Physics - Converted

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CONDUCTING MATERIALS All the valence electrons in an isolated atom are bound to their parent nuclei
which are called as ‘ bound electrons’
1 Introduction Free Electrons

Basic Terminologies 2
Conducting Materials In a solid, due to the boundaries of neighbouring atoms overlap each other,
3 Electron Theory of solids the valence electrons find continuity from atom to atom. Therefore, they can
4 Classical Free Electron Theory move easily throughout the solid. All such valence electrons of its constituent
Drude – Lorentz Theory atoms in a solid are called free electrons.
Postulates of Classical Free Electron Theory
Derivation of Electrical conductivity Difference Between Ordinary Gas and Free Electron Gas
Thermal Conductivity 5 The molecules of ordinary gas are neutral. But, the free electron gas is charged.
Wiedemann - Franz Law 6 The density of molecules is smaller than the density of free electrons.
Lorentz Number Electric Field (E)
7 Merits of classical free electron theory
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8 Drawbacks of classical free electron theory The electric field (E) of a conductor having uniform cross section is
9 Quantum Free Electron Theory defined as the potential
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10 Fermi Dirac Distribution Function
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Effect of Temperature 11 drop (V) per unit length (l).
Density of Energy States E = V/ l
Definition Unit –Vm-1
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Derivation Current Density (J)
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Calculation of Carrier Concentration at 0 K
Calculation of Fermi Energy Current density (J) is defined as the current per unit area of cross section of an
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Average Energy of an Electron at 0 K imaginary plane hold normal to the direction of flow of current in a current
carrying conductor.
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1 INTRODUCTION
‘I’ is the current, and ‘A’ is the area of
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Conducting materials are low resistivity materials, which conduct heat as well as
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electricity. Electrical conduction is due to free electrons, whereas normal J=I/A Unit –A m-2
conduction is due to free electrons as well as phonons.
2 CONDUCTING MATERIALS
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES Conducting materials are classified in to three major categories based on
Conductors the conductivity.
Experimental measurements showed that the metals and their alloys exhibit large
electrical conductivity in the order of 10 Ω m . Hence they are known as (i). Zero resistive materials (ii). Low resistive materials (iii). High resistive
conductors Conducting materials are the materials having high electrical and materials
thermal conductivities. Low resistive materials are also generally known as
conducting materials. (i) Zero resistive materials
The super conductors like alloys of aluminium, zinc, gallium, niobium, etc., are
Bound Electrons a special class
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of materials. These materials conduct electricity almost with zero resistance blow
transition temperature. Thus, they are called zero resistive materials. (i). The behavior of conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. (ii). The
electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids.
These materials are used for saving energy in the power systems, super
conducting magnets, memory storage elements etc., So far three electron theories have been proposed.
(ii) Low resistive materials (i). Classical free electron theory
The metals like silver, aluminium and alloys have high electrical It is a macroscopic theory, proposed by Drude and Lorentz in1900.
conductivity. These materials are called low resistive materials. According to this theory, the free electrons are mainly responsible for electrical
conduction in metals. This theory obeys laws of classical mechanics.
They are used as conductors, electrical co
(ii). Quantum free electron theory
nduct etc., in electrical devices and electrical power transmission and distribution,
winding wires in motors and transformers. It is a microscopic theory, proposed by sommerfeld in 1928. According to
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this theory, the electrons in a metals move in a constant potential. This theory
(iii) High resistive materials obeys laws of quantum mechanics.
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The materials like tungsten, platinum, nichrome etc., have high resistive (iii). Zone theory or band theory of solids
and low temperature co-efficient of resistance. These materials are called high
resistive materials. Bloch proposed this theory in the year 1928. According to this theory, the free
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electrons move in a periodic potential. This theory explains electrical
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Such a metals and alloys are used in the manufacturing of resistors, heating conductivity based on the energy bands.
elements, resistance thermometers.
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The conducting properties of solid do not depend on the total number of
4 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON MODEL
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the electrons available because only the valance electrons of the atoms take part
Free electron theory of metals was proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900
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in the conduction. When these valance electrons detached from the orbit they are to explain electrical conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by
called free electrons or conduction electrons.
H.A. Lorentz in the year 1909.
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In a metal, the number of free electrons available is proportional to its
DRUDE LORENTZ THEORY
electrical conductivity. Hence, electronic structure of a metal determines its
electrical conductivity. Principle
According to this theory, a metal consists of a very large number of free

3 ELECTRON THEORY OF SOLIDS electrons. These free electrons can move freely throughout the volume of the
metal. They are fully responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.
We know that the electrons in the outermost orbit of the atom determine
the electrical properties in the solid. The free electron theory of solids explains Explanation
the structure and properties of solids through their electronic structure. We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with positive charge
This theory is applicable to all solids, both metals and non metals. It surrounded by the electrons of negative charge. The electros in the inner
explains shells
are called core electros and those in the outermost shell are called valence
electrons.
Since electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas, they obey the laws of kinetic
theory of gases.
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POSTULATES OF FREE ELECTRON THEORY
Drift velocity (v d)
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Drude assumed that the free electrons in a metal form an electron gas. It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons in a metal in a
These free electrons move randomly in all possible directions just like the gas particular direction by the application of an electrical field.
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molecules in a container. Mean free path (λ)
The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive
collisions in the presence of an applied electric field is known as mean free path.
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In the absence of electrical field
When an electrical field is not applied, the free electrons move everywhere in a It is the product of drift velocity of free electron and collision time ( ι c).
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random manner. They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core. This
collision is known as elastic collision.
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Collision time ( ι c)
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The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions
is known as collision time. It is expressed mathematically as
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Relaxation time (ι)
The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from
its disturbed position due to the application of an external electrical field is called
In the presence of electric field relaxation time. It is approximately equal to 10-14 second.
When the electrical field is applied, the electrons get some amount of energy from
the applied electric field and they begin to move towards the positive potential. 4.3 DERIVATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
(In the opposite direction to the applied electric field). Definition
The amount of electrical charge conducted (Q) per unit time across unit area (A)
of a solid given by
σ = Q / tAE
If t = 1second E = 1 volt, A = 1 metre2
σ = Q J = ne [e τ / m] E ---(7)
σ = Q / tAE = J / E J = [ne2 τ / m] E , in terms of effective mass m* of an electron, J =
Where J is the current density and it is given by Q / tA. Also J = σ E ( according [ne2 τ / m* ] E ---(8)
to ohm’s law ) From microscopic form of Ohm’s law, the current density ‘J’ is expressed as, J =
Expression for electrical conductivity σE ---(9)
On comparing equations (8) & (9) , we have
We know in the absence of external electric field, the motion of electrons Electrical conductivity σ = ne2 τ / m*
in a metal moves randomly in all directions. When electric fi rod, the electron From equation (10), we know that with increase of electron concentration ‘n’ , the
moves in opposite direction to the applied field with velocity v d. this velocity is conductivity ‘σ’ increases. As m* increases, the motion of electron becomes slow
known as drift velocity. and the electrical conductivity.
4.4.THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Definition
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It is defined as the amount of heat flowing per unit time through the
material having unit area of cross section per unit temperature gradient.
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ie)., Q = K dT/ dx
Thermal conductivity of the material

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K = Q / dT/dx
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Q –Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross sectional area
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Lorentz force acting on the electron F = eE --- (1) dT/dx –Temperature gradient.
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This force is known as driving of the electron. Due to this force, the electron gains
acceleration ‘a’. From motion, the Newton’s force second law of
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Expression for thermal conductivity
F= ma --- (2)
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From equations 1 & 2 Let us consider a uniform rod AB with temperatures T1 (Hot) at end A and T2
ma = eE(or) (cold) at end B. Heat flows from hot end A to the hold end B. Let us consider cross
a = eE / m -- (3) sectional area C which is at a distance equal to the mean free path (λ) of t in fig.
The acceleration of electron is given by
Acceleration (a) = Drift velocity (v d) / Relaxation time (τ)
a=vd/τ
vd= aτ
Substituting equation (3) in( 4)
v d =[ e τ / m ] E ---(5)
Where ‘σ’ is the electrical conductivity of velocity is given as
J = ne v d --(6)
Substituting equation (5)in (7), we have
The conduction electron per unit value is n and average velocity of these electrons
is v. τ v = λ ---(8)
Substituting equation 8 in the equation 7, we have
During the movement of electrons in the rod, the collision takes place. Hence, the K=½nvkτv
electrons near A lose their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic K = ½ n v2 k τ ---(9)
energy.
At A, average kinetic energy of en electron = 3/2 kT--------------- (1)
Where k- Boltzmann’s constant and T is temperature

5 WIDEMANN –FRANZ LAW
At B average kinetic energy of the electron = 3/2 k (T –dT) -------------- (2) Statement
The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B
= 3/2 kT - 3/2 k (T –dT) It states that for the metals, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical
= 3/2 kT - 3/2 kT + 3/2 k dT ------------- (3) conductivity is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. This ratio is a
Number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time from A to B constant for all metals at given temperature.
= 1/6 nv.
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The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in unit time K/σ ∞ T
Or
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= 1/6 nv X 3/2 kdT
= 1/4 n v k dT --------------- (4)
Where L is a proportionality constant. It is known as Lorentz number. Its
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Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per unit area per unit time value is 2.44 X 10-8
-2
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= -1/4 n v kdT --------------- (5) WΩK at T = 293 K.
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Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit Derivation
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time
Widemann –Frantz law is derived from the expressions of thermal
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Q =1/4 nvkdT –(-1/4 nvkdT ) conductivity and electrical conductivity of metal.
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Q = 1/4 nvkdT + 1/4 nvkdT We know that,
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Electrical conductivity of a metal σ = ne2τ / m ------- (1)
Q = 1/2 nvkdT --------------- (6) Thermal conductivity of a metal K = ½ n v2k τ -------(2)
Thermal conductivity = ½ n v2 k τ
But from the basic definition of thermal conductivity, the amount of heat Electrical conductivity = ne2 τ / m
conducted per unit area per unit time K / σ = ½ mv2 k / e2 ---------- (3)
Q = K dT/ λ We know that the kinetic energy of an electron
[ Q = K dT/ dx ; λ = dx] Or ½ mv2 = 3/2 kT --------- (4)
½ n u k dT = K dT/ λ Substituting equation 4 in equation 3, we have
K = ½ nv k λ (7) K / σ = 3/2 kT X k / e2
We know that for the metals = 3/2 [k/e] 2 T
Relaxation time = collision time K / σ = LT ------------ (5)
τ = τc =λ / v where L = 3/2 [k/e] 2 is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number
K / σ = αT ------ (6)
Thus it is proved that, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical This theory cannot explain the Compton effect, photoelectric effect,
conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the paramagnetism, ferromagnetism etc.,
metal.
The theoretical and experimental values of specific heat and electronic specific
Conclusion heat are not matched.
Wiedamann –Franz law clearly shows that if a metal has high thermal By classical theory Kratures,/σT= butconstantbyquanfo constant for all
conductivity, it will also have high electrical conductivity. temperatures.
The Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with
experimental value and it is rectified by quantum theory.
6 LORENTZ NUMBER 9 QUANTUM THEORY

The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) of of the metal and absolute The drawbacks of classical theory can be rectified using quantum theory.
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temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is known as Lorentz number In classical theory the properties of metals such as electrical and thermal
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conductivities are well explained on the assumption that the electrons in the metal
and it is given by freely moves like the particles of gas and hence called free electron gas.
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L = K / σ According to classical theory, the particles of gas (electrons) at zero Kelvin will
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have zero kinetic energy, and hence all the particles are at rest. But according to
7MERITS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRTON quantum theory when all particles at rest, all of them should be filled only in the
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ground state energy level, which is impossible and is controversial to the pauli’s
THEORY exclusion principle.
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1. It is used to verify Ohm’s Law. Thus in order to fill the electrons in a given energy level, we should know the
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2. The electrical and Thermal conductivities of metals can be explained by following. Energy distribution of electrons
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this theory.
3. It is used to derive Wiedemann- Franz law. Number of available energy states Number of filled energy states
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4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
Probability of filling an electron in a given energy state, etc.,
10 FERMI DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

8 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE
The classical and quantum free electron theories failed to explain many
ELECTRON THEORY electrical and thermal properties of solids. However, these properties can be
easily understood using Fermi –Dirac statistics.
It is a macroscopic theory
Fermi –Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin.
Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb energy, but quantum The particles like electrons are the examples of half integral spin and hence they
theory states that only few electrons will absorb energy. are known as Fermi particles or Fermions.
Definition
The expression which gives the distributions of electrons among the various
energy levels as a function of temperature is known as Fermi distribution
function. It is the probability function F(E) of an electron occupying given energy (i.e 100% chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level)
level at absolute temperature. It is given by
When E>EF, equation 1 becomes
(i.e zero% chance for the electron not to be filled within the Fermi energy level)
Where
E –Energy of the level whose occupancy is being considered When E = EF, equation 1 becomes
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EF –Energy of the Fermi level
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K –Boltzmann’s constant
(i.e 50% chance for the electron to be filled within the Fermi energy level)
T –Absolute temperature
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This clearly shows that at 0 kelvin all the energy states below EF0 are filled
and all those above it are empty.
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The probability value of F(E) lies between 0 and 1. If F(E) = 1, the energy The Fermi function at 0 kelvin can also be represented graphically as shown in
level is occupied by an electron. If F(E) = 0, the energy level is vacant. If F(E) =
fig .
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½ or 0 .5 then there is a 50% chance for the electron occupying in that energy
level.
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Effect of temperature on Fermi function
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The effect of temperature on Fermi function F(E) can be discussed with
respect to equation 1.
1. At 0 kelvin
At 0 kelvin, the electron can be filled only upto a maximum energy level called
Fermi energy level (EF0), above EF0 all the energy levels will be empty. It can
be proved from the following conditions.
Fermi energy and its importance Fermi energy level
When E<EF, equation 1 becomes
Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level upto which the electron can be
filled at ok. Importance:
Thus it act as a reference level which separates the vacant and filled energy states At room temperature, the electrons within the range of KBT below the Fermi
at 0k. It gives the information about the filled electron states and the empty states. energy level will absorb thermal energy = KBT and goes to higher energy states
with energy EF0 + KBT.
At 0k, blow Fermi energy level electrons are filled and above Fermi energy level
it will be empty. 11 DENSITY OF STATES
When the temperature is increased, few electrons gains thermal energy and it goes
The Fermi function F(E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons on a
to higher energy levels.
given energy state, it does not give the information about the number of electrons
that can be filled in a given energy state. To know that we should know the
number of available energy states so called density of states.
Conclusions:
Definition
In the quantum free electron theory, though the energy levels are descrete, the
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spacing between consecutive energy level is very less and thus the distribution of
Density of states Z(E)dE is defined as the number of available electron states
energy levels seems to be continuous.
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aa per unit volume in an energy interval (dE).
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The number of energy levels N(E) that are filled with electrons per unit energy
Explanation
increases parabolic ally with increase of energy E as shown in fig.
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In order to fill the electrons in an energy state we have to first find the number
of available energy states within a given energy interval.
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We know that a number of available energy levels can be obtained for
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various combinations of quantum numbers nx, ny, and nz . (i.e) n2 = n x2 + n y2 + nz2
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Therefore, let us construct three dimensional space of points which represents the
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quantum numbers nx, ny, and nz as shown in fig. in this space each point represents
an energy level.
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Each energy level can provide only two states, namely, one for spin up and other
for spin down and hence only two electrons can be exclusion principle.
At T = 0, if there are N number of atoms, then we have N/2 number of filled

energy levels and other higher energy levels will be completely empty.
This (N/2) th energy level is the highest filled energy level is known as Fermi
energy level (EFO).
The electrons are filled in a given energ no two electrons can have the same set
of four quantum numbers.
The number of available energy states between the shells of radius n and n + dn
(or) between the energy levels
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DERIVATION OF DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES
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To find the number of energy levels in a cubical metal piece and to find
number of electrons that can be filled in a given energy level, l
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The sphere is further divided in to many shells and each of this shell
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represents a particular combination of quantum numbers (nx, n y, and nz) and
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therefore represents a particular energy value.
Let us consider two energy values E and E + dE. The number of energy
states between E and E + dE can be found by finding the number of energy states
between the shells of the radius n and n + Δn, from the origin.
The number of energy states within the sphere of radius n = 4/3 πn3
Since nx, ny, and nz will have only positive values, we have to take only one
octant of the sphere (i.e) 1/8 th of the sphere volume.
The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius n = 1/8 [4/3 π
n3] Similarly the number of available energy states within the sphere of radius n
+ dn n + dn = 1/8 [4/3 π (n+dn)3 ]
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CALCULATION OF CARRIER CONCENTRATION
Let N(E) dE represents the number of filled energy states between the interval of
energy dE . Normally all the energy states will not be filled. The probability of
filling of electrons in a given energy state is given by Fermi function F(E).
Density = 8.92 × 103 kgm–3

N(E) = Z(E)dE . F(E) ------ (7)
Resistivity = 1.73 × 108 m
Substituting equation (6) in equation (7), we get
Number of filled energy states per unit volume iii)Atomic weight = 63.5 kg
N(E) = π / 2 [8m / h2 ] E ½ dE. F(E) --------------- (8)
N(E) is known as carrier distribution function (or) carrier concentration in metals. Calculate the mobility and the average time collision of electrons in copper
obeying classical laws
CALCULATION OF FERMI ENERGY

Case (i) At T= 0K
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Case(ii) At T> 0K
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AVERAGE ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON AT OK
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Average energy = Total energy / Carrier Concentration
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Eavg= 3/5 Efo
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1.The following datas are given for copper

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2.A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.54×10–8 m at room temperature.
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For an electric field along the wire of 1 volt cm–1, compute the average drift
velocity of electron assuming that there is 5.8 × 1028 conduction electrons /m3.
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Also calculate the mobility.
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3. The density of silver 10.5 × 103 kg–3 assuming that each silver atom provides
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one conduction electron. The conductivity of silver at 20°C is 6.8 × 10 7 –1 m–1.
Calculate the density and mobility of electron in silver with atomic weight
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107.9 × 10–3 kg m–2.
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4. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper and current density in
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wire of diameter 0.16 cm which carries a steady current of 10 A. Given n =
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8.46 × 1028 m–3.
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of the wire d = 0.16 cm 5. The resistivity of a piece of silver at room temperature 1.6 × 10 –8 m. The
Current flowing = 10 A effective number of conduction electrons is 0.9 per atom and the Fermi
energy is 5.5 eV. Estimate the mean free path of the conduction electrons.
Calculate the electronic relaxation time and the electronic drift velocity in a
field of 100 Vm–1. The density of silver is 1.05 × 104 kgm–3(m/m* = 1).
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6. A conducting rod contains 8.5 × 1028 electrons/m3. Calculate its resistivity
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at room temperature and also the mobility of electrons if the collision time
for electron scattering is 2 × 10–14 sec.
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aluminum is 18.1 × 1028 m–3. Calculate
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8. Free electron density of
its Calculate its Fermi energy at 0 K. [Planck’s constant and mass of free
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electron are 6.62 × 10–34Js, and 9.1 × 10–34Kg]
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7. valuate the Fermi function for energy KB T above the Fermi energy.
9. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi

velocity.
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10. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for E –
EF = 0.01 eV at 200K.
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Solution:
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Given data:
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11. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons (with a mobility of 3.5 ×
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10–3 m2 V–1 s–1) in copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V m–1.
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12. Copper has electrical conductivity at 300 K as 6.40 × 107 m–1. Calculate
the thermal conductivity of copper.(Lorentz number is 2.44 × 10–8 W k–2).
13. The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper at 20°C are 380 Wm –
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K–1 and 5.67 × 107 –1 m–1 respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number.
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15. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of
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electron is 8.5 × 1028 m–3.
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17. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 Wm–1K–1. Find the electrical
conductivity and Lorentz number when the metal posses relaxation time 10–
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14
sec at 300 K. (Density of electron = 6×1028 per m3)
16. The mobility of electrons in copper 3×103m2V–1s–1 assuming e=1.6×10–19C
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and me=9.1×10–31 kg. Calculate the mean collision time.
Solution:
19. Find the velocity of copper wire whose cross-sectional area is 1 mm when
the wire carries a current of 10 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes
one election to the electron gas.
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18. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons in copper for electric field
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strength of 2Vm–1. (Mobility of electrons µ = 3.5 × 10–3 m2V–1s–1). ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
A Copper wire whose is 0.16 cm carries a steady current of 20 A. What is the
current density of wire? Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in
copper. (Ans : J = 9.952 A/m2 , and Vd = 7.35 x 10- 4 ms-1)
The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20°C are 390 Wm 1 K 1and 5.87 ×
10–7 –1 m–1respectively. Calculate the Lorentz number. (Ans : 2.267 × 10–
8 W K–1)
Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal rod with relaxation
time 1014 second at 300K. Also calculate the Lorentz number.
(Density of electron = 6 × 1028 m–3)(Ans : = 1.6879 × 10–7 –1

m–1 , K = SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
123.927 Wm–1 K –1 , = 2.4474 × 10–18 W K–2)
Calculate the drift velocity and mean free path of copper when it carries a steady 1 Introduction
current of 10 amperes and whose radius is 0.08 cm. Assume that the mean thermal Properties of Semiconducting materials
velocity 1.6 × 106 m/s and the resistivity of copper 2 × 10–8 m. Elemental and Compound semiconductors
2 Intrinsic Semiconductors – Electrons and Holes
(Ans : (i) 36.6 x 10-5m/s (ii) 3.94 x 108m) 3 Carrier Concentration in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
The resistivity of aluminum at room temperature is 2 × 10 –8 m.Calculate i) The Density of Electrons
drift velocity ii) mean free path on the basis of classical free electron theory. Density of Holes
Density of intrinsic Carrier Concentration
(Ans : (i) 0.396 ms-1; (ii) 2.65nm) Fermi Energy Level
Electrical Conductivity
6. Using the Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which there is 1% Determination of Band gap in intrinsic semiconductor 4
probability in a solid will have an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV. (Ans : Extrinsic Semiconductor
in
in
1260 K) n- type Semiconductor
p- type Semiconductor
n.
n.
5 Carrier Concentration and Fermi level Calculation in n- type Semiconductor
aa
aa
Fermi energy level
Density of electron Concentration
Electrical Conductivity
iy
iy
Variation of carrier concentration with temperature in n – type
or
or
semiconductor
6 Carrier Concentration and Fermi level Calculation in p- type Semiconductor
.p
.p
Carrier Concentration
Fermi Energy level
w
w
7 Variation of carrier concentration with temperature in P- type Semiconductor
w
w
8 Hall Effect
Statement
w
w
Theory
Calculation of Hall Coefficient
Applications of Hall Effect
1 INTRODUCTION
Based on electrical resistance
The resistivity of a semiconductor is lesser then an insulator but more than

that of a conductor. It is in the order of 10-4 to 0.5 ohm metre.
Based on energy band

A semiconductor has nearly empty conduction band and almost filled valance Semiconductors which are formed by combining third and fifth group
band with very small energy gap (≈ 1eV). elements or second and sixth group elements in the periodic table are known as
compound semiconductors. These compound semiconductors are also known as
direct band gap semiconductors.
Example –1. Combination of third and fifth group elements

Gallium phosphide (GaP)
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Indium phosphide (InP)
Indium arsenide (InAs)
2. Combination of second and sixth group elements Magnesium oxide (MgO)
in
in
Magnesium silicon (MgSi) Zinc oxide (ZnO)
n.
n.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
They are formed by covalent bonds.
aa
aa
Zinc sulphide (ZnS)
They have an empty conduction band at 0K They have almost filled valance band Types of semiconductors
They have small energy gap They posses crystalline structure
iy
iy
They have negative temperature co efficient of resistance Based on the purity semiconductors are classified in to the following two types.
If the impurities are added to a semiconductor, its electrical conductivity
or
or
Intrinsic semiconductors
increases. Similarly, if the temperature of the semiconductor increased, its
electrical conductivity increases.
.p
.p
Extrinsic semiconductors
w
w
ELEMENTAL AND COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS Intrinsic semiconductors
w
w
The semiconductors are classified mainly into two types based on composition of A semiconductor in extremely pure form, without the addition of
w
w
materials. impurities is known as intrinsic semiconductors. Its electrical conductivity can be
Elemental semiconductors changed due to thermal excitation.
Compound semiconductors
Elemental semiconductors At 0K the valance band is completely filled and the conduction band is
empty. The carrier concentration (i.e) electron density (or) hole density increases
These semiconductors are made from a single element of fourth group elements exponentially with increase in temperature.
of the periodic table.
They are also known as indirect band gap semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors
Example –Germanium, silicon A semiconductor in extremely impure form, with the addition of impurities
is known as extrinsic semiconductors.
Compound semiconductors
2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS –
ELECTRONS AND HOLES
We know that, at 0K intrinsic pure semiconductor behaves as insulator. But as
temperature increases some electron move from valance band to conduction band
as shown in fig. therefore both electrons in conduction band and holes in valance
band will contribute to electrical conductivity. Therefore the carrier concentration
(or) density of electrons (ne) and holes (nh) has to be calculated.
We know Fermi function, probability of finding an electron in a given energy

state is
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
Substituting equation 4 & 3 in equation 1 we have Density of electrons in
conduction band within the limits Ec to ∞ as
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
Since to move an electron from valavce band to conduction band the energy
w
w
Assume that electron in the conduction band as a free electron of mass required is greater then 4 KBT (i.e) E –EF >>KBT (or) (E - EF) / KBT >>1
m*e and the hole in the valance band behave as a free particle of mass m*h. The
w
w
electrons in the conduction band have energies Lying
from Ec to ∞ and holes-∞intotheEv valanceasshownb Ec represents the
lowest energy level of conduction band Ev represents the highest energy level of
the valance band.
3. CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN AN
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTION BAND
in
in
Let us assume that E –Ec = x KBT
n.
n.
Or E = Ec + x KBT
Differentiating we get dE = KBT. dx,
aa
aa
Limits: when E = Ec; x = 0
When E = ∞; x = ∞
iy
iy
Limits are 0 to ∞
Equation 6 can be written as
or
or
DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALANCE BAND
.p
.p
We know F(E) represents the probability of filled states. As the maximum
probability 1, the probability of un filled states will be [1 –F(E)].
w
w
w
w
Example, if F(E) = 0.8 then 1 –F(E) = 0.2
w
w
(i.e) 80% chance of finding an electron in valance band and 20% chance of
finding a hole in valance band.
Let the maximum energy in valance band be Ev and the minimum energy be -∞.
Theref density of hole in valance band nh is given by
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
DENSITY OF INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION
iy
iy
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the concentration of holes in the valance band.
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
w
w
w
w
Let us assume that
Ev –E = x KBT,
Differentiating we get dE = - KBT. dx,
Limits: when E = ∞; Where Ec –Ev = Eg is the forbidden energy gap.
When Ev –(-∞) = x; x = ∞
when E = Ev; x = 0
Limits are ∞ to 0
Equation 11 becomes
FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
For an intrinsic semiconductor number of electrons (i.e) electron density will be

the same as that of the number of holes (i.e) hole density.
(i.e) n e = n h
Equating equations 7& 12
But in actual case m*h m*e and the Fermi energy level slightly increases with
increase in temperature as shown in fig.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
Mobility
w
w
w
w
When an electric field is applied to a semiconductor, the charge carrier
namely electrons and holes attain drift velocity Vd. The drift velocity attained by
the charge carrier is proportional to electric field strength E.
Drift velocity Vd is proportional to E

If m*h = m*e, then log m*h / m*e = 0 since log 1 = 0
(i.e) Vd α E
(i.e) the Fermi energy level lies in the midway between Ec and Ev as shown fig
(since at 0K, T = 0). Vd = μ E
Where μ is proportionality constant and it is known as the mobility of the charge

carrier being considered. Mobility μ is defined as the velocity of a charge carrier
produced unit field strength.
The electron and hole nobilities are denoted by the symbols μe and μh .
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is different from that of a

conductor. The charge carriers in a conductor are electrons. In the case of a
semiconductor, both electron and holes are charge carriers.
Therefore the total electrical conductivit conductivities due to electrons and holes.
in
in
On the basis of free electron theory of solids, the electrical conductivity of metal σi = σ e + σ h -----------------(4)
is given by Substituting equations 2& 3 in the equation 4,
n.
n.
σ =μ ne ---------- (1) aa We have
aa
Using the equation 1, the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor due to
electrons in the conduction band is given by
iy
iy
σe = n e e μ e ------------------------------- (2)
Where n e is the number of electrons per unit volume; e is the charge of an electron
or
or
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band is
μe is the electron mobility. equal to the number of holes in the valance band,
Similarly, the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor due to holes in the
.p
.p
(i.e) n e = n h = n i
valance band is given by Where n i is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
w
w
σh = n h e μ h -------------------------------(3)
Hence, the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
w
w
where n h - is the hole density in the valance band; e - is the charge of a hole
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w
μh –is the hole mobility σi = e[ n i μe + n i μh]
Thus, the electrical conductivity depends upon the negative exponential of the
forbidden energy gap Eg and on the motilities’ of both electron and holes.
BAND GAP DETERMINATION
Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
Slope = Eg / 2k
Eg = 2k X slope ----------- (7)
From the graph slope = dy / dx
Substituting the expression for the slope in equation (7), we have
in
in
Eg = 2k dy / dx
n.
n.
Where, k is the Boltzmann’s constant.
aa
aa
iy
iy
4 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
or
or
In a semiconducting material, if the charge carriers originate from impurity atoms
.p
.p
added to the original material, then this type of semiconductor is called extrinsic
or impure semiconductor. It is also known as doped semiconductor.
w
w
w
w
Doping
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w
The method of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as
doping and impurity added is called doping agent or dopant.
The addition of impurities will increase the number of free electrons and
This equation (6) is similar to the equation of a straight line, y = mx + c holes in a semiconductor and hence increases its electrical conductivity.
In equation (6), y = log R; x = 1 / T; m = Eg / 2 KBT and c = logC Advantages of extrinsic semiconductor
From the equation 6, it is noted that by measuring the resistance of an i Conductivity is high.
ntrinsic semiconductor at different temperatures, its forbidden energy gap Eg can Conductivity can be controlled to any desired value through the control of doping
be determined. concentration.
If a graph is drawn between log R and 1 / T, the value of Eg is determined from Conductivity is not a function of temperature.
the slope of a straight line. Types of extrinsic semiconductor
The extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types based on the type
of impurity added.
https://www.poriyaan.in/paper/physics-for-information-science-20/
(i). n –type semiconductor

(ii). P –type semiconductor
N –TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (group V element) is added

to a pure semiconductor, it becomes a n –semiconductor.. such impurities are
known as donor impurities because they donate the free electrons to the
semiconductor crystal.
A pentavalent impurity (arsenic) having five valance electrons is ad

ded to a pure
semiconducting material having four valance electrons (silicon or germanium).
in
in
The four valance electrons of the impurity atoms bond with four valance
n.
n.
electrons of the
aa
aa
semiconductor atom and remaining 1 electron of the impurity atom is left free as
shown fig. P –TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
iy
iy
P –type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor
or
or
Therefore number of free electrons increases, as the electrons are produced in
excess, they the majority charge carrier in n –type semiconductor and holes are with trivalannt (3 electrons in valance band)impurity atoms like boron, gallium,
.p
.p
the majority charge carriers. indium etc.,
w
w
Since electrons are donated in this type of semiconductor the energy level of these The three valance electrons of the impurity atom pairs with three valence
electrons of the semiconductor atom and one position of the impurity atom
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w
donated electrons is called donor energy level (Ed) as shown in fig.
remains vacant, this is called hole as shown in fig
w
w
Ed is very close to conduction band and hence even at room temperature the
electrons are easily excited to conduction band. The current flow in this type of Therefore the number of holes increased with impurity atoms added to it.
semiconductor is due to electrons. Since holes are produced in excess, they are the majority charge carriers in p –
type semiconductor and electrons are the minority charge carriers.
Since the impurity can accept the electrons this energy level is called acceptor
energy level (Ea) and is present just above the valence band as shown in fig.
in
in
Here the current conduction is mainly due to holes (holes are shifted from Let Nd be the number of donor energy levels per cm 3 (i.e) density of state Z(E d)
n.
n.
one covalent bond to anther). aa dE. If some electrons donated from donor energy level to conduction band say
aa
for example if two electrons goes to conduction band then two vacant sites (holes)
will be created in Ed levels.
5 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN N –TYPE
iy
iy
Thus in general we can write the density of holes in donor energy level as
N(Ed) dE = Z(Ed) dE .(1 –F(Ed))
SEMICONDUCTOR
or
or
(i.e) n h = Nd .(1 –F(Ed)) ---(2)
.p
.p
FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
w
w
The energy band structure of n –type semiconductor is shown in fig. At 0
K, EF will lie exactly between Ec and Ed, but even at low temperature some
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w
electrons may go from Ed to Ec. Let us assume that Ec –EF > KBT. Then the
w
w
density of electrons in conduction band can be written as
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
At equilibrium condition
w
w
Number of electrons per unit volume in conduction band (electron density) =
w
w
Number of holes per unit volume in conduction band (hole density)
Equating equation (1) and equation (5) we get
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
Equation (7) shows that, at 0K, EF will lie expertly in the midway between Ec and
Ed.
or
or
DENSITY OF ELECTRON CONCENTRATION (n)
.p
.p
By substituting Ef value from equation (7) into expression
w
w
w
w
w
w
From the above figure it can be seen that for the same temperature, if the
impurity atoms (i.e) doping level is increased, the electron concentration
in
in
increases and hence Fermi level increases.
n.
n.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
aa
aa
We know that electrical conductivity in semiconductor is given by
6 CARRIER CONCENTRATION AND FERMI
LEVEL IN P –TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
iy
iy
σn = n e e μ e +n h e μ h
or
or
CARRIER CONCENTRATION
where μh=0
.p
.p
For p –type at absolute zero EF will be exactly between Ea and Ev. At low
σn = n e e μ e temperature some electron from valence band fills the holes in the acceptor
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w
energy level as shown in figure.
w
w
We know the density of holes in the valence band,
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w
This equation represent the electrical conductivity of n –type semiconductor.
Let Na be the number of acceptor energy levels per cm 3 which has energy Ea
VARIATION OF CARRIER CONCENTRATION WITH above valence band. If some electrons are accepted by acceptor energy levels
TEMPERATURE IN N – TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR from the valence band, say for example
When the temperature increased some electrons in Ed level may be shifted to if two electrons are accepted to fill the hole sites in the acceptor levels, then two
conduction band and hence some vacant sites will be created in Ed levels. holes will be created in the valence band as shown in fig .
Therefore the Fermi level shifts down to separate that empty levels and the filled
valance band level as shown in fig.
in
in
n.
n.
Therefore in general the electron density in the acceptor energy level can be
written as
aa
aa
N(Ea) dE = Z(Ea) dE F(Ea)
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
At equilibrium condition
w
w
Number of electrons per unit volume in conduction band (electron density) =
w
w
Number of holes per unit volume in conduction band (hole density)
Equating equation (1) and equation (4) we get
FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
At 0K, when T= 0 we can write equation (5)
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
7 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH
TEMPERATURE AND IMPURITY
w
w
CONCENTRATION IN P –TYPE
w
w
SEMICONDUCTOR
w
w
When the temperature is increased, some of the electrons in the valence
band will go to the acceptor energy level by breaking up the covalent bonds and
hence Fermi energy level shifted upward direction for doping level of Nd =
10 21 atoms / m3as shown in figure.
From the figure it can be seen that for the same temperature, if the impurity atoms
(i.e) doping level is increased say Nd = 10 24atoms /m3, the hole concentration
increases and hence the Fermi level decreases.
Let us consider a n-type semiconductor material in the form of rectangular slab.

In such a material current flows in X –direction and magnetic field B applied in
Z- direction. As a result, Hall voltage is developed along Y –direction as shown
in figure.
in
in
n.
n.
Therefore at low temperature the Fermi energy level may be increased up
aa
aa
to the level of intrinsic energy level (Ei).
iy
iy
8 HALL EFFECT:
or
or
Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is
.p
.p
due to electron or holes and therefore it will be very difficult to distinguish
between p –type and n- type semiconductors. Since the direction of current is from left to right the electrons moves from
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w
right to left in X-direction as shown in fig
Therefore Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the two types of
w
w
charge carriers and their carrier densities and is used to determine the mobility of Now due to magnetic field applied the electron moves towards downward
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w
charge carriers. direction with velocity v and cause negative charge to accumulate at face (1) of
the material as shown in fig. therefore the potential difference is established
STATEMENT between the face (2) and face (1) of the specimen which gives rise to EH in the
negative Y direction.
When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current (I) is placed
perpendicular to a magnetic field (B), a potential difference (electric field) is
developed inside the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both current and
magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the voltage thus
generated is called Hall voltage.
THEORY
Hall effect in n- type semiconductor

Here, the force due to potential difference = -e EH ---(1)

Force due magnetic field = - Bev ---(2)
At equilibrium equation (1) = equation (2)
-e EH = - Bev
in
in
EH = Bv ---(3)
n.
n.
We know the current density Jx in the X- direction is
Now due to magnetic field applied the holes moves towards downward direction
Jx = -ne ev
with velocity v and accumulates at the face (1). A potential difference is
aa
aa
v = - Jx / ne e ---(4)
established between face (1) and (2) in the positive Y - direction.
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3) we get
EH = - B Jx / ne e -------------------- (5)
iy
iy
EH = RH . Jx . B ------- (6)
or
or
Where RH is known as the Hall co –efficient, is given by
RH = - (1 / ne e) -------------- (7)
.p
.p
The negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative Y –
direction.
w
w
w
w
Hall effect in p –type semiconductor
w
w
Let us consider a p –type semiconducting material for which the current is passed Here, the force due to potential difference = -e EH --------------------- (8)
along X – direction from left to right and magnetic field is applied along Z – Force due magnetic field = Bev ----------------- (9)
direction as shown in fig. since the direction of current is from left to right, the At equilibrium equation (1) = equation (2)
holes will also move in the same direction as shown in fig. e EH = Bev
EH = Bv -------------------- (10)
We know the current density Jx in the X- direction is
Jx = nh ev
v = Jx / nh e --------------------- (11)
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3) we get
EH = B Jx / nh e
EH = RH . Jx . B The above expression is valid only for conductors where the velocity is
taken as the drift velocity.
Where RH is known as the Hall co –efficient, is given by
RH = (1 / nh e) ----------- (12) But for semiconductor velocity is taken as average velocity so RH for n- type
The positive sign indicates that the field is developed in the positive Y –direction semiconductor is modified as
Hall coefficient in terms of hall voltage
If the thickness of the sample is t and the voltage developed is VH, then
Hall voltage VH = EH .t ---------- ((13))
Substituting equation (6 )in equation (13), we have
VH = RH Jx B .t -------------------- (14)
If b is the width of the sample then
Area of the sample = b.t
in
in
Current density = Jx = Ix / bt ------------------- (15)
n.
n.
Substituting equation (15) in equation (14) we get Substituting equation (3) in equation (2) we get
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
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w
For n –type semiconductor, the mobility of electron is
w
w
w
w
Similarly for p –type semiconductor, the mobility of hole is
The sign for VH will be opposite for n and p type semiconductors.
Mobility of charge carriers

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HALL EFFECT
We know that Hall coefficient,
RH = - (1 / ne e) A semiconducting material is taken in the form of a rectangular slab of thickness
t and breadth b. A suitable current Ix ampere is passed through this sample along
X- axis by connecting it to a battery.
It is used to design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall
voltage. It is used to find the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers at 300 K given that
m *e =0.12m o ,m *h=0.28m oand the value of brand gap = 0.67 eV. Solution:
Given:
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
This sample is placed in between two poles of an electro magnet such that
magnetic field is applied along Z –axis.
iy
iy
or
or
Due to Hall Effect, Hall voltage (V H) is developed in the sample. This voltage
measured by fixing two probes at the centers of the bottom and top faces faces of
.p
.p
the sample. By measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is determined from the
formula
w
w
w
w
w
w
From the hall coefficient, carrier concentration and mobility can be
determined.
APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT

It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n-type semiconductor. (ie
) if RH is negative then the material n-type. If the RH is positive then the material
p-type.
It is used to find the carrier concentration
It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers μe, μh.
It is used https://www.poriyaan.in/paper/physics-for-information-science-20/
to find the sign of the current carrying charges. https://www.poriyaan.in/paper/physics-for-information-science-20/
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
2. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5 × 1016 m–3. If the mobility of electron and
hole are 0.13 and 0.05 m2 V–1 s–1, calculate the conductivity.
iy
iy
4. The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be –7.35 × 10–
or
or
5
m3 C–1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the
conductivity was found to be 200 –1 m–1. Calculate the density and mobility of
.p
.p
the charge carrier.
w
w
Solution:
w
w
w
w
3. The Intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 ×
1019 m3 if the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2 V–1 s–
1
respectively, calculate the resistivity.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
6. An N-type semiconductor has hall coefficient = 4.16 × 10 –4 m3 C–1. The
.p
.p
conductivity is 108 –1 m–1. Calculate its charge carrier density ‘ne’and electron
w
w
mobility at room temperature.
Solution:
w
w
5. In a P-type germanium, ni = 2.1 × 1019 m–3density of boran 4.5 × 1023 atoms Given:
/m3. The electron and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2 v–1 s–1 respectively.
w
w
What is its conductivity before and after addition of boron atoms.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
8. For an intrinsic Semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the
iy
iy
position of EF at T = 300 K if m*h = 6m*e.
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
7. In an N-type semiconductor, the concentration of electron is 2 × 1022 m–3 .
w
w
Its electrical conductivity is 112 –1 m–1. Calculate the mobility of electrons.
w
w
9.A semiconducting crystal with 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick

has a magnetic density of 0.5 Wbm–2applied from front to back
perpendicular to largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length wise
through the specimen, the voltage measured across its width is found to
be 37μV . What is the Hall coefficient of this semiconductor?
Solution:
Given:
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
w
w
w
w
w
w
10. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 mm long, 1 mm wide and
1 mm thick at 300 K. the intrinsic carrier density 2.5 ×1019 m –3 is at 300
K and the mobility of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m2 v–1 s–1.
11. Hall coefficient of a specimen of depend silicon found to be 3.66 × 10–
4
m3 C–1. The resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 × 10–3 m. Find the mobility and
density of the charge carriers.
13. The electron mobility and hole mobility in Si are 0.135 m2 V–1 s–1 and 0.048
m2 V–1 s–1 respectively at room temperature. If the carrier concentration is
1.5 × 1016 m–3. Calculate the resistivity of Si at room temperature.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
12. The intrinsic carrier density of a semiconductor is 2.1 × 10 19 m–3. The
.p
.p
electron and hole mobilities are 0.4 and 0.2 m2V–1 s–1 respectively. Calculate
w
w
the conductivity.
Solution:
w
w
w
w
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS
1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm long, 1mm wide and
1mm thick at 300 K. the intrinsic carrier density is 2.5 × 10 19 / m–3 at 300 K
and the mobility of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m2 V–1 S–1. (Ans: 4.31
× 103)
Calculate the position of Fermi level E F and the conductivity at 300 K for
germanium crystal containing 5 × 10 22 arsenic atoms / m3. Also calculate the
conductivity if the mobility of the electron is 0.39 m2 V–1 S–1.
(Ans : EF is 0.16 eV below Ec = 3210 –1 m–1)
In a Hall experiment a current of 25 A is passed through a long foil of silver UNIT III MAGNETIC AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF
which is 0.1mm thick and 3cm wide. If the magnetic field of flux density 0.14 MATERIALS
Wb/m2 is applied perpendicular to the foil, calculate the Hall voltage
development and estimate the mobility of electrons in silver. The conductivity
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
the Hall coefficient is (–8.4 × 10–11)m3 / coulomb. (Ans : 29.4 V and 57.7 ×
10–4 m2 V–1)
1 Introduction
2 Terms and definitions
The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37 × 1019 m3. If the
3 Origin of Magnetic moment
electron and hole motilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2 V1 S1 respectively, calculate
Orbital Magnetic moment
the resistivity.
Bohr magneton
(Ans : 0471 m) 4 Different types of magnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
5. For silicon semiconductor with band gap1.12 eV, determine the position of
Paramagnetic materials
the Fermi level at 300 K, if m* e 0.12m0 and m* h0.28m 0 (Ans : 0.576 eV)
in
in
Ferromagnetic materials
Anti Ferro magnetic materials
For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width E g = 0.7 eV, calculate the
n.
n.
Ferri magnetic materials 5
concentration of intrinsic charge carriers at 300 K assuming that m* em* m
h .0
Ferromagnetism
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(Ans : 33.49 × 1018 / m3)
6 Domain theory of ferromagnetism
Domain magnetization
A silicon plate of thickness 1mm, breadth 10mm, and length 100mm is placed
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Energies involved in the domain growth
magnetic field of 0.5 wb/m2 acting perpendicular to its thickness. If A 10–
Explanation of Hysteresis based on domain theory 7
or
or
2
current flows along its length, calculate the Hall voltage developed if the
Soft and Hard magnetic materials
Hall coefficient is 3.66 × 10–4 m3 / coulomb. (Ans : 3.7 × 106 C–1 m3)
8 Energy product
.p
.p
9 Ferri magnetic materials – Ferrites
A N-type semiconductor has Hall coefficient = 4.16 × 10 –4 C–1 m3. The
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Structure of ferrites
conductivity is 108 ohm–1 m–1. Calculate its charge carrier density and electron
Preparation
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mobility at room temperature. (Ans : 0.038 m2 V–1 S–1)
Properties
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Advantages
Disadvantages
Applications
1. INTRODUCTION
Any materials that can be magnetized by an applied by an applied external
magnetic field is called a magnetic materials. Magnetic materials can be easily
magnetized because they have permanent or induced magnetic moment in the
presence of applied magnetic field. Magnetism arise from the magnetic moment
or magnetic dipole of the magnetic materials. Among the different eleven types
of magnetic materials, only five magnetic materials are the most important for the
practical application. They are:
 Diamagnetic materials. It is denoted by H and its unit is Newton per weber or ampere turns per metre
(A/m).
 Paramagnetic materials. Magnetic permeability (μ)
 Ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic permeability of a substance measure the degree to which the
magnetic field can penetrate through the substance.
 Antiferromagnetic materials.
It is found that magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to the magnetic
 Ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites. field strength (H)

B α H
2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
B = μ H
Magnetic flux (φ)
Total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface is known Where is a constant of proportionality and it is known as permeability or absolute
in
in
as magnetic flux. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ and its unit permeability of the medium.
n.
n.
Magnetic flux density (or) Magnetic induction (B) μ=B/H
aa
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Hence, the permeability of a substance is the ratio of the magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density at any point in a m passing normally through unit density (B) inside the substance to the magnetic field intensity (H).
area of cross section (A) at that point. It is denoted by the symbol B and
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Absolute permeability
or
or
its unit is weber / metre2 or tesla.
Absolute permeability of a medium or material is defined as the product of
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B = [φ / A] permeability of free space (μ 0) and the relative permeability. of the medium (μ r)
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Intensity of magnetization (I) μ = μ0x μr
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The term magnetization means the process of converting non-magnetic
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material on magnetic material. Relative permeability of medium (μ r )
Relative permeability of a medium is defined as the ratio between absolute
When some amount of external magnetic field is applied to the metals such permeability of a medium to the permeability of a free space
as iron, steel and alloys etc., they are magnetized to different degrees. The μr = μ / μ0
intensity of magnetisation (I) is the measure of the magnetisation of a magnetized
specimen. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
I = M / V weber / metre2 Magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a specimen magnetized in a magnetic field.

Magnetic field intensity (or) strength (H)
It is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) induced in it to the magnetizing
Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is the force field (H).
experienced by unit north pole placed at that point. χ = I /H
Retentivity (or) Remanence

Diamagnetism is exhibited by all the materials. The atoms in the
When the external magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material is diamagnetic materials do not possess permanent magnetic moment.
removed, the magnetic material will not loss its magnetic property immediately.
There exits some residual intensity of magnetization in the specimen even when However, when a material is placed in a magnetic field, the electrons in the
the magnetic field is cut off. This is called residual magnetism (or) retentivity. atomic orbits tend to counteract the external magnetic field and the atoms acquire
an induced magnetic moment.
Coercivity
As a result, the material becomes magnetized. The direction of the induced
The residual magnetism can be completely removed from the material by dipole moment is opposite to that of externally applied magnetic field. Due to this
applying a reverse magnetic field. Hence coercivity of the magnetic material is effect, the material gets very weakly repelled, in the magnetic field. This
the strength of reverse magnetic field (-Hc) which is used to completely phenomenon is known as diamagnetism.
demagnetize the material.
When a magnetic field Ho is applied in the direction shown in fig., the
3 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIC MOMENT AND BOHR MAGNETON atoms acquire an induced magnetic moment in the opposite direction to that of
in
in
Origin of magnetic moment the field.
n.
n.
Any matter is basically made up of atoms. The property of magnetism exhibited The strength of the induced magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field
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by certain materials with the magnetic property of its constituent atoms. We know and hence magnetization of the material varies directly with the strength of the
that electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in different orbits. magnetic field.
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Basically there are three contributions for the magnetic dipole moment of an The induced dipoles and magnetization vanish as soon as the applied field is
or
or
atom. removed.
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The orbital motions of electrons (the motion of electrons in the closed orbits
around the nucleus) are called orbital magnetic moment.
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Spin motion of the electrons (due to electron spin angular momentum) is called
spin magnetic moment.
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The contribution from the nuclear spin (due to nuclear spin angular momentum)
is nearly 10 3 times smaller than that of electron spin; it is not taken into
consideration.
Bohr Magneton
Properties of diamagnetic material
The magnetic moment contributed by an electron with angular momentum
Diamagnetic magnetic material repels the magnetic lines of force. The behaviour
quantum number n = 1 is known as Bohr Magneton.
of diamagnetic material in the presence of magnetic field.
4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
There is no permanent dipole moment. Therefore, the magnetic effects are very
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS small.
The magnetic susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and Thermal agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments. W
applied magnetic field strength. ith an increase in temperature, the increase in thermal agitation tends to
randomize the dipole direction thus leading to a decrease in magnetization.
This indicates that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increases in

temperature. It is noted that the paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with
temperature.
χ α 1 / T
χ=C / T
This is known as Curie law of paramagnetism and C is a constant called Curie
constant
Properties of paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials attract magnetic lines of force.
They possess permanent dipole moment.
in
in
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
The susceptibility is positive and depend on temperature is given by
n.
n.
In certain materials, each atom or molecule possesses a net permanent χ = –Cθ / T
aa
aa
magnetic moment (due to orbital and spin magnetic moment) even in the absence
of an external magnetic field. The spin alignment is shown in fig.
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The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of external
or
or
magnetic field. Therefore the net magnetic moment is zero, and hence the
magnetization of the material is zero.
.p
.p
But, when an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles tend
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to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field and the material becomes Example- Manganous sulphate, ferric oxide, ferrous sulphate, nickel
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magnetized. As shown in fig. This effect is known as paramagnetism. sulphate, etc.
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FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Certain materials like iron, cobalt, nickel and certain alloys exhibit high
degree of magnetization. These materials show spontaneous magnetization. (i.e)
they have small amount of magnetization even in the absence of external
magnetic field.
This indicates that there is strong internal field within the material which
makes atomic magnetic moments with each other. This phenomenon is known as
ferromagnetism.
Properties of ferromagnetic materials:
All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the magnetic interaction
between the two dipoles.
They have permanent dipole moment. They are strongly attracted by the magnetic
field.
They exhibit magnetization even in the absence of magnetic field. This property
of ferromagnetic material is called as spontaneous magnetization.
Antiferromagnetic susceptibility is mainly depends on temperature.
They exhibit hysteresis curve.
The susceptibility of the antiferromagneitc material is small and positive. It is
On heating, they lose their magnetization slowly. The dipole alignment is shown given by
in fig.
The susceptibility initially increases slightly with the temperature and beyond
in
in
Neel temperature, the susceptibility decreases with temperature.
n.
n.
FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS
aa
aa
The
The susceptibility is very high and depends on the temperature. It is given by Properties of ferrites
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Ferrites have net magnetic moment.
χ = C /T –θ
or
or
[ for T>θ; paramagnetic behaviour; Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves
ferromagnetic material blow Curie temperature.
.p
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for T<θ; ferromagnetic behaviour]
The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent
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Where C is the Curie constant and θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature.
and is given by
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ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
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Antiferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials which exhibit a small
positive susceptibility of the order of 10 -3 to 10-5.
Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown fig.
In antiferromagnetic materials, the susceptibility increases with increasing
temperature and it reaches maximum at a certain temperature called Neel
Temperature, TN.
With further increase in temperature, the material reaches the paramagnetic state.
The material is antiferromagnetic below TN. Mechanically it has pure iron character.
Properties of antiferromagnetic materials
The electron spin of neighboring atoms are aligned antiparallel. (i.e) the spin They have high permeability and resistivity.
alignment is antiparallel.
They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.
5 FERROMAGNETISM
The materials which have finite value of magnetization even if the external
magnetic field is absent are called ferromagnetic materials. This phenomenon is
called ferromagnetism. The ferromagnetic materials exhibit high degree of
magnetization.
Explanation
In a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic interactions between any two

dipoles align themselves parallel to each other. Ferromagnetism arises due to the
special form of interaction called exchange coupling between adjacent atoms.
This exchange coupling is favourable for spin alighnment and they coupling their
DOMAIN MAGNETIZATION
magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism.
in
in
Now when the magnetic field is applied, then the magnetization occurs in the
A ferromagnetic materials exibits ferromagnetic property below a
n.
n.
specimen by two ways
particular temperature called ferromagnetic. Curie temperature (fƟ). Above By moment of domain walls
aa
aa
fƟ they behaves as paramagnetic material.
By rotation of domain walls
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6. DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM
moment of domain walls
or
or
We can observe that ferromagnetic materials such as iron does not have
The moment of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic fields. Due to
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magnetization unless they have been previously placed in an external magnetic
field. But according to Weiss theory, the molecular magnets in the ferromagnetic this weak field applied to the specimen the magnetic moment increases and hence
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material are said to be aligned in such way that, they exhibit magnetization even the boundary of domains displaced, so that the volume of the domains changes as
in the absence of external magnetic field. This is called spontaneous shown in fig.
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magnetization. (i.e) it should have some internal magnetization due to quantum
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exchange energy. By rotation of domain walls
According to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal of ferromagnetic material The rotation of domain walls takes place in strong magnetic fields. When
is divided into large number of small regions called domains. These domains have the external field is high then the magnetization changes by means of rotation of
spontaneous magnetization due to the parallel alignment of spin magnetic the direction of magnetization towards the direction of the applied field as shown
moments in each atom. But the direction of spontaneous magnetization varies fig.
from domain to domain and is oriented in such way that the net magnetization of
the specimen is zero
The boundaries separating the domains are called domain walls. These domain
walls are analogous to the grain boundaries in a polycrystalline material.
ENERGIES INVOLVED IN DOMAIN GROWTH
To study the domain structure clearly, we must know four types of energy
involved in the process of domain growth. They are
Exchange energy
in
in
Anisotropy energy
n.
n.
Domain wall energy Anisotropy energy
aa
aa
Magneto- strictive energy In ferromagnetic crystals there are two direction of magnetization.
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Easy direction
or
or
Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto-static energy
Hard direction
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard
.p
.p
The interacting energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themsel direction of magnetization, strong field should be applied. For producing the same
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ves is known exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange energy saturation magnetization along both hard and easy direction, strong fields are
has established a single domain in a specimen of ferromagnetic and it is shown required in the hard direction than the easy direction.
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in fig.
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It is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets in a single domain and For example in iron easy direction is [100], medium direction is [110] and the
this work done is hard direction is [111] and it is shown in fig. From the fig we can see that very
strong field is required to produce magnetic saturation in hard direction [111]
stored as potential energy. compared to the easy direction [100].
Therefore the excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard
direction over that required to magnetize the specimen along easy direction is
called crystalline anisotropy energy.
in
in
n.
n.
Magetostrictive energy
aa
aa
Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy
When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either
expand (or) shrink.
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Domain wall is a transition layer which separates
the adjacent domains, magnetized in different directions. The energy of domain
or
or
Therefore there exits a deformations (i.e) change in dimension of the material,
wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropy energy.
when it is magnetized.
.p
.p
Based on the spin alignment, two types of domain walls may arise,
This phenomenon is known as magnetosriction and the energy produced in this
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namely Thick wall
effect is known as
Thin wall
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magnetostriction energy.
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(i) Thick wall
When the spin at the boundary are misaligned if the direction of the spin The deformation is different along different crystal directions and the
changes gradually as shown in fig, it leads to a thick domain wall. Here the change dimension
misalignments of spins are associated with exchange energy.
depends upon the nature of the material.
(ii) Thin wall
EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS BASED ON DOMAIN THEORY
When the spin at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropy
energy becomes very less. Since the anisotropy energy is directly proportional to Hysteresis
the thickness if the wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.
When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of
magnetization, the variation of magnetic induction (B) with respect to applied
field (H) can be represented by a closed hysteresis loop (or) curve. (i.e) it refers When small external field is applied, the domains walls displaced slightly in
to the lagging of magnetization behind the magnetizing field. the easy direction of magnetization. This gives rise to small magnetization
corresponding to the initial portion of the hysteresis curve (OA) as shown in fig.
If magnetizing field (H) is applied to a ferromagnetic material and if H is
increases to Hmax the material acquires magnetism. So the magnetic induction Now of the field is removed, then the domains returns to the original state, and
also increases, represented by oa in the fig. is known as reversible domains.
When the field is increased, large numbers of domains contribute to the

magnetization and thus the magnetization increases rabidly with H.
Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of

domain wall to a very large distance, the domain boundaries do not come back to
their original position. This process is indicating as AB in fig and these domains
are called irreversible domains.
in
in
Now, when the field is further increased, the domains starts rotating along the
n.
n.
field direction and the anisotropic energy stored in the hard direction, represented
aa
aa
as BC in the fig.
Thus the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetization. At this

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position, even when the field is removed the material posses maximum
or
or
magnetization, called residual magnetism or retntivity, represented by OD in fig.
.p
.p
Actually after the removal of external field, the specimen will try to attain
the original configuration by the moment of domain wall. But this moment is
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Now if the magnetic field is decreased from Hmax to zero, the magnetic
stopped due to presence of impurities, lattice imperfections etc. therefore to
induction will not fall rabidly to zero, but falls to ‘b’ rather than removed, the
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overcome this; a large amount of reverse magnetic field is applied to the
material still acquire some magnetic induction (ob) which is so called residual
specimen. The amount of energy spend to reduce the magnetization to zero is
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magnetism
called coercivity represented by OE in the fig.
or retntivity.
Now, to remove the residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is

reversed and increased to –Hmax represented as ‘oc’ so called coercivi-H)is
reduced to zero and the corresponding curve ‘de’ is obtai curve ‘efa’ is obtained.
We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to external field,
there is an increase in the value of the magnetic moment due to two process.
The moment of domain walls
Rotation of domain walls
Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize

are called hard magnetic materials.
Example –tungsten steel, cobalt steel, alini, alnico, hypernic
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
It is the loss of the energy in taking a ferromagnetic specimen through a
complete cycle of magnetization and the area enclosed is called hysteresis loop.
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or
or
7 SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
.p
.p
Depending upon the direction of magnetization by external field, and the
area of hysteresis, magnetic can be classified into two types as,
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TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
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Magnetic materials are classified onto two types.
Soft magnetic materials .
Hard magnetic material
Soft magnetic materials:

s.no Soft magnetic materials
Materials which are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called soft 1. The magnetic materials can be easily magnetize and demagnetize.
magnetic materials. 2. The have high permeability.
3. Magnetic energy stored is not high.
Example –pure iron, cast iron, carbon steel, silicon steel, mumetal. 4. Low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.
Hard magnetic materials: 5. Coercivity and retentivity are small.
6. The eddy current loss is small due to its high resistivity.
7. The domain walls are easy to move. The general chemical formula is X2+ Fe23+ O42- , where (X2+) is a
8. They are used in electric motor, generators, transformers, relays, divalent metal ion such as Fe2+, Mg2+, Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+
telephone receivers, radar.
STRUCTURE OF FERRITES
Hard magnetic materials
1. The magnetic materials can not be easily magnetize and demagnetize. Generally there are two types of structures present in the ferrites. They are
2. The have low permeability.
3. Magnetic energy stored is high. Regular spinal
4. Large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area. Inverse spinal
5. Coercivity and retentivity are large.
6. The eddy current loss is high due to its low resistivity. Regular spinal
7. The movement of domain wall must be prevented.
8. They are used in loud speakers and electrical measuring instruments. In regular spinal structure, each divalent metal ion is surrounded by
four O2- ions in a tetrahedral fashion.
in
in
8. ENERGY PRODUCT For example in Mg2+ Fe23+ O42-, the structure of Mg2+ is given in the
fig (a) and it is called A site.
n.
n.
Definition
aa
aa
Each Fe3+ (trivalent metal ion) is surrounded by six O2- ions and forms
The product of residual magnetic induction (Br) and coercivity(Hc) is an octahedral fashion as shown in fig (a). Totally there will be 16 such
called energy product or BH product. It is the important quantity to design octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated by B site.
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powerful permanent magnets. It gives the maximum amount of energy stored in
or
or
the specimen. Thus in regular spinal, each divalent metal ion (Mg2+) exits in tetrahedral
form (A site) and each trivalent metal ion (Fe3+) exits in an octahedral form (B
.p
.p
Explanation site). Hence the sites A and B combine together to form a regular spinal ferrite
The energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet is given by the structure as shown in fig (b).
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area of the hystersis loop between Br and Hc. The maximum value of this area
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Br Hc is called the energyproduct.
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At C and D the energy product is zero because at C,H value is zero and
D,B value is zero. The area occupied by the largest rectangle in demagnetizing
curve gives the maximum (BH) value.
The energy product is large for permanent magnets. This value is very
much useful to analyze whether the material can be used for magnetic recording.
9. FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS - FERRITES
Ferrites
Ferrites are components of iron oxide with oxides of other components.
PREPARATION
in
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They have the general chemical composition A2+ Fe23+ O42- where
n.
n.
A2+ represent a divalent metal ion like Zn2+, Mg2+, etc. Ferrities are prepared
by sintering a mixture of various metallic oxides as follows.
aa
aa
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1. Suitable of A2+ and Fe23+ O42- in proper proportions are mixed using
or
or
water or kerosene.
2. The mixing is done in a blender for several hours. It is filtered.
.p
.p
3. The filtered material is dried in a hot oven and is then crushed.
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4. Next mixture, is pre-sintered in a furnace at 9000c to 11000c for a period
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of three to fifteen hours, in an air atmosphere or nitrogen atmosphere.
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5. The pre-sintered material is then ground into a fine powder and mixed
Inverse spinal
with a binder such as paraffin wax and a solvent such as water.
In this type, we consider the arrangement of ions of a single ferrous ferrite
molecule Fe3+ [Fe2+ Fe3+] O42-. A Fe3+ ion (trivalent) occupies all A sites
6. The mixture is then pressed into the desired shapes by using dies.
(tetrahedral) and half of the B sites (octahedral) also.
7. The last step in the process is to place the ferrite in proper vessel in a
Thus the left out B sites will be occupied by the divalent (Fe2+). The inverse
furnace and heat it to about 1100to 14000c. The binder then evaporates. It
spinal structure is shown in fig (c).
is cooled in a controlled manner.
PROPERTIES OF FERRITES
Ferrites have net magnetic moment.
Above Curie temperature, it becomes paramagnetic, while it behaves Ferrite rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity. They are also
ferromagnetic material blow Curie temperature. used in power limiting and harmonic generation. They are used in computers and
The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It is temperature dependent data processing circuits.
and is given by
Ferrites are used in paramagnetic amplifiers so that the input can be amplified
with low noise figures.
Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as shown fig. SUPER CONDUCTING MATERIALS
1 Introduction
2 Super conducting phenomena
General Features
Mechanically it has pure iron character. 3 Properties of Superconductor
They have high permeability and resistivity. 4 Types of superconductors
in
in
They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses. Type-I superconductor
Type-II superconductor
n.
n.
5 Difference between Type I & Type-II superconductors
6 BCS theory of superconductivity
aa
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AVANTAGES
7 High Tc Superconductivity
1. Efficiency is high and cost is low. Properties of high Tc superconductors
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2. They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses. Preparation and crystal structure of high Tc ceramic superconductor (YBa2Cu3
or
or
3. Easy to manufacture with great uniformity. O9.X)
4. They occupies low volume. 8 Application of superconducting materials engineering applications
.p
.p
Electric Generator
Disadvantages Low Loss transmission & Transformer
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Cryotron
1. The main disadvantage of bubble memory is the requirement of a high Josephson Devices
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recording time for storing and retrieving the data than the charge coupled SQUID
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device (CCD). Magnetic Levitated Train
Engineering Applications
2. It requires the interface circuits. Medical Applications
1. INTRODUCTION
3. When compared with charge coupled device (CCD) memory the magnetic
bubble memory has slow access speed. Super conductivity is one of the most existing phenomena in physics. It was
discovered by Dutch physicist H.K Onnes in the year 1905.
Applications Before the discovery of super conductivity, it was though that the electrical
They are used to produce ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction principle. Ferrites resistance is zero only at absolute zero. But, it was found that in some material
are used in audio and video transforms. the electrical resistance becomes zero, when they are cooled to very low
temperature.
7. The magnetic flux lines are expelled from the material.

2 SUPERCONDUCTING PHENOMENA
8. There is a discontinuous change in the specific heat.
Super conducting materials have extraordinary electrical and magnetic
characteristics. These materials have many important applications in the field of 9. Further, there is some small changes in the thermal conductivity and the
engineering and technology. Many electronic and magnetic devices have been volume of the materials.
fabricated with super conducting materials.
3 PROPERTIES OF SUPER CONDUCTORS
Definition
Zero electrical resistance
The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of electrical resistance in a material, The first characteristic property of a super conductor is its electrical
when it is cooled blow a certain temperature is known as super conductivity. resistance. The electrical resistance of the super conductor is zero below a
transition temperature. This property of zero electrical resistance is known as
Transition temperature or critical temperature: defining property of a superconductor.
The temperature at which a material at normal conducting state changes into
in
in
superconducting state is known as transition temperature or critical temperature The variation of electrical resistivity of a normal conducting metal and a
(Tc).
n.
n.
aa superconducting metal as a function of temperature is shown in fig
aa
The transition temperature depends on the property of the material. It is found Effect of magnetic field
that the super conducting transition is reversible, i.e, above critical temperature
(Tc) a super conductor becomes a normal conductor.
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Below the transition temperature of a material, its superconductivity can
be destroyed by the application of a strong magnetic field.
or
or
It is to note that the metals which are normally very good conductors of heat and
electricity (e.g. Cu. Ag, Au) are not super conductors. The minimum magnetic field strength required to destroy the
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superconducting property at any temperature is known as critical magnetic
field (Hc).
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GENERAL FEATURES
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1. Superconductivity is found to occur in metallic elements in which the The critical magnetic field (Hc) depends upon the temperature of the
superconducting material. The relation between critical magnetic field and
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number of valence electron lies between 2 and 4.
temperature is given by
2. Materials having high normal resistivities exhibit superconductivity. Hc = Ho [1- (T / Tc)2]
Where, Ho- is critical magnetic field at absolute zero temperature.
3. Superconductivity is also favoured by small atomic volume accompanied
by a small atomic mass. Tc- is superconducting transition temperature of a material
4. The transition temperature(Tc) is different for different substances.
T –is the temperature below Tc of the superconducting material.
5. Ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
Effect electric current
6. The electrical resistivity drops to zero.
The application of very high electrical current to superconducting
material destroys its superconducting property.
The critical current ic required to destroy the superconducting property is

given by Ic = 2πrHc
Where Hc –is the critical magnetic field
r - is the radius of the superconducting wire
Persistent current
A steady current which flows through a superconducting ring

without any decrease in its strength as long as the material is in
superconducting state is called persistent current. The current persists even
after the removal of the magnetic field.
in
in
n.
n.
Meissner effect aa
aa
When a superconducting material is p the magnetic lines of
force penetrates through the material as shown in fig.
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Now, when the material is cooled below its transition temperature
Since the susceptibility is negative, this shows that superconductor is perfect
or
or
then the magnetic lines of force are ejected out from the material as shown
in fig. diamagnet.
.p
.p
We know that diamagnetic material have the tendency to expel the magnetic Isotope effect
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lines of force. Since the super conductor also expels the magnetic lines of
The transition temperature varies due to presence of isotopes.
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w
forces it behaves as a perfect diamagnet. This behaviour is first observed by
Meissner and hence called as Meissner effect. Example:
w
w
When a superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field, under the
condition T≤Tc and H≤Hc the flux lines are excluded diamagnetism. This The atomic mass of mercury varies from 199.5 to 203.4, and hence the transition
phenomenon is called as Meissner effect. temperature varies from 4.185 K to 4.146 K.
Due to the relationship Tc α [1 / Mα]
M –atomic weight
α- constant (=.5)
4. TYPE-I AND TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS

There are two types of super conductors based on their variation in magnetization,
due to external magnetic field applied.
Type I superconductor or soft super conductor
Type II superconductor or hard superconductor
TYPE I SUPERCONDUCTOR
When the super conductor is kept in the magnetic field and if the field
is increased the superconductor becomes normal conductor abruptly at critical
magnetic field as shown in fig. These types of materials are termed as Type I
superconductors.
in
in
The materials which lose its superconducting property gradually due to
increase on the magnetic field are called Type II superconductor.
n.
n.
–I
aa
aa
5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPE AND TYPE II
Below critical field, the specimen excludes all the magnetic lines of force SUPERCONDUCTORS
and exhibit perfect Meissner effect. Hence, Type I superconductors are perfect
iy
iy
diamagnet, represented by negative sign in magnetization.
or
or
TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS
.p
.p
When the super conductor kept in the magnetic field and if the field is increased,
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w
below the lower critical field Hc1, the material exhibit perfect diamagnetism (i.e)
it behaves as a super conductor and above Hc1, the magnetization decreases and
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hence the magnetic flux starts penetrating through the material. The specimen is
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w
said to be in a mixed state between Hc1 and Hc2. above Hc2 (upper critical field)
it becomes normal conductor as shown in fig.
S.No Type –I Superconductors

1. The material loses magnetization suddenly.
2. They exhibit complete Meissner effect i.e., they are completely diamagnetic.
3. There is only one critical magnetic field (HC).
4. No mixed state exists.
Type –II Superconductors
The material loses magnetization gradually.
They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect. electrons-lattice electron interaction. The interaction is strong only when the two
There are two critical magnetic fields i.e., lower critical field (HC1) and upper electrons have equal and opposite momenta and spins.
critical field (HC2).
Mixed state is present. Explanation
6 BCS THEORY
Consider the 1st electron with wave vector k distorts the lattice, here by
emitting phonons of wave vector q. This results in the wave vector k-q for the
BCS theory (qualitative):
1st electron. now if the 2nd electron with wave
The microscopic theory of superconductivity developed by J. Bardeen,
vector k’, seeks the lattice it takes up the shown in fig. two electrons with wave
L.N. Cooper and J.R. Scriffer in 1957, successfully explained the effect like zero
vectors k-q and k’+qknownformascooperpair.pair
resistivity, Meissner effect etc. this theory is known as BCS theory.
Cooper pair
Principle
The pair of electrons formed due to electron-lattice (phonons)-electron
This theory states that the electrons experience a special kind of attractive
in
in
interaction (force of attraction) by overcoming the electron-electron interaction
interaction, overcoming the coulomb forces of repulsion between them; as a result
(force of repulsion), with equal and opposite momentum and spins (i.e) with wave
n.
n.
cooper pairs (i.e) electro pair are formed. At low temperature, these pairs move
vector k-q and k’+q, are called coo
without any restriction through the lattice points and the material becomes
aa
aa
superconductor. Here the electron-lattice-electrons interaction should be stronger
Coherence length
than electrons-electros interaction.
iy
iy
Important features of BCS theory: In the electron-lattice-electron interaction, the electrons will not be fixed,
or
or
Electrons form pairs (called cooper pair) which propagate throughout the lattice. they move in opposite directions and their co-relations may persist over lengths
The propagation of cooper pairs is without resistance because the electrons move of maximum 10-6m. This length is called coherence length.
.p
.p
in resonance with phonons.
Note: BCS theory hold good only for low temperature superconductivity.
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Electron-lattice-electron interaction 7. HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTOR
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When an electron (1st) moves through the lattice, it will be attracted by the In a superconductor if the transition temperature is high ie., greater than
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w
core (+ve charge) of the lattice. Due to this attraction, ion core is disturbed and it 20K, then it is called as high temperature superconductor.
is called as lattice distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in terms of
phonons. Earlier it was believed that the superconductivity was only in metals.
Surprisingly in 1986, Muller and Bednorz discovered high temperature
The deformation produces a region of increased positive charge. Thus if another superconductor in ceramics.
electron (2nd) moves through this region as shown in fig. it will be attracted by They made a particular type of ceramic material from a compound of barium,
the greater concentration of positive charge and hence the energy of the lanthanum, copper and oxygen (Ba-La-Cu-O). This compound superconductor
2nd electron is lowered. showed superconductivity even at a temperature as high as 30K.
Hence two electrons interact through the lattice or the phonons field The oxide Y Ba2 Cu3 O7 with a Tc of 90K was the most extensively studied
resulting in lowering the energy of electrons. This lowering of energy implies that high temperature superconductor.
the force between the two electrons is attractive. This type of interaction is called
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE Number barium atoms per unit cell = 1 / 1 X total number of yttrium atoms
SUPERCONDUCTOR
They have high transition temperature. = 1 / 1 X 2 = 2 atoms per unit cell.
They have a modified perovskite crystal structure. Copper atoms
Formation of the superconducting state is direction dependent. Each yttrium atom is shared by 8 unit cells [since copper is the corner atoms].
They are oxides of copper in combination with other elements. 1 / 8 th of the atom is shared by one unit cell.
They are reactive, brittle, and cannot be easily modified or joined. Number copper atoms per unit cell = 1 / 8 X total number of yttrium atoms
X number of unit cells
PREPARATION OF HIGH TC CERAMIC SUPERCONDUCTOR YBA2
CU3 O9-X = 1 / 8 X 8 X 3 =3 atoms per unit cell.
in
in
The oxide (Y Ba2 Cu3 O9-x) is prepared from compacted powder mixture of Oxygen atoms
Y2O3, BaCO3 and CuO in the right proportion and heating them in temperature
n.
n.
between 900°C and 1100°C. BaCO3decomposes at this temperature to BaO and Each yttrium atom is shared by 4unit cells [since oxygen atoms are situated at mid
aa
aa
CO2. This is followed by another annealing treatment at 800°C in an atmosphere points between two corner atoms].
of oxygen.
1 / 4th of the atom is shared by one unit cell.
iy
iy
Crystal structure of Y Ba2 Cu3 O9-x
or
or
Here, the primitive cell is developed by three body centered cubic unit cells Number copper atoms per unit cell = 1 / 4 X total number of yttrium atoms
stacked one above the the other to form a tetragonal (a=b≠c) perovskite structure X number of unit cells
.p
.p
tripled along the C axis.
= 1 / 4 X 12 X 3 =9 atoms per unit cell.
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Yttrium atoms:
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8 APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS:
Each yttrium atom is shared by one unit cell.
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ELECTRIC GENERATORS
1 / 1th of the atom is shared by that unit cell.
Superconducting generators are very small in size and light weight when
Number of yttrium atoms per unit cell = 1 / 1 X total number of yttrium atoms compared with conventional generators. The low loss superconducting coil is rotated in
extremely strong magnetic field. Motors with very high powers as large as 2500 kw could
=1/1X1=1 be constructed at very low as 450 V. This is the basis of new generation of energy saving
power systems.
Barium atoms
8.2 LOW LOSS TRANSMISSION LINE AND TRANSFORMERS
Each barium atom is one unit cell
Since, the resistance is almost zero at superconducting phase, the power loss during
1 / 1th of the atom is shared by that unit cell. transmission is negligible. Hence, electric cables are designed with superconducting
wires. If superconductors are used for winding the transformers,
the power loss will be very small. Using superconductor, 2000-3000 MW

portable transformers have been manufactured. Josephson effect happens by virtue of quantum tunnelling of Cooper pairs.
According to Josephson effect, the tunnelling cooper pairs would take place
CRYOTRON between two superconductors separated by an insulator even in the absence of
Cryotron is a magnetically operated current switch. applied voltage. Pairs of electrons move through the potential barrier induce
the superconducting current. This effect is know as Josephson effect.
Principle
Explanation
We know that the superconducting property of a material disappears when the
applied magnetic field is greater than the critical magnetic field. It consists of a thin layer of oxide material placed in between tow
supeconducting materials as shown in. Here, the Oxide layer acts as a barrier
Consider a superconducting material A surrounded by another superconducting to the flow of conduction electrons from one superconductor to the other.
material B as shown in fig. let the critical magnetic field of material A be less
than the critical magnetic field of material B. Initially, let the temperature of the When the battery is switched ON, the voltage V is applied across the super
whole system blow the transition temperature of two materials. conductors. Due to applied voltage, the electrons in the super conductor –1 is
in
in
tunnel across the insulator into the super conductor –2. This tunneling effect
produce the current between the superconductors. The increase in voltage
n.
n.
produce more and more electrons and hence increases the current. This current
aa
aa
has two components.
SQUID:
iy
iy
or
or
QUID stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is an ultra-
sensitive instrument used to measure very weak magnetic field in the order of
.p
.p
Now at the operating temperature, the magnetic field produced by material B may 10-14 tesla.
exceed the critical
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Principle
magnetic field of material A. Hence, material A becomes a normal conductor
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because the critical magnetic field of A is less than that of B. We know that small change in magnetic field produces in the flux quantum
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Moreover, B not become a normal conductor at the critical magnetic field Description and working
of A because HcB > HcA. Therefore the current in the material A can be controlled
by the current in the material B. hence this system can act as a relay or switching A SQUID consist of superconducting wire which can have the magnetic field of
element. quantum values (1, 2, 3…) of flux placed in between two Josephson junctions as
JOSEPHSON DEVICES Principle shown in fig.
A steady and undiminishing current (Persistent of current) influenced by Then magnetic field if applied perpendicular to the plane of the ring, the current
d.c. voltage is the principle used in Josephson devices. is produced at the two Josephson junctions. The induced current produces
the interference pattern and it flows through the ring so that the magnetic flux
Josephson Effect in the ring can have the quantum value of magnetic field applied.
Application
It can be used to detect the variation of very minute magnetic signals in terms of
quantum flux. It can also be used as storage device for magnetic flux.
in
in
It is useful in the study of earthquakes, removing paramagnetic impurities,
detection of magnetic signals from the brain, heart.
n.
n.
aa
aa
Magnetic levitated train (MAG LEV) Explanation
This train consists of superconducting magnets placed on each side of the train.
Magnetic levitated train is the train which cannot move over the rail, rather The train can run in a guidance system which consists of a series of 8 shaped coils
iy
iy
it floats above the rail, under the condition, when it moves faster. as shown in fig.
or
or
Principle Initially when the train starts, they slide on the rails. Now, when the train moves
.p
.p
faster, the superconducting magnets on each side of th kept in the guidance
Electromagnetic induction is used as the principle. (i.e) when there is a relative system.
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motion of a conductor across the magnetic field, current is induced in the
conductor and vice versa.
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This induced current generates a magnetic force in the coils in such a way that
the lower half of the 8-shaped coil has the same magnetic pole as that of the
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w
Direction of magnetic force superconducting magnet in the train, while the upper half has the opposite
magnetic pole.
Therefore the total upward magnetic force acts on the train and hence the train is
levitated (or) raised above the wheels (i.e) the train now floats above the air.
Now, by alternatively changing the poles of the superconducting magnet in the

train alternating current can be induced in the “8” shaped c
Thus, alternating series of north and south magnetic poles are produced in the
coils which pulls and pushes the superconducting magnets in the train and hence
the train is further moved.
The magnetic levitated train can travel a speed 500 km/hour, which is double the Electronic polarization
speed of existing fastest train Ionic polarization
Orientation polarization
Note: The train is supposed to move always at the centre. Suppose if it moves Space charge polarization
away from the centre, say for example right side, an attractive force is given at Total polarization
the left side, and a repulsive force is given at the right side and is made to come 4 Active and Passive Dielectrics
at the centre. 5 Frequency and Temperature on Polarization of Dielectrics
Frequency Dependence
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS Temperature Dependence 6
Internal field or Local field
1. They are used to construct very sensitive electrical measuring instruments Definition
such as galvanometers because they requires very small voltages. Derivation
Clausius – Mosoti Equation7
2. They are used to transmit power over very long distance without any Dielectrics and Loss Tangent
power loss. Loss in purified gas
in
in
Loss in commercial dielectric
n.
n.
3. They are used as storae devices in computers. Power loss
8 Dielectric Breakdown
aa
aa
4. Superconductors are used to design rectifiers, logic gates, modulators Types of dielectric breakdown
etc. Remedies for breakdown mechanisms 9
General Applications
iy
iy
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS 10 Applications of dielectric materials
or
or
Dielectrics in capacitors
1. They are used to study tiny magnetic signals from brain and heart. Insulating materials in transformers 11
.p
.p
Ferro-electrics
2. They are used in NMR imaging systems. Properties
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Applications
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3. They are used to detect brain tumours and clots using
superconductingsolenoids. 1 DIELECTRICS
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4. They are used in magneto-cardiography, magneto –encephalography. Solids which have an energy gap of three eV or more are termed as insulators. In
these materials, it is almost not possible to excite the electrons from the valence
5. They are used to study the amount of iron held in the lever of the body band to conduction band by an applied field. Generally dielectrics are also called
accurately. as insulators, thereby poor conductors of electricity. However they allow
movement of some electrons at abnormally high temperatures, causing a small
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS flow of current.
Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance ρ, negative
1 Dielectrics temperature coefficient of resistance (-α), largeandinsulation
Properties resistance. Insulation resistance will be affected by moisture, temperature,
2 Fundamental definitions and Properties of electric dipole applied electric field and age of dielectrics.
3 Various polarization mechanisms involved in dielectric
Dielectric materials are electrically non-conducting materials such as glass, The permittivity represents the dielectric property of a medium. It indicates
ebonite, mica, rubber, wood and paper. All dielectric materials are insulating easily polarisable nature of material. Its unit is farad/metre
materials. The difference between a dielectric and an insulator lies in their
applications. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (Ε R)
If the main function of non-conducting material is to provide electrical insulation, A dielectric characteristic of a material is determined by its dielectric
then they are called as insulator. On the other hand, if the main function of non- constant. It is a measure of polarisation of the dielectrics.
conducting material is to store electrical charges then they are called as
dielectrics. Definition
It is the ratio between absolute permittivity of the medium (ε) and permittivity of
free space (εo).
PROPERTIES Dielectric constant = Absolute permittivity (ε) /
Generally, the dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high resistivity. Permittivity of free space (ε o)
The have a very large energy gap (more than 3eV). εr= εo / ε
All the electrons in the dielectrics are tightly bound to their parent nucleus.
in
in
As there are no free electrons to carry the current, the electrical conductivity of POLARIZATION
dielectrics is very low.
n.
n.
They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance and high insulation Definition
aa
aa
resistance.
The process of producing electric dipoles inside the dielectric by the
application of an external electrical field is called polarization in dielectrics.
iy
iy
2 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND PROPERTIES ELECTRIC
or
or
DIPOLE POLARISABILITY (Α)
.p
.p
A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges n(+q, -q) separated by a It is found that the average dipole moment field (E).
distance (d) is called an electric dipole.
w
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It is found that the average dipole moment field (E).
w
w
μ αE
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or μ = α E
Where (α) is the polarisability.

DIPOLE MOMENT (Μ)
α= μ / E
The product of the magnitude of the charge (q) and distance between two
charges (d) is called as dipole moment.
Polarisability is defined as the ratio of average dipole moment to the electrical
field applied. Its unit is farad m2.
Dipole moment = qd (coulomb-metre)
Polarisation vector [Vactor P]
PERMITTIVITY (Ε)
It is defined as the average dipole moment per unit volume of a dielectric. If N is WITHOUT ELECTRIC FIELD
the number atoms per unit volume of a dielectric and (μ) is average dipole
moment per atom, then Consider an atom of a dielectric material of nuclear charge Ze, where Z is the
atomic number. The electrons of charge (-Ze) are distributed uniformly
throughout the atom (sphere) of radius R as shown in fig.
3 VARIOUS POLARIZATION MECHANISMS INVOLVES IN

DIELECTIC
Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charged particles under the a

ction of the external electric field. There are number of devices based on this
concept. Those devices are rectifiers, resonators, amplifiers and transducers,
which converts electrical energy in to other forms of energy.
in
in
Dielectric polarization occurs due to several microscopic mechanisms.
n.
n.
Electronic polarization aa
aa
Ionic polarization The centres of the electron cloud and the positive nucleus are at the same point
and hence there is no dipole moment.
iy
iy
Orientational polarization
Negative charge density of an atom of radius R is given by
or
or
Space-charge polarization
.p
.p
ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
w
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Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of positively charged nucleus
w
w
and negatively charged electrons of an atom in the opposite directions on the
w
w
application of an electric field. This will result in the creation of dipole moment
in the dielectric.
WITH ELECTRIC FIELD
Dipole moment (μ) is proportional to the electric field strength (E). When the atom of the dielectric is placed in an electric field of strength E, two
phenomenons occur.
μαE
μ=αeE Lorentz force (due to electric field) will tend to move the nucleus and electron
Where (α e) is proportionality constant and it is known as electronic cloud of that atom from their equilibrium positions. The positive nucleus will
polarizability. move towards the field direction and the electron cloud will move in the opposite
Electronic polarization takes place in almost all dielectrics. direction of the field as shown in fig.
After separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and the
Calculation of electronic polarizability electron cloud which will tend to maintain the original equilibrium position.
Substituting equation 4 in 3 we have
The electron cloud and the nucleus move in opposite directions and they At equilibrium, Coulomb force and Lorentz must be equal and opposite.
are separated by a distance x, where there is a formation of electric dipole in the FL = - FC
atom. Substituting for FL and FC from equation 2 and 5 we have
When these two forces equal and opposite, there will be a new equilibrium
between the nucleus and the electron cloud of the atom.
in
in
Lorentz force between the nucleus and the electron FL = charge x electrical
n.
n.
field
= ZeE -------------------- (2)
aa
aa
Coulomb attractive force between the nucleus and the electron cloud being
separated at a distance x,
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
w
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From the definition of dipole moment, induced dipole moment (μ ind) is given by
μind = magnitude of charge x displacement
w
w
μind = Ze x
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and dipole moment in terms of polarizability,
Total number of negative charges enclosed
μind = αe E ----- (7)
In the sphere of radius x = charge density x volume of the sphere of Radius Substituting the value of x from 6 in 7 we have
x
Total positive charge of an atom present in the sphere of radius x, On comparing equation 8 and 9, we have
Qp = + Ze μind = α e E
Where αe = 4πεo R3 is called electronic polarizability.
Where β1 and β2 are restoring force constants which depend up on the masses of
Electronic polarization is independent of temperature. ions and angular frequency of the molecule in which ions are present.
It is proportional to the volume of atoms in the material. If m is the mass of positive ion, M is the mass of negative ion and ωo is the
Electronic polarization takes place in all dielectrics. angular
frequency, then
IONIC POLARIZATION
Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of catios (+ ve ions) and anions (- ve

ions) in opposite directions. (e.g. NaCl crystal) by the influence of external field.
When an electric field (E) is applied on an ionic dielectric, there is shift

of one ion with
in
in
respect to another from their mean position. The positive ion displace in the
direction of applied
n.
n.
aa
aa
electric field through the distance x 1. The negative ions displace in opposite
direction trough the distance x2 as shown in the fig.
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
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We assume that there is one cation and one anion in each unit cell of that ionic
crystal.
w
w
Hence, the net distance between two ions
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w
x = x1 + x2 ------- (1)
When the ions are displaced from their mean position in their respective
directions the restoring forces appear which tend to ions back to their mean
position. The restoring force produced is proportional to the displacement.
For positive ion
Restoring1 force F α x
Or restoring force acting on positive ion F = β1x1 ----------------------- (2)
For negative ion
Restoring force F α x2
The dipole moment is equal to the product of charge and distance of separation OREINTAIONAL POLARIZATION
between the charges.
Orientational polarization takes place only in polar dielectrics. Polar dielectrics
have molecules with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of external
electric field.
Substituting for x from equation 10 in equation 11, we have
When the polar dielectrics are subjected to external electric field, the
in
in
molecular dipoles are oriented in the direction of electric field.
n.
n.
The contribution to polarization due to orientation of molecular diploes
aa
aa
is called orientational polarization.
Orientational polarization depends upon temperature when the temperature is

iy
iy
increased , thermal energy tends to disturb the alignment.
or
or
From the Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism , net intensity of magnetization
.p
.p
w
w
w
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Since the same principle can be applied to the application of electric field in
dielectrics, we may write
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Orientational polarization, Po =
Conclusion
Ionic polarizability () is inversely proportional to the square of angular frequency
of the ionic molecule.
It is directly proportional to its reduced mass given by
But, orientational polarization is proportional to applied field (E) and it is given

by
Po =o E Nα --------------------- (2)
It is independent of temperature. Comparing equations 1 and 2, we get
TOTAL POLARIZATION α=e

+αi+αo
Since the space- charge polarization is very small and it is negligible.
Substituting the corresponding expressions, we have

Conclusion
The orientation polarizability is inversely proportional to absolute temperature of

the material.
SPACE CHARGE POLARIZATION

We know that the total polarization P = N E α
Space-charge polarization occurs due to accumulation of charges at the electrodes
or at the interfaces of multiphase dielectric material.
in
in
When such materials subjected to an electrical field at high temperature, the
n.
n.
charges get accumulated as shown in fig. these charges create diploes.
This equation is known as Langevin –Debye equation
aa
aa
iy
iy
4 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE DIELECTRICS
The dielectric materials may be classified as solid, liquid and gas
or
or
dielectrics.
.p
.p
In solid form they may be polymeric such as nylon, pvc, rubber, Bakelite,
asbestos and wool or
w
w
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may belong to the ceramic family such as glass, silica, mica, porcelain, etc.
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In liquid form they may be mineral insulating oils, synthetic insulating
oils, tec.
In gaseous form they may be air, nitrogen, sulphur hexafluoride, inert

As a result, polarization is produced. This kind of polarization is known as gases etc.
space-charge polarization. Space-charge polarization is very small when
compared to other polarization mechanisms and it is not common in most The dielectrics can also be classified as active and passive dielectrics based
of the dielectrics. on their applications.
e.g- ferrites and semiconductors.

Active Dielectrics
When dielectric is subjected to external electric field, if the dielectric Space-charge polarization is the slowest because have to diffuse over several
actively accept the electricity, then they are termed as active dielectrics. Thus atomic distance. This process occurs at very low frequencies (10 2 Hz) as shown
active dielectrics are the dielectrics which can easily adapt itself to store the in fig.
electrical energy in it.
Examples: Piezo-electrics, Ferro-electric etc.,
Passive Dielectrics
These dielectrics are also called insulating materials. As the name itself
suggest that it will act as an insulator, conduction will not take place through this
dielectrics. Thus passive dielectrics are the dielectrics which restricts the flow of
electrical energy in it.
Examples: All insulating materials such as glass, mica, etc.,
in
in
5 FREQUENCY AND TEMPERATURE ON POLARISAION OF
DIELECTRICS
n.
n.
When an alternating electric field is applied across the material,
aa
aa
polarization occurs as a function of time.
Polarization as a function of time t is given by

iy
iy
P (t) = P [1 –e(-t/tr)]
or
or
Where P is maximum polarization that occurs due to the static field
applied for a long time. tr is relaxation time.
.p
.p
FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE Figure explains the four types of polarization at different frequency ranges. At
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Electronic polarization is the fastest polarization which will complete at the optical frequencies (-1015Hz), electronic polarization alone present. At -1013 Hz
range, ionic polarization occurs in addition to electronic polarization.
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instant the field is applied. The reason is that the electrons are lighter elementary
particles than ions. At 106 to 1010 Hz range, contribution due to orientation polarization gets added
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Therefore even for very high frequency applied (in the optical range) electronic while at 102 Hz range, space-charge polarization also contributes.
polarization occurs during every cycle of the applied field. It is noted that at low frequencies, all the four types of polarizations occur and
Ionic polarization is little slower than electronic polarization. Because ions are total polarization is very high.
heavier than the electron cloud, the time taken for displacement is large. In Total polarization decreases with increase in frequency and becomes minimum
addition the frequency of applied field with which the ions will be displaced is at optical frequency range.
equal to the frequency of lattice vibration (10 13 Hz).
If the frequency of the applied field is less than 10 13 Hz, the ions have enough
time to respond during each cycle of the applied field. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
Orientational polarization is even slower than ionic polarization. This type of
polarization occurs only at electrical frequency range (= 106Hz). When a dielectric material is subjected to ordinary conditions of increasing
temperature, electronic distribution in n the constituent molecules are not
affected.
Hence there will be no temperature influence on electronic and ionic polarization E2 –Electric field due to polarized charges (induced charges) on the plane surface
mechanisms. Therefore electronic and ionic polarizations are practically of the dielectric.
independent of temperature. E3 –Electric field due to polarized charges induced on the surface of the imaginary
spherical cavity.
An increase in temperature brings a high degree of randomness in molecular E4 –Electric field due to permanent dipoles of atoms inside the spherical cavity
orientation of the material. This will affect the tendency of permanent dipoles to considered.
align along direction of the field. Hence, orientation polarization decreases with
increase in temperature.
However in space-charge polarization, increase in temperature helps the ion

movement by diffusion. As a result it will increase the polarization.
Thus both the orientational and space-charge polarization mechanisms are

strongly temperature dependent.
in
in
6 INTERNAL FIELD OR LOCAL FIELD
n.
n.
DEFINITION
When a dielectric material is placed in an external electric field, it produces an
aa
aa
induced dipole moment.
Now, two fields are acting at any point inside dielectrics are
iy
iy
Macroscopic electrical field due to external electric field.
or
or
Electrical field due to electric dipole moment.
.p
.p
These long range coulomb fields produced due to dipoles is known as internal
field or local field. This internal field is responsible for polarization of each atom
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or molecule in the solid.
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DERIVATION
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LORENTZ METHOD TO FIND INTERNAL FIELD
Macroscopically we can take E = E1 + E2. i.e., the electrical field externally
The dielectric material is uniformly polarized by placing it in between two plates
applied (E1) and the electrical field induced on the plane surface of the dielectric
of parallel plate capacitor as shown in figure.
(E2) can be considered as a single electrical field.
Assume an imaginary spherical cavity around an atom for which the internal field
If we consider a dielectric that is highly symmetric, the electrical field due to
must be calculated at its centre.
dipoles present inside the imaginary cavity will cancel out of each other.
The internal field (E int) at the atom site is considered to be made up of the
Therefore the electrical field due to permanent dipoles E4 = 0
following four components. E1, E2, E3 and E4.
E int = E1+ E2+ E3+E4 Now, the equation (1) is rewritten as
Where E1 –Electrical field due to charges on the plates of the capacitor
E int = E +E3
Calculation of E3
Let us consider small area ds on the surface of the spherical cavity. It is

confined within an angle dθ at the angle θ in an direction of electric field
Polarization P is parallel to E. PN is the component of polarization

perpendicular to the area ds as shown in the figure.
PN = Pcosθ
q’ is the area chargeds. Polarizationonisal so the defined as the surface charges

per unit area. q' / ds
PN = Pcosθ = (q' / ds)
Electric field intensity at C due to charge q’ (Coulomb force) is given by
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
The component of intensity parallel to the electrical field direction,
Ex = E cosθ
iy
iy
Substituting for E from equation 4 in 5, we have
or
or
.p
.p
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This electrical field intensity is along the radius r and it can be resolved in to two
components (Ex and Ey) as shown in figure.
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The component of intensity perpendicular to the field direction,
Ex = E sinθ
Since the perpendicular components are in opposite directions, they

cancel out each other. Hence, the parallel components alone are taken onto
consideration.
Now, consider a ring area dA which is obtained by revolving ds about AB as

shown in fig(b)
E int is the internal field or Lorentz field.

CLAUSIUS – MOSOTI EQUATION
Let N be the number of molecules per unit volume and α be the molecular
polarizability.
Then
Total polarization, P = N α Eint
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
Electric field intensity due to charges present in the whole sphere is obtained by
or
or
integrating equation 9 within the limits 0 to π. This electrical field is taken as E3.
.p
.p
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Substituting equation 10 in equation 2, we get
The dielectric loss can occur both in direct and alternating voltages. The dielectric
loss is less in direct voltage than that of the alternating voltage.
LOSS IN PURIFIED GAS
If an alternating voltage is applied across the capacitor having vacuum or purified

gas then the resulting current leads the applied voltage by 90°, as shown in figure.
If I lead V exactly by 90° we can say that no electrical energy is lost.
in
in
n.
n.
Explanation
We know the power loss PL = VI cosθ
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When θ=90°;L P
iy
iy
LOSS IN COMMERCIAL DIELECTRIC
or
or
Now, when a practical dielectric is present in the current leads the voltage by (90-
.p
.p
δ), the shows that there is some loss in electric energy and δ is called loss angle,
as shown in fig.
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Where εr is dielectric constant.
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Equation 5 is Clausius- Mosotti relation which relates the dielectric constant (a
macroscopic quantity) of the material with polarizability (a microscopic
quantity).
7 DIELECTRICS AND LOSS TANGENT
If a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, the electrical energy is absorbed by

the dielectric and certain quantity of electrical energy is dissipated in the form of Explanation
heat energy. This is known as dielectric loss. In this case the power loss PL = VIcosθ
Since- δθ=90; we L = VIcos have(90- δ)P TYPES OF DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

PL = VI sin δ ------- (1)
We know V = IR Intrinsic or avalanche breakdown
I=V/R
If the capacitive resistance is Xc then we can write, Thermal breakdown
I = V / Xc (2)
Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get Chemical and electrochemical breakdown
POWER LOSS Discharge breakdown

Here tan δ is called the power factor of the dielectric. If f, C, V are constants then
PL ∞ tan δ Defect breakdown
Naturally the power loss varies with frequency. The power loss at various
frequency ranges is shown in fig.
INTRINSIC BREAKDOWN
in
in
When dielectric is subjected to electric field then the electrons in the valance band
acquire sufficient energy and go to conduction band by crossing the energy gap
n.
n.
and hence become conduction electrons. Therefore large current flows and it is
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called intrinsic breakdown or zener breakdown.
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AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
or
or
These conduction electrons on further application of field then collide with
In the electrical frequency regions the power is high, due to the diffusion of ions the valance electrons in the co-valent band and remove more electrons hence
.p
.p
from one equilibrium position to another. transferring them as conduction electrons.
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In the optical region the power loss is less because here the dielectric loss is
These secondary conduction electrons again dislodge some other bound
associated with electrons
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electrons in the valance band and this process continues as a chain reaction.
Therefore very large current flows through the dielectrics and hence called as
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8 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN avalanche breakdown.
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field and if the electric field is Characteristics
increased, when the field exceeds the critical field, the dielectric loses its It can occur at lower temperatures.
insulating property and becomes conducting. i.e., large amount of current flows
through it. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown. It requires relatively large electric fields.
This kind of breakdown occurs in thin samples.

The electric field strength at which the dielectric breakdown occurs is known as
dielectric It occurs within short span of time
The dielectric strength = strength. Dielectric voltage / Thickness of dielectric
THERMAL BREAKDOWN
In general, when a dielectric is subjected to an electric field, heat is

generated. This generated heat is dissipated by the dielectric. In some cases the
heat generated will be very high compared to the heat dissipated. Under this
condition the temperature inside the dielectric increases and heat may produce
breakdown. This type of breakdown known as thermal breakdown.
Characteristics
It occurs at higher temperatures.
It requires moderate electric fields.

Characteristics
It depends on the size and shape of the dielectric material. It occurs at low voltages.
in
in
It occurs in the order of milliseconds. It occurs due to the presence of occluded air bubbles.
n.
n.
CHEMICAL AND ELECTROCHEMICAL BREAKDOWN
aa It depends upon the frequency of the applied voltage.
aa
This type of breakdown is almost similar to the thermal breakdown. If the DEFECT BREAKDOWN
temperature is increased mobility of ions will increase and hence the
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iy
electrochemical reaction may be induced to take place. Some dielectric have defects such as cracks, pores, blow holes etc. these
vacant position may have moisture which leads to breakdown called as defect
or
or
Therefore when mobility of ions increased, insulation decreases and hence breakdown.
.p
.p
dielectrics becomes conducting. This type of breakdown is called as chemical and
electrochemical breakdown.
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Characteristics
It occurs only at low temperatures. REMEDIES FOR BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS
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It depends on concentration of ions, magnitude of leakage current. To avoid breakdown, the dielectric material should have the following properties.
It occurs even in the absence of electric field. It should have high resistivity.
DISCHARGE BREAKDOWN It must possess high dielectric strength.
Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains occluded air bubbles as It should have sufficient mechanical strength.
shown in fig. when this type of dielectric subjected to electrical field, the gases
present inside the material will easily ionize and thus produce large ionization Dielectric loss should be low.
current. This is known as discharge breakdown.
Thermal expansion should small.
https://www.poriyaan.in/paper/physics-for-information-science-20/ It should https://www.poriyaan.in/paper/physics-for-information-science-20/

be fire proof.
Almost all electrical devices depend on insulating material in some way or other.
It should resistive to oils, liquids and gases. Insulating materials are used in power and distribution transformers, rotating
machines, capacitors, cables, and electronic applications.
It must have less density.
DIELECTRICS IN CAPACITORS
There should not be any defects.
For dielectrics used in capacitors, it should possess the following properties.
It must be in pure form.
It must have high dielectric constant.
9 GENERAL APPLICATIONS
It should possess high dielectric strength.
The following are the some of the applications of the dielectric materials: It should have high specific resistance.
2. Quartz crystal is used for the preparation of ultrasonic transducers, crystal It should also have low dielectric loss.
in
in
oscillators, delay lines, filters etc.
Uses
n.
n.
3. Barium Titanate is used for the preparation of accelerometers.
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Thin sheets of papers filled with synthetic oils are used as dielectrics in the
4. Lead Zirconate Titanate (PbZrx Ti1-x O3) is used for the preparation of capacitors.
earphones, microphones, spark generators (gas lighter, car ignition),
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iy
displacement transducer, accelerometers etc. Tissue papers and polypropylene films with dielectrol are used in power capacitors.
or
or
5. Mica is used in electrical machines, switch gears, armature winding, hot
plates etc. Mica used as dielectrics in discrete capacitor.
.p
.p
6. Dielectric materials are used as an insulating material in power cables, signal An electrolytic solution of sodium phosphate is used in wet type electrolytic
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cables, electric motors, circuit breakers etc. capacitors.
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7. In radiation detectors, thermionic valves and electric devices, the dielectric Ceramic materials such as barium titanate and calcium titanate are used in disc
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materials are used. capacitors and high frequency capacitors respectively.
8. The pyroelectric materials are used as radiation detector. INSULATING MATERIALS IN TRANSFORMERS
9. The dielectric materials are used in strain gauges, capacitors and resistors. For dielectrics to act as insulating materials, it should possess the following
properties.
10. The electro-optic devices are prepared using dielectric material.
It should have low dielectric resistant.
It should possess low dielectric loss.

10 APPLICATIONS OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
It must have high resistance.
It must possess high dielectric strength. Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate,
It must have high moisture resistance. Potassium dihydrogen phosphate,
It should have adequate chemical stability. Barium titanate.
Uses PROPERTIES
Ceramics and polymers are used as insulators.
The dielectric constant of these ferro-electric materials is above 2000 and it will
Paper, rubber, plastics, waxes etc are used to form thin films, sheets, tapes, rods, not vary with respect temperature.
etc. PVC, is used to manufacture pipes, batteries, cables etc.
The dielectric constant(ε) reaches maximum value only at a particular
Glass, mica, asbestos, alumina are used in ceramics. temperature called Curie temperature.
Liquid dielectrics such as petroleum oils, silicone oils are widely used in The polarization does not varies linearly with respect to electric field and hence
in
in
transformers, circuit breakers, etc. these materials are also called as non-linear dielectrics.
n.
n.
Ferro-electric exhibits electric polarization easily, even in the absence of external
Synthetic oils such as askarels, sovol, etc are used as coolent and insulant in high
electric field. They exhibit domain structure similar to that of a Ferro-electric
aa
aa
voltage transformers.
material.
Ferro-electric materials also exhibit hysteresis, similar to that of ferromagnetic
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11 FERRO-ELECTRICITY AND APPLICATIONS materials.
or
or
Ferro –electricity
.p
.p
When a dielectric material exhibits electric polarization even in the absence
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of external field, it is known as ferro-electricty and these materials termed as
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ferro-electric.
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FERRO-ELECTRICS
Ferro-electrics are anisotropic crystals which exhibit spontaneous polarization,

i.e. they exhibit polarization even in the absence of external electric field.
Examples
Rochelle salt,
Potassium niobate, APPLICATIONS

Ferro-electric materials are used to produce ultasonics
Lithium tentalate,
They are used in production of piezo-electric materials and in turn to make micro
phones. Ferro-electrics are also used in SONAR, strain gauges, etc.
Ferro-electric semiconductors are used to make positors, which is turn are used
to measure and control the temperature.
They are also used as frequency stabilizers and crystal controlled oscillators.
Electrets are a type of ferro-electric materials, used in the production of capacitor

microphones, gas filters, etc.
Electrets are also used to bond the fractured bones in the human body. Pyro-
electric materials are also used to produce high sensitive infrared detectors.
in
in
SOLVED PROBLEMS
n.
n.
A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 10 4 Am–1. If the
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susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 3.7 × 10–5. Calculate the
magnetization and flux density in the material.
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or
or
.p
.p
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A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300 A m–1 and produces a flux
density of 0.00314 Wb m–2. Calculate the magnetizing force and the
relative permeability of the material.
Solution :
Given data:
Magnetization M = 2300 A m–1
Flux density B = 0.00314 Web m–2.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
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or
or
.p
.p
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A paramagnetic material has FCC structure with a cubic edge of 2.5 A°. If
the saturation value of magnetization is 1.8 × 106 A m–1, Calculate the
magnetization contributed per atom in Bohr magnetrons.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
iy
iy
or
or
.p
.p
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The saturation magnetic induction of Nickel is 0.65 Wb m–2. If the density of
Nickel is 8906 kg m–3 and its atomic weight is 58.7, calculate the magnetic
moment of the Nickel atom in Bohr magnetron.
Solution:
In a magnetic material the field strength is found to be 106 A m–1. If the
magnetic susceptibility of the material is 0.5 × 10–5, calculate the intensity of
magnetization and flux density in the material.
Given data:
Saturation magnetic induction of Nickel
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic
field and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
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or
or
.p
.p
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7. Calculate the critical current and current density for a wire of a
lead having a diameter of 1 mm at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for
lead is 7.18 K and H = 6.5 × 104 A m-1.
Prove that susceptibility of superconductor is -1 and relative

permeability is zero.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
The superconducting transistion temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. The initial
field at 0 K is 64 × 103Amp m–1. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
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or
or
.p
.p
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Find the critical current which can pass through a long thin
superconducting wire of aluminum of diameter 2 mm, the critical
magnetic field for aluminum is 7.9 × 103 A m–1.
The magnetic field strength of Silicon is 1500 Amp m–1. If the magnetic
susceptibility is (–0.3 × 10–5), calculate the magnetization and flux density in
A magnetic field of 2000 Amp m–1 is applied to a material which has a
Silicon.
susceptibility of 1000. Calculate the (i) Intensity and (ii) Flux density.
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
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or
or
The superconducting transition temperature of lead of 7.26 K. The initial
.p
.p
field at 0 K is 64 × 103Amp m–1. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
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14. Calculate the critical current which can flow through a long thin super
conducting wire of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field is 7.9 ×
103 Amp m–1.
(Ans: B = 1.259 T and M = 1500 A m–1 )
3. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3000 A m–1 and flux density of

0.044 Wb m–2. Calculate the magnetic force and the relative permeability of
the
material. (Ans: M = 203 and r = 17.26)
Calculate the magnetic filed in the lead at 5 K, if it’s critical magnetic

field at 0 K H0 = 8 × 105 A m–1, and transition temperature TC = 7.26 K
in
in
(Ans: 4.2 × 105 A m–1)
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n.
The critical temperature TC for mercury with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185
aa
aa
K. Calculate its critical Temperature, when it’s isotopic masses changes to
203.4.
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or
or
(Ans: 4.139 K)
.p
.p
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Calculate the critical current which can flow though a long thin superconducting
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS wire of aluminum of diameter 1 mm. The critical magnetic field for aluminum is
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7.9 × 103 A m–1.
1. The saturation value of magnetization of iron is 1.76 × 106 A m–1. Iron had body
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centered cubic structure with an elementary edge of 2.86 Å.Calculate the average
number of Bohr magnetrons contributed to the magnetization per atom. SOLVED PROBLEMS
(Ans: 2.2 Bohr magnetron per atom) 1. Find the capacitance of a layer of Al2O3that is 0.5 m thick and 2000 mm2 of
square area ( r = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1)
2. The magnetic field intensity of a ferric oxide piece is 106 A m–1. If the
susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 10.5 × 10–3, calculate the flux Solution:
density and magnetization of the material. Given data:
3. If an ionic crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000 Vm –1 and

the resulting polarization 4.3 × 10–8 cm2. Calculate the relative
permittivity of NaCl. Solution:
Given data:
in
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n.
n.
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2.A layer of porcelain is 80 mm long, 20 mm wide and 0.7 µm thick.
Calculate its capacitance with r = 6
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or
or
Solution:
Given data:
.p
.p
4. Calculate the electronic Polarization of argon atom. Given at r =
1.0024 at NTP and N = 2.7 × 1025 atom m–3 .
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Solution :
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Relative permitivity = 1.0024 at NTP
Permitivity of free space = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1
in
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n.
n.
aa
aa
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or
or
.p
.p
5.A solid contains 5 × 1028 atoms/m3 each with a polarisability of 2×10–
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40
F m2. Assuming that the internal field is given by Lorentz formula.
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Calculate the ratio of internal field to the external field. 0 = 8.854 × 10–
12 Fm–1.
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6. Calculate the polarization produced in dielectric medium of dielectric
constant 6 when it is subjected to an electric field of 100 Vm–1. (e0 = 8.854
× 10–12 Fm–1)
in
in
P = 4.425 × 10–9 Vm–2 F
n.
n.
7. Calculate the electronic polarizability of neon. The radius of neon atom
is 0.158 nm. ( = 8.854 × 10–12 Fm–1)
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aa
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or
or
.p
.p
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8. The dielectric constant of a helium gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate
the electron polarizability of helium atoms if the gas contains 2.7 ×
1026 atoms/m3 and hence calculate the radius of helium atom ( = 8.854 ×
10–12 Fm–1)
Solution: https://www.poriyaan.in/paper/physics-for-information-science-20/
UNIT IV
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. The electronic polarisability is 0.18x 10 40 fm2. Find the relative dielectric
constant at 0C and 1 atmospheric pressure. (Ans: 1.000055) Characteristics of Laser:
A capacitor has capacitance of 0.019 F when uses wax paper r 1.85 between 1. Directionality
the electrodes of Aluminum foil. The wax paper is to be replaced by plastic
film r 2.15 of same dimensions. Taking other factors being equal, obtain the Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular spread is 1m/m. But it is
change (increase/decrease) in capacitance. found that laser is highly directional and is angular spread is 1mm/m. For
example, the laser beam can be focused to very long distance with a few
(Ans: Increase of 0.0117 F) divergence or angular spread.
Divergence or angular spread is given by
A capacitor uses Aluminum oxide as the dielectric with relative
permeability = 8. An effective surface area of 360 cm2 gives a capacitance of
in
in
6 F . Calculate the field strength and the total dipole moment induced in oxide
layer if a potential difference of 15 volts exist across the capacitor.
n.
n.
Where d1 , d2 are any two distances for the laser source emitted and r1, r2 are
aa
aa
(Ans: (i) 3.535 × 107 V/m (ii) 33.4 x 10 C – m)
the radii of the beam spots at a distance d1, and d2respectively as shown
The radium of the Helium atom is about 0..55 AU. Calculate the
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2. Intensity:
polarisability of Helium and its relative permeability. The number of Helium
or
or
atoms in a volume of 1 m is 2.7 × 1025 atoms. (Ans: (i) 0.185 × 10–40 Farad
Since an ordinary light spreads in all directions, the intensity reaching
– m² (ii) 1.000057)
the target is very less. But in the case of laser, due to high directionality, the
.p
.p
intensity of laser beam reaching the target is of high intense beam. For
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example, 1 mill watt power of He-Ne laser appears to be brighter than the
sunlight.
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3. Monochromatic:
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Laser beam is highly monochromatic; the wavelength is single,
whereas in ordinary light like mercury vapour lamp, many wavelengths of light
are emitted.
4 Coherence:
It is an important characteristic of laser beam. In lasers the wave trains of

same frequency are in phase, the radiation given out is in mutual agreement not
only in phase but also in the direction of emission and polarization. Thus it is a
coherent beam. Due to high coherence it results in an extremely high power.
Differences between ordinary light and Laser beam.
Absorption:
An atom in the lower energy level or ground state energy level E1 absorbs the
incident photon radiation of energy hv and goes to the higher energy level or
excited level E2 as shown in figure.
Ordinary light
1 In ordinary light the angular spread is more.
2 They are not directional.
in
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3 It is less intense
n.
n.
4 It is not a coherent beam and is not in phase. This process is called absorption
5 The radiation are polychromatic
aa
aa
6 Example: Sun light, Mercury vapor lamp If there are many numbers of atoms in the ground state then each atom
will absorb the energy from the incident photon and goes to the excited state.
then,
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Laser beams
1 In laser beam the angular spread is less. The rate of absorption (R12) is proportional to the following factors.
or
or
2 They are highly directional.
3 It is highly intense
.p
.p
4 It is a coherent beam and is in phase
5 The radiations are monochromatic
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6 He- Ne Laser, Co2 laser
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Principle of Spontaneous and Stimulated emission – Einstein’s Quantum
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theory ofradiation
We know that, when light is absorbed by the atoms or molecules, then it Where B12 is a constant which gives the probability of absorption of absorption
goes from the lower energy level (E1) to the higher energy level (E2) and transition per unit time.
during the transition from higher energy level (E2) to lower energy level (E1) Normally, the atoms in the excited state will not stay there for a long period of
the light is emitted from the atoms or molecules. time , rather it comes to ground state by emitting a photon of energy E=hν Such
Let us consider an atom exposed to light photons of energy E2 -E1= hv , an emission takes place by one of the following two methods.
three distinct processes take place. Spontaneous emission:
a. Absorption The atom in the excited state returns to the ground state by emitting a photon of
b. Spontaneous emission energy
c. Stimulated Emission E=(E2-E1)=hν
Spontaneously without any external triggering as shown in the figure.
Where B21 is a constant which gives the probability of stimulated emission

transitions per unit time.
Einstein’s theory
Einstein’s theory of absorption and emission of light by an atom is based on
Planck’s theory of radiation. Also under thermal equilibrium, the population of
energy levels obeys the Boltzmann distribution law
Under thermal equilibrium
This process is known as spontaneous emission. Such an emission is random
The rate of absorption = the rate of emission
and is independent of incident radiation. If N1 and N2are the numbers of atoms
in the ground state (E1) and excited state (E2) respectively, then
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
Where A21 is a constant which gives the probability of spontaneous
emission transitions per unit time.
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Stimulated Emission:
The atom in the excited state can also return to the ground state by external
or
or
triggering or inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon of energy equal to
the energy of the incident photon, known as stimulated emission. Thus results in
.p
.p
two photons of same energy, phase difference and of same directionality as
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shown.
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Where KB is the Boltzmann Constant,
T is the absolute temperature and
N0 is the number of atoms at absolute zero.
At equilibrium, we can write the ratio of population levels as follows.
Therefore, the rate of stimulated emission is given by
From equations (2) and (3) we have
in
in
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n.
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or
or
.p
.p
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Generally Spontaneous emission is more predominant in the optical
region (Ordinary light). To increase the number of coherent photons stimulated
emission should dominate over spontaneous emission. To achieve this, an
artificial condition called Population Inversion is necessary.
The constants A and B are called as Einstein Coefficients, which accounts
Differences between Stimulated and spontaneous emission of radiation
for spontaneous and stimulated emission probabilities.
Ratio of magnitudes of Stimulated to Spontaneous emission rates
The Phenomenon of making N2 > N1 is known as Population Inversion.
in
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n.
n.
Stimulated Emission
1. An atom in the excited state is induced to return to the ground state , thereby
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resulting in two photons of same frequency and energy is called Stimulated
emission
2. The emitted photons move in the same direction and is highly directional
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3. The radiation is highly intense , monochromatic and coherent Conditions of Population inversion.
or
or
4. The photons are in phase, there is a constant phase difference. 1. There must be at least two energy levels E2 > E1.
.p
.p
Spontaneous emission
1. The atom in the excited state returns to the ground state thereby emitting a 2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the
medium.
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photon, without any external inducement is called Spontaneous emission.
2. The emitted photons move in all directions and are random
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3. The radiation is less intense and is incoherent. 3. The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.
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4. The photons are not in phase (i.e.) there is no phase relationship between Meta stable States
them.
An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally,
Population Inversion: excited atoms have short life times and release their energy in a matter of nano
seconds (10-9) through spontaneous emission. It means atoms do not stay long
Population Inversion creates a situation in which the number of to be stimulated. As a result, they undergo spontaneous emission and rapidly
atoms in higher energy state is more than that in the lower energy state. return to the ground level; thereby population inversion could not be
established. In order to do so, the excited atoms are required to ‘wait’ at the
Usually at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N2 i.e., the upper energy level till a large number of atoms accumulate at that level. In other
population of atoms at higher energy state is much lesser than the population of words, it is necessary that excited state have a longer lifetime. A Meta stable
the atoms at lower energy state N1 that is N1 > N2 . state is such a state. Metastable can be readily obtained in a crystal system
containing impurity atoms. These levels lie in the forbidden gap of the host
crystal. There could be no population inversion and hence no laser action, if

metastable states don’t exist.
Principle: Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each step-

giving rise to an intense beam of photons that are coherent and moving in the
same direction. Hence the light is amplified by Stimulated Emission of the
Radiation. Termed LASER.
ACTIVE MEDIUM:
b. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons)
A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known as
active medium. In this method, the electrons are produced in an electrical discharge
tube. These electrons are accelerated to high velocities by a strong electrical
Active Center: The material in which the atoms are raised to the excited state to field. These accelerated electrons collide with the gas atoms.
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achieve Population Inversion is called Active Center.
By the process, energy from the electrons is transferred to gas atoms. Some
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PUMPING ACTION: atoms gain energy and they go to the excited state. This results in population
inversion. This method is called Electrical discharge method.
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The process to achieve the population inversion in the medium is called
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Pumping action.
It is essential requirement for producing a laser beam.
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Methods of pumping action:
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The methods commonly used for pumping action are:
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1. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons)
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2. Electrical discharge method(Excitation by electrons)
It is represented by the equation
3. Direct conversion
A + e* = A* + e
4. In elastic atom – atom collision between atoms Where A – gas atom in the ground state
A* = same gas atom in the excited state e* = Electrons with higher
a. Optical pumping: Kinetic energy e – Same electron with lesser energy.
When the atoms are exposed to light radiations energy hv , atoms in the lower This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon and CO2 Laser.
energy state absorb these radiations and they go to the excited state. This C. Direct Conversion
method is called Optical pumping. It is used in solid state lasers like ruby laser
and Nd-YAG laser. In ruby laser, xenon flash lamp is used as pumping source.
In this method, due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap

semiconductor like Ga As, recombination of electrons and holes takes place.
During the recombination process, the electrical energy is directly is converted
into light energy.
d. In elastic atom – atom collision This will induce more and more stimulated transition leading
to laser action.
In this method, a combination of two gases (Say A and B are used). The excited Flow Chart of Laser action
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states of A and B nearly coincides in energy.
In the first step during the electrical discharge atoms of gas A are
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excited to their higher energy state A* (metastable state) due to collision with
the electrons .
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A + e* = A* + e
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Now A* atoms at higher energy state collide with b atoms in the lower
state. Due to inelastic atom - atom collision B atoms gain energy and they are
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excited to a higher state B* . Hence, A atoms lose energy and return to lower
state.
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A* + B = A + B*
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Optical resonator
An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in

which one is fully reflecting (R1) and the other is partially reflecting (R2). The
active material is placed in between these two reflecting surfaces.
The photons generated due to transitions between the energy states of active
material are bounced back and forth between two reflecting surfaces.
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Construction:
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Types of Laser
Based on the type of active medium, Laser systems are broadly classified into The construction of Nd: YAG laser is as shown in the figure 2.17.
A small amount of Yttrium ions (Y3+) is replaced by Neodymium (Nd3+) in
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the following categories.
S.NO TYPE OF LASER EXAMPLES the active element of Nd: YAG crystal.
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1. Solid State laser : Ruby Laser Nd:YAG laser
2. Gas laser : He-Ne Laser, CO2 Laser, Argon – ion laser This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod. The ends of the cylindrical rod
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3. Liquid Laser : SeOCL2 Laser, Europium Chelate Laser are highly polished and they are made optically flat and parallel. This
cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a pumping source (flash tube) are placed inside a
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4. Dye laser : Rhodamine 6G laser, Coumarin dye laser
5. Semiconductor Laser : GaAs laser, GaAsP laser highly (reflecting) elliptical reflector cavity.
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The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting
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Nd: YAG laser
mirrors. One mirror (M1) is 100% reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is
Nd: YAG laser is a neodymium based laser. Nd stands for Neodymium partially reflecting.
(rare earth element) and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (
Y3Al5 O12) . It is a four level solid state laser. Working:
Principle: Figure 2.18 shows the energy level diagram for Nd: YAG laser. These energy
levels are those of Neodymium (Nd3+) ions.
The active medium Nd: YAG rod is optically pumped by Krypton flash tubes.
The Neodymium ions (Nd3+) are raised to excited levels. During the transition
from meta stable state to ground state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064μm is
emitted.
1. Type: It is a four level solid state laser.
2. Active medium: The active medium is Nd: YAG laser.
3. Pumping method: Optical pumping is employed for pumping

action.
4. Pumping source: Xenon or Krypton flash tube is used as

pumping source.
5. Optical resonator: Two ends of Nd: YAG rod is polished with

silver (one end is fully silvered and the other is partially silvered) are
used as optical resonator.
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6. Power output: The power output is approximately 70 watt.
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7. Nature of output: The nature of output is pulsed or continuous
1. When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of
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beam of light.
light
8. Wavelength of the output: The wavelength of the output beam is
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radiation of wavelength 0.73μm and 0.8μm, the Neodymium(Nd3+) 1.06μm(infra-red)
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atoms are raised from ground level E0 to upper levels E3and
E4 (Pump bands). Advantages:
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2. The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from these energy 1. It has high energy output.
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levels E2 by non-radiative transition. E2 is a metastable state.
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2. It has very high repetition rate operation
3. The Neodymium ions are collected in the level E2 and the
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population inversion is achieved between E2 and E1. 3. It is much easy to achieve population inversion.
4. An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E2 to E1, emittin
g a photon of energy hγ. This emitted photon will trigger a chain of Disadvantages:
stimulated photons between E2 and E1.
5. The photons thus generated travel back and forth between two The electron energy level structure of Nd3+ in YAG is complicated.
mirrors and grow in strength. After some time, the photon number Applications:
multiplies more rapidly.
6. After enough strength is attained (condition for laser being satisfied), 1. It finds many applications in range finders and illuminators.
2. It is widely used in engineering applications such as resistor, trimming
an intense laser light of wavelength 1.06μm is emitted through the scribing, micro machining operations as well as welding, drilling etc.
partial reflector. It corresponds to the transition from E2to E1.
Characteristics:
3. It finds many medical applications such as endoscopy, urology,

neurosurgery, ENT, gynecology, dermatology, dental surgery and general
surgery.
Molecular Gas laser
In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by transitions between

vibrational and rotational levels of molecules. Its construction is simple and the
output of this laser is continuous.
In CO2 molecular gas laser, transition takes place between the vibrational
states of Carbon dioxide molecules. b. Bending mode:
CO2 Molecular gas laser In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate
perpendicular to molecular axis.
It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born American
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scientist Prof.C.K.N.Pillai.
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It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the far IR region. It is
a very efficient laser.
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Energy states of CO2 molecules.
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A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the center with two
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c. Asymmetric stretching mode:
oxygen atoms attached, one at both sides. Such a molecule exhibits three
independent modes of vibrations. They are
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a) Symmetric stretching mode.
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b) Bending mode
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c) Asymmetric stretching mode.
a. Symmetric stretching mode

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate
In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at rest and both oxygen atoms asymmetrically, i.e., oxygen atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms in
vibrate simultaneously along the axis of the molecule departing or approaching the other direction.
the fixed carbon atoms. Principle:
The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He. The laser transition
takes place between the vibrational states of CO2molecules.
When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with
nitrogen molecules and they are raised to excited states. This process is
represented by the equation
N2 + e* = N2* + e
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state e* = electron with kinetic energy

N2* = nitrogen molecule in excited state e= same electron with lesser
energy
Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with CO2 atoms in ground
state and excite to higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.
This process is represented by the equation N2* + CO2 = CO2* + N2
Construction:
It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter. This N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state. CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms
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discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of CO2(active medium), helium in ground state CO2* = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state N2 =
and nitrogen with suitable partial pressures. Nitrogen molecule in ground state.
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The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C power
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supply. The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to the E5 level of
so that the laser light generated will be polarized. CO2 atom, population in E5 level increases.
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Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other partially form an
optical resonator. As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the
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spontaneously emitted photon will trigger laser action in the tube. There
are two types of laser transition possible.
Working:
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Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules. 1. Transition E5 to E4 :
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This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm
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2. Transition E5 to E3
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This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm. Normally
10.6μm transition is more intense than 9.6μm transition. The power
output from this laser is 10kW.
Characteristics:
1. Type: It is a molecular gas laser.
2. Active medium: A mixture of CO2 , N2 and helium or

water vapour is used as active medium
3. Pumping method: Electrical discharge method is used for
Pumping action
4. Optical resonator: Two concave mirrors form a resonant 2. The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6μm makes CO2 laser
cavity suitable for open air communication.
3. It is used for remote sensing
5. Power output: The power output from this laser is about
10kW. 4. It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.
6. Nature of output: The nature of output may be continuous 5. It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.
wave or pulsed wave.
6. It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless operations.
7. Wavelength of output: The wavelength of output is 0.6μm
and 10.6μm. Solid State diode lasers
Advantages: Laser action can also be produced semiconductors. The most compact
of all the lasers in semiconductor diode laser. It is also called injection laser.
1. The construction of CO2 laser is simple
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Types of Semiconductor diode laser
2. The output of this laser is continuous.
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aa There are two types of semiconductor diode lasers
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3. It has high efficiency
i. Homo junction laser
4. It has very high output power.
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ii. Hetero- Junction laser.
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5. The output power can be increased by extending the
length of the gas tube. Homo – Junction laser:
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Disadvantages: If a p-n junction is formed in a single crystalline material, then it is called as
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homo-junction laser.
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1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will have
some effect on laser action Example: single crystal of gallium Arsenide (Ga-As)
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2. The operating temperature plays an important role in Hetero- Junction laser:
determining the output power of laser.
If p-n junction is formed with different semiconducting materials, then it
3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates. is known as Hetero- Junction laser. It is also called modern laser diode.
Example: Hetero- Junction laser can be formed between Ga-As and Ga-Al-As.
4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is invisible
(infra red region) to our eyes.
Direct band gap Semiconductor:
Applications: In this type, during the recombination of hole and electron, a photon of
1. High power CO2 laser finds applications in material processing, light is released.
welding, drilling, cutting soldering etc.
Example: Ga-As
In direct band gap Semiconductor:
In this type, heat energy is produced during the recombination of hole and
electron. Example: Germanium and silicon
Semiconductor Diode laser:
Definition:
It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light
when it is forward biased.
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Principle: Construction:
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When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and Figure shows the basic construction of semiconductor laser. The active
the holes from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other. medium is a p-n junction diode made from the single crystal of gallium
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arsenide. This crystal is cut in the form of a platter having thickness of 0.5μmm.
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During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is
released from a certain specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As.
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This light radiation is known as recombination radiation.
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The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes
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to recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.
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The platelet consists of two parts having an electron conductivity (n-type)
and hole conductivity (p-type).
The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN junction The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by
(in order of few microns). The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal reflection between two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and
through the electrode fixed on the upper surface. grow in strength.
After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength
The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to 8400o A . The wavelength of laser light is given by
each other. They act as an optical resonator through which the emitted light
comes out.
Working:
Where Eg is the band gap energy in joule.

Figure shows the energy level diagram of semiconductor laser.
Characteristics:
1. Type: It is a solid state semiconductor laser.
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2. Active medium: A PN junction diode made from single crystal
of gallium arsenide is used as an active medium.
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3. Pumping method: The direct conversion method is used for
pumping action
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4. Power output: The power output from this laser is 1mW.
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5. Nature of output: The nature of output is continuous wave or
pulsed output.
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When the PN junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the
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electrons and holes are injected into junction region in considerable 6. Wavelength of Output: gallium arsenide laser gives infrared r
adiation in the wavelength 8300 to 8500o A .
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concentration
The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the Advantages:
conduction band and a large amount of holes in the valence band.
1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.
If the population density is high, a condition of population inversion is
achieved. The electrons and holes recombine with each other and this 2. It exhibits high efficiency.
recombination’s produce radiation in the form of light.
3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction
When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light
current
photons are emitted and the light production instantly becomes stronger. These
photons will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the release
4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
of photons in phase.
5. It requires very little auxiliary equipment
6. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of laser.
2. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has
large divergence.
3. The purity and monochromacity are power than other types of laser
4. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).
5. It has poor coherence and poor stability.
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Application:
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1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication
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2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation A layer of Ga-As p – type (3rd layer) will act as the active region.
This layer is sand witched between two layers having wider band gap viz
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3. It is also used as a pain killer GaAlAs-p – type (2nd layer) and GaAlAs-n-type (4th layer).
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4. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading. The end faces of the junctions of 3rd and 4th layer are well
polished and parallel to each other. They act as an optical resonator.
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HETERO JUNCTION LASER
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A pn junction made up of the different materials in two regions ie., n type and
p type is known ad hetrojunction.
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Principle: Working:
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When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from the When the PN junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are
n region and holes from the p region recombine with each other at the junction. injected into the junction region. The region around the junction contains large
During recombination process, light is released from certain specified direct amount of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band.
band gap semiconductors.
Construction: Thus the population inversion is achieved. At this stage, some of the
injected charge carriers recombines and produce radiation in the form of light.
This laser consists of five layers as shown in the figure.
3. Pumping method : Direct conversion method

4. Power output : The power output of laser beam is 1 mW
5. Nature of the Output : Continuous wave form
6. Wavelength of the output : Nearly 8000o A
Advantages:
1. It produces continuous wave output.
2. The power output is very high.
Disadvantages:
1. It is very difficult to grow different layers of PN junction.
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When the forward biased voltage is increased, more and more light The cost is very high.
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2.
photons are emitted and the light intensity is more. These photons can trigger a
chain of stimulated recombination’s resulting in the release of photons in
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Applications:
phase.
The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth 1. This type of laser is mostly used in optical applications
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by reflection between two sides and grow its strength. A coherent beam of
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laser having wavelength nearly 8000 A emerge out from the junction region. 2. It is widely used in computers, especially on CD-ROMs.
Characteristics:
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Comparison Chart of different types of Lasers
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TITLE and Description
1. Type : It is a heterojunction semiconductor laser
2. Active medium : PN junctions made from different layers.
A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying more

information than that of radio waves and microwaves due to its larger
bandwidth.
Currently in most part of the world, fiber optics is used to transmit voice,
video and digital data signals using light waves from one place to other place.
Optical fiber:
The optical fiber is a wave guide.
It is made up of transparent dielectrics (SiO2), (glass or plastics).
Fiber Construction:
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It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic called core. The
core has high refractive index n1.
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This core is surrounded by cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called
cladding.
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The cladding has low refractive index n2. This cladding is covered by a
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jacket which is made of polyurethane. It protects the layer from moisture and
FIBER OPTICS abrasion.
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The light is transmitted through this fiber by total internal reflection. The fiber
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Introduction: FIBER OPTICS guides light waves to travel over longer distance without much loss of energy.
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The development of lasers and optical fiber has brought about a
revolution in the field of communication systems. Experiments on the
propagation of information – carrying light waves through an open atmosphere
were conducted. The atmospheric conditions like rain, fog etc affected the
efficiency of communication through light waves.
To have efficient communication systems, the information carried by

light waves should need a guiding medium through which it can be transmitted
safely.
This guiding mechanism is optical fiber. The communication through
optical fiber is known as light wave communication or optical communication. Core diameters range from 5 to 600μm while cladding diameters vary from 125
to 750μm.
Core transmits the light waves. The cladding keeps the light waves within the 2. At the core – cladding interface, the angle of incidence ( between the ray
core by total internal reflection. and normal to the interface) must be greater than the critical angle defined as
Refractive index:
The refractive index or index of refraction of a substance is a measure of the
speed of light in that substance. It is expressed as a ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum relative to that in the considered medium. Let the light ray travel from core of refractive index n1 to cladding of refractive
index n2 n1 > n2.
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Principle of propagation of light in an optical fiber
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The light launched inside the core at one end of the fiber propagates to the other
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end due to total internal reflection at the core and cladding interface.
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Total internal reflection at the fiber wall can occur only if two conditions are
Satisfied.
1. The refractive index of the core material n1 must be higher than that of
the cladding n2 surrounding it. Propagation of light through fiber
Consider an optical fiber through which the light is being sent. The end at
which light enters is called launching end. Let the refractive indices of the core
and cladding be n1 and n2 respectively; n1> n2. Let the refractive index of the
medium from which the light is launched be n0.
Let the light ray enter at an angle I to the axis of the fiber
If θ is less than the critical angle θc, the ray will be lost by refraction. Therefore,
limiting value for containing the beam inside the core by total internal reflection
is θc. Let im me the maximum possible angle of incidence at the fiber end face
A for which θ = θc.
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The ray refracts at an angle r.
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The ray strikes the core – cladding interface at an angle θ. If θ is greater
than the critical angle θc, the ray undergoes total internal reflection at the
interface.
Let us now find out up to what maximum value of i at A total internal reflection
at B is possible.
This angle im is called the acceptance angle of the fiber.
Definition: Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle that a
light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate down the fiber.
Or the maximum angle at or below which the light can suffer Total Internal
Reflection is called acceptance angle.
Acceptance cone: It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core and cladding to the refractive
index of the core.
An optical fiber accepts only those rays which are incident within a cone having
a semi angle im.
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The light rays contained within the cone having a full angle
2im are accepted and transmitted along the fiber. Therefore, the cone is called
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the acceptance cone.
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Light incident at an angle beyond im refracts through the cladding
and the corresponding optical energy is lost. It is obvious that the larger the
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diameter of the core, the larger the acceptance angle.
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Numerical Aperture:
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
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Definition:
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Optical fibers are classified into three major categories
The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.
i. The type of material used
ii. The number of modes

iii. The refractive index profile
Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the

fiber. It is a measure of amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. NA
depends only on the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials. A
large NA implies that a fiber will accept large amount of light from the source.
Fractional Index change:
Light propagates as electromagnetic waves through an optical fiber. All

waves, having ray directions above the critical angle will be trapped within the
fiber due to total internal reflection. However, all such waves do not propagate
through the fiber. Only certain ray directions are allowed to propagate. The
allowed directions correspond to the modes of the fiber.
In simple terms, modes can be visualized as the possible number of paths

of light in an optical fiber. The paths are all zigzag paths excepting the axial
direction. Accordingly, light rays travelling through a fiber are classified as
axial rays or zigzag rays. As a ray gets repeatedly reflected at the walls of the
fiber, phase shift occurs. Waves travelling along the certain zigzag paths will be
in phase and intensified. Waves travelling along certain other paths will be out
of phase and diminish due to destructive interference. The light rays path along
which the waves are in phase inside the fiber are called modes. The number of
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modes that a fiber will support depends upon the ratio of d/λ where d is the
diameter of the core and λ is the wavelength of the wave being transmitted.
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Modes are designated by an ‘order’ number ‘m’. In a fiber of fixed
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thickness, the higher order modes propagate at smaller angles than the lower
Based on the type of the material used, they are classified into two types order modes.
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1. Glass fiber: Axial ray that travels along the axis of the fiber is called zero order rays.
Example:
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SINGLE MODE FIBERS.
Core: SiO2 Cladding: SiO2 In general, the single mode fibers are step – index fibers. These types of
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Core: GeO2- SiO2 Cladding: SiO2 fibers are made from doped silica. It has a very small core diameter so that it
can allow only one mode of propagation and hence called single mode fibers.
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2. Plastic fiber:
The cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core diameter. Thus
Example:
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in the case of single mode fiber, the optical loss is very much reduced. The
Core: polymethyl methacrylate : Cladding: Co- Polymer
structure of a single mode fiber as shown.
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Core: Polystyrene : Cladding: Methyl methacrylate
Based on the number of modes, they are classified as
1. Single mode fiber
2. Multimode fiber
Based on the refractive index profile, they are classified as
1. Step- index fiber
2. Graded index fiber

Structure:
MODES OF PROPAGATION: Core diameter : 5-10μm
Cladding diameter : Generally around 125μm

Protective layer : 250 to 1000μm
Numerical aperture : 0.08 to 0.10
Band width : More than 50MHz km.
Application:
Because of high bandwidth, they are used in long haul communication systems.
MULTI- MODE FIBERS
The multi mode fibers are useful in manufacturing both for step – index and
graded index fibers. The multi-mode fibers are made by multi-component glass
compounds such as Glass – Clad Glass, Silica – Clad – Silica, doped silica etc.
Here the core diameter is very large compared to single mode fibers, so that it
Application:
can allow many modes to propagate through it and hence called as Multi mode
fibers. The cladding diameter is also larger than the diameter of the single mode
Because of its less band width it is very useful in short haul
fibers. The structure of the multimode fiber is as shown in the figure.
communication systems.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SINGLE AND MULTIMODE FIBER
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Structure:
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Core diameter : 50-350μm
125μm - 500μm
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Cladding diameter :
Protective layer : 250 to 1100μm
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Numerical aperture : 0.12 to 0.5
Band width : Less than 50MHz km.
The total number of modes possible for such an electromagnetic wave guide is
SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBER

A single mode step index fiber consists of a very thin core of uniform refractive
index surrounded by a cladding of refractive index lower than that of core. The
refractive index abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary. Light travels
along a side path, i.e., along the axis only. So zero order modes is supported by
Single Mode Fiber. GRIN fiber is one in which refractive index varies radially, decreasing
continuously in a parabolic manner from the maximum value of n1, at the center
of the core to a constant value of n2 at the core cladding interface.
in
in
In graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speeds in different parts of
n.
n.
the fiber because the refractive index varies through out the fiber. Near the outer
edge, the refractive index is lower. As a result, rays near the outer edge travel
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MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBER
faster than the rays at the center of the core. Because of this, rays arrive at the
A multimode step index fiber consists of a core of uniform refractive index
end of the fiber at approximately the same time. In effect light rays arrive at the
surrounded by cladding of refractive index lower than that of the core. The
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end of the fiber are continuously refocused as they travel down the fiber. All
refractive index abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary. The core is of
rays take the same amount of time in traversing the fiber. This leads to small
or
or
large diameter. Light follows zigzag paths inside the fiber. Many such zigzag
pulse dispersion.
paths of propagation are permitted in Multi Mode Fiber. The Numerical
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Aperture of a Multi mode fiber is larger as the core diameter of the fiber is
larger.
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For a parabolic index fiber, the pulse dispersion is reduced by a factor of about
200 in comparison to step index fiber. It is because of this reason that first and
second generation optical communication systems used near parabolic index
fibers.
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN GRIN FIBER

Let na, nb,nc,nd etc be the refractive index of different layers in graded index
fiber with na > nb> nc> nd etc. then the propagation of light through the graded
index fiber is as shown in the figure.
GRADED INDEX FIBER
The optical sources used here are LED/Laser. The optical signal produced
by the optical source and is transmitted through the transmitting fiber in the
modulation zone.
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Here, since na > nb the ray gets refracted. Similarly since nb> nc, the ray The optical signals are modulated based on any one of these properties,
n.
n.
gets refracted and so on. In a similar manner, due to decrease in refractive index viz., Optical intensity, phase, polarization, Wavelength and spectral distribution.
These modulated signals with any one of these properties are received by the
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the ray gets gradually curved towards the upward direction and at one place ,
where in it satisfies the condition for total internal reflection,(ϕ > ϕc ) it is receiving / fiber and is sent to the optical detector.
totally internally reflected .
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The reflected rays travels back towards the core axis and without crossing 1. TYPES OF SENSORS
or
or
the fiber axis, it is refracted towards downwards direction and again gets totally
internally reflected and passes towards upward direction. In this manner the ray There are two types of sensors, viz.
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propagates inside the fiber in a
i. Intrinsic sensors or Active sensors
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helical or spiral manner ii. Extrinsic sensors or Passive sensors
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INTRINSIC SENSORS OR ACTIVE SENSORS
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FIBER OPTIC SENSORS
In intrinsic sensors or active sensors the physical parameter to be sensed
Optical sensor is a transducer which converts any form of signal into directly acts on the fiber itself to produce the changes in the transmission
optical signal in the measurable form. Here optical fibers are used as a guiding characteristics.
media and hence called as wave guides. The block diagram of a sensor system
is as follows. Example:
i. Temperature /Pressure Sensor( Phase and polarization

sensor) and
ii. Liquid level sensor.

EXTRINSIC SENSORS
In extrinsic sensors or passive sensors, separate sensing element will be used

and the fiber will act as a guiding media to the sensors.
Examples:
i. Displacement sensor
ii. Laser Doppler velocimeter sensor
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Principle:
It is based on the principle of interference between the beams
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emerging out from the reference fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring
environment.
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Description:
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It consists of a Laser source to emit light. A beam splitter, made of
glass plate is inclined at an angle 450 with respect to the direction of the
or
or
laser beam.
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Two fibers viz,
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i. Reference fiber which is isolated from the environment
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ii. Test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed, are placed as
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shown in the figure. Separate lens systems are provided to split and
to collect the beam.
Working:
1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser
source.
2. The beam splitter kept at an angle 450 inclination divides
the beam emerging from the laser source into two beams (i)
main beam and (ii) splitted beam, exactly at right angles to
each other.
3. The main beam passes through the lens L1 and is focused

onto the reference fiber which is isolated from the
environment to be sensed.
4. The beam after passing through the reference fiber then

falls on the Lens L2.
5. The splitted beam passes through the Lens L3 and is

focused onto the test fiber kept in the environment to be
sensed.
6. The splitted beam after passing through the test fiber is

made to fall on lens L2.
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7. The two beams after passing through the fibers, produces a
path difference due to change in parameters such as pressure,
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n.
temperature etc in the environment.
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8. Therefore a path difference is produced between two The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect
beams causing the interference pattern as shown in the
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to the moving target can be adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.
figure.
or
or
Working:
9. Thus the change in pressure or temperature can be
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accurately measured with the help of the interference pattern Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber
obtained. and is made to fall on the moving target. The light reflected from the target is
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made to pas through the receiving fiber and the same is detected by the
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detector.
DISPLACEMENT SENSOR (EXTRINSIC SENSOR)
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Based on the intensity of the light received, the displacement of the
Principle: target can be measured, (i.e.) if the received intensity is more than we can say
that the target is moving towards the sensor and if the intensity is less, we can
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a say that the target is moving away from the sensor.
moving target. The reflected light from the target is sensed by a detector. With
respect to intensity of light reflected from its displacement of the target is MEDICAL ENDOSCOPE
measured.
Optical fibers are very much useful in medical field. Using low quality,
Description: large diameter and short length silica fibers we can design a fiber optic
endoscope or fibroscope.
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser
source and a bundle of receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the
figure.
A medical endoscope is a tubular optical instrument, used to inspect or the reflected light from the object. A tiny lens is fixed to one end of the bundle in
view the internal parts of human body which are not visible to the naked eye. order to effectively focus the light, reflected from the object. For a wider field of
The photograph of the internal parts can also be taken using this endoscope. view and better image quality, a telescope system is added in the internal part of
the telescope.
Construction
Figure shows the structure of endoscope. It has two fibers viz., 1. Working:
Outer fiber(f0)
2. The inner fiber (fi). Light from the source is passed through the outer fiber (f0). The light is
illuminated on the internal part of the body. The reflected light from the object is
brought to focus using the telescope to the inner fiber (fi).
Here each fiber picks up a part of the picture from the body. Hence the
picture will be collected bit by bit and is transmitted in an order by the array of
fibers.
As a result, the whole picture is reproduced at the other end of the receiving
fiber as shown in the figure. The output is properly amplified and can be viewed
in
in
through the eye piece at the receiving end.
n.
n.
The cross sectional view is as shown in the figure.
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In figure, we can see that along with input and output fibers, we have two
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more channels namely, (i) Instrumental Channel (C1) and (ii) Irrigation channel
(C2) used for the following purposes.
or
or
Instrumentation channel (C1):
It is used to insert or take the surgical instruments needed for operation.
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Irrigation channel (C2):
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It is used to blow air or this is used to clear the blood in the operation
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region, so that the affected parts of the body can be clearly viewed.
Outer fiber:
The outer fiber consists of many fibers bundled together without any MEDICAL ENDOSCOPE
particular order of arrangement and is called incoherent bundle. These fiber
bundles as a whole are enclosed in a thin sleeve for protection. The outer Optical fibers are very much useful in medical field. Using low quality,
fiber is used to illuminate or focus the light onto the inner parts of the body. large diameter and short length silica fibers we can design a fiber optic
Inner fiber: endoscope or fibroscope.
The inner fiber also consists of a bundle of fibers, but in perfect order. A medical endoscope is a tubular optical instrument, used to inspect or
Therefore this arrangement is called coherent bundle. This fiber is used to collect view the internal parts of human body which are not visible to the naked eye.
The photograph of the internal parts can also be taken using this endoscope.
Construction
Working:
Figure shows the structure of endoscope. It has two fibers viz., 1.
Outer fiber(f0) Light from the source is passed through the outer fiber (f0). The light is
2. The inner fiber (fi). illuminated on the internal part of the body. The reflected light from the object is
brought to focus using the telescope to the inner fiber (fi).
Here each fiber picks up a part of the picture from the body. Hence the
picture will be collected bit by bit and is transmitted in an order by the array of
fibers.
As a result, the whole picture is reproduced at the other end of the receiving
fiber as shown in the figure. The output is properly amplified and can be viewed
through the eye piece at the receiving end.
The cross sectional view is as shown in the figure.
in
in
In figure, we can see that along with input and output fibers, we have two
n.
n.
more channels namely, (i) Instrumental Channel (C1) and (ii) Irrigation channel
(C2) used for the following purposes.
aa
aa
Instrumentation channel (C1):
It is used to insert or take the surgical instruments needed for operation.
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Irrigation channel (C2):
or
or
It is used to blow air or this is used to clear the blood in the operation
.p
.p
region, so that the affected parts of the body can be clearly viewed.
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LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS
Outer fiber:
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When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light
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The outer fiber consists of many fibers bundled together without any is lost through different mechanisms. The loss of optical power is measured in
particular order of arrangement and is called incoherent bundle. These fiber terms of decibels per km for attenuation losses.
bundles as a whole are enclosed in a thin sleeve for protection. The outer
ATTENUATION:
fiber is used to illuminate or focus the light onto the inner parts of the body.
It is defined as the ratio of optical power output (Pout) from a fiber of
Inner fiber: length ‘L’ to the power output (Pin)
The inner fiber also consists of a bundle of fibers, but in perfect order.
Therefore this arrangement is called coherent bundle. This fiber is used to collect
the reflected light from the object. A tiny lens is fixed to one end of the bundle in
order to effectively focus the light, reflected from the object. For a wider field of
view and better image quality, a telescope system is added in the internal part of
the telescope.
Since attenuation plays a major role in determining the transmission

distance, the following attenuation mechanisms are to be considered in designing
an optical fiber.
1. Absorption:
Usually absorption of light occurs due to imperfections of the atomic

structure such as missing molecules, (OH-), hydroxyl ions, high density cluster
of atoms etc., which absorbs light.
2. Scattering:
Scattering is also a wavelength dependent loss, which occurs
inside the fibers. Since the glass is used in fabrication of fibers, the disordered
structure of glass will make some variations in the refractive index inside the
fiber. As a result, if light is passed through the atoms in the fiber, a portion of
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light is scattered (elastic scattering) .this type of scattering is called Raleigh b. Microscopic bends:
scattering.
n.
n.
Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities or micro
bends inside the fiber as shown. This micro bends in fiber appears due to non
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uniform pressures created during the cabling of the fiber or even during the
manufacturing itself. This lead to loss of light by leakage through the fiber.
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3. Radiative loss: Remedy:
or
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Radiative loss occurs in fibers due to bending of finite radius of curvature Micro-bend losses can be minimized by extruding (squeezing out) a
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in optical fibers. The types of bends are compressible jacket over the fiber. In such cases, even when the external forces
are applied, the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively
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a. Macroscopic bends straight and safe, without causing more loss.
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b. Microscopic bends
DISTORTION AND DISPERSION
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a. Macroscopic bends:
The optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber.
This distortion is due to dispersion effect.
If the radius of the core is large compared to fiber diameter, it may cause large-
curvature at the position where the fiber cable turns at the corner. At these corners Dispersion:
the light will not satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence it
escapes out from the fiber. This is called as macroscopic / macro bending losses. When an optical signal or pulse is sent into the fiber the pulse
Also note that this loss is negligible for small bends. spreads /broadens as it propagates through the fiber. This phenomenon is called
dispersion as shown in the figure.
Each mode will be different wavelength and has different velocity as

shown in the figure. Hence, they reach the end of the fiber at different time. This
results in the elongation or stretching of data in the pulse. Thus causes the
distorted pulse. This is called intermodal dispersion.
Material dispersion:
In material dispersion, the dispersion occurs due to different wavelength
travelling at different speed inside the fibers shown in the figure.
From figure we can see that the pulse received at the output is wider than
the input pulse. Hence the output pulse is said to be distorted, due to dispersion
effect.
The pulse broadening or dispersion will occur in three ways, viz.,
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1. Inter-modal dispersion
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2. Material dispersion or chromatic dispersion
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3. Waveguide dispersion
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Intermodal dispersion:
or
or
When more than one mode is propagating through the fiber, then the
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inter modal dispersion will occur. Since, many modes are propagating; they
will have different wavelengths and will take different time to propagate Remedy:
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through the fiber, which leads to intermodal dispersion. The material dispersion can be minimized at certain wavelengths say
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870nm, 1300 nm and 1550 nm; these wavelengths are termed Zero Dispersion
wavelengths(ZDW).
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Whether light wavelength is lesser than Zero Dispersion
wavelengths , it travels slower and when it is higher than ZDW it travels faster.
Thus the speed is altered and adjusted in such a way that all the waves passing
through the fiber will move with constant speed and hence the material dispersion
is minimized.
Note: this dispersion will not occur in single mode fibers
Wave guide dispersion:
Explanation: The wave guide dispersion arises due to the guiding property of the
fiber and due to their different angles at which they incident at the core-
When a ray of light is launched into the fiber, the pulse is dispersed in all
cladding interface of the fiber.
possible paths through the core, so called different modes.
ii. Photo conductive
iii. Photo voltaic
Photo voltaic devices:

We will study the three forms of devices.
i. PN junction photo detector
ii. PIN photo diode
iii. Avalanche photo diode(APD)

Figure explains the basic detection mechanism of PN junction diode photo
detector. When reverse biased, the potential barrier between p and n
In general regions increases. Therefore no current flows.
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Inter-modal dispersion > Material Dispersion> Waveguide dispersion
n.
n.
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DETECTOR:
A detector is one which converts photons into electrons

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A detector is one which converts light into either current or voltage.
or
or
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION of a Photo Detector
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A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a Photon of
sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating
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a free electron and a hole.
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If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, these carriers are
swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus
holes move towards the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent is produced.
Definition:
It is a device which converts light signal to electrical wave forms. Types

of photo detectors: Figure shows an incident photons being absorbed in the junction after
passing through the p layer. The light photons incident on the junction
There are three types of Photo-detectors produce large number of electron – hole pairs. The electrons are attracted
towards n region and holes are attracted towards p-region due to reverse
i. Photo emissive bias of the diode. Thus the current passes through the external resistor.
The current through the load depends upon on the intensity of the The high electric filed present in the depletion region causes the carriers to
light incident on the diode. separate and be collected across the reverse biased junction. This gives rise to a
The absorbed energy raises a bound electron across the band gap. current flow in the external circuit.
Avalanche photo detector:
PIN PHOTO DIODE:
An avalanche photodiode is more sophisticated than a p-i-n diode and it
It is a device which consists of a p and n regions separated by a lightly incorporates internal gain mechanism. So the photo-electric current is amplified
doped intrinsic region. within the detector.
The cross-sectional view of p-i-n photodiode is as shown. This device is a reverse biased p-n junction that is operated at voltage close to the
breakdown voltage.
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n.
n.
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or
or
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.p
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A sufficiently large reverse bias is applied across the device. When an
incident photon has energy greater than or equal to the band gap energy of the
semiconductor material, an electron excites from valence band to conduction
band. The electron and hole pairs are generated in the depletion layer acquire
sufficient energy from the field to liberate secondary electrons and holes with in
These carriers are mainly generated in the depletion region where most of the layer by impact ionization.
the incident light is absorbed. The secondary electron – hole pair drift in opposite directions and together with
the primary carriers may produce new carriers. Thus, carrier multiplication and
internal amplification occurs. This internal amplification process enhances the A n- type layer is grown on a substrate and a p- type layer is deposited on
responsivity of the detectors. it by diffusion. Since carrier recombination takes place in the p-layer, it is
deposited upper most.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:
For maximum light emission, a metal film anode is deposited at the outer edges
It is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which emits light when it is of the p-layer. The bottom of the substrate is coated with metal (gold) film for
forward biased. reflecting most of the light surface of the device and also to provide connection
with n- type layer.
Principle:
The electrons injected into the p- region make a direct

downward transition from the conduction band into valence band and they
recombine with holes and emit photons of energy Eg.
We know that the forbidden gap energy is given by
in
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n.
n.
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or
or
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.p
Working:
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When the p –n junction diode is forward biased, the barrier width is
reduced, raising the potential energy on the n-side and lowering that on the p-
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side.
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The free electrons and holes have sufficient energy to move into the
junction region. If a free electron meets a hole, it recombines with each other
resulting in the release of a photon
Thus light radiation of the LED is caused by the recombination of holes and
electrons that are injected into the junction by forward bias voltage.
Construction:
Figure shows crossectional view of a LED.
UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES

ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
GLASSES METALLIC
1 Introduction
2. Metallic glasses
Methods of preparation
Preparation of metallic glasses
Types of metallic glasses
Properties of metallic glasses
Applications of metallic glasses
3 Shape memory alloys
Shape memory alloys
Types of shape memory alloys
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Characteristics of SMA
n.
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Advantages of LED: Commercial shape memory alloys
Advantages of shape memory alloys
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1. Light output is proportional to the current. Hence, the light intensity of Disadvantages of shape memory alloys
LEDs can be controlled easily by varying the current flow. Applications of shape memory alloys
2. LEDs are rugged and therefore withstand shocks and vibrations.
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4 Nanotechnology
Nano materials
or
or
2. Varieties of LEDs are available which emit in different colours like red, Comparison of different objects
green, yellow etc. Classification of nanomaterials
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Top-down and bottom-up process
3. It has long life time and high degree of reliability. 5 Synthesis techniques
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Pulsed laser deposition
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4. It has low drive voltage and low noise. Chemical vapor deposition
6 Discuss the properties of nanophase materials
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5. It is easily interfaced to digital logic circuits. Physical properties
Magnetic properties
6. It can be operated over a wide range of temperatures. Mechanical properties
7 Applications of nanophase materials
Disadvantages of LED: 8 Non-linear materials and bio-materials
Birefringence and Kerr effect
1. It requires high power. Non-linear properties and second harmonic generation
Non linear properties
2. Its preparation cost is high. Second harmonic generation
Biomaterials with their properties and applications
3. LED is not suitable for large area display because of its high cost. Classification of biomaterials
Applications
4. It cannot be used for illumination purposes.
Ceramic
The metal alloy is melted by induction heating under inert gas
atmosphere (helium or argon). The properly super heated molten alloy is ejected
1 INTRODUCTION through the fine nozzle at the bottom of the refractory tube.
New engineering materials such as metallic glasses, shape memory alloys The molten alloy falls on the copper roller which is rotated at high speed. Thus,
etc. are the advanced materials, which are the integral part of our life. Both the alloy is suddenly cooled to form metallic glass. In this method a continuous
scientists and technologists are searching for new materials, which can be used ribbon of metallic glass can be obtained.
for high technology research as well as applications.
In this chapter, we are going to discuss the new engineering materials like
metallic glasses, shpe memory alloys, etc., along with their properties and its wide
range of applications.
in
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2 METALLIC GLASSES
n.
n.
The Metallic glasses are materials which have the properties of both metals and
glasses.
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Metallic glass = Amorphous metal
In general, metallic glasses are strong, ductile, malleable, opaque and brittle.
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They also have good magnetic properties and high corrosion resistance.
or
or
METHODS OF PREPARATION Principle TYPES OF METALLIC GLASSES.
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The principle used in making metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of Metallic glasses are classified into two types:
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the molten alloy. The technique is called as rapid quenching.
(i)Metal –Metal metallic glasses
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The cooled molten alloys are fed into highly conducting massive rollers at They are combination of metals
Metals Metals
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high speeds to give ribbons of metallic glasses.
Examples: Nickel (Ni) - Niobium (Nb)
Magnesium (Mg) - Zinc (Zn)
2.1PREPARATION OF METALLIC GLASSES
Copper (Cu) - Zirconium (Zr)
Principle
(ii) Metal –Metalloid metallic glasses
The principle used in making metallic glasses is extreme rapid cooling of the
molten metal alloy. This technique is called as rapid quenching. These are combinations of metals and metalloids.
Melt spinning system Examples: Metals Metalloids
A melt spinner consists of a copper roller over which a refractory tube with Fe, Co, Ni - B, Si, C, P
fine nozzle is placed. The refractory tube is provided with induction heater as
shown in fig. PROPERTIES OF METALLIC GLASSES
Structural properties
1. They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries,

dislocation etc.
2. Metallic glasses have tetrahedral close packing (TCP).
Mechanical properties
1. Metallic glasses have extremely high strength, due to the absence of

point defects and dislocation.
2. They have high elasticity.
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Fig. Hysteresis loop of iron based alloy in crystalline and metallic
3. They are highly ductile.
n.
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glassy phase.
4. Metallic glasses are not work-harden but they are work –soften. (work
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harnening is a process of hardening a material by compressing it).
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Chemical properties
Electrical properties
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1. They are highly resistant to corrosion due to random ordering.
1. Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary
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much with temperature. 2. They are highly reactive and stable.
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2. Due to high resistivity, the eddy current loss is very small. 3. They can act as a catalyst. The amorphous state is more active than the
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crystalline state from the catalytic point of view.
3. The temperature coefficient is zero or negative.
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APPLICATIONS OF METALLIC GLASSES
Magnetic properties
Metallic glasses also called as met glasses have found wide applications in
1. Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties. different fields.
Structural application
2. They are magnetically soft due to their maximum permeabilities and
thus they can be magnetised and demagnetized very easily. 1. They posses high physical and tensile strength. They are superior to
common steels and thus they are very useful as reinforcing elements in
3. They exhibit high saturation magnetisation. concrete, plastic and rubber.
4. They have less core losses. 2. Strong ribbons of metallic glasses are used for simple filament winding
to reinforce pressure vessels and to construct large fly wheels for energy
5. Most magnetically soft metallic glasses have very narrow hysteresis storage.
loop with same crystal composition. This is shown in fig.
3. Due to their good strength, high ductility, rollability and good corrosion 1. Due to their high resistance to corrosion, metallic glasses are ideal
resistance, they are used to make razor blades and different kinds of materials for making surgical instruments.
springs.
2. They are used as prosthetic materials for implantation in human body.
Electrical and Electronics
1. Since metallic glasses have soft magnetic properties, they are used in
tape recorder heads, cores of high-power transformers and magnetic 2 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
shields.
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
2. They use of metallic glasses in motors can reduce core loss very much
when compared with conventional crystalline magnets. A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to their original shape
or size (i.e., alloy appears to have memory) when they are subjected to heating
3. Superconducting metallic glasses are used to produce high magnetic or cooling are called shape memory alloys.
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fields and magnetic levitation effect.
Phase of shape memory alloys
n.
n.
4. Since metallic glasses have high electrical resistance, they are used to
make accurate standard resistance, computer memories and magneto Martensite and austenite are two solid phases in SMA as shown in fig.
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resistance sensors.
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Metallic glasses as transformer core material
or
or
5. Metallic glasses have excellent magnetic properties. When they are used
as transformer core, they give maximum magnetic flux linkage between
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primary and secondary coils and thus reduce flux leakage losses.
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In view of their features like small thickness, smaller area, light weight,
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high resistivity, soft magnetic property and negligible hysteresis and
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eddy current loss, metallic glasses are considered as suitable core
materials in different frequency transformers.
Nuclear reactor engineering Fig. Phases of SMA
1. The magnetic properties of metallic glasses are not affected by irradiation and Martensite is relatively soft and it is easily deformable phase which exists at low
so they are useful in preparing containers for nuclear waste disposal and magnets temperature (monoclinic) (fig.)
for fusion reactors. (i) Austenite is a phase that occurs at high temperature having a crystal
2. Chromium and phosphorous based (iron chromium, phosphorous-carbon structure and high degree of symmetry (cubic) (fig.).
alloys) metallic glasses have high corrosion resistances and so they are used in
iner surfaces of reactor vessels, etc. TYPES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
Bio-medical Industries There are two types of shape memory alloys
(i) One-way shape memory alloy
(ii) Two-way shape memory alloy
A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is

known as one-way shape memory. A material which shows a shape memory
effect during both heating and cooling is called two-way shape memory.
Examples of shape memory alloys
Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds having super lattice
structures and metallic-ionic-covalent characteristics. Thus, they have the
properties of both metals and ceramics.
Ni –Ti alloy (Nitinol)
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Cu –Al –Ni alloy
n.
n.
Cu –Zn –Al alloy
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Au –Cd alloy 4. Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite transformation.
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Ni –Mn –Ga and Fe based alloys 5. Pseudo elasticity
or
or
CHARACTERISTICS OF SMAS
Pseudo –elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when it is completely in
.p
.p
austenite phase (temperature is greater than Af austenite finish temperature).
1. Shape memory effect
The change of shape of a material at low temperature by loading and regaining of
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Unlike the shape memory effect, Pseudo-elasticity occurs due to stress
original shape by heating it, is known as shape memory effect.
induced phase transformation without a change in temperature. The load on the
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shape memory alloy changes austenite phase into martensite (Fig.).
The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to the change in their crystalline
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structure with the change in temperature and stress.
As soon as the loading decreases the martensite begins to transform to austenite.
While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low
This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and
temperature.
regaining of shape on removal of the load is known as pseudo elasticity.
On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and upon
This pseudo elasticity is also known as super elasticity
cooling it gets transformed to twinned martensite (fig.).
2. SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length during the
transformation with temperature.
3. The mechanism involved in SMA is reversible (austenite to martensite and vice
versa.)
COMMERCIAL SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
The only two alloy systems that have achieved any level of commercial
exploitation are,
(i) Ni-Ti alloys, and

(ii) Copper base alloys.
Properties of the two systems are quite different.
1. Nickel-Titanium Alloys
The basis of the Nickel-Titanium alloy is the binary, equi-atomic inter-metallic
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compound of Ti-Ni. The inter-metallic compound is extraordinary because it has
moderate solubility range for excess Nickel or Titanium, as well as most other
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6. Hysteresis
metallic elements. This solubility allows alloying with many of the elements to
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The temperature range for the martensite to austenite transformation which modify both the mechanical properties and the transformation properties of the
takes place upon heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse system. Excess Nickel strongly depresses the transformation temperature and
transformation upon cooling. increases the yield strength of the austenite. The contaminants such as Oxygen
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The difference between the transition temperature upon heating and and Carbon shift the transformation temperature and degrade the mechanical
or
or
cooling is called hysteresis. The hysteresis curve for SMAs is shown in fig. properties. Therefore, it is also desirable to minimize the amount of such
elements.
The difiference of temperature is found to be 20-30oC,
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Properties:
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(i) The Ni-Ti alloys have greater shape memory strain upto 8.5% tend
to be much more thermally stable.
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(ii) They have excellent corrosion resistance and susceptibility, and
have much higher ductility.
(iii) Machining by turning or milling is very difficult except with special

tools.
(iv) Welding, brazing or soldering the alloys is generally difficult.
(v) The material do respond well to abrasive removal such as grinding,

and shearing.
(vi) Punching can be done if thicknesses are kept small.
ADVANTAGES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS 3. Medical field Blood clot filters

They are simple, compact and high safe.
They have good bio –compatibility. (i) Blood clot filters are SMAs, properly shaped and inserted in veins
They have diverse applications and offer clean, silent and spark-free working to stop the passing blood clots.
condition
They have good mechanical properties and are strong corrosion-resistant. When the SMA is in contact with the clot at a lower temperature, it
expands and stops the clot and blood passes through the veins.
DISADVANTAGES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
They have poor fatigue properties. (ii) They are used in artificial hearts.
They are expensive.
(iii) Orthodontic applications
They have low energy efficiency.
APPLICATIONS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS NiTi wire holds the teeth tight with a constant stress irrespective of the strain
produced by the teeth movement. It resists permanent deformation even if it is
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1. Microvalve (Actuators) bent. NiTi is non-toxic and non-corrosive with body fluid.
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One of the most common applications of SMAs is mocrovalves. Fig. shows a (iv) SMAs (NiTi) are used to make eye glass frames and medical tools.
microvalve made of Ni –Ti alloy actuator. Actuator is a microsensor that can
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Sun-glasses made from superelastic Ni-Ti frames provide good
trigger the operation of a device. The electrical signal initiates an action. comfort and durability.
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4. Antenna wires
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The flexibility of superelastic Ni –Ti wire makes it ideal for use as
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retractable antennas.
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5. Thermostats
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SMAs are used as thermostat to open and close the valves at required
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Fig. Schematic of microvalves that open and close according to temperature
temperature.
When an electrical current of 50 to 150 mA flows in Ni-Ti actuator, it
contracts and lifts the poppet from the orifice and opens the valve.
6. Cryofit hydraulic couplings
2. Toys and novelties
SMAs materials are used as couplings for metal pipes
Shape memory alloys are used to make toys and ornamental goods.
7. Springs, shock absorbers, and valves
A butterfly using SMA. Moves its wings in response to pulses of
Due to the excellent elastic property of the SMAs, springs can be made which
electricity.
have varied industrial applications. Some of them are listed here.
Engine micro valves
Medical stents (Stents are internal inplant supports provided for body organs)
2. Colloid
Firesafety valves and
A stable liquid phase containing particles in 1 to 1000 nm range. A colloidal
Aerospace latching mechanisms particle is one such 1 to 1000 nm sized particle.
8. Stepping motors 3. Nanoparticle
Digital SMA stepping motors are used for robotic control. A solid particle in the 1 to 100 nm range that could be non-crystalline, an
aggregate of crystallites, or a single crystallite.
9. Titanium-aluminium shape memory alloys offer excellent strength with less
weight and dominate inthe aircraft industry. They are high temperature SMAs, 4. Nanocrystal
for possible use in aircraft engines and other high temperature environments.
A solid particle that is a single crystal in the nanometer size.
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5. Nanostructured or Nanoscale Material
4 NANOTECHNOLOGY
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Any solid materials has a nanometer dimension.
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NANO MATERIALS
Three dimensions --- > Particles
Nanoparticles are the particles that have three dimensional nanoscale, the particle Two dimensions --- > Thin films
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is between 1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. A nanometer is a unit of One dimension --- > Thin wire
or
or
measure equal to one-billionth of a meter, or three to five atoms across.
6. Quantum Dots
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Nanotechnology is the design, fabrication and use of nanostructured systems, and
the growing, assembling of such systems either mechanically, chemically or A particle that exhibits a size quantization effect in at least one dimension.
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biologically to form nanoscale architectures, systems and devices.
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COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS
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TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP PROCESSS
1. Diameter of sun - 1,393,000km 1. Top-down Process
2. Diameter of earth - 1,28,000km
3. Height of Himalaya mountain - 8,848km In this processes, bulk materials are broken into nano sized particles as shown in
4. Height of man - 1.65km
5. Virus - 20-250nm
6. Cadmium sulphide nanoparticle - 1-10nm
CLASSIFICATION OF NANOMATERIALS
In to-down processes, the building of nanostructures starting with small
1. Clusters components like atoms and molecules that are removed from a bulk material so
as to obtain desired microstructure.
A collection of atoms or reactive molecules up to about 50 units.
2. Bottom-up Processes
In this processes, nano phase materials are produced by building of atom by atom
as shown in.
Fig. Pulsed Laser Deposition CNT

This processes building larger objects from smaller buildings blocks.
Nanotechnology seeks to use atoms and molecules as those building blocks. This This quartz tube is filled with argon gas and it is heated to 1473 K. A water
is the opposite of the top-down approach. Instead of taking material away to make cooled copper collector is fitted at the other end of the tube. The target material
in
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structures, the bottom-up approach selectively adds atoms to create structures. graphite contains small amount of nickel and cobalt as a catalyst to nucleate the
formation of nanotubes.
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5 SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES
Working
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Nano materials are newly developed materials with grain size at the
nanometre range (10-9m) When an intense pulse of laser beam is incident on the target, it evaporates
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the carbon from the graphite. The evaporated carbon atoms are swept from the
i.e., in the order of 1 –100 nm. The particle size in a nano material is in the order higher temperature argon gas to the colder copper collector.
or
or
of nm.
When the carbon atoms reach the colder copper collector, they condense into
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.p
PULSED LASER DEPOSITION nanotubes.
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CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION
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Priniciple
The deposition of nano films from gaseous phase by chemical reaction on high
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The laser pulse of high intensity and energy is used to evaporate carbon temperature is known as chemical vapour deposition.
from graphite. These evaporated carbon atoms are condensed to from nanotubes.
This method is used to prepare nano-powder.
Description
Principle
The experimental arrangement of pulsed laser4 deposition is shown in fig. A
quartz tube which contains a graphite target is kept inside a high temperature In this technique, initially the material is heated to gaseous state and then
muffle furnace. it is deposited on a solid surface under vacuum condition to form nano powder
by chemical reaction with the substrate.
Description and Working

The CVD reactor built to perform CVD processes is shown in fig.
For example in copper, it decrease from 2.52 (cluster size –50A) to

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) involves the flow of a gas with diffused 2.23A (Cu dimer) fig.
reactants (substances to be deposited in the vapour) over a hot substrate surface.
The gas that carries the reactants is called the carrier gas. The change in inter particle spacing and large surface to the volume ratio
in particles have a combined effect on material properties. Therefore, the
nanophase materials have very high strength and super hardness.
Because of the cluster of grains, the nano phase materials are mostly free from
dislocations and stronger than conventional metals.
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n.
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While the gas flows over the hot solid surface, the heat energy increases chemical
reactions of the reactants that form film during and after the reactions.
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The byproduct of the chemical reactions are then removed. The thin film
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of desired composition can thus be formed over the surface of the substrate.
or
or
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6 PROPERTIES OF NANOPHASE MATERIALS. Fig. Interatomic distance in Cun as a function of grain size.
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Properties of Nanophase Particles
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(ii) Melting point reduces with decrease in cluster size.
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The mechanical, electrical, chemical, magnetic and structural properties of
nanophase materials change with the reduction in the particle size of the material.
The melting point of gold in nano phase (Aun) varies as a function of particle size
(fig.)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Variation of physical properties with geometry
Starting from the bulk, the first effect of reducing the particle size is to
create more surface sites. This in turn changes surface pressure and interparticle
spacing.
(i) Interparticle spacing decreases with decrease in grain size for metal
clusters.
Fig. Ionisation potential and reactivity of Fen clusters as a function of size

(iv) The large surface to volume ratio, the variations in geometry and the
electronic structure have a strong effect on catalytic properties.
As an example, the reactivity of small clusters is found to vary by higher

orders of magnitude when the cluster size is changed by only a few atoms.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Nanoparticles of non-magnetic solids also exhibit totally new type of

magnetic properties.
(i) Bulk magnetic moment increases with decrease in co-ordination

Fig. Melting point of small Aun particles as a function of size number
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The melting point decreases from 1200 K to 800 K when the particle size The change in magnetic moment on the nearest coordination number is shown in
fig.-0
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decreases from 300 A to 20 A. aa
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(iii) Ionisation potential changes with cluster size of the nanograins.
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The electronic bands in metals become narrower when the size is reduced from
bulk which changes the value of ionization potential.
or
or
Fig. shows the ionization potential and reactivity of Fe n clusters as a function of
size. Ionisation potentials are higher at small sizes than that for the bulk and show
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marked fluctuations as a function of size.
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Fig. Change in magnetic moment on the nearest coordination
number
As the coordination number decreases, the magnetic moment increases

with the atomic valuewhich means that small particles are more magnetic
than the bulk material.
The magnetic moment of iron (Fe) of nanoparticles is 30% more than that of
bulk. At smaller sizes, the clusters become spontaneously magnetic.
(ii) The nano-materials shows variation in their magnetic property when

they change from bulk state to cluster (nano-particle) state. ZnO thermistors are used in thermal –protection and current-controlling devices.
2. Information Technology
(iii) Non-magnetic materials become magnetic when the cluster size
reduces to 80 atoms. Nanoparticles are used for data storage.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Quantum electronic devices have started replacing bulk conventional devices.
(i) In nanophase materials, the elastic strength is low however, its Nano materials are used to produce very tiny permanent magnets of high energy
plastic behavior is high. products. Hence, they are used in high-density magnetic recording.
(ii) In some nanophase materials, it is noted that there is decrease in Magnetic devices made of Cu-Fe alloy are used in RAM, READ / WRITE heads
hardness when the grain size is less than 10 nm. and sensors.
However for many nanocrystalline, pure metals (10 nm), the Quantum dots, quantum wells and quantum wires are mainly produced from
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hardness is about 2 to 7 times greater than that of large-grained (>1 semiconductor nanomaterials. Hence, they are used in computer storage
μ m) metals.
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aa (memory) devices.
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(iii)Higher hardness and mechanical strength (2-7 times) when grain 3. Biomedicals
size reduces from 1 μ m to 10 nm.
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Biosensitive nanoparticles are used for tagging of DNA and DNA chips.
(iv) It has very high ductility and superplastic behavior at low
or
or
temperatures. Controlled drug delivery is possible using nanotechnology. Diffusion of medicine
through nanoporous polymer reservoir as per the requirement is very useful in
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7 APPLICATIONS OF NANOPHASE controlling the disease.
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MATERIALS. Nanostructured ceramics readily interact with bone cells and bence finds
applications as an implant material.
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1. Materials Technology
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We can synthesis harder metals having hardness 5 times higher than normal 4. Energy storage
metals using nanoparticles.
Since the hydrogen absorbing capability increases with decrese of size of
Stronger, lighter, wear resistant, tougher and flame retardant polymers are nanoparticles, nanoparticles of Ni, Pd and Pt are useful in hydrogen storage
synthesized with nanoparticles as fillers. They are used in replacement of body devices.
parts and metals (bio-materials).
Metal nanoparticles are very useful in fabrication of ionic batteries.
We can produce unusual colour paints using nanoparticles since nanoparticles
exhibit entirely different optical properties. 5. Optical devices
Nanophase materials are used in annoelectronic devices such as nanotransistore, Nanomaterials are used in making effici
ceramic capacitors for energy storage, noise filters and stabilizers. The special
features of these devices include smaller sizes and reduced power losses.
Two plane electrodes are placed in parallel to each other. When a voltage
is applied to there electrodes, a uniform electric field is produced in the cell.
Nanoparticulate zinc oxide is used to manufacture effective Sunscreens.
The Kerr cell is placed between a crossed polarizer system (Fig), When the
Nanoparticles are used in the coatings for eye glasses to protect from scratch or electric field is applied, the molecules of the liquid tend to align along the field
breakage. direction.
As the molecules are asymmetric, the alignment causes anisotropy and the
6. Transmission lines liquid becomes double refracting. The induced birefringence is proportional to
the square of the applied electric
Nanophase materials are used in the fabrication of signal processing field Eand to the wavelength λ of incident light.
elements such as filters, delay lines, switches etc.
7. Nanomicro-Electro Mechanical Systems (Nano MEMS) have direct

implications onintegrated circuits, optical switches, pressure sensors and
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mass sensors.
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8. Molecular Nano-Technology (MNT) is aimed to develop robotic
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machines, called assemblerson a molecular scale, molecular-size power
sources and batteries.
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9. Underwater nanosensor networks are used to detect the movement of
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ships in an efficientmanner with faster response. They can also detect
chemical, biological or radiological materials in cargo containers.
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Fig. Kerr effect –Birefringence is induced in a liquid subjected to an electric
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field
8 NON-LINEAR MATERIALS AND BIO-
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The change in refractive influx is given by
MATERIALS ∆μ= K λE2
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Where K is known as the Kerr constant
BIREFRINGENCE AND KERR EFFECT.
EXPLAIN NON-LINEAR PROPERTIES AND SECOND HARMONIC
GENERATION. Basic Principle of Non Linear Properties
The appearance of double refraction under the influence of an external
agent is known as artificial double refraction or induced birefringence.
We know that a light wave is electromagnetic in nature ie., it consists of
electric and magnetic fields. When the light propagates through a material, it
Optical Kerr Effect
changes the properties of the medium, such as the refractive index. It depends on
the electric and magnetic fields associated with the light.
Anisotropy induced in an isotropic medium under the influence of an electric field
is known as Kerr effect. For example, we could not observe nonlinear effects with the ordinary light beam
A sealed glass cell known as Kerr cell filled with a liquid comprising of of low intensity, since the electric and magnetic fields associated with the light
asymmetric molecules is used to study the Kerr effect. beams is very weak.
With the invention of laser, it is now possible to have electric fields which
are strong enough to observe interesting non linear effects.
Thus if electric and magnetic fields are strong enough, the properties of the
medium will be affected which in turn will affect the propagation of the light
beam.
NON LINEAR PROPERTIES
Few of the nonlinear phenomena observed are
1. Second harmonic generation
2. Optical mixing
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3. Optical phase conjugation
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4. Soliton
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SECOND HARMONIC GENERATION
or
or
In a linear medium, polarization P is directly proportional to the electric field E
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.p
P 𝖺E
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P = εoχE
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Whereo ε- Permittivity of free space
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χ - electrical susceptibility
In nonlinear medium for higher fields ie., higher intensities of light the non
linear effects are observed.
In the above equation, 1st term gives rise to dc field across the medium, the
second term gives external polarization and is called first or fundamental
harmonic polarisability.
The third term which oscillates at a frequency 2w is called second Based on the applications in the field of medicine, biomaterials are
harmonic of polarization and other terms are referred as higher harmonic classified as
polarization.
1. Metals and alloys biomaterials
Both first term (dc field) and third term (second harmonic of polarization)
added together is called optical rectification. 2. Ceramics biomaterials.
The second harmonic generation is possible only the crystals lacking 3. Polymer biomaterials.
inversion symmetry. SHG crystals are quartz, potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KDP), Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), Barium titante (BaTiO 3) and 4. Composite biomaterials
Lithium lodate (LiIO3)
Sometimes, a single material mentioned above cannot fulfill the complete
The observation of second harmonic generation by KDP is shown in figure. requirements imposed for specific applications. In such case, combinations of
more than one material are required.
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Metals and Alloys
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Metals and alloys are used as biomaterials due to their excellent electrical
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and thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.
TYPES OF BIOMATERIALS USING METALS AND ALLOYS

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or
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1. Cobalt based alloys
Fig. Arrangement for observing second harmonic generation
2. Titanium
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When the fundamental radiation (1.064 m) from Nd: YAG laser is sent
3. Stainless steel
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through SHG crystal like KDP, conversion takes place to double the frequency.
i.e., half the wavelength (0.532 m) takes place.
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4. Protosal from cast alloy
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5. Conducting metals such as Platinum
BIOMATERIALS WITH THEIR PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
APPLICATIONS
The materials which are used for structural applications in the field of
medicine are known as Biomaterials. The metals and alloys biomaterials are used in implant and orthopedic
applications.
In the recent years, new biomaterials like nanobiomaterials are emerging
up due to the requirements in the medical field for different applications. 1. Stainless steel is the predominant implant alloy. This is mainly due
to its ease of fabrication and desirable mechanical properties and
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMATERIALS corrosion resistant.
2. Proposal from cast alloy of Co –Cr –Mo is used to make stem and used
for implant hip endoprosthesis.
4. Apatite ceramics are new bio active ceramics. They are regarded as
3. The advanced version of protosal –10 from Co –Ni –Cr –Mo alloy is synthetic bone, readily allows bone ingrowth, better than currently used
widely used in Hipjoints, Ankle joints, Knee joints, leg lengthening alumina Al2O3.
spaceas.
5. Carbon has good biocompatibility with bone and other tissues. It has
4. ASTMF –136 (composition of Ti –6A1 –4V, EL1 alloy, forged) due to high strengths and an elastic molecules close to that of bone.
its high strength / weight ratio, high corrosion resistance and high bio
compatibility, this alloy is used in dental applications for making 6. Carbon coatings find wide applications in heart valves, blood vessel
screws, wires and artificial teeth. grafts, percutaneous devices because of exceptional compatibility with
soft tissues and blood.
5. Ni –Ti shape memory alloy is used in dental arch wires, micro surgical
instruments, blood clot filters, guide wires etc. 7. Percutaneous carbon devices containing high density electrical
connectors have been used for the chronic stimulation of the cochlea for
CERAMICS artificial hearing and stimulation of the visual cortex to aid the blind.
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Ceramics are used as biomaterials due to their high mechanical strength Bio Polymers
and biocompatibility.
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Biopolymers are macromolecules (protein, nucleic acids and
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Types of Bio-Ceramic materials. polysachacides) formed in
1. Tricalcium phosphate
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nature during the growth cycles of all organisms.
or
or
2. Metal oxides such as Al2O3 and SiO2 Biopolymers find variety of applications as biomaterials. The most
prominent among them are collagens, muco-polysaccharides –chitin, collagens
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3. Apatite ceramics and its derivatives.
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Collagnes which are major animal structural proteins are widely used in a
4. Porous ceramics
variety of forms such as solution, gel, fibers, membranes, sponge and tubing for
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large number of biomedical applications including drug delivery system, vessels,
5. Carbons and Alumina
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valves corneal prosthesis, wound dressing, cartilage substitute and dental
applications.
Applications
1. Ceramic implants such as Al2O3 and with some SiO2 and alkali metals Biomaterials in Opthamology
are used to make femoral head. This is made from powder metallurgical
process. Biomaterials find important applications in opthalmology. They are used to
2. Tricalcium phosphate is used in bone repairs. improve and maintain vision. Eye implants are used to restore functionality of
cornea, lens, etc, when they are damaged or diseased.
3. Orthopedic uses of alumina consists of hip and knee joints, tibical plate, The biomaterials include viscoelastic solutions intraocular lenses, contact
femur shaft, shoulders, radius, vectebra, leg lengthening spaces and lenses, eye shields, artificial tears, vitreous replacements, correction of corneal
ankle joint prosthesis. Porous alumina is also used in teeth roots. curvature.
Dental Materials
Polymers, composites, ceramic materials and metal alloys are four main Conventional implant devices
groups of materials used for dental applications. Biomaterials Properties
Modern Engineering MaterialsBiomaterials Applications
A large number of materials are tested for porous dental implants, which include
stainless steel,Co –Cr –Mo alloy, PMMA, proplast and Daceon, velour coated 1 INTRODUCTION
metallic implants, porous calcium aluminate single crystal alumina, bioglass,
vitreous and pyrolytic carbons. There have been a number of science fields which have helps to producing
new engineering materials. Some of the fields are the nano engineering and the
The dental applications include impression materials, dentine base and ceorons, forensic engineering. Hundreds and hundreds of scientists and inventors are
bridges, inlays and repair or cavities, artificial teeth, repair of alveolar bone, working and experimenting continuously to make this world a better place to live.
support for mandible . These new inventions have gradually changed the course of living of people,
these New engineering materials are not a result of single engineering technology
Modern Engineering Materials but these are obtained or produced from a blend of different technologies.
1 Introduction
Some of the Modern Engineering Materials like Metallic glasses, Shape
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2 Metallic Glasses
Glass transition temperature memory alloys, Nano materials are discussed here.
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Methods of production of Metallic Glasses
Types of Metallic Glasses 2 METALLIC GLASSES
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Properties of Metallic glasses
Applications of Metallic glasses 3 Metallic glasses are the amorphous metallic solids which have high strength,
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Shape Memory Alloys good metallic properties and between corrosion resistance and will possess both
Definition the properties of metals and glasses.
or
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Working Principle of SMA
Example: Alloys of Fe, Ni, Al, Mn, Cu.
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Characteristics of SMA
Properties of Ni – Ti alloy
Advantages of SMA’s
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Glass transition temperature
Disadvantages of SMA’s
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Applications of SMA’s4 It is an important parameter for the preparation of metallic glasses. It is
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Nano Materials defined as a temperature at which the liquid like atomic structure is
Introduction obtained into a solid.
Definitions
Synthesis of Nanomaterials The value of glass transition temperature for metallic alloys is about 20OC to
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) 5 30OC.
Properties of Nanoparticles Methods of production of Metallic Glasses
6 Applications of Nanoparticles
7 Non linear materials (NLO materials) Metallic glasses are manufactured by the following methods. They are,
Higher Harmonic Generation
Experimental Proof Twin roller technique
Optical mixing8
Biomaterials Melt extraction technique
Biomaterials Classifications Melt spinning technique
ejected through the nozzle on the rotating roller and is suddenly made to cool.
The ejection rate may be increased by increasing the inert helium gas pressure
Twin roller system inside the refractory tube. Thus due to rapid quenching a glassy alloy ribbon
called metallic glass is formed over the rotating roller.
In this technique, the molten alloy is passed through two rollers rotating in
opposite directions. Types of Metallic Glasses
2. Melt extraction technique The metallic glasses are classified into two types.
In this technique, the fast moving roller sweeps off molten droplet into a Metal – Metalloid Glasses
strip from a solid rod.
Example: Fe, Co, Ni – Ge, Si, B, C.
3. Melt spinning technique
Metal – Metal Glasses Example: Ni, Mg, Cu – Zn, Zr.
Principle
Metal – Metalloid Glasses
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Quenching is a technique used to from metallic glasses. Quenching means
Rapid Cooling. Due to rapid cooling, atoms are arranged irregularly and from
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The first class of metallic glasses is from transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni)
metallic glasses. Metalloid (B, Si, C & P) so they are called metal – metalloid glasses.
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Construction
It consists of a refractory tube with fine nozzle at the bottom. The refractory tube 2. Metal – Metalloid Glasses
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is placed over the rotating roller. The roller is rotated at a higher speed to generate
a velocity of more than 50 ms 1 . An induction heater is wounded over the Nickel – Niobium (Ni – Nb)
or
or
refractory tube to heat the alloy to very high temperature.
Magnesium – Zinc (Mg – Zn)
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Copper – Zirconium (Cu – Zr)
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Hafnium – Vanadium (Hf – V) alloys
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Properties of Metallic glasses
Metallic glasses have very high strength and are stronger than metals
because the absence of grain boundaries and dislocations.
The structure of metallic glass is Tetrahedral Close Packing (TCP).
These are having very high corrosion resistance.

Fig. 5.1 Melt spinning technique
Working They have high workability and ductility.
The alloy is put into the refractory tube and induction heater is switched on.
This heats the alloy to very high temperature, hence the super heated molten alloy The electrical resistivity is found to be high (greater than 100)/ due to this
eddy current loss is very small.
Metallic glasses have both soft and hard magnetic properties. They have catalytic properties.
These are highly reactive and stable. They are highly reactive and stable.
It can also act as a catalyst. Applications of Metallic glasses
Structural Properties Metallic glasses are used as reinforcing elements in concrete, plastic and
rubber.
They do not have any crystal defects such as grain boundaries and
dislocations. Metallic glasses are used to make pressure vessels and to construct larger
fly wheels for energy storage.
They have tetrahedral packed structure. These materials do not passes
long range anisotropy They are used to make accurate standard resistors, Magnetic resistance
sensors and computer memories.
Mechanical Properties
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These are used in tape recorder heads, cores of high power transformers
Metallic glasses are stronger than metals and alloyes because they are free
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and magnetic shields.
from defects and dislocations.
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Metallic glasses are used as core in motors.
They have high corrosion resistance due to random ordering.
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These are used to make razor blades and different kinds of springs.
They have high elasticity and ductility.
or
or
Metallic glasses can be used as superconductor for producing high
Electrical Properties magnetic fields and magnetic levitation effect.
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Electrical resistivity of metallic glasses is high and it does not vary with Metallic glasses are used to make containers for nuclear waste disposal
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temperature. and magnets for fusion reactors.
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Eddy current loss is very small due to high resistivity. Metallic glasses are used in marine cables, chemical filters, inner surfaces
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of reactor vessels, etc.,
The Hall co-efficient of metallic glasses is found to have both positive
and negtive signs. 10.Metallic glasses are very useful to make surgical instruments.
Magnetic Properties 11.Superconducting mettalic glasses are used to produce high magnetic
fields and magnetic levitation effect.
It obeys both soft and hard magnetic properties.
Appendix
The core losses of metallic glasses are very small.
Chemical Properties The reasons for choosing metallic glasses are transformer core
Metallic glasses are available in thin sheets therefore the size and weight of
They have high corrosion reistance. the transformer is reduced. Hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the area of
the hysteresis loop. The loop area of the metallic glasses is very small and also
has high initial permeability. So, the hysteresis loss is almost zero… The eddy Examples : Ni-Ti (Nickel – Titanium), Cu Zn A1, Cu A1 Ni, Au – Cd, Ni-Mn-
current in the core is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the core material Ga and Fe based alloys.
and directly proportional to the thickness of the lamination of the core. Working Principle of SMA
Since the resistivity of the metallic glasses is high and the thickness of the core The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to change in the crystalline
laminated core material due to small thickness, smaller area, less weight, high structure of the materials with the change in temperature and stress.
resistivity, soft magnet with low hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The shape memory effect occurs between two temperature states known as
3 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS Martensite and Austenite. The Martensite structure is a low temperature phase
and is relatively soft, It has platelet structure the Austenite is a high temperature
Share memory alloys (SMA’s) are metals, which exhibit two very unique phase and is hard it has needle like structure.
properties, pseudo-elasticity and the shape memory effect. Arne Olander first
observed these unusual properties in 1938 (Oksuta and Wayman 1998), but not Martensite is the relatively soft and easily deformed phase of shape memory
until the 1960’s were any serious research advances made in the field of shape alloys which exists at lower temperatures. It has two molecular structures namely,
in
in
memory alloys. The most effective and widely used alloys include NiTi (Nickel twinned Martensite and deformed Martensite. Austenite is the stronger phase of
shape memory alloys which occurs at higher temperatures, the shape of the
n.
n.
– Titanium), CuZnA1 and CuA1Ni.
Austenite structure is cubic.
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Definition
When we apply a constant load on a shape memory alloy and cool it, its
The ability of the metallic alloys to retain to their original shape when heating
shape changes due to produced strain. During the deformation, the resistivity,
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or cooling is called as Shape Memory Alloys (SMA).
thermal conductivity, Young’s modulus and yield strength are decreased by more
These metallic alloys exhibit plastic nature when they are cooled to very low
or
or
than 40%.
temperature and they return to their original nature when they are heated. This
effect is known as Shape Memory Effect.
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Twinned Martensite state alloy becomes deformed Martensite when it is loaded.
It is also called as smart materials or intelligent materials or Active materials. The deformed Martensite becomes Austenite when it is heated, the Austenite
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There are two types of shape memory alloys, transformed to original twinned Martensite state when it is cooled.
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One way shape memory – It returns to its memory only when heating
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Two way shape memory – It returns to its memory on both heating and
Cooling.
Classification
Piezo electric SMA materials.
Electrostrictive SMA materials.
Magnetostrictive SMA materials.

Thermo elastic SMA materials. Fig.5.2 Material crystalline arrangement during shape memory effect
Ni – Ti is a compound of Nickel and Titanium and it finds many applications

Characteristics of SMA in the field of engineering due to the following properties.
1. Hysteresis It has greater shape memory strain.
Hysteresis of a SMA is defined as the difference between the temperatures It has more thermal stability and excellent corrosion resistance.
at which the material is 50% transformed to austenite when heating and 50%
transformed to martensite when cooling. It has higher ductility and more stable transformation temperatures.
When the temperature is decreased in a metallic material, the phase It has better bio-compatibility and it can be electrically heated.
transformation takes place from austenite to martensite. This transformation takes
place not only at a single temperature, but over a range of temperatures. Advantages of SMA’s
The hysteresis curve for a shape memory alloy is shown below. They ahve good bio-Compatibility.
They have simplicity, Compactness and high safety mechanism.
in
in
n.
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aa They have good mechanical properties and strong corrosion-resistance.
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They have high power and weigh ratio.
Disadvantages of SMA’s
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They have poor fatigue properties.
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They are expensive and difficult to preparing in a machine.
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Fig.5.3 Hysteresis curve for SMA’s They have low energy efficiency.
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2. Pseudo elasticity They have limited band with due to heating (or) cooling.
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When a metallic material is cooled from a temperature T to a lower Applications of SMA’s
temperature TC it deforms and changes its shape. On reheating the material to
Temperature (T) the shape change is received so that the material returns to its Eye glass frames : We know that the recently manufactured eye glass
original state. This effect is known as pseudo elasticity or thermo elastic property. frames can be bent back and forth and can retain its original shape within
fraction of time.
3. Super elasticity
Toys : We might have seen toys such as butterflies, snakes etc., which
Super elasticity is a property of SMA. When a material is deformed at a are movable and flexible.
temperature slightly greater than its transformation temperature super elasticity
property appears (Rubber like property). Helicopter blades: The life time of helicopter blades depends on
vibrations and their return to its original shape. Hence shape memory
Properties of Ni – Ti alloy alloys are used in helicopter blades.
Coffee Valves : Used to release the hot milk and the ingredients at a Nanomaterials (nanocrystalline materials) are materials possessing grain sizes of
certain temperature the order of a billionth of a meter. They manifest extremely fascinating and useful
properties, which can be exploited for a variety of structural and non structural
Medical Applications of SMA’s applications.
It is used as Micro – Surgical instruments. All materials are composed of grains, which in turn comprise many atoms.
These grains are usually invisible to the naked eye, depending on their size.
It is used as dental arch wires. Conventional materials have grains varying in size anywhere from 100’s of
microns ( m ) to millimeters (mm). A micron ( m ) is a micrometer or a millionth
It is used as flow control devices. (10–6) of a meter. An average human hair is about 100 m in diameter. A nanometer
(nm) is even smaller a dimension than a m and is a billionth (10–9) of a meter. A
It is used as ortho – dentil implants. nanocrystalline material has grains on the order of 1-100 nm. The average size of
an atom is on the order of 1 to angstroms ( Ao ) in radius.
It is used for repairing of bones.
nanometer comprises 10 Ao , and hence in one nm, there may be 3-5 atoms,
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They are used to correct the irregularities in teeth. depending on the atomic radii. Nanocrystalline materials are exceptionally strong,
hard, and ductile at high temperatures, wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and
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Engineering Applications of SMA’s chemically very active. Nanocrystalline materials, or Nanomaterials, are also
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much more formable than their conventional, commercially available
It is used as a thermostat valve in cooling system. counterparts.
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It is used as a sealing plug for high pressure. Definitions
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or
It is used as a fire safety valve. Nanotechnology
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It is used for cryofit hydraulic pipe couplings. Nanotechnology is a field of applied science and technology which deals with
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the matter on the atomic and molecular scale, normally 1 to 100 nanometers,
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It is used for eye glass frame, toys, liquid safety valve. and the fabrication of devices with critical dimensions that lie within that size
range.
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It is used to make microsurgical instruments, orthopedic implants.
Nanomaterials
It is used as blood clot filter and for fracture pulling. Nano materials are the materials with grain sizes of the order of nano meter (10 9 m)
i.e., (1-100 nm). It may be a metal, alloy, inter metallic (or) ceramic.
It is used to make antenna wires in cell phones. Nanomaterials are the materials with atoms arranged in nano sized clusters
which become the building block of the material. Any Material with a size
It can be used as circuit edge connector. between 1 and 100 nm [ 10 9 m to 10 7 m] is also called
Nanomaterials.
4 NANO MATERIALS Synthesis of Nanomaterials
Introduction The Nano mateirals can be synthesized by two processes, they are
Top – down approach
Vapour phase deposition Method

Bottom – up approach
Molecular beam epitaxy Method
1. Top – down approach
Plasma assisted deposition Method
The removal or division of bulk material or the miniaturization of bulk fabrication
processes to produce the desired nanostructure is known as top-down approach. Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy [MOVPE]
It is the process of breaking down bulk material to Nano size.
Liquid phase process [Colloidal method and Sol – Gel method]
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
It is method in which the reaction or thermal decomposition of gas phase

species at higher temperatures [500 – 1000OC] and then deposition on a substrate
takes place, in CVD method carbon nanotubes are grown from the decomposition
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in
of hydrocarbons at temperature range of 500 to 1200 OC. In this process, the
substrate is placed inside a reactor to which a number of gases are supplied. The
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n.
Fig.5.4 Synthesis of Nanomaterials for Top – down approach fundamental principle of the process is that a chemical reaction takes place
Types of Top – down Methods between the source gases. The produce of that reaction is a solid material with
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condenses on all surfaces inside the reactor.
Milling
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or
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Lithographic
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Machining
Bottom – up approach
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Molecules and even nano particles can be used as the building block for
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producing complex nanostructures. This is known as Bottom – up approach. The
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Nano particles are made by building atom by atom.
Fig.5.5 Synthesis of Nanomaterials for Bottom – up approach
Types of Bottom up Methods Fig.5.6 CVD method
Example of CVD technique

An aerosol spray pyrolysis (Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of

organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents) is Nanomaterials can store more electrical energy than the bulk material,
the example of CVD technique, in which high aqueous metal salts are sprayed in because of their large grain boundary (surface) area.
the form of fine mist and then passed into a hot flow tube. In the hot flow tube The energy band structure and charge carried density in the nano materials
pyrolysis converts the salts into the final products on the substrate, in this method can be modified quite differently form their bulk size in turn will modify the
the materials are mixed in a solution, homogeneous mixing is obtained to the electronic properties of the materials.
atomic level. They pyrolysis at low temperature gives the particles in the size
range 5 – 500 nm, in this CVD method catalysts are used for better chemical In nano size an optical absorption band can be introduced, or an existing
reactions, when the catalyst is in nanosize, dispersion of particles is happened due band can be altered by the passage of current or by the application of an electric
to templating effect. In the Production of carbon nanotubes using the field.
decomposition of ethane with hydrogen, Fe, Co or Ni based catalysts are used. 2. Optical Properties of Nanomaterials
The size and distribution of the catalyst particles determine the internal diameter
of the nanotubes. The quantum confinement of electrical carriers within nanoparticles makes
efficient energy and charge transfer over nanoscale distances in nano devices.
5 PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
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The linear and nonlinear optical properties of nanomaterials can be finely
A Bulk materials is reduced to a nano size, the following changes are modified by controlling the crystal dimensions
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occurred
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The color of nanomaterials is changed when the surface plasmon size is reduced.
Large fraction of surface atoms
A surface plasmon is a natural oscillation of the electron gas inside a given nano
sphere.
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High surface energy
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or
3. Chemical Properties of Nanomaterials
Spatial confinement
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The increased surface area of nano particle increases the chemical activity
Reduced imperfections
of the material. Metallic nanoparticles can be used as very active catalysts.
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Chemical sensors from nanoparticles and nano wires enhanced the sensitivity and
The surface area effects, quantum effects can begin to dominate the
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sensor selectivity
properties of matter as size is reduced to the nano scale. These can affect the
optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of materials.
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4. Mechanical Properties of Nanomaterials
Due to their small dimensions, nano materials have extremely large surface
The mechanical properties such as hardness and elastic modulus, fracture
area to volume ratio, which makes a large fraction of atoms of the materials to be
toughness, scratch resistance, fatigue strength, tensile strength, strain-to-failure,
the surface or interfacial atoms, resulting in more “surface” dependent material
Young’s modulus, impact strength and increased at the nanometer scale
properties.
Energy dissipation, mechanical coupling and mechanical nonlinearities are
When the size of their structural components decreases, there is much
also influenced at the nanometer scale.
greater interface area within the material this can greatly affect both mechanical
and electrical properties, ie., the interface area within the material greatly The strength of the material at nanosize approaching the theoretical limit due
increases, which increases its strength. Reduced imperfections are also an to the absence of internal Structural imperfections such as dislocations, micro
important factor in determination of the properties of the nano materials twins, and impurities.
1. Electrical Properties of Nanomaterials 5. Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials
The strength of a magnet is measured in terms of coercivity and saturation

magnetization values. These values increase with a decrease in the grain size and Recently nano-robots were designed, which are used to remove the
an increase in the specific surface area (surface area per unit volume) of the damaged cancer cells and also to modify the neutron network in human
grains. body.
Computer Science Engineering and IT
6. Thermal Properties of Nanomaterials
Nano-materials are used to make CD’s and semiconductor laser.
Photon transport within the materials will be changed significantly due the
photon confinement and quantization of photon transport, resulting in modified These materials are used to store the information in smaller chips.
thermal properties. For example, nano wires from silicon have a much smaller
thermal conductivities compared to bulk silicon. They are used in mobiles, lap – tops etc
The nanomaterials structures with high interfaces densities would reduce the Further they are used in chemical / Optical computers.
thermal conductivity of the materials. There are several effects being considered
for the reduction of thermal conductivities: interfacial roughness, phonon band Nano – dimensional photonic crystals and quantum electronic devices
gaps, dispersion mismatch, doping, structural defects, processing conditions, etc. plays a vital role in the recently developed computers.
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Bio–Medical and Chemical Engineering
n.
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6 APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES
Consolidated state nanoparticles are used as catalyst, electrodes in solar
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Though nano – particles are very small, they are the important materials to and fuel cells.
built future world. They have applications almost in all engineering fields as Bio-sensitive nanoparticles are used in the production of DNA –chips,
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follows Mechanical Engineering bio-sensors etc.
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Nano-structed ceramic materials are used in synthetic bones.
Since they are stronger, lighter etc., they are used to make hard metals.
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Few nanomaterials are also used in adsorbents, self –cleaning glass, fuel
Smart magnetic fluids are used in vacuum seals, magnetic separators etc. additives, drugs, ferrofluids, paints etc.
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They are also used in Giant Magneto Resistant (GMR) spin valves. Nano –metallic colloids are used as film precursors.
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Nano- MEMS (Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems) are used in ICs,
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optical switches, pressure sensors, mass sensors etc. 7 NON LINEAR MATERIALS (NLO MATERIALS)
Electrical, Electronics and Communication Engineering The change in optical properties due to electrical and magnetic field
associated with light is called non linear effects and those materials which possess
Orderly assembled nanomaterials are used as quantum electronic devices these effects are those materials possess these effects are called non-linear
and photonic crystals. materials.
Some of the nanomaterials are used as sensing elements. Especially the
molecular nanomaterials are used to design the robots, assemblers etc. Example:
They are used in energy storage devices such as hydrogen storage devices,
magnetic refrigeration and in ionic batteries. Lithium tantalate
Dispersed nanomaterials are used in magnetic recording devices, rocket
propellant, solar cells, fuel cells, etc. Lithium iodate (LiO3)
Barium Sodum niobate
Ammonium-dihydrophosphate (ADO)
Potassium-dyhydrophosphate (KDP)
Higher Harmonic Generation
Higher (second) Harmonic generation represents the generation of new

frequencies with the help of the crystals such as quartz, LiO3, etc.
Explanation
In a linear medium, Polarization (P) is proportional to the electric field E

that induces it
in
in
n.
n.
aa
aa
When light of higher intensity is passed through dielectric medium, the electric
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field has larges amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles are distorted. Therefore,
some nonlinearity is observed beteen P and E and hence the higher fields are
or
or
written as
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with increase of higher order terms come into play. Let us assume that the field
is strong enough to give rise to χ2.
This non linear polarization shows that it contains the second harmonic of (III
term) as well as an average term (I term) called optical rectification. It can be
shown that only in the crystals lacking inversion symmetry, second harmonic
generation (SHG) is possible.
Experimental Proof
When the fundamental radiation from a laser is sent through SHG crystal, due to
SHG, conversion to double the frequency ie. half the wave length takes place. For
example 1.064 m radiation from Nd-YAG laser gets converted to 0.532 m on

passing through crystals like KDP, ADP, etc.
Fig. 5.7 Experiment arrangement for SHG
If the incident radiation from the laser is intense enough such that the polarization
needs to be represented by three terms.
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n.
n.
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or
or
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8 BIOMATERIALS
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Biomaterials are used to make devices to replace a part or a function of the
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body in safe, reliably economically, and physiologically acceptable manner. A
variety of devices and materials are used in the treatment of disease or injury.
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The last term in the above equation represents third harmonic generation at Commonplace examples include suture needles, plates, teeth fillings, etc. (or)
frequency 3ω . Likewise one can account for higher harmonic generation.
A biomaterial is a synthetic material used to replace part of a living system or to
Optical mixing function in intimate contact with living tissue of a human body. Alone or as part
of a complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components
We are familiar with ariving at a new colour by mixing of two colours in of living systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure.
paints using non linear phenomena, called optical mixing, generation new Biomaterials Classifications
frequencies are possible. Suppose two coherent waves of unequal
frequencies 1 and 2 are traversing the material, then When a synthetic material is placed within the human body, tissue reacts
towards the implant in a variety of ways depending on the material type. The
mechanism of tissue interaction depends on the tissue response to the implant
surface. In general, there are three terms in which a biomaterial may be described
in or classified into representing the tissues responses. These are bioinert,

bioresorbable, and bioactive. Structural components
1. Bioinert Biomaterials Joint replacements, hip and knee

The term bioinert refers to any material that once placed in the human body
has minimal interaction with its surrounding tissue. Examples of these are Spinal fusion devices
stainless steel, titanium, alumina, partially stabilised zirconia, and ultra high
molecular weight polyethylene. Generally a fibrous capsule might form around Dental crowns, bridges, implants, ect
bioinert implants hence its bio functionality relies on tissue integration through
the implant. Other applications
2. Bioactive Biomaterials Inner ear and cochlear implants
Bioactive refers to a material, which upon being placed within the human Tissue engineering
body interacts with the surrounding bone and in some cases, even soft tissue. This
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occurs through a time - dependent kinetic modification of the surface, triggered Coatings for heart valves
by their implantation within the living bone. An ion - exchange reaction between
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the bioactive implant and surrounding body fluids - results in the formation of a Metals
biologically active carbonate apatite (CHAp) layer on the implant that is
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chemically and crystallographically equivalent to the mineral phase in bone. Materials containing only metallic atoms either as single elements or in
Prime examples of these materials are synthetic hydroxyapatite combination in a closely packed crystal structure.
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[Ca10 (PO4)6(OH)2], glass ceramic A-W and bioglass.
or
or
Example: stainless steel, cobalt alloys, titanium alloys.
3. Bioresorbable Biomaterials
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Uses of Metals
Bioresorbable refers to a material that upon placement within the human
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body starts to dissolve (resorbed) and slowly replaced by advancing tissue (such Structural components
as bone). Common examples of bioresorbable materials are tricalcium phosphate
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[Ca3 (PO4)2] and polylactic-polyglycolic acid copolymers. Calcium oxide, Joint replacements
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calcium carbonate and gypsum are other common materials that have been
utilised during the last three decades. Bone fracture pins, plates
Conventional implant devices Dental implants
1. Ceramics Other applications

Inorganic compounds that contain metallic and non-metallic elements, for
which inter-atomic bonding is ionic or covalent, and which are generally formed Leads, wires, tubing
at high temperatures.
Cardiac devices
Example: aluminum oxide, zirconia, calcium phosphates.
Uses of Ceramics Polymers
From Greek - 'poly' meaning many and 'mer' meaning unit or part Low
density structures of non-metallic elements Often in the form of macromolecules Drug delivery
- chains, branched chains or cross linked networks Poor thermal and electrical
conductors due to the affinity of the elements to attract or share valence electrons Cancer detection, therapy and prevention.
Example: Silicones, poly (ethylene), poly (vinyl chloride), Biomaterial-cell interactions in applications such as tissue engineering,
polyurethanes, polylactides advanced stem-cell culture, biosensors, and targeted drug delivery via
the blood.
Uses of Polymers
Advanced drug delivery, ranging from polymeric aerosols that carry life-
Many applications saving drugs to cationic polymer/DNA self-assembled nanocomplexes
that deliver DNA to specific tissues for in vivo gene therapy.
Valves, ducts, catheters
Genetically-engineered polymers for tissue engineering and drug
Joint replacement delivery applications.
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Coatings, encapsulates Cellular biopolymers and their role in cell migration and cancer
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metastasis.
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Tissue engineering scaffolds
Other important applications
Biomaterials Properties
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Heart- pacemaker, artificial valve, artificial heart
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Mechanical properties of the various tissues in the human body are well
established, and it is important that the in-vivo environment of an implant Eye -contact lens, intraocular lens
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be considered during implant design. Mechanical performance of an
implanted device is influenced by the inherent properties of the chosen Ear -artificial stapes, cochlea implant
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biomaterial grades and by the processing method used to convert them
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into their finished forms. Bone -bone plate, intramedullary rod, joint prosthesis, bone cement, bone
Degradation properties of chosen biomaterials can play a pivotal role in defect repair
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determining tissue healing dynamics and thus clinical outcome.
Timescales involved in the tissue regeneration process are increasingly Kidney- dialysis machine
well understood. Through transferring functional requirement back to the
native tissue during its regeneration, clinically superior results may be Bladder- catheter and stent
achieved. Furthermore, resorption of the implant can reduce both
lifetime procedural cost and incidence of post-operative complications. Muscle sutures- muscle stimulator
Surface properties of a biomaterial, determined by both its chemical
Circulation- artificial blood vessels
composition and conversion processes, affect the local tissue response at
the biomaterial-tissue interface on a cellular level. Consideration is
Skin burn- dressings, artificial skin
therefore given to the desired cellular response to a biomaterial surface,
during medical implant design.
Endocrine -encapsulated pancreatic islet cells.
Biomaterials Applications

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1 Introduction Free Electrons

(ii) Low resistive materials (i). Classical free electron theory

According to this theory, a metal consists of a very large number of free

Thermal conductivity of the material

Where k- Boltzmann’s constant and T is temperature

6 LORENTZ NUMBER 9 QUANTUM THEORY

10 FERMI DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

When E>EF, equation 1 becomes

At T = 0, if there are N number of atoms, then we have N/2 number of filled

Density = 8.92 × 103 kgm–3

CALCULATION OF FERMI ENERGY

1.The following datas are given for copper

9. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi

(Density of electron = 6 × 1028 m–3)(Ans : = 1.6879 × 10–7 –1

The resistivity of a semiconductor is lesser then an insulator but more than

Based on energy band

Example –1. Combination of third and fifth group elements

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Indium phosphide (InP)

Indium arsenide (InAs)

2. Combination of second and sixth group elements Magnesium oxide (MgO)

We know Fermi function, probability of finding an electron in a given energy

For an intrinsic semiconductor number of electrons (i.e) electron density will be

Drift velocity Vd is proportional to E

Where μ is proportionality constant and it is known as the mobility of the charge

Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is different from that of a

BAND GAP DETERMINATION

Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

(i). n –type semiconductor

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (group V element) is added

A pentavalent impurity (arsenic) having five valance electrons is ad

semiconducting material having four valance electrons (silicon or germanium).

Equating equation (1) and equation (4) we get

FERMI ENERGY LEVEL

At 0K, when T= 0 we can write equation (5)

Let us consider a n-type semiconductor material in the form of rectangular slab.

Hall effect in n- type semiconductor

Here, the force due to potential difference = -e EH ---(1)

Hall coefficient in terms of hall voltage

Area of the sample = b.t

The sign for VH will be opposite for n and p type semiconductors.

Mobility of charge carriers

APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT

It is used to find the carrier concentration

It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers μe, μh.

9.A semiconducting crystal with 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick

I = M / V weber / metre2 Magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a specimen magnetized in a magnetic field.

Retentivity (or) Remanence

This indicates that the paramagnetic susceptibility decreases with increases in

They possess permanent dipole moment.

In a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic interactions between any two

ENERGIES INVOLVED IN DOMAIN GROWTH

When the field is increased, large numbers of domains contribute to the

Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of

Thus the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetization. At this

Now, to remove the residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is

Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetize

Example –tungsten steel, cobalt steel, alini, alnico, hypernic

Soft magnetic materials:

9. FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS - FERRITES

Ferrites are components of iron oxide with oxides of other components.

7. The magnetic flux lines are expelled from the material.

The critical current ic required to destroy the superconducting property is