Reproduction

SEXUAL AND ASEXUL REPRODUCTION

| REPRODUCTION is the production of offspring.

There are two main forms:
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
| SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: the method in which an organism combines genetic information from
each of its parents and is genetically unique.
| ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: the method in which one parent copies itself to form a genetically
identical offspring, called a clone.
Difference between Sexual and Asexual reproduction:
SEXUAL ASEXUAL
I. It requires 2(usually) different individuals It requires only one individual
II. Gametes produced Gametes are not produced
III. Fertilization takes place Fertilization does not take place
IV. Genetic variation in offspring Offspring are genetically identical
V. It is a slow process It is a fast process
VI. It has survival value in changing environment It has survival value in stable environment
VII. It has evolutionary importance It does not have evolutionary importance

 Most animals reproduce sexually.

 Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually.
 Organisms having simple organization such as algae and fungi reproduce asexually.

Asexual reproduction
Why it requires only on individual:
There are many different methods of asexual reproduction in plants. Most include a part of the parent
growing by duplicating its cells via mitosis.

| Mitosis: A diploid cell will produce two diploid cells.

Why the offspring are genetically identical:
As each method of asexual reproduction involves some part of the plant growing, new cells must be
produced. These cells are produced by mitosis and so are all genetically identical. This means that all the
offspring formed by asexual reproduction will also be genetically identical.

Why it is a faster process:

Asexually reproducing organisms spend fewer resources for the same reproductive output, meaning their
populations grow and expand faster than sexually reproducing ones.

Why it has survival value in stable environment:

Asexual reproduction is useful to a species when the environment in which it lives is relatively stable. If
an organism is well adapted to this stable environment, asexual reproduction will produce offspring that
are also well adapted.

Why it doesn’t have evolutionary importance:

Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and is hence not ideal for facilitating variations. Genetic
variation in a group of organisms enables some organisms to survive better than others in the environment
in which they live.

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

- Binary Fission
I. DNA of the parent cell In this method, the DNA of the parent cell
duplicates. duplicates and the cytoplasm divides into two
II. Cytoplasm divides equal parts each containing a nucleus forming
III. Two daughter cells form two daughter cells. The daughter cells are
IV. Found in unicellular genetically and physically like the parent cell.
organisms. This type of asexual reproduction can be seen
V. E.g.: amoeba, bacteria, in unicellular organisms such as amoeba,
euglena etc. bacteria, euglena etc.

- Budding
I. Bud (an outgrowth of the
parent’s body) forms.
II. Bud drives nutrition from the
parent for growth and
development.
III. The new organism detaches
from the parents’ body.
In this method a new organism develops
from an outgrowth from the parent’s
body known as bud. These derive
nutrition from the parent for growth and
development. Once grown, the new
organism detaches from the parent body.
This process is called budding. This type
 IV. Found in hydra for example. of reproduction can be seen in hydra.

- Vegetative Propagation
In this method, a new plant develops from the vegetative parts of a plant (stem, root, leaves) via budding.
Runners
horizontal stems, eg strawberry or spider plants.
Vegetative part stem

Bulbs
A bulb is an underground food storage organ made up of modified leaves that
can grow and develop into a new plant. eg onions and garlic.

Tubers
A tuber is a modified section of an underground stem that is a food store. Groups
of cells in the tuber use this food to produce the energy needed for cell division.
These cells then grow and develop into new plants.

- Artificial propagation
Cutting
 A branch from the parent plant is cut off, its lower leaves are
removed, and the stem is planted in damp compost.
Plant hormones are often used to encourage new roots to develop.
The pot is usually placed in a clear plastic bag at first, to create
moist, warm conditions around the cutting. This encourages roots to
develop and so a new plant is produced.

Grafting
A cutting from a plant is grafted (attached) on to the
stem of another plant. The cut surfaces of the two
plants grow together.
A plant variety that grows poorly but produces
desirable products such as edible fruit can be
grafted onto the stem of a plant that grows well and
has characteristics such as disease resistance.

- Regeneration
I. Part of an organism detaches.
II. The detached part grows into
a new individual.
III. UNINTENTIONAL
IV. E.g.: Echinoderms
In this, if a part of the body of
an organism is detached the
detached part grows into a
completely new individual,
regeneration is observed in
Echinoderms.

This type of asexual reproduction

I. Parent’s body breaks into is exhibited by planaria. In this, the
several pieces. parent’s body breaks into several
II. The pieces grow into new pieces where each piece grows into
individuals. a new individual. The detachment
III. INTENTIONAL of the body parts is intentional.
IV. E.g.: planaria

- Fragmentation

Sexual Reproduction
Why the offspring are genetically different:
Two parents contribute genetic information to produce unique offspring.
Why it is a slower process:
Complex body structure need time and energy both to produce the new individual by sexual mode of
reproduction, so it is slow.

Why it has survival value in changing environment:

The species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival advantage.
A disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population.

Why it has evolutionary importance:

Sex is good for evolution because it creates genetic variety, which, in turn, is useful in adapting to
constantly changing and challenging environments.

In a sexual population, some of the creatures born have lots of mutations and some have few. If the ones
with lots of mutations die, then sex purges the species of those mutations. Since most mutations are
harmful, this gives sex a great advantage.

STAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1 Production of gametes
| Gametes: specialized sex cells.

There are usually two types of gametes:

 A mobile male gamete
 A stationary female gamete
Gametes are produced when cells inside sex organs divide by meiosis.
Meiosis produces cells that are not genetically identical and are haploid.

| Diploid: Cells that have the full number of chromosomes.

| Haploid: Cells that only have half the normal number of chromosomes.

2 Transfer of male gamete to female gamete

3 Fertilization
| Fertilization: The process of combining the male gamete with the female gamete.
4 Development of zygote into a new individual
| Zygote: The single cell formed by fertilization.
This cell will divide many times by mitosis to form all the cells of the new animal. During the process,
cells move around, and different shaped structures are formed. Also, different cells specialize to become
bone cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, and so on in a process called differentiation.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

- summery of plant life cycle
- gametes in plants
The male gametes, pollen grains, are produced in the anthers of the stamens.
The female gametes, ova, are produced in ovule in the ovaries.
- plant sex organs
4 Whorls/rings:
1) Sepals
2) Petals
 3) Androecium
4) Gynoecium

Sepals: Green leaves around the petals that protect the flower in bad conditions and contain chloroplasts
so they might carry out photosynthesis.
Petals: Mostly to attract insects.
Androecium: The stamens of a flower collectively.
Stamen is the male reproductive part of the flower.

Gynoecium: The female part of a flower, consisting of one or more carpel.

- pollination
- pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from Anther to Stigma.
- self-pollination: When pollination occurs within flower.
-Cross-pollination: when the pollen grain of a plant is transferred into a different plant.
- fertilization
Fertilization: is the fusion of the male gamete with a female gamete to produce a zygote

Fertilization in flowering plants:

1) Pollen grains land on stigma

2) Pollen grains absorb moisture from stigma and get
swollen up and bulged.
3) When pollen grains burst, extension of cytoplasm
takes place from the pollen which forms a pollen
tube.
4) Pollen tube shows two types of responses.
 Negatively aero trophic since it moves
away from the air.
 Positively chemotrophic since it moves
towards the chemicals produced by embryo
sac.
5) The tip of pollen tube also secretes two types of
enzymes called cellulase and pectinase to dissolve the
tissues of style which facilitate easy penetration of
pollen tube into the style.
6) The pollen tube enters the ovary through a hole called
micropyle.
7) Male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus
8) We say that fertilization has taken place.
- fruit forming
1) The zygote develops into an
embryonic plant with small
root {radicle) and shoot
(plumule).
2) Other contents of the ovule
develop into a food store for
the young plant when the
seed germinates.
3) The ovule wall becomes the
seed coat or Testa.
4) The ovary wall becomes the
fruit coat; this can take
many forms depending on
the type of fruit.

- seed dispersal

- Germination
A seed contains a plant embryo, consisting of:
 a root (radicle)
 a shoot (plumule)
 and one or two seed leaves, cotyledons
Dicotyledonous/dicots: The seeds of that have two cotyledons. E.g.: peas and beans
Monocotyledonous/monocots: The seeds that have only one cotyledon. E.g.: Seeds of grasses and
other narrow leaved plants, such as irises and orchids
 It also contains a food store, either in the cotyledons or another part of the seed, endosperm.
In both monocots and dicots, food reserves are stored in the endosperm; however, in non-endospermic
dicots, the cotyledons act as the storage.

Germination is defined as a process I which a seedling grows into a plant.

During germination, the food store is used up, providing the nutrients to allow the radicle and plumule to
grow. The radicle grows down into the soil, where it will absorb water and mineral ions. The plumule
grows upwards towards the light, where it can start the process of photosynthesis. Once the small plant
{seedling) can photosynthesize, germination is over.

Two types of germination:

 Epigeal germination: cotyledons are pushed above the ground. Epicotyl elongates faster than
hypocotyl, hence cotyledons pulled above.
  Hypogeal germination: cotyledons remain in the ground. Hypocotyl elongates faster than
epicotyl, hence cotyledons remain below.

The seed stays dormant for a period due to the low water content restricting a seed's metabolism, so that it
can remain alive but dormant {inactive) for a long time, sometimes for many years. When a seed
germinates, dormancy comes to an end. The seed's food store is broken down by enzymes and respired
aerobically.
Conditions for germination to take place:
Water (water, for chemical reactions to take place in solution)
Oxygen (aerobic respiration releases energy, the plant uses this energy to grow well)
Optimum temperature (warmth so enzymes can work well)
Light (
 STAGES OF SEXAUL REPRODUCTION (recap)
1 Production of gametes
2 Transfer of male gamete to female gamete
3 fertilization
4 Development of zygote into a new individual

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Humans reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal.

- summery of Human life cycle

Difference between mitosis and meiosis:

Mitosis: A diploid cell will produce two diploid cells.
Meiosis: A diploid cell will produce four haploid cells.
Diploid: full number of chromosomes
Haploid: half the number of chromosomes
Chromosomes are thin strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
ach chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Humans have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
- Human REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

Testes: The organ that produces sperm. Ovaries: Whitish ovals that produce ova and
release them every month, alternatively.
It is placed outside the body to have a lower
temperature, optimum for sperm production. Oviduct/Fallopian tube: The site of fertilization.

Scrotum: Protects the testes.

Uterus: Where the development of the baby takes
Sperm duct/Epididymis: where the sperm mixes place.
with fluid to form semen.
Cervix: The ring of muscle that allows fluids to
Seminal vesicle and prostate: produce the fluids flow inside and out of your uterus.
that mix with the sperm to form semen.
Vagina: The muscular tube leading from the
Erectile tissue: During sexual intercourse, sexual external genitals to the cervix of the uterus.
erectile tissue experiences increased blood flow
and becomes engorged (swelled up) with blood
and stiffened (becomes rigid), allowing
penetrative sex.

- gametes in HUMANS
Male gamete-SPERM Female gamete-OVUM
Sperm are produced in the male sex organs - Eggs/ova are produced in the female sex organs
the testes. - the ovaries.
 STRUCTURE OF THE SPERM:
The sperm has three parts:
Head: The head is triangular and contains a
nucleus in a highly condensed state. It has the
acrosome region at the tip which has strong
digestive enzymes to dissolve the defense that
surrounds the ovum.
Neck: The neck region connects the head and the
flagellum, and it has lots of mitochondria to
release energy that help in the movement of the
sperm
STRUCTURE OF THE OVUM:
Ovum is larger than sperm.
It is a circular cell inclosing a nucleus and
cytoplasm with two protective layers:
Zona pellucida: Jelly-like extracellular coat
around the ovum that protects it.
Follicles: Small sacs filled with liquid that
surround the ovum forming a protective layer.

Flagellum: The flagellum is made up of flagellin

protein. The lashing movements of the tail helps
the sperm to move.

- sexual intercourse
I. Sperm is produced by meiosis.
II. They pass along the sperm duct/epididymis.
III. They are mixed with a fluid from the seminal
vesicles and prostate.
IV. Semen forms
The sperm is produced in the testes by meiosis.
During sexual intercourse, they pass along the
sperm duct/epididymis and are mixed with a
fluid from the seminal vesicles and prostate.
This mixture, called semen, is ejaculated
 V. Semen is ejaculated trough the urethra into the through the urethra into the vagina of the
vagina of the female. female.

- fertilization
The sperm then begin to swim towards the oviducts. If an egg is present in the oviduct, then it may be
fertilized by the sperm in the oviduct/Fallopian tube.

- pregnancy
1) The zygote formed will begin to develop into an embryo
2) Embryo will implant (settle down) in the lining of the uterus.
3) The embryo will develop a placenta.

| Placenta: It is a thick disc-like structure attached to the developing fetus by the umbilical cord.
Structure of the placenta:

| Mother’s blood vessels: The mother’s blood vessels introduce blood into the placenta which supplies
oxygen and nutrients to the baby and absorbs waste products from it.

| Intervillous space: Mother’s blood flows into the intervillous space, closer to the villi where exchange of
oxygen and nutrients take place.

| Villi: Villi is the functional unit of the placenta, they are small blood vessels that transfer oxygen,
nutrients and waste products between the mother and baby via diffusion.
The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin wall for efficient diffusion.

| Placental membrane: Separates the mother’s blood from the fetus’ blood to prevent toxins or pathogens
from entering.

| Umbilical cord: The tube-like structure that connects the baby to the mother, containing two umbilical
arteries to allow oxygen and nutrients to flow into the baby, and an umbilical vein to allow waste products
to flow out of the baby.

Functions of the placenta:

i) It will allow the embryo to obtain materials such as oxygen and nutrients from the
mother's blood.
ii) It also allows the embryo to get rid of waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide,
iii) as well as anchoring the embryo in the uterus.
iv) The placenta secretes female hormones, in particular progesterone, which maintain the
pregnancy and prevent the embryo from aborting (being rejected by the mother's body).

Protection of the baby:

Two methods of protection:
| Amnion: A membrane that encloses the developing embryo.
| Amniotic fluid: The amnion secretes amniotic fluid, which protects the developing embryo against
sudden movements and bumps.
As the embryo develops, it becomes more and more complex. When it becomes recognizably human, we
no longer call it an embryo but a fetus.

4) At the end of nine months of development, there just isn't any room left for the fetus to grow
and it sends a hormonal 'signal' to the mother to begin the birth process.

- labor
There are three stages to the birth of a child.

1. Dilation of the cervix.

The cervix is the 'neck' of the uterus. It gets wider to allow the baby to pass through.
The muscles of the uterus contract quite strongly and tear the amnion, allowing the amniotic fluid to
escape. (In some countries the woman describes this as 'her waters have broken'.)

2. Delivery of the baby.

Strong contractions of the muscles of the uterus push the baby's head through the cervix and then through
the vagina to the outside world.

3. Delivery of the afterbirth.

After the baby has been born, the uterus continues to contract and pushes the placenta out, together with
the amnion. These are known as the afterbirth.

- puberty
When a baby is born it has primary sex characteristics but, till a certain age, is sexually immature. An
individual reaches sexual maturity after puberty when secondary sexual characteristics have been
developed.

| Sexual maturity: Sexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduce.

| Sexual Immaturity: Sexual Immaturity is the incapability of an organism to reproduce.

| Primary sex characteristics: Sex organs which are present at birth.

| Secondary sex characteristics: Physical characteristic of an organism that is related to or derived from its
sex, but not directly part of its reproductive system.
| Puberty: the time in life when a boy or girl becomes sexually mature and develops secondary sex
characteristics.

Puberty involves two developments:

 The gametes (eggs and sperm) start to mature and be released.
 The bodies of both sexes adapt to allow reproduction to take place.

These events are started by hormones released by the pituitary gland called follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

PUBERTY IN BOYS PUBERTY IN GIRLS

 FSH stimulates sperm production.  FSH stimulates egg development and
 LH instructs the testes to secrete the male instructs ovaries to secrete oestrogen.
sex hormone, testosterone.  LH stimulates egg release (ovulation).

Testosterone controls the development of the male Oestrogen controls the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics. secondary sexual characteristics.

Male secondary sexual characteristics: Female secondary sexual characteristics:

 Growth and development of male sex  Growth and development of female
organs. sexual organs.
 Growth of armpit, chest, pubic, and  Growth of armpit and pubic hair.
facial(beard) hair.  Increase in body mass due to
 Increase in body mass due to growth of development of rounded shape to hips.
muscles.  Voice deepens without sudden breaking.
 Voice breaks  Breasts develop.
 Sexual drive develops.  Sexual drive develops.

Usually, 13 to 16 years in boys. Usually, 11 to 14 years in girls

(The age when puberty takes place can vary a lot.)
It takes several years for puberty to be completed.
Some of the most complex changes take place in girls, with the start of menstruation.
- menstrual cycle
'Menstrual' means 'monthly', and in most women the menstrual cycle takes about a month,
although it can vary from as little as two weeks to as long as six weeks.
A cycle is a continuous process, so it doesn't really have a beginning, but the first day of
menstruation is usually called day 1.

The menstrual cycle is an around 28 days process which starts with the first period.
As FSH levels rise menstruation begins, the lining of the uterus along with blood and unfertilized eggs are
removed. FSH causes ostrogen to be produced which gives negative feedback and reduces the
production of FSH. Ostrogen causes the growth of follicle cells. About 14 days after the period
ovulation takes place: the follicle moves towards the edge of the ovary and the egg is released as
the follicle bursts open. The remains of the follicles form corpus luteum which produces
progesterone. Progesterone prepares for pregnancy by thickening the lining of the uterus. It also
inhibits the production of FSH and LH. After another 14 day, if the egg is fertilized, if the eggs
are not fertilized the cycle repeats.

Day Chance in Change in Change in

uterus eggs follicles
1
2 Dead eggs
3 Stage 1 menstruation are removed.
4 (FSH is
5 produced)
6
 7 Pre-ovulatory phase Follicular phase
8 New eggs
9 Stage 2 Lining repairs mature in
10 (Ostogen is the ovaries.
11 produced)
12
13
The lining Ovulation Follicles turn
14 Ovulation Stage 3 begins to And corpus into corpus
thicken luteal form luteal.
15 (LH is Lining keeps Eggs can be Corpus luteal
16 If fertilized produced) thickening fertilized produces
17 in either case progesterone
18 until 28th day Eggs die if not Corpus luteal
19 If not fertilized and then the fertilized breaks
20 cycle repeats down
21 Post-ovulatory phase Stage 4 Luteal phase
22 (Progesterone
23 Is produced)
24
25
26
27
28
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN OTHER ANIMALS
1 Production of gametes

2 Transfer of male gamete to female gamete

Some male animals, such as those of most fish, release their sperm into the water in which they live. The female animals release their eggs into the water.
Other male animals, such as those of birds and mammals, ejaculate their sperm in a special fluid into the bodies of the females Someform of sexual intercourse
precedes ejaculation.

3 fertilization
and the sperm then swim through the water to fertilize the eggs. This is called external fertilization as it takes place outside the body. Before the
release takes place, there is usually some mating behavior to ensure that male and female are in the same place at the same time. This gives the best chance of
fertilization occurring before water currents sweep the sex cells away.
Internal fertilization then takes place inside the female's body. Fertilization is much more likely as there
are no external factors to prevent the sperm from reaching the eggs.

Once the sperm has reached the egg, its nucleus must enter the egg
and fuse with the egg nucleus. As each gamete has only half the normal
number of chromosomes, the zygote formed by fertilization will have the full
number of chromosomes. In humans, the sperm and egg each have only 23
chromosomes. The zygote has 46 chromosomes, like all other cells in the
body.

Fertilization does more than just restore the diploid chromosome number;
it provides an additional source of genetic variation. The sperm and eggs are
all genetically different because they are formed by meiosis. Therefore, each
time fertilization takes place, it brings together a different combination of
genes.

4 Development of zygote into a new individual

Explain Sexual and asexual reproduction differences

Mitosis and meiosis

Sexual reproduction in plants recheck.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN OTHER ANIMALS

Summaries

Seed dispersal

Formatting

Self-assessment questions