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Key words: integration, land transport policy, multi-modal transit, road pricing, traffic
management, transport planning
Abstract. Singapore has a sophisticated and efficient system of land transport to serve a
growing demand for transportation. Constrained by limited space, a comprehensive set of
land transport policies has been in place to balance the growth in transport demand and
the effectiveness and efficiency of the land transport system. A multi-pronged approach has
been used to achieve the objective of a world-class transportation system. These include
integration of urban and transport planning, expansion of the road network and
improvement of the transport infrastructure, harnessing the latest technology in network
and traffic management, managing vehicle ownership and usage, and improvement and
regulations of public transport (Ministry of Transport (MOT) (2003) Policy and Regula-
tions, Land Transport, Available: www.mot.gov.sg, Date of Access: 15 September 2003).
Singapore was the first country in the world to introduce various new techniques, notably
the Area License Scheme (ALS) in 1975 and the Vehicle Quota System (VQS) in 1990. An
Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system replaced the ALS in 1998 to take the role of con-
gestion management, the experience of which has also drawn particular attention from
many large cities in the world. In 2003, the world’s first and only fully automatic heavy rail
Mass Rapid Transit system was opened to the public, marking a new chapter in Singa-
pore’s innovative approach to solving its land transport problem. This paper reviews the
land transport policy implemented in Singapore and pays special emphasis to its public
transportation systems.
Abbreviation: ALS – Area Licensing Scheme; ARF – Additional Registration Fee; COE – Certif-
icate of Entitlement; ERP – Electronic Road Pricing; HDB – Housing and Development Board;
MRT – Mass Rapid Transit; OMV – Open Market Value; VQS – Vehicle Quota System
1. Introduction
With almost 4 million people living on an island of about 650 km2, Singapore
faces challenges in meeting the daily needs of commuting by its population.
Transport land use now already covers 12% of the island, about the same per-
centage as residential areas. If the current trend continued, roads alone would
occupy 16% of Singapore’s land area by the year 2010. In 2001, an average of
172
7.7 million motorized trips were made in a day. The estimated number of trips
may grow beyond 10 million by 2010 (MOT 2002). The limited land area on
the island has constrained the development of road networks.
The majority of the working population needs a motorized transport
means to get to work. About 60% of them use public transport such as
buses, Mass Rapid Transport (MRT) or Light Rapid Transit (LRT). In the
year 2002, there were 3144 km of roads. Eight expressways with a total
length of 150 km constitute the back bone of the road infrastructure in the
island, the longest of which is the Pan Island Expressway (PIE) 42 km long.
By the end of 2002, the total motorized car population registered in Singa-
pore was 405,797 and about 19,007 taxis (MOT 2003). There were about
132,607 goods vehicles and buses.
To maintain a sustainable transportation system to support the growth of
the economy and activities, an integrated and comprehensive approach has
been taken to managing the demand and plans for the provision of transpor-
tation systems. The formation of a Land Transport Authority in 1996 and
the subsequent publication of the land transport white paper (LTA 1996)
outlined the multi-pronged land transport policy which achieved a world-
class land transportation system in Singapore. In the area of public trans-
port, as stated in the white paper (LTA 1996), it will continue to be a major
mode of land transport, and the vision of a seamless and integrated multi-
modal public transportation system was illustrated.
In this paper, the land transport policy implemented by Singapore to
achieve its objectives will be reviewed. This is followed by a discussion of the
components that make up the multi-modal transit system in Singapore.
Finally, the infrastructure and strategies to integrate the multi-modal transit
services are discussed, as these strategies have profound impact on the way
the multi-modal transit system in Singapore is planned and modelled.
Since the 1970s, when the first comprehensive transportation for Singapore
was completed (Wilber Smith and Associates 1974), the alleviation of traffic
congestion has been the main objective of land transport policy. In a land-
scarce island like Singapore, it was recognized ever since early days that a
comprehensive land transport network, which meets people’s needs and
expectations and supports economic and environmental goals, is much nee-
ded. To achieve the above objectives, based on MOT (2003), a multi-pron-
ged strategy has been adopted as early as the 1970s. The comprehensive
policy comprises the following five main components:
173
In Singapore, the planning practice shows that careful consideration has been
given to integration of transport planning into the master plan, called the
Development Guide Plan (URA 2003). The physical provision of transport
infrastructure has been made in such a manner that the system delivers a high
level of service for the population. Urban areas, including industrial, residen-
tial and social infrastructure, are normally located in close proximity, within a
walking distance of bus stops and MRT stations, making travel by public
transport more convenient. In public housing, or the Housing Development
Board (HDB) estates throughout the island, the road network is designed in
such a way that the placement of bus stops and routing of bus services provide
the greatest accessibility to the public. Island-wide covered walkways linking
the estates together with the bus stops in the vicinity also provides greater con-
venience and protection against weather conditions for residents travelling by
public transport. In certain new developments on the island, the town plan-
ning has provisions for LRT and/or mass rapid transit. It is planned that in
the next 10–15 years, commuter facilities and housing development will be
fully integrated so as to create a ‘‘seamless’’ transport system. Building more
homes near work places and more work places in residential areas will moder-
ate the demand for transport.
passenger boards a vehicle, the balance from the exact fare will be refunded
to the EZ Link card once the passenger alights. The system allows the transit
operators to collect the right fares from the passengers, who are able to travel
in a more convenient way. Operationally, the buses can spend less time at the
bus stops as passengers can now board the vehicles within a shorter time
frame. The two transit operators will equip automatic vehicle location identi-
fication technology in all the buses. Once this is completed, the updating of
fare stages will be automated and this will further enhance the accuracy of
fare collection for bus services in Singapore. The ridership data also provides
a valuable source of information for transit planning.
The VQS was started in May 1990. It is a quota system of new car licences,
called COE, in order to sustain a manageable size of vehicle population con-
sidering factors such as growth in road network and annual attrition of vehi-
cles (MOT 2003). Each month, through a bidding system, bidders (or car
buyers) pay for the lowest successful bid price, which is called the quota pre-
mium and is equal to the medium price of all the bids submitted, in order to
purchase a vehicle. The COE then stays for 10 years from the date of regis-
tration of the vehicle. The working of the COE Scheme relies upon the mar-
ket forces to determine the acceptable prices by the public in order to keep it
in line with the road capacity and traffic conditions to avoid traffic conges-
tion. An electronic open-bidding system has been in place since April 2002.
176
Under such a system the bidding process becomes transparent as any bidder
is able to view the bids put up by other bidders. The system has been fine
tuned over the years and is now operated via an on-line open bidding system
that allows bidders to view bids from other parties. The prices of the COE
change with time and has recently been stabilized at the levels shown in
Figure 1. The quota for a particular year depends on the net allowed
increase of 3% and the number of vehicles to be de-registered in that year.
The major impact of VQS is the high car prices as a direct result of add-
ing the cost of COE to the prices of cars, in addition to the Additional Reg-
istration Fee (ARF) applicable, which has successfully reduced the car
ownership. The ARF was originally set as 150% of the Open Market Value
(OMV) of a vehicle. It was subsequently raised through various stages to
peak at 175% in 1983 and eventually lowered to 150% in 2003, partly
reflecting the tendency to control car usage through congestion pricing
rather than car ownership. Phang (1993) reported a car-to-per-capita-indige-
nous-income ratio of 4.48 in 1994 in Singapore. Foo (1998) illustrated the
affordability of cars in Singapore by the use of an example, which is the
financial cost of a brand new compact car costing S$110,000. Considering a
7 year loan on 70% of the car price, the monthly car loan repayment of
S$1109 (at 1998 prices) was 23% of the average monthly household income
at that time. Chin and Smith (1997) developed an automobile ownership
model with the consideration of the effects of VQS and concluded that the
policy of both regulating car ownership and usage should be complimentary
to each other. Foo (1998) also suggested that car owners may tend to drive
more given the higher car prices and limited life of their vehicles. On the
average, a vehicle in Singapore was used to travel 18,600 km in a year (LTA
4,500 35,000
30,000
4,000
25,000
COE Price (S$)
Car Quota
3,500
20,000
3,000 15,000
10,000
Quota (cars)
2,500
Weighed Price 5,000
2,000 0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov.
Figure 1. Quota and COE prices for cars in 2003 (Source: One.Motoring 2003).
177
covered an area of about 610 ha initially and 710 ha by 1986 when the sys-
tem stabilized. The RH was originally the 7:30–10:15 am period, which was
then extended to cover both morning and evening (4:30–6:30 pm) period.
The restricted vehicles were originally cars and taxis. All vehicles except
scheduled buses were included after 1989. The charges, the ALS fees, ranged
from $1 to $6 depending upon the types of vehicles and the requirements of
the scheme.
The ALS was very successful in reducing traffic flow, thereby relieving
traffic congestion in the restricted areas. Traffic flow during peak hours had
fallen by 44.5%, including a dramatic decline of 70% in the number of cars
entering the CBD right after the imposition of charges (Menon et al., 1993).
Even after more than 10 years’ operations in 1989 and despite an increase of
more than 30% in employment with the RZ at that time, the total inbound
traffic during the RH remained below 70% of the 1975 pre-ALS level. The
observed average speed inside the RZ was 33 kilometres per hour (km/h) in
the morning and 32 km/h in the evening, in 1990, which showed a 30%
increase alone in the evening travel speed. In terms of modal split, the share
of transit modes in work trips to RZ increased from 33% to 69% in 1983.
This composition has remained roughly the same since then. Menon and
Lam (1992) reported that the total cost (without adjusting for inflation) over
the 14 year period from 1975 to 1989 was about S$16.6 million (of which 6.6
millions were the total capital costs), while the total revenue was over S$150
millions during the same period.
In 1995, the RPS was initiated to relieve morning peak-hour congestion
on expressways in the direction going to the CBD area. In 1997, road pric-
ing charges were started on the East Coast Parkway (ECP) and subsequently
extended to the Central Tunnel Expressways (CTE) and PIEs. The charges
were relatively low with fees of S$0.50 for motorcycles and S$1.00 for other
types of vehicles, but applicable only for the period between 7.30 and 8.30
am on working days (Menon & Lam 2000). The scheme achieved a consider-
able reduction in traffic volume by 40% while the average speed increased
significantly, from 40 to 67 km per hour. It was subsequently extended in
time and scope to other expressways near downtown Singapore.
ERP came into operation in April 1998, based on a pay-per-use principle.
It covered all the areas which had previously been covered by ALS and
RPS, then extended to bottlenecks on other expressways and major roads
which suffer severe congestion. The system operates at 29 gantries in the pre-
vious ALS and 12 gantries at expressways and major roads that have con-
gestion problems (Menon 2002). The system is flexible since charges depend
on location, vehicle type and the time of day. The charges are set higher
during busy periods and lower outside those periods and are reviewed every
179
three months based on the levels of services observed on the roads. The
principle in reviewing the ERP rates is based on the information obtained
from speed-flow relationships on Singapore roads. It was determined from
this information that the optimum speed range in roads within CBD should
be between 20 and 30 km/h, while that on expressways should be 45–65 km/
h (Chin 2002). The ERP rates are revised downward once the road speeds
remain at or above the upper bound of the speed range, indicating that
more vehicles should be attracted to use the respective roads. In August
2005, the ERP was for the first time in its history extended in order to man-
age the outbound CBD traffic in the evenings. The traffic on the usually con-
gested Northbound CTE during evening periods was relieved due to an S$1
charge after 1 week’s operation.
Figure 2. The backbone of the multi-modal transit system in Singapore – the planned and exist-
ing MRT network (Source: LTA (2002b)).
On the road system, buses and taxis supplement the rapid transit system
network and provide an alternative means of travel. Currently, there are two
major operators of the bus services, SBS Transit and Trans Island Bus Ser-
vices (TIBS), with a total fleet size of about 3800 buses (SBS: 2602 buses and
TIBS: 787 buses). The two companies operate a total of 282 trunk and fee-
der services (SBS: 172 routes and TIBS: 56 routes). Each day there are about
3.2 million bus passengers, of which 75% use SBS services. The total one-
way route length is 3579 km, of which SBS Transit operates 2535 km and
TIBS operates 1044 km (PTC 2003). The bus services are required to satisfy
the Basic Bus Service Specifications and Standards (PTC 2003), which regu-
lates the directness, accessibility, route length, headways, bus loading, hours
of operations, affordability, route information, and bus timing. In the devel-
opment of a multi-modal transit system, the role of the buses is set to com-
plement the rapid transit systems. In places where there is no rapid
transport, trunk bus services will fill the gap.
Bus operations in Singapore are generally safe, reliable, efficient and com-
fortable, and these are the main objectives of governing how the services are
operated. In 2002, bus services carried about 40% of the total journeys to
work in the modal split (MOT 2002). In line with the policy on the public
transport system, the bus service strives to maintain profitability in major
routes while cross subsidizing less profitable routes. Buses enjoy partial
181
exemption from road tax payments on their vehicles and ERP charges. Bus
lanes are provided in some particularly heavily utilized routes and buses
have priorities at certain traffic junctions. Traffic lights with B-signals have
been installed at selected junctions to give buses an early start and late cut-
off. In 2002, the bus system, operated by two private companies, had a total
of 261 lines served by about 3400 buses during the regular schedule (MOT
2003). The services include trunk, feeder and express services, supplemented
by a ‘‘Bus Plus’’ scheme which provides minibus services during peak hours.
Special night buses for commuters who travel after the normal services are
also available. They normally run along the MRT lines.
The Mass Rapid Transit System (MRT) consists of three main lines: the
East–West, the North–East and the North–South lines of a total length of
111 km, of which 39 km are underground. There are 65 stations, of which 31
stations are underground, 33 stations are elevated and 1 station is at ground
level (Statistics Singapore 2002). The system serves about 1.2 million passen-
gers a day (MOT 2003). The MRT network is a conventional, electrically
driven railway system, which provides a high frequency trunk service and
represents the backbone of the land transport system. Figure 2 illustrates the
existing MRT network. The North East Line (NEL) was opened in June 2003
and has added an additional 20 km to the network length. The lines radiate
from the centre of the city to facilitate travel on the major corridors from all
corners of the island. By 2010 the rail network will be expanded to 100 km
with the completion of phases 1 and 2 of the Circle Line, which will surround
the island and intersect with all the radial lines at mid-point stations. This will
greatly enhance the connectivity and accessibility of the system. In the longer
term, plans exist to expand the rail system to 160 km within 10–15 years.
The MRT system is complemented by LRT systems at various residential
townships as feeder services to enhance the accessibility of the rail network.
The system, 7.8 km long with 14 stations, is driverless, operating at 3 min-
interval during peak hours (Statistics Singapore 2002), provides accessible ser-
vices to residents along its route by having stations close to people’s homes.
In 2003, there were a total of two lines in operation, one in construction and a
number of other lines at the planning stage. By 2006, there will be a total of
three LRT lines in operation and they are in new towns such as Bukit Panj-
ang, Sengkang and Punggol, with a total length of 27 km.
Singapore currently has a total taxi population of approximately 19,000
vehicles operated by 4 taxi companies: Comfort Transportation, City Cab,
TIBS and the Yellow-Top. Almost all the taxis are equipped with
GPS-based automated dispatching systems which keep track, monitor and
navigate the vehicles (MOT 2003). With total daily trips of about 580,000,
the taxi service in Singapore plays an important role in providing rapid,
182
convenient and personal transport for middle and upper income groups,
compatible with other high-income countries. As an important flexible means
of transport, taxis bridge the gap between public and private transport.
The multi-modal transit systems are not planned and operated as individual
systems. They are integrated to facilitate the convenience and efficiency of
travel using multiple modes, which have become the norm for transit travel-
ling in Singapore. The ultimate goal is to enhance the integration between
different systems in a seamless manner. This can only be achieved by careful
consideration of infrastructure integration and most importantly of the inte-
gration of the services.
In Singapore, the forms of integration can be classified into three main
categories: basic connectivity, establishment of transit place, and creation of
a destination (Tong 2002). To provide for basic connectivity, stations are
connected with other developments and/or other forms of transit to provide
shielded access in all weather conditions. The establishment of a transit place
is through the integration of amenities within the premises of transit sta-
tions, for example, the Woodlands interchange with a three-level design to
facilitate the transfers between MRT, buses, cars and taxis, as shown in
Figure 3. For a multi-modal transit station to become a destination, it needs
to be integrated with the developments such that it forms an integral part of
the developments, which in fact becomes a ‘‘transport-integrated’’ property
(Tong 2002). An example of this can be found in Novena station, as shown
in Figure 4, which shows the integrated development of the stations within a
Figure 3. A vertically integrated interchange – The Woodland Interchange (Source: Tong 2002).
183
commercial and office development. There are two other similar develop-
ments at Toa Payoh and Sengkang interchanges. When a transit station
becomes a destination, the implication for the modelling process is that trips
will be attracted to the destination, which is itself a station.
The facilities provided to facilitate integration include bus interchanges, bus
shelters, covered linkways, taxi shelters, passenger pick-up and drop-off
points, pedestrian underpasses, overhead bridges, and bicycle stands.
The main strategies for achieving a multi-modal transit system can be
summarized as follows (Segaram 1994; Konopatzki 2002; Tong 2002):
(i) Institutional integration: It was first achieved through the formation of
TransitLink, which is an inter-agency organization to facilitate the inte-
gration of services by different companies. The second major step is the
formation of a Land Transport Authority, which integrates all relevant
areas in land transportation. The third major step is the formation of
multi-modal transit operators, for example, the merger between the Sin-
gapore Mass Rapid Transit (SMRT) and TIBS that gave birth to the
first multi-modal transit operator in Singapore in 2001. The contract to
maintain and operate the NES and Punggol and Sengkang LRT was
awarded to the Singapore Bus Services (SBS) as an initiative to speed up
the transformation of uni-modal transportation operators into multi-
modal ones in order to achieve the vision of seamless connection with a
multi-modal network. Figure 2 shows the service coverage of SBS Tran-
sit and SMRT/TIBS.
(ii) Physical integration: This includes providing infrastructure to facilitate
the transfers between different modes of transit: for example, the vertical
for years 2001–2005 (PTC 2003). In 2004, the maximum fares for various
transit services are shown in Table 2.
To examine the affordability of transit fares, one can consider a typical
commuting trip which involves a transfer of bus to MRT of average length.
The average fare for such journey would cost about S$0.63 (Feeder) +
S$1.34 (MRT) ) S$0.25 (transfer rebate), which is about S$1.72. Assuming
similar returned trip costs and five working days a week, the total cost for
work trips for an adult is about S$68.8 per month. The overall monthly
average earning per working person was about S$3605 in 2003 (Singapore
Statistics 2004a). The cost for average commuting work trips using transit is
less than 2% of the monthly earning of an individual. This indicates that
public transit in Singapore is affordable to most of its working population.
This is in contrast to an overall average of 22.8% expenditure on transporta-
tion and communication, as reported in Singapore Statistics (2004b), in
1998. The comparison illustrates the effects of policies on vehicle ownership
and usage, as discussed in previous sections.
8. Conclusions
Table 2. Transit fares (in S$) (Source: PTC (2003)) (Numbers within parenthesis are fares on
air-conditioned buses).
Maximum Average
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Dr. Soi Hoi Lam is currently an Associate Professor in Transportation and Logistics
at the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore. He received his Master’s degree and Ph.D. (1992) from the
University of Texas at Austin.
Trinh Dinh Toan was born in 1963 in Vietnam. He received his B.S. degree in
Highway Engineering at the University of Transportation in 1985 in Hanoi, a
Postgraduate Diploma in International Highway Engineering in the UK, 1997, and a
Master’s Degree in Infrastructure Planning in Germany, 1999. He is now a Ph.D.
candidate in Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.