ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy and mass are locked in the Einstein’s famous equation E=mc 2, where E is the energy, m is the mass, and c is the velocity of light. This
equation shows that mass and energy are interconvertible but the conversion of a very small mass will give a very large amount of energy.
Energy can be considered as a concentrated form of matter, and matter as a concentrated form of energy. Mass can neither be created nor
destroyed but can be changed from one form to another.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

A renewable energy source means energy that is sustainable—something that can't run out, or is endless, like the sun. When we hear the term
'alternative energy' it's usually referring to renewable energy sources too. It means sources of energy that are alternative to the most
commonly used non-sustainable sources—like coal.

Solar Energy
If you’ve ever used a magnifying glass to melt or burn something, you were using solar energy! All the movement on the surface of the Earth
requires energy. A car moves by the energy supplied by petrol. Humans require energy to work which comes from food. Sun provides the
energy need to produce the food. Therefore, the ultimate source of all kinds of energy comes from the Sun.

"Solar" is the Latin word for "sun" and is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. Humans have been
harnessing solar energy for thousands of years—to grow crops, stay warm, and dry foods. According to the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, “more energy from the sun falls on the earth in one hour than is used by everyone in the world in one year.” Although it sounds
like a perfect renewable energy source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the time of day and the season of the year
as well as geographical location.

Today, we use the sun’s rays in many ways—to heat homes and businesses, to warm water, or power devices. In the UK, solar energy is an
increasingly popular way to supplement an individual’s energy usage. Solar supplies a little >1% of U.S. electricity generation. But nearly a third
of all new generating capacity came from solar in 2017, second only to natural gas. Solar energy systems don’t produce air pollutants or
greenhouse gases, and as long as they are responsibly sited. We can use solar power in two different ways—as a heat source and as an energy
source. In 1954, scientists at Bell Telephone discovered that silicon (an element found in sand) created an electric charge when it was exposed to lots
of sunlight. Just a few years later, silicon chips were used to help power space satellites.

Solar power harvests the energy of the sun by using collector panels to create conditions that can then be turned into a kind of power. Large
solar panel fields are often used in the desert to gather enough power to charge small substations, and many homes use solar systems to
provide for hot water, cooling and supplement their electricity.
 Solar energy systems do not produce air pollutants or CO2.
 Solar energy systems on buildings have minimal effects on the environment.

How does Solar Panel Work? A solar panel (aka solar module) consists of a layer of silicon cells, a metal frame, a glass casing unit, and wiring to
transfer electric current from the silicon. Silicon (Z=14 on P-Table) is a nonmetal with conductive properties that allow it to absorb and convert
sunlight into usable electricity. When light hits a silicon cell, the light causes electrons in the silicon to be set in motion, initiating a flow of
electric current. This is known as the “photovoltaic effect,” and it describes the general functionality of solar panel tech. The photovoltaic
process works through the following broad steps:
 The silicon photovoltaic solar cell absorbs solar radiation
 When the sun’s rays interact with the silicon cell, electrons begin to move, creating a flow of electric current
 Wires capture and feed this direct current (DC) electricity to a solar inverter to be converted to alternating current (AC) electricity

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that converts sunlight into direct current electricity by using semiconductors United States Department
of Energy. The science of generating electricity with solar panels boils down to this photovoltaic effect. It was first discovered in 1839 by
Edmond Becquerel and can be thought of as a property of specific materials (known as semiconductors) that allows them to create an electric current
when they are exposed to sunlight.

At What Scale Solar Panels are Installed? Solar panels are installed at three main scales: residential, commercial, and utility.
Residential-scale solar is typically installed on rooftops of homes or in open land (ground-mounted) and is generally between 5 and 20 kilowatts
(kW), depending on the size of a property. Commercial solar energy projects are generally installed at a greater scale than residential solar.
Though individual installations can vary greatly in size, commercial-scale solar serves a consistent purpose: to provide on-site solar power to
businesses and non-profits. Finally, utility-scale solar projects are typically large, several megawatt (MW) installations that provide solar energy
to a large number of utility customers. Solar farms can generate power for thousands of homes, using mirrors to concentrate sunlight across
acres of solar cells. Floating solar farms—or “floatovoltaics”—can be an effective use of wastewater facilities and bodies of water that aren’t
ecologically sensitive.

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 Wind Energy
We’ve come a long way from old-fashioned wind mills. Today, turbines as tall as skyscrapers—with turbines nearly as wide in diameter—stand
at attention around the world. Wind energy turns a turbine’s blades, which feeds an electric generator and produces electricity. Wind, which
accounts for a little more than 6% of U.S. generation, has become the cheapest energy source in many parts of the country. Top wind power
states include California, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Iowa, though turbines can be placed anywhere with high wind speeds—such as hilltops
and open plains—or even offshore in open water.

How a wind turbine works? A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, a turbine uses wind to
make electricity. When the wind blows past a wind turbine, its blades capture the wind’s kinetic energy and rotate, turning it into mechanical
energy. This rotation turns an internal shaft connected to a gearbox, which increases the speed of rotation by a factor of 100. That spins a
generator that produces electricity. Wind energy (or wind power) refers to the process of creating electricity using the wind, or air flows that occur
naturally in the earth’s atmosphere. Modern wind turbines are used to capture kinetic energy from the wind and generate electricity. There are
three main types of wind energy:

Utility-scale wind — Wind turbines that range in size from 100 kilowatts to several megawatts, where the electricity is delivered to the
power grid and distributed to the end user by electric utilities or power system operators.

Distributed or "small" wind — Single small wind turbines below 100 kilowatts that are used to directly power a home, farm or small
business and are not connected to the grid.

 Offshore Wind — Wind turbines that are erected in large bodies of water, usually on the continental shelf. Offshore wind turbines are larger
than land-based turbines and can generate more power.

How do winds form? This can be explained in simple terms by the daily wind cycle. The earth's surface has both land and water. When the
sun comes up, the air over the land heats up quicker than that over water. The heated air is lighter and it rises. The cooler air is denser and it
falls and replaced the air over the land. In the night the reverse happens. Air over the water is warmer and rises, and is replaced by cooler air
from land. The moving air (wind) has huge amounts of K.E, and this can be transferred into electrical energy using wind turbines. The wind
turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity. The electricity is sent through transmission and
distribution lines to a substation, then on to homes, business and schools.
 Wind creates jobs. The U.S. wind sector employs >100,000 workers, and wind
turbine technician is one of the fastest growing American jobs. According to
the Wind Vision Report, wind has the potential to support more than 600,000
jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and supporting services by
2050.
 Wind enables U.S. industry growth and U.S. competitiveness. New wind
projects account for annual investments of over $10 billion in the U.S. economy. The United States has a vast domestic resource and a
highly-skilled workforce, and can compete globally in the clean energy economy.
 It's a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or
natural gas, which emit particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide—causing human health problems and economic
damages. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain, smog, or greenhouse gases.

LED
The light-emitting diode is one of today's most energy-efficient and rapidly-developing lighting technologies. Quality LED light bulbs last longer,
are more durable, and offer comparable or better light quality than other types of lighting. LED is a light-emitting diode that has a
semiconductor light source. LED’s were introduced in 1962, but have come a long way since then. Early LEDs produced only red light, but
modern LEDs can produce several different colors, including RGB light. Recent advances in LED technology have made it possible for LEDs to
produce white light as well.

LEDs emit very little heat. In comparison, incandescent bulbs release 90% of their energy as heat and CFLs release about 80% of their energy as
heat. The energy efficient nature of LEDs allows them to produce brighter light than other types of bulbs while using less energy. For this
reason, traditional flat screen LCD displays have started to be replaced by LED displays, which use LEDs for the backlight. LED TVs and
computer monitors are typically brighter and thinner than their LCD counterparts. Because LEDs are small and directional, they are ideal for
lighting countertops for cooking and reading recipes. The color can appear more cool or blue than is typically desirable in a kitchen, and there
can be some excessive shadowing in some fixtures, so it is important to compare products to find the best fixture for your space.

Energy Efficiency — Today’s most efficient way of illumination and lighting, with an estimated energy efficiency of 80–90 percent when
compared to traditional lighting and conventional light bulbs. This means that about 80 percent of the electrical energy is converted to light,
while 20 percent is lost and converted into other forms of energy such as heat. With traditional incandescent light bulbs which operate at 20
percent energy efficiency only, 80 percent of the electricity is lost as heat.

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 Zero UV Emissions — LED illumination produces little infrared light and close to no UV emissions. Because of this, LED lighting is highly
suitable not only for goods and materials that are sensitive to heat due to the benefit of little radiated heat emission, but also for illumination
of UV--sensitive objects or materials such as in museums, art galleries, archeological sites, etc.

Operational in Extremely Cold or Hot Temperatures — LEDs are ideal for operation under cold and low outdoor temperature
settings. For fluorescent lamps, low temperatures may affect operation and present a challenge, but LED illumination operates well also in cold
settings, such as for outdoor winter settings, freezer rooms, etc.

Low Voltage — A low-voltage power supply is sufficient for LED illumination. This makes it easy to use LED lighting also in outdoor settings,
by connection to an external solar-energy source, and is a big advantage when it comes to using LED technology in remote or rural areas.

The Future of Renewable Energy

As world population rises, so does the demand for energy in order to power our homes, businesses and communities. Innovation and
expansion of renewable sources of energy is key to maintaining a sustainable level of energy and protect our planet from climate change.
Renewable energy sources make up 26% of the world’s electricity today, but according to the International Energy Agency (IEA) its share is
expected to reach 30% by 2024. “This is a pivotal time for renewable energy,” said the IEA’s executive director, Fatih Birol. In 2020, the UK hit a
new amazing renewable energy milestone. On Wednesday 10th June, the country celebrated two months of running purely on renewable
energy for the first time ever. This is a great step in the right direction for renewables. In the future, it’s expected that the number of renewable
energy sources will continue to increase as we see an increase in demand for power. This will drive down the price of renewables – great for
the planet, and great for our wallets.

Renewable Energy and Your Home

The advantages of using renewable energy in a domestic setting are persuasive:
 Cut your electricity bills: Once you’ve paid for the costs of installing a renewable energy system, you can become less reliant on the National
Grid and your energy bills can be reduced.
 Get paid for the electricity you generate: The UK Government’s Feed-in Tariff pays you for the electricity you generate, even if you use it.
 Sell electricity back to the grid: If you are generating enough energy to export an excess back into the National Grid, you can receive an
additional payment from the Feed-in Tariff scheme.
 Reduce your carbon footprint: Green, renewable sources of energy don’t release carbon dioxide or other harmful pollutants into the
atmosphere. According to the Energy Saving Trust's Solar panels page, a typical solar PV system could save around 1.5 - 2 tonnes of carbon per
year. You can find out more in our solar panels guide.

Renewable Energy Facts

 Over the last four decades, the price of solar PV panels has declined 99%.
 By the year 2050, our energy needs can be met by 95% renewable energy.
 Solar PV could account for 5% of global demand by 2020 and up to 9% by 2030.
 A US study showed that renewable energy creates three times more jobs than fossil fuels.
 Price Waterhouse Cooper predicts that Africa could run on 100% renewable energy by 2050.

Most Household Appliances Utilize DC Power. So, Why Do We Generate AC At Power Stations?
The reason AC is used to transmit electricity is that it is more efficient to send it over long distances. When sending electricity over long
distances, the resistance in the wires becomes a major limiting factor. With current passing through the wires, the voltage dropped across
those wires is a loss of power. It only serves to heat those transmission wires which serves no useful purpose. AC can be stepped up to a very
high voltage for sending long distances (transmission), this greatly reduces the current and reduces the transmission loss. Where the AC is
used, the voltage can be reduced (with a transformer) down to reasonable levels and converted into DC to operate electronic devices.
Electronic devices do require DC internally and the AC must be converted to DC in each electronic device. On the other hand, Motors effectively
use AC directly.

NONRENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Energy sources that we are using up and cannot produce in a short period of time. Some examples include fossil fuels (Petroleum Oil, Natural Gas, and

Coal), Tar Sands, and Nuclear Fission. Fossil fuels are not a renewable source of energy because they are not infinite. Plus, they release CO 2 into
our atmosphere which contributes to climate change and global warming.

Burning wood instead of coal is slightly better but it’s complex. On the one hand, wood is a renewable resource–provided it comes from
sustainably managed forests. Wood pellets and compressed briquettes are made from by-products of the wood processing industry and so
arguably it’s recycling waste. Compressed biomass fuels produce more energy than logs too. On the other hand, burning wood (whether it be raw

timber / processed waste) releases particles into the atmosphere. Burning wood always results in deforestation and the reduction of natural habitats
so it isn’t a perfect solution.

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 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Electromagnetic Theory
Electricity and magnetism were once thought to be separate forces. However, in 1873, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed a
unified theory of electromagnetism. The study of electromagnetism deals with how electrically charged particles interact with each other and
with magnetic fields. There are four main electromagnetic interactions:
 A moving electric field produces a magnetic field, and vice versa.
 Magnetic poles come in pairs that attract and repel each other, much as electric charges do.
 An electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field whose direction depends on the direction of the current.
 The force of attraction / repulsion b/w electric charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance b/w them.

Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is produced by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance, or by the movement of
electrically charged particles traveling through a vacuum or matter. Speed same as of light

Amplitude ― Amplitude is the distance from the maximum vertical displacement of the wave to the middle of the wave. This measures the
magnitude of oscillation of a particular wave. In short, the amplitude is basically the height of the wave. Larger amplitude means higher energy
and lower amplitude means lower energy. Amplitude is important because it tells us the intensity or brightness of a wave in comparison with
other waves.

Wavelength ― Wavelength (λ) is the distance of one full cycle of the oscillation. Longer λ waves such as radio waves carry low energy; this is
why we can listen to the radio without any harmful consequences. Shorter λ waves such as x-rays carry higher energy that can be hazardous to
our health. Consequently, lead aprons are worn to protect our bodies from harmful radiation when we undergo x-rays.
This λ frequently relationship is characterized by:
c=λν
 c is the speed of light,
 λ is wavelength, and
 ν is frequency.
Shorter λ means greater frequency, and greater frequency means higher energy. λ
are important in that they tell one what type of wave one is dealing with.

Interference
An important property of waves is the ability to combine with other waves. There are two type of
interference: constructive and destructive. Constructive interference occurs when two or more
waves are in phase and their displacements add to produce a higher amplitude. On the contrary,
destructive interference occurs when two or more waves are out of phase and their
displacements negate each other to produce lower amplitude.

Interference can be demonstrated effectively through the double slit experiment. This
experiment consists of a light source pointing toward a plate with one slit and a second plate with two slits. As the light travels through the
slits, we notice bands of alternating intensity on the wall behind the second plate. The banding in the middle is the most intense because the
two waves are perfectly in phase at that point and thus constructively interfere. The dark bands are caused by out of phase waves which result
in destructive interference. This is why you observe nodes on figure 4. In a similar way, if electrons are used instead of light, electrons will be
represented both as waves and particles.

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Wave-Particle Duality
Electromagnetic radiation can either acts as a wave or a particle, a photon. As a
wave, it is represented by velocity, wavelength, and frequency. Light is an EM wave
since the speed of EM waves is the same as the speed of light. As a particle, EM is
represented as a photon, which transports energy. When a photon is absorbed,
the electron can be moved up or down an energy level. When it moves up, it
absorbs energy, when it moves down, energy is released. Thus, since each atom
has its own distinct set of energy levels, each element emits and absorbs different
frequencies. Photons with higher energies produce shorter wavelengths and photons with lower energies produce
longer wavelengths.

Properties of Alpha Rays

Alpha particles have the least penetration power but the greatest ionization power. They cannot penetrate the skin but this does not mean that
they are not dangerous. Since they have a great ionization power, so if they get into the body they can cause serious damage. They have the
ability of ionizing numerous atoms I a short distance. It is due to this reason that the radioactive substance that releases alpha particles needs
to be handled with rubber gloves. It should not be inhaled, eaten or allowed near open cuts.

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 MODERN MATERIALS/CHEMICALS
ANTIBIOTICS
Antibiotics are medications used to fight infections caused by bacteria. They’re also called antibacterials. They treat infections by killing or
decreasing the growth of bacteria. The first modern-day antibiotic was used in 1936. Before antibiotics, 30% of all deaths were caused by
bacterial infections. Thanks to antibiotics, previously fatal infections are curable. They can also prevent less-serious infections from becoming
serious. There are many classes of antibiotics. Certain types of antibiotics work best for specific types of bacterial infections. Antibiotics come
in many forms including:
 Tablets, Capsules  creams,
 liquids,  ointments

How do antibiotics work against bacteria? Antibiotics fight bacterial infections either by killing bacteria or slowing and suspending its
growth. They do this by:
 interfering with bacteria reproduction
 blocking protein production in bacteria
 attacking the wall or coating surrounding bacteria

Antibiotics begin to work right after you start taking them. However, you might not feel better for two to three days. Antibiotics are used to
treat or prevent some types of bacterial infection. But they do not work for everything. For example, they do not work for viral infections such
as colds and flu, and most coughs and sore throats. Many mild bacterial infections get better on their own without using antibiotics.

Types
There are hundreds of different types of antibiotics, but most of them can be classified into 6 groups.
 Penicillins (penicillin and amoxicillin) ― widely used to treat a variety of infections, including skin infections, chest infections and urinary
tract infections.
 Aminoglycosides (gentamicin and tobramycin) ― tend to only be used in hospital to treat very serious illnesses such as septicaemia, as
they can cause serious side effects, including hearing loss and kidney damage; they're usually given by injection, but may be given
as drops for some ear or eye infections.
 Tetracyclines (tetracycline and doxycycline) ― can be used to treat a wide range of infections, but are commonly used to treat acne and a
skin condition called rosacea.

VACCINE
A vaccine is made from very small amounts of weak or dead germs that can cause diseases—for example, viruses, bacteria, or toxins. It
prepares the body to fight the disease faster and more effectively so one won’t get sick.

Types
There are several different types of vaccines. Each type is designed to teach immune system how to fight off certain kinds of germs—and the
serious diseases they cause. When scientists create vaccines, they consider:

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  Who needs to be vaccinated against the germ?
 How your immune system responds to the germ,
 The best technology or approach to create the vaccine.
Based on a number of these factors, scientists decide which types of vaccine they will make. There are 4 main types of vaccines.

Live-attenuated vaccines ― Live vaccines use a weakened (or attenuated) form of the germ that causes a disease. Because these vaccines
are so similar to the natural infection, they create a strong and long-lasting immune response. Just 1 or 2 doses of most live vaccines can give
lifetime of protection against a germ and the disease it causes. But live vaccines also have some limitations. For example: Because they contain
a small amount of the weakened live virus, some people should talk to their health care provider before receiving them, such as people with
weakened immune systems, long-term health problems, or people who’ve had an organ transplant. They need to be kept cool, so they don’t
travel well. That means they can’t be used in countries with limited access to refrigerators. Live vaccines are used to protect against:
 Mumps  yellow fever,
 Rotavirus, measles  small pox and chicken pox.

Inactivated vaccines ― Inactivated vaccines use the killed version of the germ that causes a disease. Inactivated vaccines usually don’t
provide immunity (protection) that’s as strong as live vaccines. So, you may need several doses over time (booster shots) in order to get ongoing
immunity against diseases. Inactivated vaccines are used to protect against:
 Rabies  Flue (shot only)
 Hepatitis A  Polio (shot only).

Subunit, Recombinant, Polysaccharide, and Conjugate Vaccines ― Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines
use specific pieces of the germ—like its protein, sugar, or capsid (a casing around the germ). Because these vaccines use only specific pieces of the
germ, they give a very strong immune response that’s targeted to key parts of the germ. They can also be used on almost everyone who needs
them, including people with weakened immune systems and long-term health problems. One limitation of these vaccines is that you may need
booster shots to get ongoing protection against diseases. These vaccines are used to protect against:
 Shingles  Hepatitis B, HPV (Human papillomavirus)
 Pneumococcal disease  Hib (Haemophilus influenzae type b) disease
 Meningococcal disease  Whooping cough (part of the DTaP combined vaccine)

Toxoid vaccines ― Toxoid vaccines use a toxin (harmful product) made by the germ that causes a disease. They create immunity to the parts of
the germ that cause a disease instead of the germ itself. That means the immune response is targeted to the toxin instead of the whole germ.
Like some other types of vaccines, you may need booster shots to get ongoing protection against diseases. Toxoid vaccines are used to protect
against:
 Diaptheria  Tetanus

How do vaccines work? Vaccines give immunity to a disease without one getting sick first. They contain a small amount of a dead or weakened
disease-causing germ (antigen). When this antigen enters the body through vaccination, it causes the body to build immunity or produce
antibodies against the antigen or specific infection without causing the actual disease. Some of these antibodies remain in the body. Whenever
a real disease-causing germ enters into our body, our immune system quickly recognizes it and produces more antibodies to destroy the
actual germ or neutralize toxins effectively. Thus, through vaccination, the information to fight against specific germ gets stored in the immune
system or the immune system is already prepared with antibodies to fight that germ.

Contribution in Health ― Vaccines have saved more lives in Canada than any other medical intervention in the past 50 years. In the early
1900s, before introduction of the polio vaccine, thousands of Canadians were paralyzed or died from polio. Thanks to vaccination, Canada has
been polio-free for the last 20 years. Vaccines also prevent diseases that are rarely deadly but can cause pain and long-term health problems.

Antibiotics V/S Vaccines

Antibiotics and vaccines are both used to fight germs but they work in different ways. While vaccines are used to prevent disease, antibiotics
are used to treat diseases that have already occurred. In addition, antibiotics do not work on viruses or viral illnesses i.e. common cold or flu.

DEFINITION

Antibiotics are small molecules or compounds that are Vaccines are dead or inactivated organisms or compounds
effective in treating infections caused by organisms such that are used to provide immunity to a particular infection or
as bacteria, fungi and protozoa. disease.

SIDE EFFECTS

Some antibiotics may have side effects like diarrhea, nausea Some vaccines may cause allergic reactions.
and allergic reactions.

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  Agricultural Waste
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Major Nutrients ― Of the major nutrients, N2 is often required in the greatest quantity by crops, primarily for vigor and yield. N 2 plays a key
role in chlorophyll production and protein synthesis. Chlorophyll is the green plant pigment responsible for photosynthesis. When nitrogen is
deficient, plants develop yellow or pale leaves and their growth is stunted. P5 is a vital component of ATP which supplies the energy for many
processes in the plant. P5 rarely produces spectacular growth responses, but is fundamental to the successful development of all crops. For
example, maize or other corn crops that lack P 5 during the growing season achieve lower yields. K is needed by virtually all crops and often in
higher rates than N2. K regulates the plant’s water content and expansion. It is key to achieving good yield and quality in cotton and critical for
increasing the size, juice content and sweetness of fruit.

Secondary Nutrients ― Of the three secondary nutrients needed at lower levels than N 2, P5 and K (NPK), Ca is perhaps the most
important. Ca strengthens cell walls, helping to reduce bruising and disease in fruit, salad and vegetable crops. This means that a good supply
of Ca produces food crops that are less prone to damage and have a longer shelf life. Crops short in Ca will have growth disorders such as
corky skin. Fruit and vegetables containing higher levels of Ca also have a higher nutritional value―for example, vitamin C and antioxidants in
tomatoes. This means that eating fresh fruit with strong skins and a great, crisp bite will help provide us with the Ca we need for strong bones.
FERTILIZERS
Mg is also important for crop quality, but is also a key component of leaf chlorophyll and the enzymes that support plant growth. Low Mg leads
to reduced photosynthesis, which severely limits crop yields. Grain fill in rice and dry matter content of potatoes can be significantly reduced if
What are Fertilizers? Fertilizers are chemical substances supplied to the crops to increase their productivity. These are used by the farmers
Mg is undersupplied. S8 is an essential part of many amino acids and proteins. Without both S 8 and Mg, crops suffer; growth slows and leaves
daily to increase the crop yield. The fertilizers contain the essential nutrients required by the plants, including N 2, K, and P. They enhance the
turn pale or yellow. S8 is particularly important for ensuring the protein content of cereal crop grains.
.water retention capacity of the soil and also increase its fertility
Micronutrients ― Micronutrients reinforce and supplement the strong plant growth and structures provided by major and secondary
Natural Fertilizers
nutrients. Most micronutrients influence growth. For example, Mn, Fe, and Cu all influence photosynthesis, the process whereby plants use
These are naturally available organic and inorganic materials like plant matter, farm yard, manures, animal matter, rock phosphates, and chile
sunlight for growth. Fe deficiencies are common―for example in seed fruits―where the effect is to reduce production of chlorophyll. As a
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result, crops struggle and younger leaves develop a severe yellowing or chlorosis. B is needed for the development of shoots and roots, and is
essential during the flowering and fruiting phases of crops. Zn is needed for the production of important plant hormones, like auxin. Zn
Inorganic Fertilizers
deficiency leads to structural defects in leaves and other plant organs. Mo is involved in plant enzyme systems that control N 2 metabolism.
Inorganic fertilizers are chemical fertilizers that contain nutrient elements for the growth of crops made by chemical means. The inorganic
fertilizers are of the following types:

N-Fertilizers ― N-Fertilizers contain N2 necessary for the development of crops. N2 is the main constituent of chlorophyll that maintains a
balance in the process of photosynthesis. It is also a part of amino acids in plants and constitutes protein. N-Fertilizers improve the production
Importance of Fertilizers
and quality of agricultural products.
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following absorbed by the plants.
products:
 The P5 present in the fertilizers helps in the faster development of roots and formation of seeds in the plants.
 N2 in the fertilizers enhances the growth of the plants which can be characterized by the green colour of the plants.
 Fertilizers increase plants’ tolerance towards pests. This has reduced their reliance on insecticides and herbicides, thereby, producing
healthier crops. Consequently, diseases have reduced, providing aesthetic value to the crops.

Since the chemical fertilizers adversely affect soil fertility, biofertilizers were brought into use. These are substances that contain living or latent
cells, and even micro-organisms. They provide the soil with the necessary nutrients and microbes for the growth of the plants. They help the
soil to retain its fertility. They are environment-friendly and also destroy pathogenic components responsible for causing disease in plants.
Acetobacter and Rhizobium are two such widely used biofertilizers.

Uses of Fertilizers
 They are added to improve the yield of the crops.  N2-rich fertilizers are used for the greening of lawns.
 They are used to providing additional nutrients to the plants.  Organic fertilizers improve the texture and fertility of the soil.

8
  Fertilizers are added to potted plants to replace the lost nutrients.
 Gardeners use fertilizers to address certain needs of the plants such as nutritional needs.

Excessive Use of Fertilizers

Surface Water Pollution ― Fertilizers include N2 and P5 as primary ingredients, and both contribute to pollution of lakes, rivers and
estuaries. When fertilizers are overused, some of the excess runs off from the land when it rains and, eventually, ends up in surface water,
where it exerts the expected effects on aquatic plants and algae: it makes them grow.

Water Way Pollution ― The use of chemical fertilizers on crops can have adverse effects on waterways caused by chemical run off of the
excess fertilizer. The over-abundance of nutrients in the water reduces the amount of O 2. The existing organisms living in the water use up the
O2 that is left. The result is O2 depletion causing the fish to die.

Plant Damage ― The overuse of fertilizer often begins with the intent of promoting plant growth or health but, in fact, may have the
opposite effect. Excessive application of fertilizers may actually damage plants. Overuse of fertilizer can also cause plants to develop shallow
root systems, which reduces their stability and ability to obtain water during dry conditions.

Increased Air Pollution ― Excess N2 used in crop fertilization can contribute to the release of greenhouse gases such as CO 2 and N2O into
the atmosphere. This effect is caused by using a greater amount of chemical fertilizer than the plants can readily absorb. According to NOAA
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), excess greenhouse gases trapped in atmosphere may be contributing to increase of land+ocean
surface temps.

Soil Acidification ― The over-use of chemical fertilizers can lead to soil acidification because of a decrease in organic matter in the soil.
N2 applied to fields in large amounts over time damages topsoil, resulting in reduced crop yields. Sandy soils are much more prone to soil
acidification than are clay soils. Clay soils have an ability to buffer the effects of excess chemical fertilization.

Mineral Depletion ― There is an increasing concern that continuous use of chemical fertilizers on soil depletes the soil of essential
nutrients. As a result, the food produced in these soils have less vitamin and mineral content. According to data produced by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Nutrient Data Laboratory, foods grown in soils that were chemically fertilized were found to have less Mg, K, and Ca
content.

PESTICIDES
Pesticides are chemical compounds that are used to kill pests, including insects, rodents, fungi and unwanted plants (weeds). By their nature,
pesticides are potentially toxic to other organisms, including humans, and need to be used safely. Pesticides are used in public health to kill
vectors of disease, such as mosquitoes. The use of pesticides is so common that the term pesticide is often treated as synonymous with plant
protection product. The most commonly applied pesticides are insecticides to kill insects, herbicides to kill weeds, rodenticides to kill rodents,
fungicides to control fungi.

Why We Use Pesticides? Pesticides are used to control various pests and disease carriers, such as mosquitoes, ticks, rats and mice.
Pesticides are used in agriculture to control weeds, insect infestation and diseases.

Types
Pesticides can be grouped according to the types of pests which they kill: Some examples include:
 Algaecides to kill and/or slowing the growth of algae.  Insecticides to control insects.
 Rodenticides to kills rodents like mice, rats, and gophers.  Fungicides to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, + rust.
 Antimicrobials to control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.
 Wood Preservatives to make wood resistant to insects, fungus and other pests.
 Herbicides to kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, also known as weeds.

The Problem ― Pesticides are the only toxic substances released intentionally into our environment to kill living things: to kill weeds, insects,
fungi, rodents, and others. They are used almost everywhere—not only in agricultural fields, but also in homes, parks, schools, lakes, forests,
and roads. Though each pesticide is meant to kill a certain pest, a very large % of pesticides reach a destination other than their target.

9
Therefore, they can be found in the air we breathe, the food we eat, and the water we drink. They are found in our soil and even in our breast
milk.

Pesticides are incredibly harmful to human health, from short-term impacts such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer,
reproductive harm. They may also cause kidney and liver damage, blindness, coma, infertility, and death. The use of these also decreases the
general biodiversity in the soil. If there are no chemicals in the soil there is higher soil quality, and this allows for higher water retention, which
is necessary for plants to grow.

Significant Public Health Problems Caused by Pests

Vector-Borne Diseases ― Infectious diseases such as West Nile virus and rabies can be carried and spread by vector (disease-carrying) species
such as mosquitoes and rodents.

Asthma and Allergies ― Indoor household pests such as cockroaches can contribute to asthma and allergies.

Avian Flu ― Avian flu, sometimes called bird flu, is an infection that occurs naturally and chiefly in birds. Infections with these viruses can
occur in humans, but the risk is generally low for most people.

10
PLASTICS
Bend me, shape me, anyway you want me. Those are the words of an old love song, but it could just as easily be a song about plastics—the
most versatile materials in our modern world. Plastics are plastic, which means we can mold them into pretty much anything, from car bodies
and washing-up bowls to toilet seats and toothbrushes.

We talk about "plastic" as though it's a single material, but there are in fact many different plastics. What they have in common is that
they're plastic, which means they are soft and easy to turn into many different forms during
manufacture. Plastics are (mostly) synthetic materials, made from polymers, which are long molecules built
around chains of C-atoms, typically with H2, O2, S, and N2 filling in the spaces. You can think of a polymer
as a big molecule made by repeating a small bit called a monomer over and over again; "poly" means
many, so "polymer" is simply short for "many monomers." If you think of how a long coal train is made
from many trucks coupled together, that's what polymers are like. The trucks are the monomers and the entire train, made from lots of
identical trucks, is the polymer. Where a coal train might have a couple of dozen trucks, a polymer could be built from hundreds or even
thousands of monomers. In other words, polymers typically have very large and heavy molecules.

Types
There are many different plastics, so we need ways of making sense of them all by grouping similar ones together. Here are a few ways we can
do that: We can split them into natural (ones easily obtained from plants and animals) and synthetic (ones artificially made by complex chemical processes in a factory or

lab). Cellulose is a natural polymer used for making sticky tape, whereas nylon (used in swimming shorts, toothbrushes, and umbrellas) is a synthetic polymer
made in a factory. We can split them into two broad kinds according to how they behave when they're heated: thermoplastics (which soften when
they're heated) and thermosets (thermosetting plastics, which never soften after they're initially molded).

Thermoplastics ― You can make something like a plastic bottle by injecting hot, molten plastic into a mold, then letting it cool down. Your
bottle stays solid, but if you heat it up again later, it'll soften and melt. We say it's made from a thermoplastic: something that becomes plastic
(soft and flexible) when it meets thermal energy (heat). In a thermoplastic, the long polymer molecules are joined to one another by very weak bonds,
which easily break apart when we heat them, and quickly reform again when we take the heat away. That's why thermoplastics are easy to
melt down and recycle. Some everyday examples you will have come across are polyethylene/polyethene (plastic bottles and sheets), polypropylene
(plastic ropes), PVC (toys and credit cards), polycarbonate (hard plastic windows and car headlamps).

Thermosetting Plastics (thermosets) ― Thermosets are usually made from much much bigger polymer chains than thermoplastics.
When they're initially manufactured, they're heated or compressed to form a dense, hard, structure with strong cross-links binding each of
these long molecular chains to its neighbors. That's very different from thermoplastics, where the polymer chains are held to one another only
by very weak bonds. And that's why we can't simply heat thermosets to remold or reform them. Once they're "set" (cured) during manufacture,
they stay that way. You'll be less familiar with thermosets than with thermoplastics; even so, you may have come across examples like
polyurethane (insulating material in buildings), polytetrafluoroethylene/PTFE (nonstick coatings on cooking pots and pans).

Uses of Plastics
Plastics are extremely versatile materials and are ideal for a wide range of consumer and industrial applications. The relatively low density of
most plastics gives plastic products the advantages of light weight. And, although most have excellent thermal and electrical insulation
properties, some plastics can be made to conduct electricity when required. They are corrosion resistant to many substances which attack
other materials, making them durable and suitable for use in harsh environments. Some are transparent, making optical devices possible. They
can easily be moulded into complex shapes, allowing other materials to be integrated into plastic products, and making them ideal for a wide
range of functions.

11
 CERAMICS
You started your morning with ceramics—and they'll dominate your day. Inside your brick, cement, and glass home, you woke to
the quartz clock, washed in the tiled bathroom, breakfasted on pottery cups and bowls. Maybe you worked all day at a computer (packed with

ceramic-based electronic components, like microchips, capacitors, or resistors), before heading back home for a glass of wine, gobbled down dinner from those
same pottery plates, and sat in front of the liquid-crystal TV (or Gorilla glass smartphone), before heading for bed and setting the quartz clock,
ready to repeat again tomorrow. Though it's far from obvious, we live in a ceramic world, just as people have for thousands of years. But what
exactly are ceramics?

Glass, tiles, pottery, bricks, cement, diamond, and graphite—you can probably see from this little list that "ceramics" is a very broad term, and
we're going to have difficulty defining. What do all these very different materials have in common? From a chemical viewpoint, we define
ceramics in terms of what they're not. So, you'll find most science textbooks and dictionaries telling you ceramics are nonmetallic + inorganic
solids made up of either metal or non-metal compounds that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to high temperatures. In
general, they are hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle. Here are just a few things made out of ceramics, or parts that contain ceramics:
 protective tiles on the outside of space shuttles  Solar cells
 snowboards + tennis rackets  Fiber optics
 electronic components-touch screens  Sensors + imaging devices for tight places including human body.
 CPUs + magnetic devices

Traditional Ceramics ― Bricks, pottery, glass, tiles, cement, and concrete are our classic, time-tested ceramics. Although they all have different
uses, we can still think of them as general-purpose materials. Take tiles, for example. We can put them inside our homes or outside; on the
walls, the floors, or the roof; and we can stick glass in our windows or poke away at it on our smartphone screens—we can even drink
champagne out of it. Ceramics like this are ancient materials that have gradually found more and more uses as the centuries have worn on.

Advanced Engineering Ceramics ― By contrast, advanced ceramics are ones that have been engineered (mostly since the early 20th century) for
highly specific applications. Most modern engineered ceramics are metal oxides, carbides, and nitrides, which means they're compounds made
by combining atoms of a metal with O 2, C, or N2. So, for example, Al 2O3 (alumina) and SiO2 are used in making integrated circuits ("microchips"); and
LiSiO is used to make the heat-protective nose cones on space rockets.

Properties
The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the types of bonding between the atoms. Most ceramics are made up of
two or more elements. This is called a compound. For example, alumina (Al 2O3), a compound made up of Al-atoms and O 2-atoms. The atoms in ceramic
materials are held together by a chemical bond. The two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and ionic. For
metals, the chemical bond is called the metallic bond. The bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic bonding than in
metallic. That is why, generally speaking, metals are ductile and ceramics are brittle. Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they
are used for a multitude of applications. In general, most ceramics are:

 refractory,  wear-resistant, oxidation resistant  electrical insulators,

 hard, brittle, chemically stable  thermal insulators,  nonmagnetic, prone to thermal shock

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SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductor materials such as Si, Ge, and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle , between those of a

“conductor” and an “insulator”. They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-conductors). They have very few “free e-s” because
their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but only under
special conditions. The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by replacing or adding certain donor or
acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby, producing more free e -s than holes or vice versa. That is by adding a small % of another
element to the base material, either Si or Ge. This process of adding donor or acceptor atoms to semiconductor atoms (Si, Ge etc) is
called Doping. As the doped Si is no longer pure, these donor and acceptor atoms are collectively referred to as “impurities”, and by doping
these Si-material with a sufficient number of impurities, we can turn it into an N-type or P-type semi-conductor material.

The most commonly used semiconductor basics material by far is Si. Si has four valence e-s in its outermost shell which it shares with its
neighbouring Si atoms to form full orbitals of eight e -s. The structure of the bond between the two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares
one e- with its neighbour making the bond very stable. As there are very few free e -s available to move around the silicon crystal, crystals of
pure Si (or Ge) are therefore good insulators, or at the very least very high value resistors. Silicon atoms are arranged in a definite symmetrical
pattern making them a crystalline solid structure. A crystal of pure silica (SiO2 or glass) is generally said to be an intrinsic crystal (it has no impurities) and
therefore has no free e-s. But simply connecting a Si-crystal to a battery supply is not enough to extract an electric current from it. To do that
we need to create a “+ve” and a “-ve” pole within the silicon allowing e -s and therefore electric current to flow out of the Si. These poles are
created by doping the silicon with certain impurities.

Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from metals by the population of electrons in each band (ranges of energy levels). The
valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with e -s under usual conditions. In semiconductors, only a few e -s exist in the conduction band
just above the valence band, and an insulator has almost no free e -s. As the energy in the system increases, e -s leave the valence band and
enter the conduction band. Semiconductors and insulators are further distinguished by the relative band gap. In semiconductors, the band gap
is small, allowing electrons to populate the conduction band. In insulators, it is large, making it difficult for e -s to flow through the conduction
band.

Extrinsic Semiconductors
The name “extrinsic semiconductor” can be a bit misleading. While insulating materials may be doped to become semiconductors, intrinsic
semiconductors can also be doped, resulting in an extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors that result from
doping: atoms that have an extra electron (n-type for negative, from group V, such as P) and atoms that have one fewer e- (p-type for +ve, from group III, i.e. B) .
In semiconductor production, doping intentionally introduces impurities into an extremely pure, or intrinsic semiconductor for the purpose of
changing its electrical properties. The impurities depend on the type of semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are
referred to as extrinsic. When a semiconductor is doped to such a high level that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor, it is
referred to as degenerate.

N-type Semiconductor ― In order for Si crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as Ar, Sb or P into the
crystalline structure making it extrinsic (impurities are added). These atoms have five outer e -s in their outermost orbital to share with neighbouring
atoms and are commonly called “Pentavalent” impurities. This allows four out of the five orbital e -s to bond with its neighbouring Si atoms
leaving one “free e-” to become mobile when an electrical voltage is applied (e- flow). As each impurity atom “donates” one e -, pentavalent atoms
are generally known as “donors”.

Sb as well as P, are frequently used as a pentavalent additive to Si. Sb has 51 e -s arranged in five
shells around its nucleus with the outermost orbital having five e -s. The resulting semiconductor
basics material has an excess of current-carrying e -s, each with a -ve charge, and is therefore
referred to as an N-type material with the e-s called “Majority Carriers” while the resulting holes are
called “Minority Carriers”. When stimulated by an external power source, the e -s freed from the Si
atoms by this stimulation are quickly replaced by the free e -s available from the doped Sb atoms.
But this action still leaves an extra e - (the freed e-) floating around the doped crystal making it
negatively charged. Then a semiconductor material is classed as N-type when its donor density is
greater than its acceptor density, in other words, it has more e-s than holes thereby creating a -ve pole.

In N-type semiconductors there are: Doping gives:

 The Donors are +ve charged.  +ve charged donors. Supply of energy gives:
 There are a large number of free e s. -
 -ve charged free e-s.  -ve charged free e-s.

 Small number of holes in relation to  +ve charged holes.

-
the number of free e s.

13
P-Type Semiconductor ― If we go the other way, and introduce a “Trivalent” (3 e ) impurity into the crystalline structure, such as Al, B, or In,
-

-
which have only three valence e s available in their outermost orbital, the fourth closed bond cannot be formed. Therefore, a complete
connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance of positively
charged carriers known as holes in the structure of the crystal where e -s are effectively
missing. As there is now a hole in the Si crystal, a neighbouring electron is attracted to it and
will try to move into the hole to fill it. However, the e - filling the hole leaves another hole
behind it as it moves. This in turn attracts another electron which in turn creates another hole
behind it, and so forth giving the appearance that the holes are moving as +ve charge through
the crystal structure (conventional current flow). This movement of holes results in a shortage of e -s
in the Si turning the entire doped crystal into a +ve pole. As each impurity atom generates a
hole, trivalent impurities are generally known as “Acceptors” as they are continually
“accepting” extra or free e-s.

B is commonly used as a trivalent additive as it has only five e -s arranged in three shells around
its nucleus with the outermost orbital having only three e -s. The doping of Boron atoms causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge
carriers resulting in a P-type material with the positive holes being called “Majority Carriers” while the free electrons are called “Minority
Carriers”. Then a semiconductor material is classed as P-type when its acceptor density is greater than its donor density, in other words, it has
more holes than electrons.

In P-type semiconductors there are: Doping gives: Supply of energy gives:

 The Acceptors are -ve charged.  -ve charged acceptors.  +ve charged holes.
 There are a large number of holes.  +ve charged holes.  -ve charged free electrons.
 Small number of free e-s in relation to
the number of holes.

DIODE
A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device that blocks current in one direction while letting current flow in another direction.
Diodes can be used in a number of ways. For example, a device that uses batteries often contains a diode that protects the device if you insert
the batteries backward. The diode simply blocks any current from leaving the battery if it is reversed―this protects the sensitive electronics in
the device. You may have seen turnstiles at a stadium or a subway station that let people go through in only one direction. A diode is a one-
way turnstile for e-s.

When you put N-type and P-type silicon together as shown in this diagram, you get a very interesting phenomenon that gives a diode its
unique properties. Even though N-type silicon by itself is a conductor, and P-type silicon by itself is also a conductor, the combination shown in
the diagram does not conduct any electricity. The negative e -s in the N-type silicon get attracted to the positive terminal of the battery. The
positive holes in the P-type silicon get attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. No current flows across the junction because the holes
and the electrons are each moving in the wrong direction.

If you flip the battery around, the diode conducts electricity just fine. The free e -s in the N-type silicon are repelled by the negative terminal of
the battery. The holes in the P-type silicon are repelled by the positive terminal. At the junction between the N-type and P-type Si, holes and
free e-s meet. The e-s fill the holes. Those holes and free e -s cease to exist, and new holes and electrons spring up to take their place. The effect
is that current flows through the junction.

14
MIRAGE REFRACTION IN A NON-UNIFORM MEDIUM
A mirage is an optical phenomenon that creates the illusion of water and results from the refraction of light through a non-uniform medium.
Mirages are most commonly observed on sunny days when driving down a roadway. As you drive down the roadway, there appears to be a
puddle of water on the road several yards (maybe 100 yards) in front of the car. Of course, when you arrive at the perceived location of the puddle,
you recognize that the puddle is not there. Instead, the puddle of water appears to be another one-hundred yards in front of you. You could
carefully match the perceived location of the water to a roadside object; but when you arrive at that object, the puddle of water is still not on
the roadway. The appearance of the water is simply an illusion.

Mirages occur on sunny days. The role of the sun is to heat the roadway to high temperatures. This heated roadway in turn heats the
surrounding air, keeping the air just above the roadway at higher temperatures than that day's average air temperature. Hot air tends to be
less optically dense than cooler air. As such, a non-uniform medium has been created by the heating of the roadway and the air just above it.
While light will travel in a straight line through a uniform medium, it will
refract when traveling through a non-uniform medium. If a driver looks down
at the roadway at a very low angle (at a position nearly one hundred yards away), light
from objects above the roadway will follow a curved path to the driver's eye.

Light that is traveling downward into this less optically dense air begins to
speed up. Though there isn't a distinct boundary between two media, there is a change in speed of a light wave. As expected, a change in
speed is accompanied by a change in direction. If there were a distinct boundary between two media, then there would be a bending of this
light ray away from the normal. For this light ray to bend away from the normal (towards the boundary), the ray would begin to bend more parallel to
the roadway and then bend upwards towards the cooler air. As such, a person in a car sighting downward at the roadway will see an object
located above the roadway.

So, when you experience this sunny day phenomenon, your mind must quickly make sense of how you can look downward at the roadway and
see an object located above the road. In the process of making sense of this event, your mind draws upon past experiences. Searching the
database of stored experiences, your mind is interested in an explanation of why the eye can sight downward at a surface and see an object
that is located above the surface. In the process of searching, it comes up with three possible explanations based upon past experiences. Your
mind subtly ponders these three options.
 There is a mirror on the road. Someone must have for some reason placed a mirror on the road. The mirror is reflecting light and that
is why I see an image of the oncoming truck when I look downward at the road.
 There is a glass window on the road. My gosh, do you believe it! Someone has left a glass window on the road. The glass window is
reflecting light and that is why I see an image of the oncoming truck when I look downward at the road.
 There is water on the road. It must have rained last night and there is a puddle of water left on the road. The water is reflecting light
and that is why I see an image of the oncoming truck when I look downward at the road.

Of the three possible explanations of the image of the truck, only one makes a lot of sense to the mind―there is water on the road. After all,
while both glass windows and mirrors can reflect light, nowhere in your mind's database of past experiences is there an account of a mirror or
glass window being seen on a roadway. Yet there are plenty of times that a water puddle has been observed to be present on a roadway.
Smart person that you are, you then conclude that there is a puddle of water on the road that is causing you to see objects located above the
road when you sight downward at the road. The illusion is complete.
Imagine you're pushing a shopping cart across a parking lot. If you're exerting a constant force, the cart's speed depends on the medium it's traveling on―in this case, the parking lot's paved
surface. What happens when you push the shopping cart out of the parking lot, onto a grassy area? If you push it straight onto the grass, it will simply slow down. The grass medium offers
more resistance, so it takes more energy to move the shopping cart. But if you push the cart onto the grass at an angle, something else happens. If the right wheel hits the grass first, it will
slow down while the left wheel is still on the pavement. Because the left wheel is briefly moving more quickly than the right wheel, the shopping cart will turn to the right as it moves onto the
grass. Similarly, if you move from a grassy area to a paved area, one wheel will speed up before the other and the cart will turn.

A light wave works in a similar way. Its speed depends on what sort of medium it's passing through. In the vacuum of space, light travels at top speed because there isn't any matter slowing it
down. It has a harder time moving through an area filled with matter, such as the Earth's gaseous atmosphere, so it moves more slowly. As it moves from one medium to another at an angle,
one part of the wave changes speed an instant before the other, and the light turns. Let’s try to understand now that how this phenomenon creates mirages.

The lower part of the light wave passes between the layers first, so it speeds up an instant before the upper part. The light that would ordinarily go straight to the ground bends upward and
travels to your eyes. The effect is that you see the image of the car twice: once on top of the road, and once in the road surface. The light from the lower part of the car bends farther upward
than the light from the top of the car, so the mirage image looks like a reflection. Your brain assumes that the light is traveling in a straight line, so it seems like there's a mirror image beneath
the normal image. This mirage looks just like a puddle of water on the road because, like a puddle of water, it's reflecting what's above it. This sort of
mirage is called an inferior mirage because it appears below the horizon.

Superior mirages are mirages that form above the horizon. This occurs when there is a cooler level of air lower than a warmer level of air, typically over icy
landscapes or very cold water. This mirage causes you to see a scene much higher than it should be. For example, you might see a mass of land or a boat
floating in midair. This situation might also distort images, making a boat seem much taller than it actually is.

You can see a similar optical illusion any day when the sky is clear. As light from the sun enters our atmosphere, it slows down considerably. As a result, it
bends toward the Earth. When the sun is low in the sky, it appears to be higher than it actually is because of this refraction. When it looks like the sun is
about to drop below the horizon, it already has. The atmosphere is bending the light around the curve of the globe!

15
 How do mirages form?
Normally, light waves from the sun travel straight through the atmosphere to your eye. But, light travels at different speeds through hot air and cold air. Mirages
happen when the ground is very hot and the air is cool. The hot ground warms a layer of air just above the ground. When the light moves through the cold air and
into the layer of hot air it is refracted (bent). A layer of very warm air near the ground refracts the light from the sky nearly into a U-shaped bend. Our brain thinks
the light has travelled in a straight line. Our brain doesn't see the image as bent light from the sky. Instead, our brain thinks the light must have come from
something on the ground.

HUMAN EAR
Human ear has three parts namely,
 Inner Ear  Middle Ear  Outer Ear
The external ear, also called the auricle or pinna, is the loop of cartilage and skin that is attached to outside of the head. It works much like a
megaphone. Sound is funneled through the external ear and piped into the external auditory canal, according to Nebraska Medicine. The
auditory canal is the part of the ear hole that can easily be seen when looking an ear up close. The sound waves pass through the auditory
canal and reach the tympanic membrane, better known as the eardrum. Just like a drum being hit be a drumstick, the thin sheet of connective
tissue vibrates when sound waves strike it. The vibrations pass through the tympanic membrane and enter the middle ear, also called the
tympanic cavity.

The tympanic cavity is lined with mucosa and filled with air and the auditory ossicles, which are three tiny bones called the malleus (hammer),
incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup), according to Encyclopedia Britannica. As the bones vibrate, the stapes pushes a structure called the oval
window in and out, according to the National Library of Medicine (NLM). This action is passed on to the inner ear and the cochlea, a fluid-filled,
spiral-shaped structure that contains the spiral organ of Corti, which is the receptor organ for hearing. Tiny hair cells in this organ translate the
vibrations into electrical impulses that are carried to the brain by sensory nerves.

PESTICIDES

Dirty dozen of persistent organic pollutants banned in 2001 by 127 countries: Aldrin, Dieldrin, DDT, Endrin,
Hexachlorobenzene, Dioxins, Furans. But still used in third countries.

Result: According to WHO data, 25 million people suffer pesticide poisoning world wide. About 20000 die every year.

PLASTICS

The Problem of degradability + Its solution: Although plastics has brought much comfort to humans; However, the biggest
problem with them is their proper disposal because of their non-biodegradibility. But recent perishable plastics have been
made. This new plastic, called polyhydroxy-butyrate-valerate, is produced by a naturally occurring bacteria. These bacteria

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convert glucose to PHBV, which they store much as humans store fats. The material can be degraded in aerobic conditions
to water, CO2, and humans by naturally occurring bacteria and fungi. This plastic has durability, stability and is water
resistant comparable to conventional thermoplastics. Commercialization of this product will help solve the garbage mess.

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