Anatomy: cardiovascular, respiratory, and urinary systems is the course I finished along with

my second course within two weeks contributing two hours per day. Here below are the
things I learned from the course:

At first, when I looked at the course, not thoroughly, only an overview I was amazed to view
such a huge number of hours for one course I thought it to be a void course which is made for
just consuming time unnecessarily but later as I finished the course I was amazed to know my
knowledge about the heart, urinary system, and respiratory system. However, the path was
not easy. It was full of obstacles which I cleared with the help of knowledge I gained from
the course. Furthermore, I learned new things from the course which are listed below which
would be helpful in my studies for general medicine:

Cardiovascular structure contains:

1. Blood
2. Heart
3. Vasculature
4. Lymphatic

Blood helps in the transportation of nutrients, oxygen, and formed elements. It regulates acid-
base homeostasis and regulates clotting.

Formed elements contain:

1. Erythrocyte (RBC)
2. Leukocytes (WBC)
3. Thrombocytes (Platelets)

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity called the mediastinum.

Vasculature contains:

1. Pathways
2. Arteries
3. Capillary beds
4. Veins
Blood consists of 55% plasma and 45% formed elements, and the elements present in them
are listed below with their composition:

Formed elements Plasma proteins Their composition/ number

RBC Water 4.8-5.4 million microlitre/

91.5%

Platelets Proteins 150,000 - 400,000

microlitre/ 7%

WBC Other solutes 5000-10000 microlitre/ 1.5%

WBC contains of:

1. Neutrophils
2. Basophils
3. Eosinophils
4. Monocytes
5. Lymphocytes

If pH goes below 7.35 for an extended period, this condition is known as acidemia, whereas
if pH hikes above 7.45 for an extended period, this condition is known as alkemia.

Carbonic acid bicarbonate ion buffer resists the change in pH.

Furthermore, I studied erythrocytes, their functions, and their structure, where I got to know
that the erythrocytes have a biconcave shape with a nucleus absent in it for a greater surface
area for the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. They contain haemoglobin which is a
globular protein having a quaternary structure with four haem groups and 4 polypeptide
chains out of which two are alpha and two are beta. In addition, the graveyard of erythrocytes
is the spleen.

Below is the table containing WBC types and their functions:

 Neutrophils Bactericidal

Eosinophils Allergies, endoparasites

Basophils Allergies, ectoparasites

Lymphocytes Adaptive immunity

Monocyte Antigen-presenting

Functions of the lymphatic system:

1. Mirrors CVS(Cardiovascular system)

2. Transport fatty acids
3. Reclaims filtered plasma
4. Immune system host

Lymphocytes contain two cells: B cells and T cells, where B cells provide humoral immunity
and T cells provide cell-mediated immunity and are responsible for graft rejection.

Moreover, I studied the heart where it is located, what its functions are, and some features of
the heart.

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity and it has greater vessels, the coronary sulcus, and
atria are above and the ventricles are below. Furthermore, there are three layers of the heart:

1. Epicardium
2. Myocardium
3. Endocardium

External heart features:

1. Coronary sulcus
2. Auricles
3. Interventricular sulci
4. Great vessels

Atrial features:

1. Pectinate muscles
2. Interatrial septum
a. Fossa ovalis
Ventricle features:

1. Atrioventricular valves
2. Chordae tendineae
3. Papillary mm
4. Trabeculae carnage
5. Semilunar valves

Right atrium

1. Sinus venarum
2. Coronary sinus opening
3. Crista terminalis

Left atrium

1. Pulmonary veins

Left ventricle:

1. Bicuspid (mitral) valve

2. (Semilunar) aortic valve
3. Systemic loop

Microcirculation:

1. Aorta
2. Ascending aorta
3. Aortic arch (the segment of the aorta which supplies the blood to the head)
4. Descending aorta

In addition, respiratory anatomy overview:

1. Nose and nasal cavity

2. Mouth and oral cavity
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Trachea and bronchial tree
6. Lungs

Respiratory functions:
 1. Gas exchange
2. Sound and vocalisation
3. Olfaction

Parts inside the nose :

1. Nasopharynx
2. Boundary at soft palate
3. Oropharynx
4. Boundary at pharyngoepiglottic fold
5. Laryngopharynx

Bronchial tree:

1. Trachea
2. Primary bronchi
3. Secondary bronchi
4. Tertiary bronchi

Urinary anatomy:

1. Kidney
2. Ureter
3. Urethra
4. Urinary bladder

The function of the nephron is selective reabsorption and sodium-potassium pumps for
maintaining ion concentration in medullary interstitium fluid parts of the nephron are:

1. Afferent arteriole
2. Efferent arteriole
3. Bowman’s capsule
4. Glomerulus
5. PCT
6. Loop of Henle
7. DCT
8. Collecting duct

Last but not least I learned a very generous knowledge from the course which I will further
apply in my medicinal studies.