moving across a pressure differential.
Noise = f (•P,Q)
where;
•P - pressure differential
Q - flowrate
By varying the pressure differential, flow rate,
or both, various types of noise can be gener-
ated. The noises can be characterized and
categorized into different groups by examining
the frequency spectrum of the total signal.
G.4.2.1 Noise Logging Tool
A typical noise logging tool (Figure G18) con-
sists of a transducer that converts sound to an
electrical signal. The transducer is designed
to respond to sound originating in any direc-
tion around the borehole; therefore, it has no
directional properties. An amplifier, contained
in the tool, transmits the signal up the cable.
The proper tool response depends upon a
metal to metal contact; therefore, the tool is
run without centralization. Sound transmis-
sion to the transducer is not efficient without
the casing-tool contact. The tool does not
emit any sound energy. It only responds to
sound originating in or around the wellbore.
Fig. G18: Noise Logging Tool.
A typical logging operation consists of posi-
tioning the tool at selected depths and allow-
ing the signal generated by the transducer to
be processed by the surface instrumentation.
The time required at each station is about one
to two minutes. This allows the tool to re-
spond to wellbore noise without being af-
fected by extraneous noises caused by cable
and tool movement.
During these stationary readings, the surface
instrumentation analyzes the signal being sent
up the cable. A frequency separation network
provides the means to separate the cable sig-
nal into the following frequency cuts: 200 Hz;
600 Hz; 1,000 Hz; and 2,000 Hz. The 200 Hz cut
passes all frequencies above 200 Hz; the 600
Hz cut passes all frequencies above 600 Hz,
and so on.
At each station, a peak mV reading is re-
corded for each frequency cut. These values
are plotted as a set of points on a logarithmic
grid. The selection of the spacing between
readings will vary from one set of well condi-
tions to another. Station spacings of 20 feet to
50 feet, while noise values are low, is com-
mon. In zones of interest, spacings of 10 feet
(01/97) G-13
Introduction to Production Logging

or less between stations is necessary for de- level of noise is observed. As flow enters the
tailed analysis. lower pressured sand B, another increase in
noise is observed due to the pressure drop
G.4.2.2 Interpretation across sand B.
The sound detected by the noise tool in a well
is generated by the turbulent flow of the fluids, Figure G20 illustrates a noise peak associated
either in the casing or in the casing-formation with a point fluid entry (producing perfora-
annulus. Outside the casing, a pressure dif- tions) or fluid exit (casing or tubing leak).
ferential caused by restrictions in the casing-
formation annular space creates the neces-
sary turbulence to generate sound that can be
detected by the noise tool.

Fig. G20: Expected noise levels at a perforation.

A pressured drop at the point or hole causes

turbulent flow to occur and creates a peak in
the noise level at the hole.

Fig. G19: Expected noise levels in a channel.

Several situations can exist in a well that can

produce high noise levels. Figure G19 illus-
trates typical noise levels possible in an inter-
val with fluid flow in a casing-formation chan-
nel.

A pressure differential allows fluid to flow into

the channel from the higher pressured sand,
A, to the lower pressured sand, B. At the face
of sand A, a pressure drop occurs as fluid
flows out of the sand and into the channel.
Notice the increase in noise level at sand A as
a result of this turbulent flow. As flow contin-
ues upward, a restriction in the channel cre-
ates another pressure drop, and another high

(01/97) G-14
 Fig. G21: Expected noise levels for gas production.

Figure G21 depicts a gas entry from the perfo-

rations 8,320 feet to 8,350 feet. Above 8,300
feet, the discontinuous phase in the wellbore
is gas, and the sound attenuates quite rapidly.
A standing column of water begins about 8,350
feet, and it will be noticed, that below the liq-
uid level, the sound attenuates much slower.

Fig. G22: Expected noise levels for flow behind casing.

In Figure G22, the noise tool identifies move-

ment behind the casing. A grouping of sands
beginning from approximately 10,700 feet to
9,900 feet appears to be supplying the energy
to cause communication to occur between
those sands and a zone at approximately 8,700
feet. Above the 8,700 foot zone the noise at-
tenuation dies out, indicating no further
movement up the hole.

(01/97) G-15
Introduction to Production Logging

G.4.2.3 Channel Flowrate Calcula

Calculations N*1000 is the corrected peak-to-peak ampli-
From The Noise Tool tude of the 1,000 Hz curve.
Several factors inject inaccuracies into any
calculations involving noise logs; such as, dis- The single phase can be gas or water. Since
tance from the noise source, perforation size this relation gives only •p x q,an independent
and condition, sonde-to-casing contact, a liq- •p must be used to calculate q.
uid or gas environment, etc. The following
procedures for calculating flowrates were de-
rived by Exxon Production Research Company
(EPRCo).

The test facility used for noise tool standardi-

zation is located at the EPRCo. facility. It con-
sists of a 6" O.D. casing, approximately 4 ft. in
length. Standing vertical, the standard Exxon
noise tool is positioned inside 2-inch tubing
placed inside the casing. The inside of the
tubing contains kerosene, and it is pressured
to 1,000 psi prior to injecting air or liquid into
one of three intake valves affixed to the cas-
ing. Fig. G23: Frequency response for single phase flow.

Inside the casing, cement is poured between Figure G23 illustrates why the 1,000 Hz fre-
two plates. A one-inch gap created by the quency cut was used in the first equation. The
plates provides the channel through which air noise frequency spectrum peaks between the
or liquid is injected into the casing; this cre- 1,000 Hz and 2,000 Hz frequency cuts in a dra-
ates a number of specific noise responses. matic manner. A typical log response is pre-
The data gathered is presented in the next sented in Figure G24, and it illustrates how the
sections. frequency cut curves from 1,000 Hz and below
tend to have the same value. The 2,000 Hz
curve has a distinctly lower value.
G.4.2.4 Single-
Single -Phase Flowrate
Cal
Ca lculations
A correlation in the lab between the noise
level above 100 Hz (N1000) and the •p x q has
been developed and is well documented. The
equation, derived as a result of this correla-
tion, for a single-phase leak is:

•p x q = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)

where
•p is in psi
q is in K cu ft/day and

(01/97) G-16
 Fig. G24: Sound Intensity for single phase flow. stead of gas, the conversion of k cu ft / D to
B/D is as follows:
A leak-rate correlation was established for a
single-phase flow in the casing annulus. Al-
though there is considerable scattering of q = 0.33 k cu ft/D x 1000/5.61 = 59 B/D
data points, a best-fit line gives the equation
for the straightline segment for •p x q: G.4.2.5 Two-
Two-Phase Flowrate
Calcula
Calcula tions
•pq = 5 x (N*1000 - 6) For a two-phase leak into a channel, we can
proceed without a knowledge of •p. In the
Where, two-phase noise spectrum, a large component
resides in the 200 Hz to 600 Hz range, see Fig-
ure G25.
•p = Pressure drop between two points,
psi
q = Flowrate

N*1000 = Noise level measured above 1,000

Hz and expressed in peak-to-peak
millivolts

Note: the graph represents both water and

gas, indicating this calculation is valid for both
as long as only one phase is flowing in the
channel.

To illustrate the use of the single-phase equa-

tion, the following is given:

Gas Phase in Channel

•p = 90 psi
N*1000= 12 peak-to-peak millivolts
Fig. G25: Frequency response for two phase flow.
If
•pq = 5 x (N*1000 - 6)
This lower frequency component is a result of
= 5 x (12 - 6)
the slugging about of a liquid in a channel as
the gas pushes it back to enter. This slugging
= 30 psi x k cu ft / D
action is proportional to the flowrate of the
Then
gas and is not as dependent as a single-phase
q = 30/•p = (30 psi x k cu ft/D)/90psi
entry on the geometry of the channel. The
straightline equation of a two-phase, gas-
q = 0.33 k cu ft / D
liquid leak into a channel is:

(N*200 − N*600 )− 10
Note: This flowrate is at downhole conditions.
If water had been flowing in the channel in-
q=
20
(01/97) G-17
Introduction to Production Logging

N600 • •pq
The frequency curves in Figure G26 illustrate
how the larger component of 200 Hz separates Where;
itself from the other frequency cut curves. q = The Volumetric Flowrate
•p = The Pressure Drop across the Tool
The N* value referred to in the equations are
log values of mV that have been normalized From fluid dynamics;
(corrected) for wellbore geometry, electric
line attenuation, and other appropriate ∆p = 12 CD ρV2
corrections that must be made for valid
quantitative caculations.
Where;
• = Fluid Density (lb / cu ft)
V = Fluid Velocity
CD = 4 x 10-6; for turbulent flow

Since, V = q/As
We have:
q2
N 600 = C Dρ 2 ∗ q
As
Where;
CD = An audible drag coefficient
CD for turbulent flow is 4 x 10-6
π
( )(
As = id pipe + od pipe ∗ id pipe − od pipe
4
)
Fig. G26: Noise levels for two phase flow.
2
As = Cross-section for flow past the tool, ft
The noise level, N, taken from a log must be
normalised to fit the reference conditions, see The flowrate calculation for this equation is:
Appendix for the method. 1
 As2N*600  3
q= 
 4.10−6 ρ 
G.4.2.6 Production Profile Calcula
Calcul ations
from the Noise Tool
G.4.2.7 Calculation Of Flow From Perfo-
Perf o-
Single-Phase Flow Past Sonde ra tions
The flow of a fluid past the noise sonde cre-
ates turbulence and will radiate noise. This is Single-Phase Flow
referred to as a free-flow situation, since a Since the porous surface area of a deep,
leak expansion is not the source of the noise. clean perforation is greater than the cross-
sectional area of the hole in the casing, the
The noise created by flow past the tool can be last acceleration of the fluid occurs at the
proportionately written: casing wall. The perforation acts like an ori-
fice.
(01/97) G-18
In the noise relationship, 1. Determine N*600 from station reading
through the perforated interval.
Noise • •p x q
2. Next, determine • from the above stated re-
Substituting the orifice equation for •p lationship.
2
ρq 3. Sum the • values for each set of perfora-
Noise = ∗q
Ap2 tions.

ρq
3 4. Using the total of all • values throughout the
= 2 perforations, determine the percent contribu-
 πD2  tion from each set.
p
 
 4 
 
G.4.2.8 Noise Propagation
A factor in the interpretation of the noise log is
ρq 3
Noise = noise propagation away from a noise source
D4p before noise levels subside. This condition is
Where; dependent on several factors:

Dp = Perforation Diameter • Frequency of the noise - Higher frequen-

cies have a higher rate of attenuation;
Because the noise tool encounters a viscous
fluid, the relationship •q/• should be used; • Liquid or gaseous environment - Sound
therefore, attenuates faster in a gaseous environ-
ment as opposed to a liquid environment.
3 The liquid level is usually recognizable on
 ρq p 
ρ 4 q3p
N*600 = 3 4 =  1.3  = χ 3 a log;
µ Dp  µD p 
• Contact with the casing - Contact between
• can be referred to as the jet or perforation the sonde and the casing wall acts to in-
parameter. crease the distance required for noise
from a source to subside.
The following technique will allow for the de-
termination of the percent flow from the perfo-
rations.

(01/97) G-19
Introduction to Production Logging

APPENDIX A Where;
N = Log value
Conversion Of Log Noise Levels To Stan- Stan-
Fm,t = The combined Meter and Tool Gain
dard Val
Va lues
The noise level, N, taken from a log must be factors, see Table G1
multiplied by four normalizing factors to adjust FL = Line Factor, corrects for 5/16 in. ca-
it to the conditions of the EPRCo standard. bles and larger and for 7/32 in. cables
or smaller
If N* denotes the normalized value, then: FG = Wellbore Geometry Factor, see Table
G2.
N* = N x Fm,t x FL x FG

Sonde Manufacturer Unit Measured by Com

Combined Factor to Convert Unit to
Sonde and Surface Panel* EPRCo. Standard Millivolts
McCullough Wireline Services Standard Millivolts 1
Pengo Industries Standard Millivolts 1
Dresser Wireline Services Standard Millivolts 1
SIE Industries Standard Millivolts 1
Gearhart Industries One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts
Squire-Whitehouse Corp. One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts
Exxon Production Research Co. One-half of Standard 2
Millivolts

*Listed companies maintain uniformity within • 3 decibels, that is, within a factor equal to:

(10)•3/20 = 0.707 - 1.414

Standard measurement sensitivity is 1.0 x 106 std. millivolts/psi (RMS), referred to as normal gain. Most companies can
reduce the gain by a factor of 10.

Table G6: Meter and Tool gain Factors.

Number Of Pipes Shielding Sonde Fluid Content Of Pipes Multiplying Factor, Fg

One Liquid 1.0

Gas 2.0
Two (tubing plus casing) Liquid in Both 2.0
Liquid in one, gas in the other 4
Gas in both 8
None (leak into string containing Single-phase flow 0.20
sonde)
Gas-liquid flow 0.06

Table G7: Well Geometry factor.

(01/97) G-20
G.4.3 Tracer Tools
G.4.3.1 Tool Theory
Some applications of radioactive tracer log-
ging are:
• To check for packer, casing, or tubing
leaks;
• To identify channeling;
• To establish injection profiles on injector
wells;
• To imply production profiles from injection
profiles on production wells during injec-
tion testing; and
• To establish flow profiles in low flow areas
of producing wells. (Tracer logging in
producing wells requires special consid-
erations. This will be addressed later in
this section.)
Most of these applications require logging
techniques and interpretation methods unique
to the problem.
Tracer tools can be placed into two basic
categories. These are:
1) Gamma ray tools that do not have downhole
ejectors for releasing radioactive material,
and
2) Gamma ray tools that have downhole ejec-
tors in combination with multiple gamma ray
detector.
The first category is comprised of tools that
are essentially the same as those used for
openhole logging. These are usually smaller
diameter tools for through- tubing application.
The more common sizes are 13/8-inch and
111/16-inch.
In addition to flow profiling with the controlled
time technique and traditional openhole log-
ging, these tools are often used for channel
detection by comparing logging runs made
before and after injecting fluids containing
radioactive material into the well. The differ-
ence in the two runs will identify where radio-
active materials are present.
If radioactive material is present at any point
other than the perforated intervals, channel-
ing or vertical fracturing is likely. The detec-
tion of channels with ejector tools and none-
jector tools will be discussed in detail later in
this course. Flow profiling with these tools
will be discussed in this section.
Tools in the second category generally consist
of two basic downhole components. The first
component is a chamber that will hold a small
amount of radioactive material and will eject a
controlled amount of this material into the
borehole. The second component is a multiple
detector system that can monitor the move-
ment and location of the tracer fluid that has
been released. The types of ejectors and de-
tector systems vary with tool application and
sophistication.
(01/97) G-21
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. G27: Tracer Ejector tool configuration.

(01/97) G-22
The tool configuration depends on the fluid Water-, oil-, or gas-soluble tracer materials
flow direction. If logging an injection well, the can be used. Water soluble material is the
configuration will normally be one detector most common.
above the ejector and two spaced detectors
below. In a producing situation, two detectors Dual Tracer Ejector Tool (TEE–EA*)
are placed above the ejector and one detector
is placed below. The purpose of the single Maximum Pressure (psi) 15000
detector on the opposite side of the ejector Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
from the flow direction is for detecting unex- Weight (lbs) 38
Makeup Length (in.) 97.4
pected flow reversals produced by thief zones
and for identifying channels behind casing, Table G8: Tracer Ejector Tool Specifications.
where fluid is flowing opposite the direction of
the wellbore fluids. The purpose of the two 3 •-Ray Detectors
adjacent detectors is for flow profiling as a
function of flow time between the two detec- TEE–EA Built-in
tors. SGC–R Above or Below
ATE–CB Built-in
The principle of ejector tracer logging is the
releasing of a radioactive isotope that dis- gamma-Ray Spacers AH–99 (36 ins)
solves in the wellbore and becomes part of
the wellbore fluid. The tracer material moves Well-site radioactivity generator
at the same velocity as the wellbore fluid. A
measurement of the elapsed detection time Technetium 99 (Tc99)
between the two detectors, along with knowl- Half-life, t = 6.0 hrs
edge of the tool configuration, is enough in- •-Ray energy 0.740 MeV
formation for computing fluid flowrate.
Tracer fluid kept 20 – 40 psi above well-bore
This assumes, of course, that the tool is not pressure. Ejection time variable between 20ms
moving. Unlike the controlled time survey, the and 5.1s.
tool diameter must be considered in the
flowrate computation because it subtracts G.4.3.2 Tracer Log Interpretation Using
from the casing internal cross-sectional area. Data From Nonejector Tools
This will be discussed further in the (Controlled Time Sur
Survey)
interpretation section. In terms of flow metering, the primary applica-
tion of gamma ray tools without ejectors is the
The sensitivity of the detectors to gamma rays controlled time survey. This technique con-
allows the system to monitor radiation sists of placing radioactive material in the in-
changes inside the casing wall and outside jection fluid stream at the surface with the
the casing near the casing wall. The actual tool stationary downhole waiting for the ra-
depth of investigation of the gamma ray dioactive material to pass the detector. When
detector depends on the type of detector, increased radiation is observed, the time of
scintillation or Geiger-Mueller, and the day and depth are noted and the tool is moved
magnitude of the radiation. In most cases, it farther downhole. When the radiation is ob-
can be estimated at one foot. served again, the time of day and depth are
noted once more.
(01/97) G-23
Introduction to Production Logging
The elapsed time is the travel time required for
the fluid to move the distance between the
two depth intervals. This distance over time
can be computed as velocity in feet per min-
ute. The flow volume can be determined from
the appropriate chart for the specific casing
size and weight. This technique is primarily
used for injection profiling. An actual log may
or may not be recorded.
Tracers, in general, are less common under
production conditions because the presence
of radioactive material at the surface could
cause safety and legal issues. As mentioned
earlier, radioactive materials can be logged in
producing wells with special considerations.
These are discussed at the end of this section.
G.4.3.3 Tracer Log Interpretation Using
Data From Ejector Tools
Profiling with the tracer ejector tools involves
two basic types of logging techniques; these
techniques are:
• Velocity Shots and
• Controlled Interval Shots
Velocity Shot Interpretation
The recording of a velocity shot consists of
ejecting a small slug of radioactive material
into the flowstream and measuring the time
lapse between detections of this slug by two
separate detectors spaced a known distance
apart. The two detectors eliminate the neces-
sity of establishing the exact entry time of the
slug into the flowstream. The number and
spacing of the velocity shots depend on the
vertical resolution required in the definition of
the injection profile. Typically, the velocity
shots are recorded on time drive with the tool
stationary in the well. The flowrate computa-
tion from a velocity shot can be obtained by
reading the amount of time (t) required for the
(01/97) G-24
radioactive slug to travel the spacing distance
(d) between the two gamma ray detectors.
The flowrate is then:
q = d x A/t.
The flowrate in barrels per day can be ex-
pressed in terms of the casing and tool size.
These dimension variables are sometimes
combined into a chart (available from the ser-
vice company) for a specific tool. Flowrates
calculated from the preceding equation can
be somewhat high. If the percentage flow
profiling is the objective, the foregoing equa-
tion is sufficient. If a high degree of absolute
flow accuracy is desired, a correction chart
should be requested from the service com-
pany. In the absence of a chart for a specific
tool, the 0.83 factor (similar to the fullbore
flowmeter) is a reasonable approximation to
use.
It is important to remember that the flowrate
calculated with the preceding equation will be
an average of the flowrates existing at each
detector. The flowrates at the detectors may
not be identical; they, in fact, won't be if a
flowrate change occurs within the detector
spacing interval. If a finer vertical resolution
is needed, a technique of using more velocity
shots within the perforated interval can
greatly enhance the vertical resolution. The
increase in time, t, as the tool is positioned at
lower points in the perforated interval allows
the construction of a flow profile with im-
proved vertical resolution.
Example: If detector spacing is 6 feet, but a 2-
foot vertical resolution is desired, the proce-
dure would be to:
Take a velocity shot in the full-flow regime
above the perforations. This will yield the full-
flow velocity, v1.
Take a velocity shot with the lowest detector 2
feet into the top of the perforations. Any in-
crease in the time between detectors, t, can
be fully assigned to the change in flowrate
across the top 2 feet of perforations.
This process will continue in a similar manner
for all other zones and will give good vertical
resolution over a long interval. The ratio of
velocities in the perforated interval to v1 will
give the factor by which the total flow must be
multiplied to give a flow profile in flowrate
units. This technique assumes that the flow
distribution is linear over the interval of tool
movement.
If any error enters the computation within a
zone, it will be carried throughout the zone. It
will not be corrected until the next zone,
where velocity is constant between detectors.
Controlled Interval Shots (Tracer Loss
Method),
Met hod), Injection Wells Only
The controlled interval technique or tracer
loss method in an injection well requires the
ejection of a large slug of iodine (I131) above
the perforations and the ability to rapidly
lower the tool to other points downhole while
repeatedly recording the arrival of the slug.
The number of times a slug can be detected
depends primarily on casing size and injection
rate.
In high flowrate injection wells the technique
may be very difficult to implement.
The flowrate at each point (Qi) can be accom-
plished by comparing the area (Ai) under each
of the detection peaks with the area (A100) of
the first detection peak recorded above the
perforations. The flowrate, Qi, will be a frac-
tion of the total flowrate above all perforations
(Q100). Note that this is done with one detec-
tor; therefore, flowrate calculations are not a
function of time.
This method works well with these assump-
tions:
• The gamma ray intensity is proportional to
the tracer concentration in the wellbore,
• The tracer material loss is proportional to
the flow into a zone compared to total
flowrate.
• The tracer material is uniformly mixed in
the wellbore fluids, and
• No part of the slug is at a zone of fluid exit
when the measurement is taken.
The major drawbacks of this technique are:
• The lack of vertical resolution and
• The maximum rate limitations.
G.4.3.4 Tracer Logging In Producing
Wells (Special Considera
Considera tions)
Safety in radioactive material handling is a
major consideration when running tracer logs
on a producing well.
Establishing flow profiles in producing wells
using tracer logging is not highly recom-
mended unless certain conditions are met.
The well should be producing into a closed
gathering system, such as a pipeline or hold-
ing tank, where the radioactive iodine will be
diluted to the extent that authorities would
consider it safe before any person could come
into contact with the fluids. If a holding tank is
used, it should be sealed. The fluids should be
left in storage for at least 60 days, or the time
necessary to allow the iodine to reach a level
considered not harmful to humans or the sur-
rounding environment.
Another interpretation consideration is that
most producing wells are diphasic; therefore,
it is advantageous to have iodine that is solu-
(01/97) G-25
Introduction to Production Logging

ble in each phase. If two types of iodine are

run, and a fluid density tool is also run, the For low rates, below approximately 100 B/D,
tracer can be used to make accurate predic- the tracer is more accurate. These guidelines
tions on the volume and type of fluid produc- are also true for injection logging.
tion from various zones in a producing well.

For higher flowrates a flowmeter is more ac-

curate than a tracer.

(01/97) G-26
G.5 FLUID SAMPLING

Production Fluid Sampler Tool* (PST-C*)

Fig. G28: Operation of the fluid sampler tool, PST.

(01/97) G-27
Introduction to Production Logging

G.5.1 Tool Theory

The solenoid valve is closed before sampling, Maximum Pressure (psi) 10000
keeping the hydraulic fluid in the chamber. At Maximum Temperature (°F) 350
Weight (lbs) 44.1
the sample depth it is opened. Well pressure
Makeup Length (in.) 110.4
forces the floating piston up, the hydraulic 3 656
Sample Size (cm )
fluid goes through a choke into the upper
chamber. When the floating piston reaches Table G9: Tool specifications.
the stop on the shaft it moves the entire shaft
up, pulling the seal piston into position at the
bottom of the sample chamber. Maximum Pressure (psi) 10000
Test Pressure (psi) 15000
The shaft is locked with a mechanical lock. Minimum Temperature (°F) – 65
Maximum Temperature (°F)
The hydraulic choke regulator is designed in Transport/Storage 185
PVT Transfer 350
such a way that the sampling time is constant
Weight (lbs) 26.9
for any well-bore pressure and is approx. two Length (in.) 34.1
minutes. Outside Diameter (in.) 3.0
3 730
Capacity (cm )
Production Fluid Sampler Tool (PST-C)
Table G10: Sample receptacle specifications.

Fig. G29: Production Sampling Tool schematic.

(01/97) G-28
APPENDIX B
Other Types Of Pressure Transducers
The various types of transducers are de-
scribed in the following paragraphs.
Capacitive Transducer
Pressure displacing the force-summing ele-
ment in this transducer causes a change in
capacitance. If a diaphragm is used, it may be
one plate of the capacitor, or if a bourdon tube
is used a movable plate may be mechanically
coupled to the end. Regardless of the method
used, the measurement force is reflected by a
change in capacitance. The basic output of
the capacitive transducer is a frequency sig-
nal, which digitial circuits can use directly.
Additional electronic circuits can convert the
frequency signal into a voltage or current sig-
nal.
The advantages of the capacitive transducer
are excellent frequency response, low hys-
teresis, good linearity, and excellent stability
and repeatability.
The disadvantages of the transducer are high
sensitivity to temperature variations and vibra-
tion, and requirements of additional electronic
circuits to produce a voltage or current out-
put.
Differential Transformer
In the differential transformer type transducer
a transformer core is mechanically linked to
the force-summing element. Displacement of
the force-summing element produces unbal-
ance within the secondary windings of the
transformer, yielding two out-of-phase AC
signals of amplitude difference proportional to
the displacement. Additional electronic cir-
cuitry is required to convert these signals into
usable electrical signals.
Advantages of this transducer are high output
levels, low hysteresis, and infinite resolution.
Disadvantages are the AC excitation required,
low frequency response, and sensitivity to
shock and vibration.
Variable Inductance Transducer
In the variable reluctance/inductance trans-
ducer a flux linkage bar is mechanically linked
to the force-summing device. This could be a
diaphragm, a bellows, or a bourdon tube. The
flux linkage bar is in the magnetic path of an
E-core transformer. When pressure is ap-
plied, the displacement causes a change in
the E-core magnetic flux density, resulting in a
transformer output proportional to the pres-
sure applied.
Advantages of this transducer are its medium
level output and rugged construction.
Disadvantages are the requirement for AC ex-
citation, poor linearity, and susceptibility to
stray magnetic fields.
Force Balance (Servo) Transducer
The force balance transducer is a closed loop
servo system that uses a displacment sensor
to monitor a force-summing element, such as
a diaphragm or bourdon tube. The displace-
ment sensor, which can be any of the trans-
duction elements used in other types of trans-
ducers, produces a displacement signal
proportional to the applied force. The dis-
placement signal causes an actuator to gen-
erate a force opposing the applied pressure
force to restore the force-summing element to
the null position.
(01/97) G-29
Introduction to Production Logging
Advantages of this transducer are its high ac-
curacy, excellent resolution, high output lev-
els, and good stability.
Disadvantages are its large size, sensitivity to
shock and vibration, low frequency response,
and requirement for complex electronic cir-
cuits.
Piezoelectric Transducer
When strain is applied to an asymmetrical
crystalline material, such as barium, titanite,
quartz, or rochell salt, an electrical charge is
generated. When a piezoelectric crystal is
coupled to a force-summing element, the gen-
erated charge can be made proportional to
the applied pressure. An electronic charge
amplifier is used to convert the transduction
signal (charge) into a voltage signal.
Advantages of this transducer are very high
frequency response (250 Hz), small size, rug-
ged construction, and ability to accept large
over-pressures without damage.
Disadvantages are temperature sensitivity,
inability to make static measurements, and
special electronics required.
Potentiometric Transducer
A simple transducer can be constructed by
coupling the wiper of a multiturn potentiome-
ter to an amplifying mechanical linkage at-
tached to the force-summing element.
Advantages of this transducer are low cost,
high-level output, and simple electronic cir-
cuits.
Disadvantages are limited life, poor resolution,
large hysteresis, and low frequency response.
Other Strain Gauge types
(01/97) G-30
Bonded Foil Transducer
The bonded foil strain gauge transducer, con-
sists of a printed circuit resistor pattern on an
insulator that is bonded to the force-summing
element. Deformation of the force-summing
element results in a change in the resistance
of the bonded foil. Generally, these foil pat-
terns are used in a full, four-arm active bridge
configuration.
Advantages of this gauge are good accuracy,
rugged construction, small temperature ef-
fects, and resistance to shock and vibration.
Disadvantages of this gauge are low level
output, medium frequency response, limited
temperature range, and poor long-term stabil-
ity.
Semiconductor Transducer
The semiconductor strain gauge transducer,
consists of a piezoresistive element diffused
directly into bulk silicon material. This ele-
ment is then mechanically coupled to a force
summing element, such as a diaphragm or
bellows.
The principal advantages of this gauge are
low cost (due to automation of the transducer
manufacturing process) and high output level.
These transducers can be constructed with
integral amplifiers that give them high output
level (10 volts) and low output impedance.
Disadvantages of semiconductor gauges are
medium accuracy, hysteresis, and poor long-
term stability. Semiconductor technology
could become a significant factor in future
transducer performance.
Vibrating Wire Transducer
In this transducer, a thin wire is connected in
tension to a force-summing element and is
caused to vibrate under the influence of a
magnetic field. The frequency of vibration of
the wire is directly related to the tension in the
wire. The wire can be coupled to the force-
summing element so as to cause either an in-
crease or decrease in the tension. Additional
electronics are required to maintain oscilla-
tion of the wire and, thus, to provide an elec-
trical output. The output can be a frequency
signal converted for direct use by digital cir-
cuits.
Advantages of the vibrating wire transducer
are its very high accuracy, low hysteresis, and
excellent long-term stability.
Disadvantages of the vibrating wire trans-
ducer are its sensitivity to shock and vibration,
temperature sensitivity, and the requirements
for additional electronics.
SUMMARY
The foregoing discussion described devices
used for wireline logging applications and for
long term placement in the well with later re-
trieval. Those that are placed in the well and
retrieved later (or run in and out of the well on
a slick line with no electrical conductors) must
have memory devices or charts for later refer-
ence. Those used on a wireline usually read-
out in real time and are presented a logging
film, scaled in psi, in a manner similar to other
logging data.
(01/97) G-31
Introduction to Production Logging

EXAMPLES
Example
Example G1
This well was completed as an oil well but not long after starting production the GOR increased
sharply.

The question is:

Is there gas breakthrough in the completed zone or

Is gas channeling from above?

A full set of logs was run with both shut in and flowing passes. The flowing gradio showed a drop in
density in the top 0.5m of the perforations, with the flowmeter showing an increase in flow at this
point. The logs shown are the temperature both shut-in and flowing.

(01/97) G-32
 Example G1: Temperature data.

ANSWERS

Example G1
The flowing temperature shows the gas entry at the top of the perforations. The shut in passes sug-
gest that this is coming from above. The slope changes on the curves indicate 3931 and another
change around 3924m.

(01/97) G-33
H. SURVEY PLANNING
H.1 INTRODUCTION
Planning is the most important facet of a suc-
cessful production logging job. It should in-
clude extensive communication with the ser-
vice company providing the services.
Planning should start with defining the objec-
tives of the proposed survey.
H.2 OBJECTIVES
• Monitoring Well Performance
• Evaluation Of Completion P erformance
• Well Problem Diagnosis.
The specific objective will guide the selection
of the sensors to be employed and the logging
program to be used.
The next step is to analyze the downhole ex-
pected injection or production rates. This
would include the number of phases or fluid
types encountered by the logging tool and
also the well status. This analysis will reveal if
the tool resolution is adequate to define the
problem and also to select the type of survey
to be run.
To illustrate, if it were desired to detect a one
B/D water entry in a two-thousand B/D oil
producer, the tool must have an accuracy of
+0.05%. Downhole flowrates of the various
phases must be analyzed to define if a produc-
tion logging sensor is capable of the required
accuracy.
Additionally, sensors must have adequate
temperature and pressure ratings to function
properly in the well. Pressure and amount of
corrosive gases, H2S and CO2, must also be
considered.
After it is determined that a production log-
ging program is capable of defining a produc-
tion or injection problem, you must acquire the
needed data to plan the production logging
program and decide the type of survey.
H.3 TYPES OF SURVEY
Production logs can be acquired in a number
of different modes depending on the require-
ments of the problem and the well status.
H.3.1 Continuous Log v Depth
• Flow Profiling
• Temperature Survey.
Record of Pressure, Temperature, Flowmeter
and Fluid Density over zones of interest.
Determines a quantitative flow profile in the
case of monophasic or diphasic downhole
fluid flow by using PLQL* (Production Logging
QuickLook) interpretation software. For three
phase flow qualitative interpretation, for ex-
ample, fluid entry points may be possible.
Gives a temperature profile in real time which
can be used to ascertain fluid movement both
in front of and behind the casing.
Multiple passes are made: besides being nec-
essary for flowmeter calibration these act as
Repeat Sections as for 'conventional' logging.
Data from multiple passes both up and down
are generally merged into one or more coher-
ent presentations in order to highlight fea-
tures for interpretation and LQC purposes.
(01/97) H-1
Introduction to Production Logging

They can be combined with a saturation moni-

Temperature, Density and Pressure from the toring tool survey.
slowest down undisturbed pass are preferred.

(01/97) H-2
H.3.2 Stationary Logging • nature and volumetric flowrate of each
• Transient Pressure Record phase over different zones in the well (mo-
• Station Log For Flow Profile. nophasic or diphasic flow).

Record of Pressure, temperature, flowmeter Well Shut In

and fluid density at a fixed point in the well as Well shut in at surface, stable conditions
a function of time. downhole.

Primarily used to record P vs. t for transient

analysis of build ups and drawdowns to de-
termine:
• Permeability
• Skin
• Other Reservoir parameters e.g.,
areal extent, PI, AOF.

All data is recorded on magnetic tape and

would also be selectively sampled into mem-
ory in real time.

Data in memory can be analysed in real time

with WTQL* (Well Test QuickLook) using a
wide variety of industry standard plots ac-
cording to the client's requirement.

Data presentation is generally in the form of

listings and plots and not a conventional
'log'.

A separate application is recording stationary

measurements during flow profiling. These
can be used to aid interpretation and can be
incorporated into the PLQL software.

H.3.3 Survey by Well Status

Flowing Survey
Made with well flowing (or injecting) with sta-
ble conditions downhole.

Depth and station logging yields :

• fluid entry or injection points

(01/97) H-3
Introduction to Production Logging
Depth logging plus station logging by zone
gives:
• check on flowmeter calibration prior to open
well
• evidence of crossflow or leaks
• borehole fluid interfaces
• temperature profile.
Transient Survey
Made as surface flowrates are changed ie:
• Build Up as Production is decreased or
stopped.
• Drawdown as Production is started or in-
creased.
• Injection as Injection is started or in-
creased.
• Fall Off as Injection is decreased or
stopped.
Log vs. time yields Kh, Skin, P*, geometry
Survey continues until stable trends are ob-
served.
H.4 DATA GATHERING
The accompanying form can be utilized to or-
ganize this data gathering process. It is ex-
tremely important to provide a detailed well
sketch that indicates the dimension of all as-
sociated well hardware. This is necessary for
log interpretation information as well as for
running the logging equipment.
Christmas tree information is needed for rig-
ging up.
Other information can be included in the re-
marks section of the production logging ques-
tionnaire. Information that could be of signifi-
cance to the logging operation includes:
(01/97) H-4
How was the well completed? For instance,
can casing damage be expected if expend-
able guns were used?
Does the well have paraffin or scale deposits?
Does the well produce sand or formation
fines?
Were frac balls used in the well?
Can casing deformation be anticipated based
on the field history?
All this information can be used in equipment
selection to minimize plugging or stoppage or
for sensor operation.
All openhole and cased hole logs should be
reviewed prior to the logging operation. This
review will often provide invaluable informa-
tion that can be used in planning and running
the sensors, and the logs should be available
during the logging operation.
Quite often these logs can be used to estimate
expected flow profiles from a computer analy-
sis, such as Nodal design programs. Use of
this information can be used in some cases to
compare to recorded flow profiles. The fol-
lowing illustration is an example of situation
where the predicted profile matches the ac-
tual flowmeter. The subsequent illustration is
an example of a production problem defined
by not matching the predicted profile.
In some wells base production logs were run
to analyze flow profiles and pressures for
evaluation of completion techniques or to plan
stimulation operations. These logs should
also be available.
Before calling out the logging company, it is
recommended that you run a dummy in the
well to verify entry into the well. Usually the
logging companies will provide a dummy for
this purpose, and the procedure can often
eliminate unnecessary expense if well condi-
tions prohibit descent into the well.
Proper sensor selection is of the utmost im-
portance. This is often related to the
flowrates and size of the casing and tubing.
The correct flow measuring device has to be
selected.
The procedure for running the logs should be
determined before the actual operation to pro-
vide an efficient job that records sufficient
data for proper interpretation. These proce-
dures are often determined by the stability of
the flowrates. Good flow profiles require sta-
ble flowrates. In some cases wells obtain
stable flowrates in short times, while others
require days. If shut-in information is re-
quired, this can often be obtained before the
flowing runs, if stable flowing rates can be
achieved in a short time after shut in. If this is
not the case, the flowing profiles should be
run first.
If it is determined that flowing profiles should
be run before static runs to ensure stable flow
conditions, it is imperative that a swab valve
be present so that rig-up of equipment can
done while the well is flowed through the pro-
duction line. In all cases, a recording of sur-
face pressures should be made during the en-
tire operation.
Flowing runs should be recorded at different
cable speeds in both up and down directions.
Data should be recorded to establish a good
response line for the profiles. A minimum of
three up and three down runs is required. Af-
ter this is accomplished, station readings can
be recorded at points of interest to aid the in-
terpretation.
Valuable information can often be obtained by
recording data going in the well prior to re-
cording flow profiles. This is particularly true
of temperature data. In some cases, station-
ary data should be recorded at various depths
in the well. Data of this type can be important
for detecting fluid levels and other functions.
Time allocation is an important consideration.
The jobs can frequently be run more safely
during daylight. In some cases this may even
dictate the time of year an operation can be
planned.
(01/97) H-5
Introduction to Production Logging

JOB PLANNING DATA SH

SHEET
EET
To perform a successful Production Logging job as much of the following information as available
should be given to the service company before the job.

COMPANY _______________________ DATE________

FIELD _______________________________________
WELL NAME __________________________________
CLIENT REPRESENTATIVE ______________________

DATE OF INITIAL PRODUCTION___________________

INITIAL RATE _____________ WITH CHOKE OF ______________
PRESENT RATE Qo _______ Qg________ Qw _______
WITH CHOKE OF _______________________________________
PRODUCTION METHOD _________________________

PRESSURES
CASING TUBING
FLOWING ____________@BH SURFACE FLOWING __________
SHUT-IN _____________@BH SURFACE SHUT-IN ____________
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE (PB) __________________________
PRESS. USED TO CALCULATE Bo & m* ______________________

TEMPERATURES
FLOWING ____________@BH PB TEMP ____________________
TEMP. USED TO CALCULATE Bo, m, & PB *_________________
*Needed if Bo, PB, and m (oil viscosity) are not available

RESERVOIR AND FLUID PROPERTIES

OIL
OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR ________________________
TANK GRAVITY ____________________________@ ________oF
DENSITY _________________________________________@BH
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

GAS
GRAVITY_________________ DENSITY _______________@BH
G.O.R. ___________________ 1/Bg _______________________
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

WATER
SALINITY _________________ DENSITY________________@BH
VISCOSITY _______________________________________@BH

RESERVOIR DATA
DRAINAGE AREA _________________________________ACRES
DRAINAGE AREA SHAPE FACTOR _________________________
WELLBORE RADIUS _______ft POROSITY __________________
TOTAL COMPRESSIBILITY _______________________________
FORMATION THICKNESS ________________________________

WELL TEST DATA

TEST OBJECTIVE ______________________________________
TEST TYPE ____________________________________________

TOTAL PRODUCTION TIME ___________________hrs.

(01/97) H-6
(If production history varies, use form below)

WELLHEAD SKETCH
Indicate tubing and casing diameter and grade, position and nature of valves, perforations, deviation, cementation, wellhead con-
nections, permanent depth datum, and all pertinent data on mechanical arrangement of well.
• Air supplies and capacity
• Crane size and specifications
• Number of tugger's on rig floor.
H.5 SUMMARY
Cables must be selected to take account of
Discuss Logging Program
the well conditions and nature of the fluids. Of
particular interest are:
• Why is survey being run?
• Objectives of the survey?
• Surface pressure
• Contingency or back up plans
• GOR
• Any other operations e.g. workover or
• H2S, CO2 presence
logging linked to the present job results?
• Temperature and expected duration of
• Who in the client organisation will take
exposure
decisions?
• Depth and deviation.
• When are final results to be presented?
• Expected job start date.
Note that no cables exist which can withstand
an acid environment more than 1-2%. Cables
Know In Advance
will disintegrate rapidly on exposure to even
moderate concentrations of HCl acid.
• Wellhead pressure
• Expected GOR
• Expected flowrates, BHP and BHT H.6 AFTER SURVEY CHE
CHECKS
CKS ON DATA
• Acid, H2S, CO2 content AND DATA QUALITY
• Hydrates possibility H.6.1 General Information
• Well deviation. - Well sketch with:
• Perforation Details
Know The Completion String • Deviation
• Casing Sizes and Weights
• Minimum restrictions • Completion String, depths and sizes.
• Liner size
• Distance from WEG to top perforation - Tool sketch with:
• Distance from bottom perforation to • Tool Lengths
Hold up Depth • Tool Measure Points
• Wellhead connection type. • Tool OD's
• Accesory description and position
• Tool String Weights
Check The Rig Up • Spinner type and cage size.

• Available height - Remarks with:

• Deck space • Correlation Log identified
• Power point position • Production and pressure data
• Voltage and power rating of supplies • PVT data
(01/97) H-7
Introduction to Production Logging

• Log Objectives/purpose of survey • Repsonse slopes and thresholds match

• Summary of log technique/method expected values
• Sequence of events • Multiple repeat passes made if stabilisa-
• Comments on unusual or anomalous re- tion a problem.
sponses • Total flow compares to surface rate
• Note of any events affecting interpreta- ± 10%
tion • Tool constants should reflect the flow-
• Summary of results. meter(s) types used
• Flowmeter properly centralized.
H.6.2 Logs versus depth
dept h
H.7.2 Density
• All passes on depth, or depth offset in-
dicated • For CPLT*: coefficient attached for all 4
• CCL/ GR present on all passes sensors
• Logging speed, direction, and well con- • For PTS *'PCOR' tables of pressure
dition indicated in tails for each pass gauge attached.
• Perforations shown on all passes • VCO calibrations made downhole close
• At least two runs at slow speed (1 up, 1 to zone of interest
down) unless precluded by jetting from • Before survey check film made and at-
perfs tached
• For the CPLT the parameter SOM should • Fluid density shows expected value in
be set to MANU for depth logging. sump; agrees with gradient from ma-
nometer.
H.6.3 Logs versus time • Water cut matches measured values
± 10%
• All readings stable before a rate • Up and down passes repeat within
change ± 0.02 gm/cc
• Depth of tool indicated on station logs. • Depth of any fluid interfaces noted
• Stationary readings recorded.
H.7 SPECIFIC MEASUREMENT
MEASURE MENTS
MENT S
H.7.3 NFD* (nuclear densimeter)
H.7.1 Flowmeter
• Shop calibration attached, less than 2
• Logging speeds held constant over in-
months old.
terpretation zones
• Logging speeds evenly spaced
H.7.4 Strain Gauge Pressure
• Correct spinner pitch & dia. chosen for
flow rate/casing
• Master calibration < 6 months old, data
• Stationary readings made between per-
attached on print
forations at each flowrate
• VCO calibrations made downhole
• No scales wrapping, scales adjusted to
• Gradient survey taken while running in
reasonable values
• Stationary readings taken between per-
• In situ calibration shown for shut in and
forations
flowing surveys
• P vs. t listings during transient surveys
attached.
(01/97) H-8
H.7.5 Thermometer

• VCO calibration performed downhole

• Shut in survey recorded down at slow
speed during run in
• Stationary readings recorded between
perforations.

H.7.6 Crystal Pressure Gauge

• Listing of calibration coefficients at-

tached:valid 2 years
• Pressure stabilised before transients
introduced
• Static, stabilised readings agree with
strain gauge.

H.7.7 Caliper

• Before survey calibration attached to

print.
• Survey logged up at < 2000 ft/hr
• Caliper matches expected casing i/d
• Tubing shoe noted and reported.
H.8 PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIP EQUI PMENT
FOR PRODUC
PRODUCTION
TION LOGGING JOBS Fig. H1: Well Head Equipment.
Most service company wellhead equipment
are standard off-the-shelf items supplied by
companies such as Bowen. Special equip- H.8.1 Christmas Tree Adapter
ment such as ultra-high pressure (20,000 psi) The Christmas tree adapter connects the ser-
or H2S service (up to 15,000 psi) require a long vice company wellhead equipment to the well.
lead time. There are only a few sets of this
equipment manufactured. All equipment The numerous configurations of wellhead fit-
should be certified by shop testing, usually on tings require a proper adapter be available.
a quarterly schedule. These connections are subject to the full
wellhead pressure whenever the well is open,
Various equipment configurations and capa- and the service companies must have control
bilities are listed on the following table. over the maintenance and reliability of the
connections.
A typical set of pressure equipment is illus-
trated in the Figure H1. Descriptions of the H.8.2 Blowout Preventer (BOP)
various components follow. The blowout preventer is located immediately
above the Christmas tree adapter. The device
has rubber-faced rams that close against the
cable to contain the well while the tool is in

(01/97) H-9
Introduction to Production Logging
the hole. The rams are closed either hydrauli-
cally by a cylinder operated with a hand pump
or manually by a hand wheel. BOPs that are
hydraulically closed must be hydraulically
opened, and BOPs that are manually closed
must be opened by the hand wheel.
On jobs with pressures in excess of 5,000 psi,
or when the well fluid is gas, regardless of
pressure, a special dual ram preventer with a
grease injection port should be used. A
grease-sealed BOP is the only method of ob-
taining an absolute seal against gas with a
BOP closed on a stranded line.
H.8.3 Lubricator Riser
The lubricator riser pipe, blowout preventer,
and tree flange form an extension of the well
above the master valve. The riser pipe above
the master valve must be the length of the en-
tire downhole tool string plus three feet. Long
risers contribute to the difficulty of the job.
This can be overcome by installing a hydrauli-
cally operated lubricator valve (e.g., a Baker-
Subsea Lubricator Valve #738-20) below the
rig floor; this permits the tubing to act as a
riser. The service company needs only a short
riser above their BOP for emergency work on
their cable.
H.8.4 Grease Seal Equipment
Well fluid is prevented from leaking around
the cable by running the cable through several
feet of flow tube with an inside diameter ap-
proximating the cable diameter. A viscous
grease is pumped into the close fitting annular
space between the hole and cable at a pres-
sure above well pressure. Grease is easier to
seal than well fluid; therefore, well fluid does
not leak past the grease on moving or station-
ary cables. More grease leaks as the cable is
moving. Some grease leaks into the well and
some leaks to the outside along the cable.
(01/97) H-10
The grease escaping to the outside is returned
to the surface by a flowhose.
To seal the cable in emergencies or for pro-
longed periods, a rubber pack-off gland is as-
sembled above the flow tube. A hand pump is
used to activate the packing gland, and a rub-
ber sleeve is compressed around the cable by
a hydraulically operated piston.
H.8.5 Optional Equipment
Ball Safety Valve
An automatic safety valve is available to shut
in the well in case the cable is pulled off the
tool and is blown out of the hole. The ball
valve is installed at the top of the rise, just be-
low the grease head. The valve is closed by
the flow of well fluid out the top of the riser;
once closed, it remains closed by pressure
inside the lubricator.
Tool Catcher
A tool catcher is available for the 5,000-psi
and 10,000-psi equipment. The purpose of a
tool catcher is to save a fishing job if the tool
is pulled into the top of the lubricator and the
cable is pulled off. The tool catcher is in-
stalled just below the grease head or just be-
low a ball valve, if one is used. When actu-
ated, the tool catcher will latch onto the cable
head fishing neck and hold the tool suspended
in the lubricator.
Tool Trap
A mechanical tool trap can be used to trap
tools inside the lubricator. This is an alterna-
tive to the tool catcher. The 5,000 psi trap is
manually opened, and the 10,000-psi models
are hydraulically opened to allow tools to pass
downhole. The pivoted trap inside the tool
deflects upward to let tools enter the lubrica-
tor; it then falls across the lubricator to pre-
vent tools from falling downhole. The cable
can move freely with the trap open or closed.
Bell Line Wiper
A Bell Rubber Company Model HR Stripmaster
Oil Saver, otherwise known as the Bell Line
Wiper, may be installed above the grease
head. The Bell Line Wiper provides an effec-
tive means of cleaning the line of grease, and
it is particularly recommended in pollution-
sensitive areas. Since the Bell Line Wiper has
only 3,000 psi working pressure, it must not be
used in lieu of the regular hydraulic packing
gland to pack off the cable in emergency high-
pressure situations. When used with the spe-
cial kit with a 100-psi relief valve between the
wiper and the greasehead packoff, the wiper
is limited to a wiping action only.
Accessory Equipment
Accessory equipment consists of the grease
pump and hoses; test, bleedoff, and equalizer
manifolds; pressure gauge; and a wellhead
pressure recorder.
Grease Pump
There are two grease pumps available. One
pump is for operating at pressures up to 5,000
psi, and the other pump is for operating at up
to 15,000 psi.
High-Pressure Grease Hoses
The pressure ratings of high-pressure grease
hoses corresponds to the pump units with
which they are used. On 15,000-psi (WHE-C)
equipment, steel pipe and swivel fittings are
used instead of rubber hoses. Steel pipe is
optional for 10,000-psi (WHE-B) equipment; the
figure to the right illustrates a typical set of
pressure equipment for 10,000 psi.
Grease
For pressures below 5,000 psi and tempera-
tures above 40oF, Texaco MARPAC II grease
may be used; however, the greases listed be-
low are preferred:
Chevron Oil Company, ALTA VIS
Grade 150 for -30˚F (-35˚C) to +30˚F (-1˚C)
Grade 1000 for +30˚F (-1˚C) to +70˚F (+21˚C)
Grade 7500 for 70oF (21oC) and above
Inhibitor must be added when H2S is encoun-
tered.
H.8.6 Wellhead Equipment Pointers
• Select WHE to match expected well-
head pressure, maximum tool diameter
and service (H2S/standard)
• Select grease tubes to match actual
measured cable diameter over com-
plete length of cable
• Purge all hydraulic control lines of air
before connecting
• Operationally check all items when as-
sembling before job
• Ensure that you have sufficient riser
available to accomodate toolstring
• Ensure that lubricator valve is run on
semi submersibles
• Use two grease injection points on high
GOR wells. Ensure adequate grease
supply and flowtubes, according to local
procedures.
For Example:
(01/97) H-11
Introduction to Production Logging

0 -5K Liquid 3 flowtubes

0 -5K Gas 4 flowtubes • Ensure you have enough weights for
5-10K Liquid 4 flowtubes pressures and flowrates expected.
5-10K Gas 5 flowtubes

(01/97) H-12
I. COMPUTER EVALUATION
EVALUATION METH
METHODS

I.1 COMPUTER EVALUAT

EVALUATION
ION METHODS
Production logging lends itself to computer-
ised evaluation methods. There are many pro-
grams available to perform everything from a
simple spinner calibration to a sophisticated
multiphase flow analysis.
Field acquisition systems have a choice of two
systems depending on the intended use of the
survey:
as a cumulative surface flow rate log
with an adjacent well sketch. Computed
flowrates are presented graphically in
the form of a log alongside the raw sen-
sor data for ease of interpretation.
• Listing of results in client oriented for-
mat.
I.2.1 Procedure
Step 1
Gathering the data.

• Production Logging Quicklook* Overlays of spinners, temperatures, and Gra-

• Well Test Quicklook* diomanometers.

I.2 PRODUCTION LOGGING

LOGGING QUICKLOOK Step 2
HIGHLIGHTS Tabular listing of the spinner data and cable
• Quantitative interpretation at the well- velocity.
site.
Crossplot of spinner and cable velocities.
• Up/down passes memorised in real time.
• Sensor data is averaged and tabulated
by zone. Stationary flowmeter data can
be added in.
• Produce composite films and data tapes
of selected data from these different
passes.
• Choose the best data for the interpreta-
tion and log quality control before the
tool is brought out of the well.
• Gradio data, corrected for friction is
used with spinner and well data to de-
termine individual downhole flowrates
by zone. NFD density can be used.
• Downhole flowrates are converted to Fig. I1: Model crossplot for computer calculations.
surface rates using standard fluid con-
versions and client supplied PVT/fluid Step 3
data. Gradiomanometer data and flowmeter data
• Output the zoned interpretation results are merged to give a two-phase flow profile.
in a standard customer listing, as well

(01/97) I-1
Introduction to Production Logging

I.2.2 Flowrate Interpretation The computer can then output a more under-
standable listing of all the data, including:
• Uses Spinner calibration
• Uses input parameters QPL Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4
GASQ 10297.5 6148.17 3019.1 31.680
• Uses Data PL entries OILQ 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
For each zone calculate the following quanti- WATQ 732.952 600.648 530.77 0.0
surface
ties and store in the QPL table: rates
QTD 12569.7 7682.77 4009.1 36.370
- Spinner calibration lines: QGD 66.4584 39.7631 19.529 .20420
downhole
- Slope, intercept, correlation rates
- Friction corrected fluid density (optional): QOD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
VT 573.013 350.233 182.76 1.6580
FDEN*
tot./slip
- PVT parameters: Rs,Bo,Bg1,•, velocity
VS 0.0 0.0 0.0 136.70
- Expected densities: GASD*, OILD*, WATD* MUHH .017892 .017899 .01791 .01794
- Holdups: Yw,Yo,Yg (2 phases only) BG1 154.947 154.620 154.59 155.13
PVT data
- Total & Slip velocity: Vt,Vs BO 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
- Downhole Rates: QTD*,QGD*,QOD* RS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
YO 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
- Surface Rates: OILQ*,GASQ*,WATQ* Holdups
YW .058310 .078181 .13239 .97270
PSLO .051632 .053272 .05294 .05321
PINT -687.37 -418.96 -217.1 2.2543
SPINNER
PCC .996942 .999419 .99887 .99996
LQC !
NSLO 0.0 0.0 0.0 .06177
NINT 0.0 0.0 0.0 -7.249
NCC 0.0 0.0 0.0 .99997
GASD .132650 .132370 .13234 .13281
PVT data
OILD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WATD .990773 .990137 .98969 .98962
FDEN .182688 .199431 .24585 .96623
CDIA 3.9600 3.96000 3.9600 3.9600
from
DPL/user
QIOP 2.00000 2.00000 2.0000 2.0000

Table I1: Summary Listing for a four zone survey.

(01/97) I-2
Step 4
The computer will output a graphic flow pro-
file:
• Log data
• Downhole fluid properties
• Interpretation results at downhole con-
ditions
• Interpretation results at surface condi-
tions.
I.3 WELL TEST QUICKLOOK
QUICKLOOK HIGHLIGHTS
• Real-time monitoring and analysis of
pressure transient tests using data re-
corded against time with tool stationary .
• Selected number of data points stored in
memory as acquisition to tape (permanent
storage) proceeds.
• Stored data are then used to produce in-
terpretation plots and listings to determine
the current state of the test.
• A wide variety of plots can be produced as
the test continues.
• Plots and listings are displayed on
screen,film or printer in concise,easy to
read format.
• Straight lines can be fitted to any part of
the curve.
• Slopes and intercepts are computed for
each line, and interpretations can be per-
formed using this data as appropriate.
• Listings are adjustable in terms of number
and frequency of outputs presented.
(01/97) I-3
Introduction to Production Logging
I.4 ADVANCED COMPUTE
COMPUTERR METHODS
The use of more powerful computers allows
the interpreter to utilise more complex models
to analyse the production logging data. The
current production log interpretation program
used in the computing centres is called
PLGLOB*, (Production Log Global).
The program applies an inverse solution ap-
proach to determine individual flow rates of
oil, gas and water. It proposes a solution and
then tests whether it fits with the production
logging measurement. Via successive itera-
tions, the program finds the flow rates that are
in the best global agreement with the meas-
ured log data, hence the name.
Interpreting conventional two phase flow has
traditionally been carried out using empirical
correlations based on field or laboratory ex-
periments. However these correlations do not
cover the full range of flow conditions en-
countered in the well.
The PLGLOB program overcomes this by in-
corporating a general liquid/gas flow model
developed by Dukler. This model relates the
superficial gas and liquid velocities to the type
of flow regime and was derived by close ex-
amination of gas-liquid flow mechanisms.
Duklers work has also been corroborated by
field and laboratory observations.
(01/97) I-4
Fig. I2: Dukler Model for multiphase flow.
Figure I2 shows a typical Dukler flow regime
map.
In general, the flow patterns can be classified
into five categories depending on the distribu-
tion and velocity of the gas.
When the gas velocity in the borehole is low,
the bubbles tend to be small and rise faster
than the liquid phase, this is termed bubble
flow. When the liquid flow rate is high, gas is
dispersed into smaller widely separated bub-
bles, a dispersed bubble regime. When the
gas flow rate increases the bubbles tend to
coalesce forming large and elongated bubbles
separeted by slugs of liquid containing smaller
bubbles, this is called slug flow.
At even higher gas flow rates, the flow regime
becomes chaotic, producing a frothy mixture
containing some larger elongated bubbles,
termed froth flow.
At very high gas velocities, the gas becomes
the continuous phase and contains tiny drop-
lets of liquid which form a mist hence the
name mist flow.
The diagram below (Figure I3) explains how
the PLGLOB program works.
Step 1 - Initialization
The program first assumes flow rates for gas,
oil and water in the well which lie within
arange specified by the analyst. These can be
chosen by examining the surface flow rates.
Using these estimated flows, the superficial
velocities for oil and gas (defined as the indi-
vidual flow rate divided by the cross sectional
area) can be determined. These initial esti-
mates are then fed into a flow model. The flow
model steps are shown in the right hand side
of the diagram.

Step 2 - Flow Model
Input data such as individual phase flow rates,
well deviation, pipe and tool diameters and the
superficial velocities are used to compute the
hol-up values of each phase. This is achieved
using the simple bubble flow volumetric
model.
Step 3 - Separating the liquid and gas
phases
The next stage employs the Dukler model to
find the flow regime, the superficial gas veloc-
ity and the friction gradient. This requires in-
formation on liquid and gas flowrates, densi-
ties and viscosities, the gas/liquid interfacial
tensions, average borehole pressure for the
interval being examined, pipe roughness and
well deviation.
Step 4 - Sepearating oil from water
Using another volumetric model, developed by
Choquette and modified by Piers, the program
computes the superficial oil velocity. This
needs details about the hold up of oil and wa-
ter derived from Step 1, densities of water and
oil and deviation.
Step 5 - Iteration
The outputs from Steps 1, 2 and 3 are fed into
Step 1 and the program iterates until the com-
puted superficial oil and gas velocities stabi-
lise.
Step 6 - Tool response calculations
At this point the porgram takes all the outputs
from the flow model and feeds each of these
into tool response equations which compute
the theoretical response for each sensor.
The difference between the real an simulated
values for each tool is defined in terms of co-
herence.
Step 7 - Comparing responses
Once every tool response has been computed,
the program combines all the simulated re-
sponses and examines how they differ, in a
global way, from all the measured values. This
enables a global incoherence value to be de-
termined.
The flow rates of the individual phases are
then changed to minimise this value.
The output showing flow values for each
phase also includes information on how the
simulated values compared with those meas-
ured.
(01/97) I-5
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. I3: PLGLOB flow chart.

The example in Figure I4 shows how the spin-

ner values did not agree with the rest of the
sensors. The program has computed a “new”
spinner response.

(01/97) I-6
Fig. I4: Example of PLGLOB computation with the spin- lot of crossflow into zone 1, both of water and
ner data reconstructed based on the other oil.
measurements.

The spinner in this zone was influenced by low

flowrates and the high viscosity of the fluid
entering the well. The other sensors gave a
more coherent answer.

This is a data set logged over several passes

while the well was shut in (Figure I5). The
spinner shows cross-flow between zone 1 and
zones 3 and 4. The temperature show no
change over the interval from zone 5 to zone 1
with respect to time. This suggests an upward
flow in this interval.

Above zone 1 there is a tendency towards the

thermal gradient indicating no flow in this re-
gion. This means that the only flow is in the
region of the five perforated zones. Fig. I6: PLGLOB output for the raw data.

In the example in Figure I6, there are three

phases flowing in the well. In addition there is
a possibility of channelling to be investigated.
An additional measurement is added to the
tool string to assist in this complex picture, the
Water Flow Log.

The lowest zone in the well, below perfora-

tions 3, shows some suggestion of flow on the
temperature, it is relatively constant. The
spinner is also very constant and the gradio-
manometer shows a single phase fluid (inside
the casing). The Water Flow Log identifies wa-
ter flowing outside the casing from below the
lowest perforation.

Fig. I5: Raw logged data suggesting crossflow. The PLGLOB analysis shows flows of this wa-
ter from zone 3 plus oil and gas. (The well is
The PLGLOB analysis of this data set (plus the producing below bubble point).
flowing passes) shows clearly that there is a

(01/97) I-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. I7: Multiphase flow example using the Water Flow Log in addition to the standard sensors.

(01/97) I-8
APPENDIX FIELD COMPU
COMPUTATION
TATION CONSTANTS

BS Bit Size
SGSN Strain Gauge Serial Number
PCTS Pressure Correction Temperature
Source
CDAT Calibration Date
PDES Plot Destination
PZOF Presentation Zone Offset used in
the computation of interpretation
zones
TCSH Thru Tubing Caliper Shift
Table I2: Field computation constant mnemonics.

Data Selection

PGS Pressure Gauge

Selection
PVTS PVT data Selection
CALC Uses calcu-
lated values
QPL Use current
(manual) QPL
data entries
RHOS Density Selector
WFDE From CPLT
RHOF From NFD
GRHO From GMS
PRH From PTS
(deviation
corrected
with shift)
UPRH From PTS
(uncor-
rected)
UFWD From
CPLT(uncorr
ected)
SPIS Spinner Selector (e.g. SPIN or
S1F,S2F)
TMPS Temperature (e.g. WTEP or
selector PTEM)
Table I3: Data Selection Constants.

(01/97) I-9
Introduction to Production Logging

QIOP Flow Interpretation Option

FDEN Fluid Density
FLOW Flowmeter
AUTO Largest of flows from Density or
Flowmeter
VTS Total Velocity Selector
DEPT Depth from logs up and down
TIME From stationary readings
ATIM Similar to TIME but with auto loading
of DPL tables
DFM Direction of Fluid Motion
UP Producing well
DOWN Injection well
VPCF Velocity Profile Correction Factor:
**use chart**
FCHD Flag for Cased Hole Diameter
CSID Casing ID constant
CALI Caliper (TCS output)
PTHR Positive Threshold – From CP41,TIRA
calculated
NTHR Negative Threshold – Automatically
during QINT
TIRA Threshold Intercept Ratio – From
PTHR, NTHR
SRS Spinner Reponse Slope – Used to cal-
culate total velocity from stationary
data present in the DPL 0SPI entries
when VTS=(A)TIM
CSID Casing ID. Should be set correctly.
SVAM Minimum acceptable spinner value.
Used to eliminate spinner values
close to zero. Default is 1.0
Table I4: Flowrate computation constants.

(01/97) I-10
 DEVI Deviation used for: slip velocity algorithm
correcting gradio if
RHOS=RHOF,
UPRH, UFWD
FDSH Fluid Density Shift Linear shift applied to all FDDP entries (DPL tables)
in order to compute FDEN (QPL table entry)

GFCF Gradio Friction Determines whether friction corrections are to be

Correction Flag applied to FDDP when the QINT task is done / not
(YES/NO) done in the case of a water-only fluid model; other-
wise, uses heaviest hydrocarbon viscosity (MUHH)
estimates friction on tool and casing using effective
fluid velocity, Moody friction factor and iterative
loop.
Table I5: Density computation constants.

FMOD Fluid Model e.g. OW,OG,W, etc.

Selected during INTE task depend-
ing on which of the following con-
stants are set.

GGRA Gas Gravity

OGRA Oil Gravity
WSAL Water Salinity
Table I6: Fluid parameter computation constants.

In addition, the following must be set

From the Client.

GOR Gas Oil Ratio, or Watch Units.

BPP Bubble Point Pressure and
BPT Bubble Point Temperature

(01/97) I-11
Introduction to Production Logging

Program will calculate the following data for each level.

GDD Gas Downhole Density

ODD Oil Downhole Density
WDD Water Downhole Density
PVTS= QPL
BG1 1/Bg,formation gas volume
factor forces to use current
B0 Oil formation volume factor QPL
entries
RS Solution GOR
MUHH Viscosity heaviest hydrocarbon
Table I7: Program calculated constants.

If any of above have been manually set, then computations will no longer be performed and values
set will be used.

(01/97) I-12
J. NEW DEVELOPMENTS

J.1 FLOVIEW MEASUREMENT

MEASUREM ENT
J.1.1 Introduction
Interpretation of PL data and determination of
downhole flow profile under single phase
flowing conditions is usually a straightforward
task. Multiphase flow is a more complex phe-
nomenon, as holdup, slippage velocity and
phase segregation complicate the flow behav-
ior.

Holdup can be defined as the ratio of a given

pipe cross section occupied by a particular
fluid phase. Under multiphase conditions, the
light phase moves faster than the heavier one
by a magnitude known as Slippage Velocity.
The direct relationship between the density
difference of coexisting fluids, the holdup, and Fig. J1: Spinner tool in deviated well with multiphase
flow.
the slippage velocity has been presented ear-
lier. For the interpretation of production logs Figure J2 below shows the holdup and veloc-
conducted under multiphase flow conditions, ity profile of the light and heavy phases as a
determination of downhole holdup is of major function of deviation. The plots show that
importance. both holdup and velocity change significantly
as a function of deviation within the cross
The primary tools used to calculate holdup are section of the pipe.
Gradiomanometer type tools which measure
the downhole fluid density. However, the
complex behavior of wells flowing under multi
phase conditions pose major difficulties to the
interpretation of flow profile using such con-
ventional sensors. These complications be-
come more severe in deviated wells, as in-
creasing deviation affects the flow regime,
phase segregation and velocity distribution.

For example, a spinner flowmeter in segre-

gated flow may exhibit a response resembling Fig. J2: Water-oil stratified flows in 5.5 in. casing - wa-
down flow (Figure J1). This is due to the light ter cut is 50%.
phase moving up the high side of the pipe and
the heavy phase falls out and flows down the
low side of the pipe. This can happen even if
no water is produced at the surface.
(01/97) J-1
Introduction to Production Logging
Usually, when the holdup of one phase is
small, Gradiomanometer type tools have diffi-
culties providing a reasonable phase split.
The reason is the magnitude of the density
change due to the existence of the second
phase is small and remains within the accu-
racy of the tool (Figure J3).
Fig. J3: Standard gradio response in multiphase flow.
In addition, most Gradiomanometer tools de-
fine the fluid density by means of differential
pressure transducers, which can be severely
affected by high turbulence, known as the jet
effect
Also, high flow rates affects the density
measurements due to friction, which has to be
corrected before holdup computations. The
next section briefly describes a new sensor
designed to overcome some of the problems
associated with multiphase flow in deviated
and horizontal wells.
J.1.2 New Production Logging
Sen
Se n sor – FloView
A new Production Logging tool sensor has re-
cently been introduced to better handle some
of the interpretation problems related to mul-
(01/97) J-2
tiphase flow in wells. The FloView tool is
mainly designed to be integrated with the
conventional production logging tools. The
tool enhances the capability of the analyst to
determine the downhole phase split and water
holdup, and eliminate the uncertainties asso-
ciated with interpretation. The tool hardware
is schematically illustrated in Figure J4.
Relative
Bearing
Electronic
Boards
Caliper
Sensor
Probes
DEFT-A
Fig. J4: FloView Tool configuration.
Four probes are symmetrically located below
a centralizer arm, capable of providing four
independent digital holdup measurements on
a given cross sectional area of the pipe. Other
measurements of the tool include relative
bearing and 1-axis caliper. The relative bear-
ing measurement gives the position of each
probe with respect to the cross sectional area
of the pipe.

Probe
1
Probe
signal
0
Fig. J5: FloView measurement technique.
Figure J5 schematically shows the working
principle for a single probe. A signal is con-
tinuously applied to the probe tip. If the probe
is located in a conductive media (water), the
current is returned through the earth connec-
tion. If the probe is surrounded by a non-
conductive media (oil or gas bubble), the re-
turned current drops significantly. Therefore,
the high and low signals measured across a
threshold band by the probe allows the tool to
discriminate hydrocarbon (oil and/or gas) and
water phases.
Water holdup is calculated based on the ratio
of the time domain where the voltage is above
the affixed threshold. Bubble count is calcu-
lated based on the number oscillations of the
voltage across the threshold. Therefore, com-
putation of water holdup and bubble count
can be done for each probe independently,
and averaged over each sampling interval.
The measurement is digital and does not re-
quire a prior calibration.
The advantages of this technology are:
• The measurement (holdup) is not af-
fected by complications due to jet ef-
fect, friction and very high/low water cut
values. This significantly improves the
vertical resolution of the tool.
• Individual fluid entry locations can be
determined quite accurately.
• The four independent probe holdup
measurements can be used quantita-
tively in the interpretation.
• A fluid image across the cross section
of the pipe is also generated from the
measured probe data.
Bubble Count
Friction effects
3rd Oil entry
Jetting, Venturi
effects
2nd Oil entry
Ist Oil entry
Water entry
Stagnant water
Mud
Holdup Gradiomanometer
Density
Fig. J6: FloView versus standard gradio measurement.
Figure J6 shows a schematic comparison be-
tween the measured bubble count, holdup,
fluid image and gradiomanometer response in
oil/water flow. The density measurement can
be particularly difficult to interpret in wells
with a standing water column where digital
holdup measurement removes the ambiguity.
In deviated and horizontal wells, availability of
independent holdup values for each probe is
of significant importance, where water holdup
in the upper and lower sections within the
pipe might be different.
(01/97) J-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Figure J7 shows recent holdup images from

horizontal conduits, measured with a two tan-
dem FloView combination, where a larger
wellbore area is covered (8 probes). The im-
ages reflect the segregated nature of the flow,
where quantitative oil and water holdup val-
ues are determined for horizontal well flow
diagnostics.

Fig. J7: Flow in horizontal pipe with oil and water segre-
tation. The photo compares well with the FloView im-
age.

(01/97) J-4
J.1.3 Examples

Figure J8 presents the basic

production logging sensor
data from six different passes.
The measured bubble counts
(DFBM1) from FloView are also
shown in the third track.

The Gradiomanometer indi-

cates a minor density reduc-
tion at XX58 ft and a major
drop at XX30 ft. Note that both
spinner and temperature read-
ings also confirm fluid entry
into the wellbore at these two
points.

As the well was producing be-

low the bubble point, the minor
temperature drop at XX58 ft
could be due to Joule-
Thomson cooling effect asso-
ciated with gas entry.

Classical interpretation tech-

niques under such circum-
stances assume hydrocarbon
entry into the wellbore at
these two points, mainly due to
density reduction.

However, FloView bubble

counts till XX30 ft are reading
zero, indicating that the fluid
entering the wellbore at XX58
ft is actually water. The water
entering the wellbore at this
point has a lower density com-
pared to the stationary water
column below. This conclu-
sion was also supported by the
Fig. J8: Example with multiple passes of both the standard sensors
shut-in passes.
and the FloView tool.

(01/97) J-5
Introduction to Production Logging

To ascertain the performance of FloView as an input into the interpretation model, all PL sensors,
including FloView holdup data were imposed on PLGLOBAL. The summary of interpreted flow profile
is also shown in Figure J9.

Fig. J9: PLGLOB analysis showing the three phase flow in the well. The Flowview image indicates clearly the first hydro-
carbon entry (red colour).

(01/97) J-6
The fluid images are displayed in the right-
most track, generated from the holdup meas-
urements from three probes since one probe
was damaged during the survey. All passes
and all probes clearly indicate the first hydro-
carbon entry into the wellbore at XX30 ft.
Note that the reconstructed water holdup
from PLGLOBAL, as shown in track-3, is in per-
fect agreement with the value measured by
FloView. This increases the confidence in the
interpretation and on the overall hydrocarbon
holdup (Yg + Yo). Without the new digital
holdup measurement, the minor density
reduction at XX58 ft could have been misinter-
preted as hydrocarbon entry into the wellbore,
and the overall flow profile would have been
changed. The current design of the probes
differentiate only water and hydrocarbons.
However, the hydrocarbon phase was further
split into oil and gas, based on the oil and gas
holdup values computed from the PLGLOBAL
flow model.
Example 2
The objective of the survey was to identify the
main source of water and gas in a well which
has a deviation of 52.5 degrees. Several
passes with the PLT were conducted, but only
four passes with FloView were recorded. The
relative bearing measurement showed that
the string was not rotating during the survey.
The well deviation, downhole density and indi-
vidual probe holdup data from four passes are
presented Figure J10.
The sensors indicate a stationary column of
water below XX45 ft, with an average density
of 1.151 g/cc. A decrease in the measured
holdup, accompanied with a reduction of den-
sity above this depth, indicates the first hydro-
carbon entry into the wellbore.
The measured holdup from FloView shown in
tracks 2 to 5, indicate a sudden drop at the top
of the upper perforation while spinner is indi-
cating an increasing trend at that section.
The reduction of density at this point could be
attributed to further reduction of water holdup
due to hydrocarbon entry. Since the well is
producing below the bubble point, gas is en-
tering into the wellbore, as the temperature
sensor also shows a cooling effect.
The well is not fully stable, as indicated by the
noise on the pressure and Gradiomanometer
data. Note that the first hydrocarbon entry
into the wellbore at XX45 ft is clearly seen by
all probes.
(01/97) J-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Fig. J10: Raw data of FloView recorded density and well deviation.

(01/97) J-8
Fig. J11: PLGLOB output and the FloView image showing the flow profiles for the fluids.

(01/97) J-9
Introduction to Production Logging

Figure J11 shows the interpretation results, Example 3

the measured and reconstructed sensor data,
the flow profile and FloView fluid images. The
fluid images indicate some degree of phase
segregation within the wellbore, with probes 1
and 4 indicating more water. Probes 2 and 3
indicate only hydrocarbon flow. The recon-
structed sensor data matches the measured
values quite well.
The reconstruction for the mean holdup from
FloView, shown in the fifth track, is not as
good above the top perforation, possibly due
to phase segregation. Note that the mean
holdup is the average of all passes and all
probes. This example shows a difficult case,
where the hole deviation was 52.5 degrees;
still, it was possible to detect hydrocarbon en-
tries and holdup values, especially in the two
phase region.
The third PLT + FloView survey was con-
ducted under bi-phasic conditions in a vertical
well while flowing through a 36/64" choke.
The relative bearing measurement showed
that the string was not rotating during the sur-
vey. Two of the probes were damaged while
lowering the tool into the wellbore with one
also showing occasional spikes. This example
shows the possibility of utilizing the local fre-
quency from only one of the probes in a verti-
cal well to determine the downhole flow pro-
file and phase split.

(01/97) J-10
Fig. J12: A biphasic analysis made using a single FloView probe as the others were damaged.

(01/97) J-11
Introduction to Production Logging
The downhole flow profile and FloView fluid
images are shown in Figure J12. The FloView
images were generated using probes 1 and 3.
Due to damage on probes 2 and 4, the data
from these two probes were not used in this
evaluation. Probe-3 was also indicating a
slightly different response than the actual well
behavior across a limited section of the well.
Therefore, the average holdup from probe-1
for all five passes was used in the interpreta-
tion model. The existence of a stationary col-
umn of water with an average density of 1.14
g/cc at the bottom of the well, below XX16 ft is
clearly confirmed by all the PL sensors.
A gradual reduction of density readings ac-
companied with a minor temperature drop
above XX16 ft, is due to entrance of a lighter
fluid into the wellbore. Spinner readings con-
firm existence of a dynamic environment at
this region. Since no bubbles were detected
by FloView, the fluid entering the wellbore at
this depth can only be water with a lighter
(01/97) J-12
density of 1.103 g/cc. Note that the field is cur-
rently under water flood and the water entry is
likely to be injection water. The first hydro-
carbon entry into the well was detected at
XX90 ft, accompanied by a major density re-
duction. Temperature and spinner data also
confirm this behavior. Other fluid entry zones
into the wellbore were recognized at XX30-
XX38 and XX96-XX25 ft. The water entry at
XX10 ft, which could have been mis-
interpreted as oil bubbling within the standing
water column was also avoided.
Example 4
In this example, the PLT + FloView survey was
conducted while flowing the well through a
40/64" choke. The well was not stable at a
lower choke size. The flow is bi-phasic and
the well is vertical. The relative bearing meas-
urement showed that the string was not rotat-
ing during the survey. PLT + FloView data was
available from 6 passes; one of them did not
completely cover the interval (pass 1).
Fig. J13: Analysis of the images shows the initial entry into the wellbore is fresh water.

(01/97) J-13
Introduction to Production Logging
The final flow profile interpretation, together
with fluid images derived from pass 5, are
shown in Figure J13. A minor reduction in
density at around XX74 ft indicates lighter fluid
entry into the wellbore. However, FloView
does not show any hydrocarbon bubbles at
this section. Thus, the fluid entering the well-
bore at this point is water of lower salinity
compared to the standing water at the bottom
of the well. Possibly due to downhole segre-
gation and/or water recirculation, the spinner
is subject to noise. This noise is more signifi-
cant below XX00 ft where the total velocity is
possibly below the spinner threshold and not
high enough to lift the water column com-
pletely. Therefore, identification of the minor
water entry with the spinner was not possible
and the combined information from the Gra-
diomanometer and FloView was useful for the
interpretation. The first hydrocarbon entry is
seen at XX48 ft, where the FloView starts de-
tecting oil bubbles in the wellbore. This is
confirmed by a reduction of density at this
point. The interpretation model is assuming a
stationary column of water across this interval
with oil bubbling through it. Although the ob-
served water holdup is high, the actual flow-
ing water is much smaller. The major fluid en-
try is seen at XX90-XX06 ft, where a clear
increase in the spinner is observed. Further
reduction of density at this interval could be
attributed to an increased hydrocarbon
holdup.
A sudden reduction of water holdup is clearly
identifiable at XX92-XX06 ft. Below this depth,
(01/97) J-14
all probes in all passes indicate similar behav-
ior. Above XX00 ft, probe-3 water holdup val-
ues from passes 1, 2 and 3 show some fluctua-
tion with higher readings. Even with this
discrepancy, the holdup values from this
probe were also used in the interpretation,
because it might be responding to water slugs
within the fluid column. The mean FloView
water holdup values from passes 2,3,4,5 and 6
were used in the interpretation model. Due to
noise in the spinner data, a minor incoherency
exists between the spinner derived velocity
and the values calculated by the model. Note
that all other sensors reconstruct the model
outputs quite well. From this survey, oil entry
points were clearly detected and water entry
with lighter density at the bottom of the well
was identified. The FloView data was invalu-
able in defining the fluid entry points below
XX00 since the spinner was below its thresh-
old.
Example 5
The production logging survey of this well was
carried on while flowing through a 32/64"
choke. Out of a total of 9 runs with PLT tool,
FloView data were collected only on two
passes. The well has 13 degrees deviation
and produces only oil and water. The tool
string was not rotating during the survey. The
well was not stable during logging; the pres-
sure and downhole density values change
with each successive pass. Similarly, the
FloView holdup values differ from pass 1 to
pass 2.
Fig. J14: This example shows that the lower perforation is not flowing.

(01/97) J-15
Introduction to Production Logging
Figure J14 shows the interpretation of the sur-
vey. The mean FloView water holdup from
pass 2 was used in the interpretation since it
seemed to be the more stable pass. All sen-
sors indicate that the lower perforation inter-
val does not contribute to flow. Spinner read-
ings indicate a minor increase at about XX23
ft, accompanied with a minor temperature
change. As no bubble count is observed at
this depth, this behavior is attributed to water
entry into the wellbore. The first hydrocarbon
entry is recognized at XX08 ft with an increase
in bubble counts and reduction of density.
Though the flow was unstable during the sur-
vey, the first hydrocarbon entry into the well is
similar in both FloView passes.
Note that the model water holdup recon-
structs the FloView measured holdup only
fairly above the upper perforation. The fluid
images show increasing oil holdup above this
perforation, which can be due to well instabil-
ity. The Gradiomanometer curve, which is the
average of all passes, shows a better recon-
struction in this plot. However, the Gradioma-
nometer corresponding to the last pass, also
indicates increasing downhole densities
above the perforation confirming FloView
readings. Though only one FloView pass out
of two was used for the interpretation due to
flow instability in the well, hydrocarbon and
water entries were clearly identified.
J.1.4 Summary
(01/97) J-16
The new measurement technique provides
digital holdup at four different spatial positions
in the wellbore with no prior calibration re-
quirements. The measured data can be used
quantitatively in PL interpretation and an im-
age of the flow is also generated.
The field examples show that the principle of
local frequency measurement is capable to
enhance the domain of production logging
interpretation and give a better picture in
complex flow regimes. Water and oil entry
points were clearly determined in difficult
cases and fluid segregation in deviated wells
was identified. The quantitative holdup meas-
urement was used directly in the interpreta-
tion without jetting/venturi or friction effects.
The technique of measurement is also appli-
cable for horizontal wells to determine water
holdup in segregated flow conditions. This
technique has shown a significant added
value in:
• Deviated wells, where determining pro-
duction profiles are difficult due to
phase segregation.
• In wells with high or low water cut
where identifying minor fluid entry
points are critical.
• Increasing confidence and reducing
ambiguities in all PLT survey interpreta-
tion.
J.2 FLAGSHIP PROJECT detected.
J.2.1 Introduction Toolstring access
The FloView technique goes a long way to and deployment
overcome the difficulties in multiphase flow. Time and cost One run toolstring
However there is still a problem of measuring which can be de-
the velocities (flow rates) of the phases in ployed in several
horizontal or very highly deviated wells. stages if required.

The diagnosis of unwanted fluid in high-angle The hold-up and velocity of each phase must
and horizontal wells is made challenging by: be measured by the toolstring for accurate
flowrate diagnosis. Very small changes in
Challenges: Flagship Service well deviation can cause large changes in
Approach these quantities independently of any fluid en-
try.
Flow regimes
J.2.2 The Approach to the Problem
Stratified flows, Identify the flow
downflow, water regime with an im-
In normal production logging operations:-
sumps, oil and gas aging tool and
• The spinner records the average flow
traps, three phase measure independ-
across a portion of the casing cross-
flow ently the velocity
section.
and hold-up of
each phase. • The composition, or hold-up, of the fluid
Sensor response is determined by a density measure-
No single sensor Multiple independ- ment, based on the differential pressure
has a robust inter- ent measurements across 21" of the logging tool and the
pretation in all of (data redundancy) predicted down-hole densities of the
the above condi- with different sen- two fluids.
tions sors for enhanced • A slip velocity is produced from the rela-
confidence in in- tive densities of the two fluids, the well
terpretation. deviation, and a slip model.
Uncemented com-
pletions In horizontal wells:-
Slotted liners, flow Accurate flow • The fluid tends to segregate and the
in the annulus, measurement in spinner's response may no longer rep-
failed ECPs the liner is the resent the average velocity.
minimum necessary • The composition of the fluid cannot now
condition for reli- be determined by differential pressure
able flow diagnosis. across 21" of tool (although a nuclear
Water flow in the density device does have some applica-
annulus can also be tion).

(01/97) J-17
Introduction to Production Logging

Gas

Failed External Casing Packer

Fault
Formation Instability
Stagnant Gas

Fractures
Cuttings
Oil Layer Stagnant Water

Wa ter

Fig. J15: Some of the potential problems in horizontal wells.

J.2.3 The Flagship Service

Service
The solution is a combination of measure-
ments as follows:
• The Phase Velocity Log, PVL, where a
marker fluid is ejected and its time of
flight recorded. Oil miscible and water
miscible markers are selectively ejected
to record the individual segregated
phase velocities.
• The water flow log, RST-WFL, where the
transit time of activated oxygen is used
to measure the velocity of the segre-
gated water.
• The FloView tool, (two in the string),
where impedance probes can detect the
difference between water and not wa-
ter. This allows analysis of the flow re-
gime, "Do we have stratified flow?", and
evaluation of the water holdup, Hw.

(01/97) J-18
 Combinable Production
Logging Tool
Pressure & temperature Digital Entry Fluid
Reservoir Imaging Tool Fluid marker
Saturation Tool Flow regime injector tool
Oil hold-up Water hold-up (TEE-F)
Gamma Ray Total
Gas indicator flowrate
Detector
NFD-C

Dual DEFT
CPLT GR RST Spinner

Water Flow Log Phase Velocity Log

Water velocity Marker injection for oil
Water hold-up index and/or water velocity
Water flowrate index

Fig. J16: PVL tool string configuration.

Gas detection is still qualitative and based on
pulsed neutron count rate techniques which
date back to the early TDT's.
A new model for two-phase segregated flow
has been developed. This solves for the water
velocity, oil velocity and holdup and the well
deviation. If one of these variables is missing
from logging measurements it can be back
calculated thus giving redundancy in the data
acquisition requirements. The model is cur-
rently valid from approx. 80 to 92 degrees de-
viation.
The conventional spinners are also included
as, in favourable flow regimes, they can
measure total flow rate.
The toolstring sensors and related interpreta-
tion models have been developed specifically
for stratified flow regimes that are expected to
exist in very high angle and horizontal wells.
Typically such flows would only be expected
at deviations over 75 degrees. Results from all
field trials to date have confirmed this.
As deviation decreases the oil-water stratified
flow changes to become a dispersed bubbly
flow. This flow regime presents a different and
more formidable set of logging challenges.
Whereas individual tools or services from the
flagship toolstring such as the DEFT or WFL
are designed for deviated wells, the full flag-
ship combination is purely for horizontal well
logging.

(A promising technique, still in development, J.2.4 Phase Velocity Log

will provide 'Three Phase Holdup' from the The other techniques have been explained
RST-A). elsewhere in the text; the Phase Velocity Log
is a new measurement. The method is similar
The Flagship Application (where and where to the tracer log however it uses chemical
not to use it). markers instead of radioactive fluids.

(01/97) J-19
Introduction to Production Logging

A chemical marker with high thermal neutron tron capture cross-section, the passage of a
absorption cross-section (sigma) that will mix marker past a measure point is detected. The
only with a specific fluid phase is injected into fluid velocity is calculated from the time be-
the borehole. Using a tool reacting to the neu- tween injection and detection of marker.

Record Measurement

Ejection

Measurement
Ejection

Oil

Tool Water

Fluid movement

Fig. J17: Phase Velocity Log technique.

Low Viscosity.
The markers used for the different phases are:

• Water-Soluble Marker
Gadolinium Chloride (GdCl3) in Water
High Gadolinium concentration
High Density
Low Viscosity.

• Oil-Soluble Marker
New Organometallic Compound
High Gadolinium concentration
Low Density
Fig. J18: Phase Velocity Log Measurement.
(01/97) J-20
 500
The ejection time is known, showing as a
Results of Linear Fit
negative spike on this record (Figure J18). The Intercept -3.4
Slope 0.997
measured data is filtered to smooth out statis- 400
Correlation
0.998

Velocity Set in Flow Loop (fpm)

tical variations. The positive peak is detected Coefficient

when the marker passes the sensor. The 300

measurement gives the specific fluid velocity.
Oil
Water

J.2.5 Flow Loop Tests 200

Tests of the technique have been made using

a flow loop capable of flowing different fluids 100
14,000 BPD
and at varying angles. (5-inch Liner)

0
The example in Figure J19 shows the results 0 100 200 300 400 500
PVL Velocity (fpm)
for a single phase, water, flowing in the sys-
tem. The measured flow rate is in excellent Fig. J20: Flow loop tests for two phases,
oil and water.
agreement with the actual rate.
J.2.6 Field Tests
Measurements have been made in a number
of horizontal wells where the rates have been
400
verifiable by other methods.
PVL Water Velocity (fpm)

300 One example is shown here with a number of

measurements. The water velocity is com-
200 puted using both the PVL and WFL techniques
and agree closely.
100
The oil velocity can only be computed by the
PVL method. The water hold up has been
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 measured using the FloView (LIFT in the dia-
Fig. J19: Flow loop tests for water flow only. gram) tool.

The flowrates have been calculated using

In a similar experiment with two phases, oil
both the measurements.
and water, the agreement is once again excel-
lent as shown in Figure J20.

(01/97) J-21
Introduction to Production Logging

6 00

PV L
W at er 4 00 WFL
Vel oci t y
( f pm ) 2 00

5 00
Oi l
Vel oci t y
3 00
( f pm)

1 00

Un- Calib r at ed Ov er - ran ge d

80
W at er
Hol d- Up
( %) 40 RST
LIFT

4 00 0
Fl ow
Rat es
2 00 0
( BP D)
Wat e r
Oil
0
6 00 7 00 8 00 9 00 1 00 0 1 10 0
Rel a t i v e Dept h

San d st on e Form atio n with a 8.5-in ch bo reh o le,

co m p let ed wit h 5.5-inch , 17 lb / ft cem ent ed casin g

Fig. J21: Flow loop test results.

(01/97) J-22
 This example, Fig-
ure J22, shows the
results of a com-
plete Flagship in-
terpretation.

Track 1 shows the

well path.

Track 2 shows the

well sketch.

Tracks 3 and 4
show the velocity
data.

Track 5 shows the

hold-up data.

Track 6 shows the

flowaret analysis.

Track 7 shows the

porosity analysis.

Fig. J22: Flagship log example.

(01/97) J-23
K. EXAMPLES

K.1 EXAMPLES Questions

1) Using this data predict the direction and
K.1.1 Example 1
extent of any crossflow. How could a quantita-
Information
tive value be given to the crossflow? Bu =
The well is a water injector with an injection
0.053, Bd = 0.058.
rate of 7550 bpd. The casing size is 5.5”.
2) What, if anything, is happening from 2436 to
The composite shows spinner up and down
2438 ft in the shut in condition.
passes and shut in, injection temperature and
two shut in temperatures. The major question
3) What produces the rapid warming seen in
is where are the injected fluids going.
the lower portion of the well between 2415
and 2470?

Example K1: Temperature and shut-in flowmeter.

(01/97) K-1
Introduction to Production Logging

Example K1: Flowing Spinners.

(01/97) K-2
K.1.2 Example 2
The well is producing oil, 360 bpd, with a high GOR and a slight water cut, <5%. The casing was set
at 467.8 m with an open hole completion below this.
The logs below show:
• shut in and flowing temperature
• shut in flowmeter
• shut in and flowing gradiomanometer
What is the flow profile?

(01/97) K-3
Introduction to Production Logging

Example K2: Gradiomanometer Overlay.

Example K2: Spinners.

(01/97) K-4
Example K2: Temperature Data.

(01/97) K-5
Introduction to Production Logging

K.2 ANSWERS 0.61 in the middle probably oil

K.2.1 Example 1 0.11 at the top probably gas
The spinner indicates the extent of the cross-
Subsequent shut in
flow to be from 2470.5 to 2414.6 feet. As the
The next two shut in passes indicate the oil
down flowmeter has a higher value than the
leg has gone and the gas water contact is
up pass the fluid must be moving upwards.
now at 476.5m
By logging shut in and/or flowing passes at
three different flowrates (minimum) the spin-
Temperature
ner can be calibrated.
The temperature overlays indicate that the
wellbore from 470 to 477 is distinctly cooler in
The average velocity can be estimated as
the shut-in state than in flowing conditions.
The area at 472 is coolest.
= (difference between the up and down spin-
ners) / (Bu+Bd)
Combining these observations gives the fol-
lowing conclusions:
= (0.42)/(0.053+0.058)*.83 = 3.14 ft/min.
From 470-474 the well is producing almost
2) According to the shut in temperature
100% gas.
passes theis zone is taking some of the fluid
In the shut in state gas only is flowing from
from 2469.5 - 2470.5 feet.
472 to 476.5.
The oil must be produced between 475 and
3) The fluid flowing back from 2469.5-2470.5 is
472 as the flowing gradio showed no light
at or near the geothermal temperature for that
phase below 475m.
depth and the fluid warms the borehole as it
flows up to 2415 feet.
K.2.3 Flowmeter Example 1
K.2.2 Example 2 1) compute the spinner deflection for the
Flowmeter maximum flow (top of the log) compared to
The shut in spinner shows the largest differ- the zero flow zone at the bottom.
ences between 470 and 477m. This may indi- This gives 14 rps.
cate an area of crossflow but it is small and
inconclusive. 2) Find the additional spinner deflection in
each of the other intervals, A, B, C.
Gradiomanometer THESE ARE:
Flowing A = 3.6RPS
There is 100% water up to 475, then a small
B = 2.1RPS
light phase entry. At 470 there is a large light
phase entry. C = 8.3RPS
3) Determine the percentage contribution of
Initial shut-in each zone.
In the very first stages after flowing there are A = 3.6/14 = 25.7%
three distinct densities on the log
1.11 at the bottom water B = 2.1/14 = 15.0%

(01/97) K-6
C = 8.3/14 = 59.3%
K.2.4 Flowmeter Example 2
The zero flow line should cross the x axis at a
threshold value of 6 ft/min.
The intersection of 15 rps with the response
curve gives a flow velocity of 140 ft/min.
Therefore the peak fluid velocity
= 140 - 67 ft/min = 73 ft/min
Correcting for the shape of the flow to obtain
the average velocity
Average velocity = 73 * 0.83 ft/min
= 60.6 ft/min
The flowrate in bpd = (60.6/34.4)*1000
= 1762 bpd.
Note: There are times when the zero flow
curve cannot be logged due to debris in the
well, not enough sump or a different viscosity
fluid below the perforations. In this case the
line has to be created using the data from the
full flow and the threshold of the device. It is
drawn parallel to the full flow and goes
through the threshold.
K.2.5 Flowmeter Example 3
1) The response curve is drawn both for the
positive and negative quadrants, parallel to
line through the data points. It should go
through a threshold. The threshold is com-
puted by taking the mid point between the
positive and negative lines and moving this to
the origin.
2) The calibration line crosses the y-axis at
5rps, this corresponds to 120 ft/min on the re-
sponse curve.
The flowrate is thus
= (120/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 3331 bpd.
3) 6 ft/min corresponds to 140 ft/min using the
response curve. At a tool speed of 60 ft/min
this gives the average fluid velocity
= (140-60)*0.83 = 66.4 ft/min
The flow rate is then
= (66.4/29.9)*1000= 2221bpd
4) the calibration line for this pass crosses the
y-axis at 2 rps. This corresponds to 60 ft/min
using the response line. Hence the flowrate is
= (60/29.9)*1000*0.83 = 1666 bpd.
K.2.6 Flowmeter Example 4
The spinners are overlaying below 10408 indi-
cating zero flow here.
The down spinners decrease around 10350’
before increasing again.
The conclusion is that the top of the second
set of perforations or the bottom of the third
set is taking fluid produced from the lower in-
terval. The increase at the top of the latter
zone is due to production here.
The shut-in pass below shows the picture
clearly. Production from the lower perforation
is flowing into the second set of perforations.
K.2.7 Gradiomanometer Example 1
1) Above A the gradio reads 0.53 g/cc. The
maximum reading, at the bottom of the log is
1.0 g/cc. Assuming this is the density of the
heavy phase and that 0.53 is the density of the
light phase;
at point B
Yhp = (0.53-0.53)/(1.0-0.53) = 0
at point A
(01/97) K-7
Introduction to Production Logging

Yhp = (0.7-0.53)/(1.0-0.53) = 0.36

K.2.8 Gradiomanometer Example 2

Deviation
•cor = •gradio/cos•
• = 30°
cos• = 0.87
•cor = 0.63/0.87 = 0.72
density = 0.72 g/cc
Flowrate
From the chart,
•cor/• = 1.027
• = 0.72/1.027 = 0.70 g/cc
K.2.9 Temperature Example 1
The flowing temperature shows the gas entry
at the top of the perforations. The shut in
passes suggest that this is coming from
above. The slope changes on the curves indi-
cate 3931 and another change around 3924m.

(01/97) K-8