FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

MATTER
 Matter is anything that takes up space and can be weighed. In other words, matter has volume
and mass.
 Solids, Liquids and Gas

FIRE
 Fire is a rapid oxidation process, a chemical reaction resulting in the evolution of light and heat
in varying intensities.
 Fire is the visible manifestation of a rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel and an
oxidizer- typically the oxygen in the air.

COMBUSTION
1. Combustion is a broader term that refers to any chemical reaction in which a substance (fuel)
reacts rapidly with an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen) to release energy in the form of heat
and, often, light.
PYROLYSIS
◈ Burning of Solids
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert
atmosphere. It involves the breaking down of complex molecules into simpler ones.
Steps:
1. Heating: The solid material is heated to its ignition temperature.
2. Pyrolysis: As the solid heats up, it undergoes pyrolysis, breaking down into smaller, volatile
compounds (gases) and char (solid residue).
3. Ignition: The released gases mix with oxygen in the air and ignite, producing a flame.
4. Sustained Burning: The flame maintains the heat necessary to continue the pyrolysis of the
remaining solid material.

VAPORIZATION
◈ Burning of Liquids
Vaporization is the phase transition from the liquid phase to the gas phase. For a liquid to
burn, it must first be vaporized into a gas.
Steps:
1. Heating: The liquid is heated to its flash point, the temperature at which it produces sufficient
vapors to form an ignitable mixture with air.
2. Vaporization: The liquid molecules at the surface gain enough energy to overcome
intermolecular forces and enter the gas phase.
3. Ignition: The vaporized molecules mix with oxygen and ignite, producing a flame.
4. Sustained Burning: The flame continues to vaporize the liquid, sustaining combustion.

DIRECT COMBUSTION
◈ Burning of Gases
Combustion of gases involves the direct reaction of gaseous fuel with an oxidizing agent,
usually oxygen.
Steps:
1|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation
 1. Mixing: The gaseous fuel mixes with oxygen in the air.
2. Ignition: A spark or sufficient heat source ignites the mixture.
3. Sustained Burning: The flame continues as long as there is a continuous supply of fuel and
oxygen.

Solids: Must undergo pyrolysis to produce flammable gases. The combustion process
involves both the solid phase (char) and the gas phase (volatiles).
Liquids: Must vaporize into gases before they can burn. The combustion process occurs in
the gas phase.
Gases: Burn directly when mixed with oxygen. The combustion process is entirely in the gas
phase.

How to burn wood?

To burn a fuel (combustible material), its

temperature must be raised until ignition
point. Thus, before a fuel start to burn or
before it can be ignited, it has to be
exposed to a certain degree of
temperature. When the temperature of a
certain substance is very high, it releases
highly combustible vapors known as FREE
RADICALS (combustible vapors such as
hydrogen gas, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen). During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:
● the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point,
● decomposition takes place - moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,
● decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel (free radicals)
● free radicals undergo combustion.

ELEMENTS OF FIRE
I. FUEL
 Fuel is the material or substance being burned in the combustion process. It may be in
the process of solid, liquid or gas.
 A fuel is any substance that can undergo combustion. It could also be defined as any
substance, which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.
 The material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. In
scientific terms, the fuel in the combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent.
1. Solid Combustible Materials - includes organic and inorganic,
natural or synthetic, and metallic solid materials. Ex. wood, paper,
rubber and plastic.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials - includes all flammable liquid
fuels and chemicals. Ex. oil, greases, gasoline and petroleum.

 Flammable Liquids are those which have a flashpoint below

100°F (37.8 °C), such as gasoline, acetone, and ethyl alcohol.

2|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation

  Combustible Liquids are those which have a flashpoint at or above 100°F (37.8°C),
such as kerosene and fuel oil.
3. Gaseous Substances - includes those toxic/hazardous gases that
are capable of ignition. Ex. hydrogen, butane, methane and carbon
monoxide.

II. OXYGEN
 The primary source of oxygen normally is the atmosphere,
which contains approximately 20.8% oxygen.
 Oxygen in air is the common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel vapor.

NOTE : A concentration of at least 15-16% is needed for the continuation of flaming

combustion; while charring or smoldering (pyrolysis) can occur with as little as 8%.

III. HEAT
 HEAT is the thermal energy transferred between systems
due to a temper ature difference.
 Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which a solid or
liquid material produces sufficient vapors to burn.
 Flame Point - the temperature at which the fuel will
continue to produce sufficient vapors to sustain a
continuous flame.
 Auto Ignition Temperature - The lowest temperature to
which a solid, liquid, or gas requires to be raised to cause
self-sustained combustion without initiation by a spark or
flame.
IV.
V. MIXING AND PROPORTIONING
 Mixing and proportioning are reactions that must be continuous in order for fire to
continue to propagate. The fuel vapors and oxygen must be mixed in the correct
proportions.

VI. IGNITION CONTINUITY

 Ignition continuity is the thermal feedback from the fire to the fuel.

3|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation

  Ignition continuity refers to the uninterrupted and sustained process of combustion once
a material has ignited. For a fire to continue burning, the conditions that led to ignition
must be maintained.

The fire triangle and fire tetrahedron are

both models used to understand the elements required for fire, but the fire tetrahedron includes an
additional element that provides a more comprehensive view of the combustion process.

Fire Triangle
The fire triangle is the simpler of the two models and includes three essential components:
 Fuel: The combustible material.
 Oxygen: The oxidizing agent, typically the oxygen in the air.
 Heat: The energy source that raises the material to its ignition temperature.
Note: If you remove any one of these three elements, the fire will be extinguished.

Fire Tetrahedron
The fire tetrahedron builds upon the fire triangle by adding a fourth element:
 Fuel: The combustible material.
 Oxygen: The oxidizing agent.
 Heat: The energy source that initiates and sustains combustion.
 Uninhibited Chemical Chain Reaction: The self-sustaining series of chemical reactions that
occur during combustion.
Note: The fire tetrahedron provides a more detailed understanding of the combustion process,
recognizing that fire is not just a matter of fuel, heat, and oxygen but also requires the chemical
reactions that sustain the fire.

PRINCIPLES/PROPERTIES OF FIRE

A. The Physical Properties

1. Specific Gravity
 the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of
water.
4|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation
  Specific gravity is a measure that tells us how dense (or heavy) one substance is
compared to another, usually compared to water.
 Weight of solid or liquid substance = weight of water

2. Vapor Density
 the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure.
 Volume or weight of a gas/vapor = volume or weight of dry air
3.Vapor Pressure
 the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.
4. Temperature
 the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
5. Boiling Point
 the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature (Auto-Ignition Temperature)
 the minimum temperature at which the substance must be heated in order to initiate
combustion.
 The ignition temperature is the minimum temperature at which a substance must be
heated to start combustion without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or
spark.
7. Fire Point or Flame Point
 the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved fast
enough to support combustion.
 the temperature at which the fuel will continue to produce sufficient vapors to sustain a
continuous flame.
8. Flash Point

 the lowest temperature at which a solid or liquid material produces sufficient vapors to
burn.

B. The Chemical Properties

1. Endothermic Reactions
 changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
 processes that absorb energy (heat) from their surroundings before the reaction can
take place.
 Melting ice absorbs heat from its environment to change from solid to liquid.
2. Exothermic Reactions
 those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce substances with less
energy than the reactants.
 Combustion of wood releases heat and light.
3. Oxidation
 a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible material (fuel) and
an oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the same as
actual burning (rapid oxidation).

5|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation

 4. Flames
 flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

Types of Flames:

A. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel

1. Luminous Flame is orange-red, deposit soot at the

bottom of a vessel being heated due to incomplete
combustion and has a low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame is blue, there is complete
combustion of fuel and has relatively high
temperature.

B. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

1. Premixed Flame - is exemplified by a Bunsen-type

laboratory burner where hydrocarbon (any substance
containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
2. Diffusion Flame - is observed when gas (fuel) alone
is forced through a nozzle into the atmosphere which
diffuse in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a
flammable mixture. The candle flame is an example of
diffusion flame governed purely by molecular diffusion,
and the flame of the oxyacetylene torch. (diffused -
dispersed, widely spread)

C. Based on Smoothness
1. Laminar Flame - when a particle follows a smooth path
through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent Flame - are those having unsteady, irregular
flows. As physical size, gas density or velocity is increased,
all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

VARIED PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

The products that a fire releases, and the rate at which it releases them, depend on the fuel
and on the fire’s burning rate. Some fuels will produce more heat than the others. A fire that burns
quickly may produce different products than a fire that burns slowly.

1. Flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases.

2. Gases
6|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation
 Fires can produce a number of different gases, including some that are harmless and
some that are toxic. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) are two relatively
harmless gases produced by fire.
 Toxic gases from fire include carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
 The specific gases and the amount of gas a fire produces depend on the type of fuel
involved and the environment surrounding the fire.
3. Smoke or Soot
 a visible suspension of carbon or other particles in air, typically one emitted from a
burning substance.
 Most plastic fuels produce more soot than wood and other cellulose fuels.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

I. BASED ON CAUSES OF FIRE

a. Natural Cause (wildfires or lightning)
b. Accidental Cause (electrical accidents)
c. Intentional Causes (arson)

II. BASED ON BURNING MATERIAL

Currently there exists six (6) classifications of fire i.e., class A, B, C, D, E and K.

Class K

7|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation

Class A Fire
 Commonly found combustible materials like rubber, fabric, paper, wood, and many
polymers are the source of class A fires.
 They leave behind ash after burning like an ember.
 Cooling the fuel down to a temperature lower than the ignition point will cause it to
extinguish.
 The appropriate extinguishers used to tackle a class A fire include dry powder, water,
foam, and wet chemical extinguishers.
Class B Fire
 Liquids that are combustible (need heat to ignite) and flammable (burn at room
temperature) serve as the fuel for class B flames.
 Tars, oils, petroleum-based paints, alcohols, lacquers, solvents, and greases.
 High risk of fire; water may not put it out.
 The appropriate extinguishers used to tackle a class B fire include CO2 gas, foam and
dry powder extinguishers.
Class C Fire
 Fires involving energized electrical equipment.
Class D Fire
 Combustible metals like magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium, and
potassium are the main causes of Class D fires. Many of these metals can be found in
most autos.
 Extremely high flame temperatures allow water to disintegrate into oxygen and
hydrogen, which intensifies burning or explosions.
 Extinguish with special powders based on sodium chloride or other salts; also clean dry
sand.
Class F or K Fire
 Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking media (vegetable or
animal oils and fats).
 The appropriate extinguisher used to tackle a class F fire is a “wet chemical”
extinguisher.

4 GENERAL METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

I. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction (Cool the burning material)

 Cooling the temperature of the fire environment usually done by using water.
 Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not produce sufficient
vapors that burn.
II. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal (Remove the Fuel)
 Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which may be done by stopping the flow of liquid fuel,
preventing the production of flammable gas, removing the solid fuel at the fire path, allowing
the fire to burn until the fuel consumed.
III. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution (Exclude Oxygen)
 Reduction of oxygen concentration at the burning area, by introducing inert gases, by
separating oxygen from the fuel.
IV. Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition (Break the Chemical Reaction)
 Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt the production of flame
resulting to rapid extinguishment of the fire.
8|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation
  This method is effective only on burning gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in
smoldering mode of combustion.

METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING CLASSES OF FIRE

1.CLASS A FIRES
 by quenching and cooling: water is the best agent in cooling the burning solid materials.
 Water has a quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a burning material below its
ignition temperature
 Fire extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and special solution containing alkali
methyl dust, as found in the loaded stream extinguisher, should be used for this type of fire.
2. CLASS B FIRES
 by smothering or blanketing (oxygen exclusion).
 This type of fire is put or controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry chemical and
vaporizing liquid.
3.CLASS C FIRES
 controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is to always de-
energize the electrical circuit.
 Extinguishers that should be used to put out these type of fires are Carbon Dioxide
Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids
4.CLASS D FIRES
 by using special extinguishing agents marked specifically for metals.
 GE type, meth LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires.
5. CLASS E FIRES
 only combination of the above methods.

FIRE EXTINGUSHER
 It is a portable device used to put out fires of
limited size.
 A mechanical device, usually made of metal,
containing chemicals, fluids, or gasses for
stopping fires, the means for application of its
contents for the purpose of putting out fire
(particularly small fire) before it propagates, and is
capable of being readily moved from place to
place.
 Each class of fire requires its own type of fire
extinguisher.

TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

1. CLASS A (Water and Foam)

 Water and Foam extinguishers extinguish the fire by taking away the heat element of
the fire triangle.
 Foam agents also separate the oxygen element of the fire triangle.
9|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation
 Water extinguishers are for Class A fire only – it should not be used in class B or C
fires. The discharge stream could spread the flammable liquid in a Class B fire or could
create a shock hazard on a Class C fire.
2. CLASS B (Carbon Dioxide)
 Carbon Dioxide fire extinguishers extinguish fire by taking away the oxygen element of
the fire triangle and also removing the heat with a very cold discharge.
 It can be used in Class B and Class C fires.
 It is usually ineffective to extinguish Class A fires.
3. CLASS C (Dry Chemical)
 Dry chemical fire extinguishers extinguish the fire primarily by interrupting the chemical
reaction of the fire triangle. Today’s most widely used type of fire extinguisher is the
multipurpose dry chemical that is effective in Class A, B, and C fires.
 Ordinary dry chemical is for Class B and C fires only.
4. CLASS D (Wet Chemical)
 Wet chemical is a new agent that extinguishes the fire by removing the heat of the fire
triangle and prevents re-ignition by creating barrier between the oxygen and fuel
elements.
 Wet chemical of Class K extinguishers was developed for modern, high efficiency deep
fat fryers in commercial cooking operations.
 Some wet chemicals may also be used in Class A fire in commercial kitchens.
5. CLASS E (Clean Agent)
 Halogenated or Clean Agent extinguishers include the halogen as well as the newer
and less ozone depleting halocarbon agent.
 It extinguishes the fire by interrupting the chemical reaction of fire triangle.
 Clean agent extinguishers are primarily for Class B and Class C fires.
 Some larger clean agent extinguishers can be used in Class A, B and C fires.
6. CLASS F (Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical)
 Cartridge Operated Dry Chemical fire extinguishers extinguish the
fire primarily by interrupting the chemical reaction.
 It is effective in extinguishing Class A,B and C Fires.
 Cartridge-operated fire extinguishers have to activate the cartridge
first and then it can be operated using the PASS method.

What are the

General Operating Procedures in Fire Extinguishment?
10 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n
 P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Press the
plastic or thin wire inspection band.
A- Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the
extinguisher
body. Released it and then point at the base of the fire.
S-Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The
handle can be released to stop the discharge at any time.
S - Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the extinguishing agent.
Note: After the fire is out, probe for remaining smoldering hot spots or possible re-flash of
flammable liquids. Make sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area.

STAGES OF FIRE
TRADITIONAL/LEGACY FIRES AND MODERN CONTENT FIRES

TRADITIONAL/LEGACY FIRES
In order to safely extinguish a fire, firefighters should be familiar with the basic concepts of fire,
how fire develops and significant events which can occur during a fire. Traditional Fire growth in a
room can be divided into three distinct stages: the growth stage (incipient), the fully developed stage
(free-burning), and the decay stage (smoldering).

I. Growth Stage (Incipient Phase)

During the growth stage a fire increases in size from small flames to full fire that involves the
entire room. It may take several seconds to several hours for this to occur.

Fire Growth is dependent on:

1. Combustible content (fuel load).
2. Oxygen supply (ventilation openings).
3. Size of room.
4. Insulation of room.

Incipient Phase can be described as follows:

✓ This is the beginning of the fire.
✓ Room temperature is at normal.
✓ The base of the fire reaches a temperature of 400-800 °F.
✓ The ceiling temperature is about 200°F.
✓ The product of combustion in this phase may be so minuscule as to be detected only by ionization
detector.
✓ The minute changes in atmospheric chemistry in the room or area of the fire’s origin may arise
without
human detection.
✓ The products of pyrolysis are mostly water vapors and carbon dioxides in this
phase.
✓ Minute quantities of carbon monoxide and Sulphur dioxide may also be present.

11 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n
✓ The behavior of fire during the incipient phase is “rollover”, sometimes referred to as “flameover”.
Rollover - It takes place when unburned combustible gases released during the incipient phase
accumulate at the ceiling level. These superheated gases are pushed, under pressure, away from the
fire area and into uninvolved areas where they mix with oxygen.

II. Fully Developed Stage (Free-Burning Phase)

Free Burning Phase can show the following phenomena:

✓ It is during this free burning phase that the maximum heat and destructive capabilities of the fire
develop.
✓ During this phase of the fire, the rate and intensity of open burning increases geometrically, the
base area of the fire may reach 800-1000°F and at the ceiling 1,200-1,600°F.
✓ Heat rapidly evolving from the original point of the fire is convected and collects in the uppermost
areas of the structure or room. Additional heat is transferred through conduction and radiation. This
heat is absorbed by conduction into the mass of those items, whose surfaces are struck, causing
surface pyrolysis (baked effect) Here we perceive the “V” or inverted cone pattern created by the fire
that points the origin of fire.
✓ When the temperature reaches the ignition temperature of these items, a flashover occurs: flames
instantly flashover the entire area.
Flashover is defined as a stage in the development of a
contained fire in which all exposed surfaces reach ignition
temperature, simultaneously and fire spreads rapidly.
✓ One condition that signals the imminent threat of a
flashover is referred to as “fairies flying”. This occurs when small
pockets of flammable gases ignite.

III. Decay Stage (Smoldering Phase)

Smoldering Phase can show the following occurrences:
✓ Smoldering is a relatively slow combustion process that occurs between oxygen in the air and a
solid
fuel.
✓ The room temperature decreases with the ceiling temperature of 1000-1,300°F.
✓ The surface undergoes glowing and charring.
✓ Smoldering is very slow, but potentially deadly due to its production of carbon monoxide.
✓ The fire area contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure, but little oxygen. All that
needed for the area to explode is the introduction of the necessary air or oxygen. This type of
explosive condition can result in a backdraft.
✓ Gas Law also explained that for every rise of approximately 460F within a confined area the
volume
of gases is doubled. And when the volume of gases in a confined area is doubled the atmospheric
pressure with in the area is also doubled.
➢ Charring the production of a solid carbonaceous residue on heating or burning a solid.
➢ Glowing is indicative of a temperature more than 1000°C.
➢ During incomplete combustion more than 10% of the fuel mass in converted to CO.
➢ CO is odorless, colorless gas and mixes with air to within its explosive or flammable limits:12.5 to
74% of the atmosphere by volume.
12 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n
Warning signs of a possible backdraft include:
 Heavy dense smoke with no visible flame in a tightly closed occupancy.
 Black smoke pushing out around closed doors or window frames.
 Glass stained with smoke condensation and pulsating from the pressure of the fire.
 Reversal of air movement pulling smoke back into a building through a doorway

MODERN CONTENT FIRES

 Modern content fires are largely comprised of hydrocarbons and synthetics which rapidly
consume the available oxygen in the air as they burn at a greater rate than legacy content
fires.
 Modern content fires quickly become ventilation limited fires due to their higher fuel load. An
additional contributing factor is the energy efficient construction of buildings, which limit the
amount of available oxygen within the fire area.
 Modern content fires enter an early decay stage due to the limited available oxygen, producing
heavy smoke and varying heat conditions.
 The needed oxygen to support rapid fire expansion can be provided by improper ventilation
tactics or if the windows fail. If indications of an early decay stage exist upon arrival,
uncontrolled and/or uncoordinated ventilation can have tragic implications for both civilians and
operating members.
 The progression of modern content fires differs from the traditional fire development curve as
follows:

1. Incipient Stage
 A rapid Growth stage that consumes the available oxygen very quickly.

2. Decay Stage
 Since modern content fires rapidly consume the available oxygen within the fire area,
they enter into an earlier oxygen limited decay stage when compared to traditional or
legacy fires and will remain in the decay stage if no additional oxygen is added to the
fire area.
 ● When fire fighters encounter this earlier decay stage, they shall control the ventilation
of windows and maintain control of the door to the fire area. These actions will limit the
in-flow of additional air into the space so as not to provide additional oxygen to the fire.
The fire will pull the in-flow of any additional air towards the fire area. Wind blowing in
towards a ventilation opening will increase the air flow towards the fire area.
13 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n
If additional oxygen is admitted to the heated atmosphere through ventilation openings, the following
can occur:
 The fire regains its energy, increases its heat release rate and enters into a rapid
second growth stage, generating more heat and increased smoke production.
 This may be followed by a ventilation induced flashover and transition into the fully
developed stage.
 It ends in a second decay stage as the fuel load is depleted or the fire is extinguished.

TYPES/SOURCES OF HEAT ENERGY

Heat energy or thermal energy is the result of the movement of tiny particles
called atoms, molecules or ions in solids, liquids and gases. Heat energy can be
transferred from one object to another. The transfer or flow due to the difference in
temperature between the two objects is called heat.

Sources of Heat Energy

Definition Example
Solar Energy Heat energy from the sun, harnessed using Solar water heaters.
solar panels or solar thermal systems.
Geothermal Energy Heat energy from the Earth’s interior, often Geothermal heating systems
harnessed through geothermal power plants. in homes.
Combustion Heat energy released by burning fuels such A fireplace or a gas stove.
as wood, coal, oil, or natural gas.
Electrical Energy Heat generated when electrical energy is Electric heaters and toasters.
converted into heat energy.
Chemical Reactions Exothermic reactions like
Heat energy released or absorbed during chemical
reactions. the combustion of gasoline
in car engines.
Nuclear Energy Heat energy released during nuclear fission Nuclear power plants where
or fusion reactions. heat is generated from
splitting atoms.
Mechanical Energy Heat produced by mechanical means such as Rubbing your hands
friction or compression. together to warm them up or
heat generated by car
brakes.
Biological Heat energy generated by metabolic Body heat in mammals and
14 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n
 Processes processes in living organisms. birds.

WAYS OF TRANSMITTING HEAT

There are three (3) primary modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation.

1. Heat conduction
 Transfer of heat through a solid material from one molecule to another.
 Transfer of heat by conduction occurs in solids and in essentially non-moving liquids
and gases.
 Different materials conduct heat at different rate; metals conduct heat well, bricks and
concrete at a much slower rate and materials such as asbestos so slowly, that they
widely used for heat insulation.
 Under fire conditions, heat conduction can play a role in propagating the fire. Layers of
different materials, their shape, and the time for thermal penetration all add to the
complexity, and it takes time for the heat wave to penetrate the wall.
 Ex: Heating a metal rod at one end, the heat travels through the rod to the other end.

2. Heat convection
 Typically occurs due to a temperature difference between a surface of an object and an
adjacent fluid.
 Transfer of heat by the movement of fluids (liquids or gases).
 Ex: Boiling water, where hot water from the bottom rises to the top and cooler water
moves down to replace it.
Forced Convection
There is a device causing significant fluid motion. This could be a fan or blower for gases or a
pump for liquid or it could be the wind blowing on a building on a windy day.

Natural Convection
There is no device. The fluid motion is gentler and is caused by buoyancy effects in the fluid
caused by thermal expansion.

 Heat transfer in convection is cheaply responsible for the spread of fire in the structure.
The super-heated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air and consequently rise;
they can and do initiate additional damage.
 The superheated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and consequently rise.
As they travel and collect in the upper reaches of the structure, they can and do initiate
additional damage.
 Free radicals would spread across the ceiling, when the horizontal movement of the free
radicals is blocked; they bank down along the sidewalls of the room. This down ward
movement of convection current leave burnt patterns in the form of inverted cone
patterns known as fingerprints of fire.

3. Heat radiation / Radiation

 Occurs between two surfaces of different temperatures.
 Conduction and convection require physical material (i.e., solids or fluids) for their
transport. Radiation can occur through a vacuum.
 Ex: The heat from the sun warming your face.
15 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n
  Heat waves coming from a burning property can be absorbed by another unattached
property. If combustible materials accumulate heat, it begins to undergo pyrolysis until it
reached the ignition temperature.
 Heat Flux causes objects to get hot and possibly damaged or ignited. These threshold
values will cause the results indicated after a long exposure of many seconds or
minutes.
 Flashover an event that can occur at a smoke temperature of 500 hundred to 600
degrees Celsius in which flames suddenly fills a room.

NOTE:
In a fireplace, heat transfer occurs by all three methods: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Radiation is responsible for most of the heat transferred into the room. Heat transfer also occurs
through conduction into the room, but at a much slower rate. Heat transfer by convection also occurs
through cold air entering the room around windows and hot air leaving the room by rising up the
chimney.

(For the topic “Sources of Ignition” check your Module No. 7.)

End of Preliminary Notes

16 | F i r e P r o t e c t i o n a n d A r s o n I n v e s t i g a t i o n