PUBLIC HEALTH DIP BARATON

BARATON COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HEALTH
AHHP 0215: PUBLIC HEALTH AND EVIRONMENT

by
JULY 2021
ANHE 451: PUBLIC HEALTH AND EVIRONMENT

MAIN INFORMATION PAGE
COURSE PRELIMINARIES
ANHP 0215: PUBLIC HEALTH AND EVIRONMENT
Is this course for you?

This course has been designed for fourth year undergraduate students
pursuing a career as animal health professionals. It is meant to provide
knowledge in public health which is at the intersect of human and animal
health. This course is part of the prerequisites for qualification as an
animal health professional. It will equip the learner with knowledge and
skills in ensuring that animal products used for human consumption are
safe and wholesome, ensuring that human life is protected from risks
arising from food, animal products and poor environments and ensuring
that negative impacts of animal health activities on the environment are
minimized. You are expected to complete this course in 90 hours, 30
hours of which are practical. Before starting this course, you are expected
to have gone through all courses in year 1-4 semester 1.
Introduction to the course

This course draws from research carried out and best practices in the field
of public health. Animal health professionals are at the forefront of
protecting human health from hazards that may arise out of animal health
activities and products. Animal products such as meat, milk, eggs among
others provide a direct route through which diseases from animals can be
passed on to humans. These products given their nature favor growth of
microorganisms that can be pathogenic or cause food spoilage. Animal
health activities can have negative impact on the environment including
pollution of lakes, rivers and land, killing of beneficial insect populations
as well as release of green house gasses. Thus, this course aims to
provide information and skills in the public health aspects of animal health
and production including hygiene of foods of animal origin and water,
Hygienic slaughter, inspection, handling and transport of meat and
environmental hygiene. An introduction to food borne infections and
intoxications as well as emerging diseases. There will be a deliberate
attempt to link all course content to what is happening in the field
through practical assignments as well as laboratory practicals. We hope
that you enjoy the course!
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Course content
There are seven (7) topics in this course, namely:
Topic one: Introduction to public health and environment
Topic two: Food microbiology, preservation and storage
Topic three: Meat hygiene, slaughtering and meat inspection
Topic four: Milk hygiene
Topic five: Fish hygiene
Topic six: Environmental hygiene
Topic seven: Water hygiene
The course will also have the following practicals undertaken when
schools resume:
Meat inspection (demonstrations)
 Cow slaughterhouse visits
 Pig slaughterhouse visits
 Small ruminant slaughterhouse visits
 Poultry slaughterhouse visits
 Donkey slaughterhouse visits
Laboratory Practicals
 Food microbiology
 Milk hygiene
 Water hygiene
 Environmental hygiene
Academic trips
 Sewage and water treatment plant
 Milk processing plant
 Meat processing plant
Course learning outcomes
At the end of the course you should have:
1. Understood how to hygienically handle milk, meat, water and fish to
prevent contamination.
2. Learnt the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis and
treatment of food borne infections and intoxications as well as
emerging diseases
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3. Learnt about proper design, sighting and facilities in a slaughter
house as well as treatment and disposal of slaughter house wastes
and environmental hygiene.
4. Leant in theory and practically the inspection, handling and
transport of meat.
5. Learnt how to ensure milk is hygienically produced, transported,
processed and packaged. This is in addition to learning about basic
quality parameters and inspection of milk.
6. Understood the quality parameters of fish, health hazards that may
arise from consumption of spoiled or contaminated fish as well as
how to ensure fish hygiene.
7. Gained knowledge and skills in processes to ensure water is safe
and wholesome for consumption by human beings and livestock as
well as being introduced to sewage treatment processes.
8. Learnt about the effects of animal health activities on the
environment, health effects that these may cause to humans and
how to mitigate them.
Course Study Skills

As an online learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely befitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space, that is, the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you
engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now-before starting your self-study-to
familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent
resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The "How to study” website is dedicated to study skills resources. You will
find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study
place), taking notes, strategies for reading textbooks, using reference
sources, test anxiety.
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http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
This is another "How to study” website with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing ("hands-on” learning) , memory building,
tips for staying motivated ,developing a learning plan.
Need Help?
This course was developed in June 2020 by Dr. Machira D.N. phone: +254
704 670 347, email Machira.dickson@gmail.com. Dr. Machira is a lecturer
at the department of veterinary public health, pharmacology and
toxicology. You may contact me between Monday to Friday within normal
working hours.
For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please contact
tech-support via e-mail elearning@egerton.ac.ke. You can also reach
learner support through elearnersupport@egerton.ac.ke.
Assignments/Activities
Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some
assignments/ activities will require submission while others will be self-
assessments that do not require submission. Ensure you carefully check
which assignments require submission and those that do not.
Course Learning Requirements
 Timely submission of the assignments
 2 CATs(30%)–CAT1 marks are derived from assignments.
 Final Examination (70% of total score)
Self-assessment
Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the
topic and course content. While they may not be graded, you are strongly
advised to attempt them whenever they are available in a topic.
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Topic one: Introduction to public health and
environment
Introduction
This topic introduces the concept of public health and environment to students.
It aims to place it in the context of other units they’ve done, place it into
context of their practice after graduation and show its importance.
Topic time
Lecture Hours (LH)/Practical Hours (PH) – 3/1
Lecture hours comprise Compulsory online reading, activities, self-
assessments and practice exercises [2 hours]and Optional further reading [1
hour]
Learning requirements
Participation in one chat (at least five entries), at least two elaborate
contributions to the discussion topic. You may also start your own discussion
thread. Timely submission of the assignment
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to define public health and
describe why it is important to study public health. In addition, they should be
able to describe activities that public health professionals are involved in and
how animal health fits into these activities.
Topic summary
I this topic we have learnt that public health comprises all analytical and
organizational efforts of the community to identify disease, promote and
improve the health of the population.
For animal health professionals this means the application of animal health
skills, resources and knowledge for the protection and promotion of health in
the society. Animal health professionals engage in a number of activities as
part of wider public health efforts and in Kenya this is practiced through
various portfolios.
Glossary - All definitions in the notes.
Further reading
(Stohr and Meslin 1997)
Stohr, K, and F X Meslin. 1997. “The Role of Veterinary Public Health in the
Prevention of Zoonoses.” Archives of Virology. Supplementum 13: 207–
18. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-6534-8_20.
Topic activities and assessment quizzes

Visit any facility dealing with or processing animal health products and identify
the functions of public health professionals in these places.
Topic content
1.1 Introduction
Public health comprises all analytical and organizational efforts of the community
to identify disease, promote and improve the health of the population.
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It has also been defined as the contributions to the physical, mental and social
well-being of humans through an understanding and application of animal health
science
For animal health professionals this means the application of animal health skills,
resources and knowledge for the protection and promotion of health in the
society. Animal health professionals engage in a number of activities as part of
wider public health efforts. These include:
a. Provision of sufficiently hygienic, safe and nutritionally adequate animal

food for human consumption.
b. Prevention of zoonotic diseases and other precautionally hazards to animal
owners
c. Prevention of environmental contamination from veterinary activities
d. Enhance the physical, mental and social well being of human beings
through the application of animal health science
Many diseases are transmitted through foods of animal origin. About 60% of the
emerging diseases have a zoonotic origin . Products such as meat, milk, eggs,
fish and other pose an especially serious threat because of their wide availability
and ability to harbor harmful microorganisms and substances.
Animal health professionals, in their day to day activities, are looked upon by
their clients to advise on:
a. Suitability of human consumption of meat, milk, eggs and other products

from sick or treated animals
b. Suitability of an animal for slaughter
c. Disposal of dead animals / condemned carcasses/ organs after slaughter
d. Type of treatment needed to render animal products from sick or treated
animals safe for human consumption.
The aims of public health are achieved through various activities carried out by
animal health professionals. These include activities in:
a. Epidemiology, prevention and control of infectious or zoonotic diseases

b. Design and ensuring hygiene of slaughter houses
c. Meat hygiene and inspection
d. Fish hygiene and inspection
e. Hygiene of milk and dairies
f. Egg hygiene and inspection
g. Preservation of foods
h. Control of chemical residues in food including insecticides, pesticides,
acaricides, hormones, antibiotics, heavy metals, food additives,
herbicides, food contaminants etc.
i. Water hygiene – physical, chemical and microbiologically
j. Waste management and disposal especially from slaughterhouses
k. Prevention of radioactive materials from entering the food chain
1.1.1.Slaughter house design, meat hygiene and inspection
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This is the main responsibility of animal health specialists in public health. The
main aim of meat hygiene and inspection is to ensure meat and meat products
do not carry pathogenic products that cause disease in man, microbial toxins or
chemical residues causing contamination of meat.
Adequate meat hygiene measures will cover animals from the time they are on
the farm, transport to the abattoir, slaughter process until final meat products
are consumed. This involves-
a. antemortem inspection of animals before slaughter

b. humane handling and slaughter of animals
c. post mortem inspection of carcass
d. design and hygiene of abattoirs
e. design and hygiene of meat carriers
f. hygiene of slaughter house, meat, equipment and personnel
g. management of waste from slaughter houses
1.1.2.Hygiene of foods of animal origin in origin
Animal health professionals are responsible for hygiene of animal food products
including meat, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, fish and other sea foods.
1.1.3.Hygiene of other food products
Public health is involved in food hygiene in general including cereals, vegetables,

fruits etc.
1.1.4.Water Hygiene
This is one of the most important public health activities because water is
essential in the function of slaughter houses and food processing plants. Good
water hygiene ensures acceptable physical, chemical and microbiological quality
in the water used in such establishments.
1.2. Functions and responsibilities of public health practitioners

 Promotion of public health in rural and urban areas through activities for
prevention and control of diseases and infections transmitted directly or
indirectly through food stuffs
 Epidemiological studies and assessments of risks to public health and
problems arising due to animal diseases.
 Reporting on diseases transmissible from animals to man
 Participating in planning, promotion, coordination and supervision of
programs related to nutrition of man and animals
 Planning and participation in laboratory and field research of comparative
medicine
 Active participation in identification of hazards of radiation to human and
animal health
 Participation in environmental health programs
 Active participation in health education
 Advisory services and participation in drafting of legislation ordinances
related to specific fields and services of animal health
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1.3. Public health practice by animal health professionals in
Kenya
Public health practice by animal health professionals is present in Kenya by

definition and practice. Areas involved include:
a. Inspectorate portfolio – Concerned with food control.

- Involves meat and fish inspection, sanitation of slaughter houses,
licensing of operating slaughter houses and related facilities
- Egg and milk inspection
- Control of export and import of foods of animal origin
b. Quality control of food and animal feeds especially hygiene of meat and
other foods of animal origin
- Involves microbiological, parasitological, chemical and toxicological
examination and grading of meats and eggs.
c. Research – Involves use of animals like primates, rats, guinea pigs,
livestock for comparative medical research
d. Control of zoonotic diseases and preventing their spread from livestock
and pets
e. Legal aspects – ensuring enforcement of legislation concerning public
health including – Meat control act, pharmacy and poisons act, dairy
industry act, livestock cleansing act, disease control act among others
f. Environmental hygiene including slaughter house hygiene and its effluent
as well as waste disposal hygiene
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Topic two: Food Microbiology, preservation storage and
diseases
Introduction
This topic introduces the learner to food spoilage including causes and
prevention. It narrows down on microorganisms as the main causes of food
spoilage and discusses factors that promote and inhibit their growth in food
and how to use this information in food preservation.
Topic time
hour]
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to describe the causes of
food spoilage, factors affecting growth of microorganisms in food, and food
preservation techniques and the principle they utilize.
They should also be able to describe the various diseases that are caused by
pathogens or contaminants in food.
Topic summary
In this topic, you have learnt that although there are numerous causes of food
spoilage both physical, chemical and biological, microorganisms by far play the
most important role. We have both intrinsic and extrinsic factors to a food
affecting the growth of these microbes. Among them include temperature,
availability of nutrients and water in the food, humidity of storage etc. Utilising
this knowledge helps us device methods of preserving foods either by either
killing the microbes present in food or inhibiting their growth. The methods for
doing this are discussed.
When pathogens or harmful chemicals are found in food, they can cause
disease in man. These pathogens are discussed, identifying them, identifying
the source and transmission method, and discussing which disease they cause
including its control.
Further reading
a. Modern food microbiology 5th edition (1998)– by James M. Jay
b. Handbook of food borne diseases (2018) ed. Dongyou Liu
a. Visit a local supermarket. Identify at least 15 foods being sold and
discuss the method of preservation used.
b. Visit 4 outlets that sell food. Identify risk practices by the food handlers
and in the environment that might predispose the customer to food
borne diseases. (Requires submission)
Topic Content
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2.1 Introduction
Food production occurs at specific areas and at certain periods of the year due to
variation in weather conditions. Food therefore has to be collected and stored for
use during periods of low or no food production. However, storage is complicated
by the fact that food begin to deteriorate shortly after harvest, gather or
slaughter.
Food spoilage is defined as damage or injury to food rendering in unsuitable for

human consumption. Food must be considered spoiled if it is contaminated with
pathogenic microorganisms or various poisonous agents, such as pesticides,
heavy metals etc.
Food product Storage life (days) at 21oC
Raw beef and mutton 1-2
Raw fish 1-2
Raw poultry 1-2
Dried salted or smoked 360 or more
meat and fish
Fresh fruits 1-7
Dried fruits 360 or more
Leafy vegetables 1-2
Root crops 1-20
Dried seeds 360 or more
In most cases there does not need to be an evident sign of spoilage, the food
might look normal and only after eating it or by careful bacteriological and
toxicological investigation, one is able to realize the defect. Food decay or
decomposition is implied when the term spoiled is used.
2.1.1 Causes of food spoilage

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• (a). Growth and activity of microorganisms Bacteria, yeasts and molds
are microorganisms that cause food spoilage. They produce various
enzymes that decompose the various constituents of food.
• (b). Enzyme activity: Action of enzymes found inherently in plant or

animal tissues start the decomposition of various food components after
death of plant or animal.
• (c). Chemical reactions: These are reactions that are not catalysed by
enzymes.,e.g. oxidation of fat
• (d). Vermin. Vermin includes weevils, ants, rats, cocroaches, mice, birds,
larval stages of some insects. Vermin are important due to:
(i). Aesthetic aspect of their presence,
(ii) Possible transmision of pathogenic agents,
(iii). Consumption of food.
• (e). Physical changes. These include those changes caused by freezing,

burning, drying, pressure, etc.
2.2 Microbial spoilage of food
Bacteria, yeasts and molds are the major causes of food spoilage. They produce
various enzymes that decompose the various constituents of food. Molds are the
major causes of spoilage of foods with reduced water activity e.g dry cereals and
cereal product. Bacteria spoil foods with relatively high water activity such as
milk and products.
Microorganisms in food can be useful (in food processing e.g. fermentation) or

can be harmful when their enzymes break down the food causing spoilage or
causing diseases in man.
Food safety looks at the total quality of food. This included biological, physical
and chemical quality. For each food whether fresh or processed there are specific
standards it must meet for all these quality parameters.
2.2.1 Microorganisms in food
Microorganisms that can be found in food include:
Bacteria – Clostriduim, Bacillus, Salmonella among others
Fungi – Aspergillus, mucor, absidia among others
Yeast – Candida, sacromycetes among others
Vermin e.g. Cockroaches, ants, flies, insects, rats etc.
Spoilage microorganisms cause putrefaction of foods. Low levels of these can be

tolerated in food. Pathogenic microorganisms cause diseases in man. These are
extremely undesired in food.
Sources of microorganisms in food include:
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a. Soil and water
b. Plants and animal products
c. Food utensils
d. Food handlers
e. GIT of man and animals
f. Animal feeds
g. Animal hides
h. Air and dust
During the food production process good hygiene practices should be observed
to reduce levels of contamination. High levels of microbiological contamination
lead to food soilage. It is important to note that no food processing method can
compensate for already spoiled food.
2.3 Parameters affecting growth of microorganisms in foods
These can be divided into intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
2.3.1 Intrinsic parameters
Intrinsic parameters are those parameters of animal and plant tissues that are
naturally inherent (part of these tissues). These include:
pH (potent of Hydrogen)
Moisture content / water activity
Oxidation reduction potential
Nutrient content
Natural antimicrobials in food
External biological covering of foods
2.3.1.1 pH (potent of Hydrogen)
Most microorganisms grow best at a pH of 7. Very few grow at pH levels of

below 4. Usually bacteria grow in a narrower range of pH than moulds and
yeasts. The following are the pH ranges for some common foods.
Food pH range
Beef 5.1 – 6.2
Ham 5.9 - 6.1
Chicken 6.2 – 6.4
Fish 6.6 – 6.8
Milk 6.3 – 6.5
Cheese 4.9
butter 4.5
Oranges 3.6 – 4.3
Plums 2.8 – 4.6
Tomatoes 4.2 – 4.3
Spinach 5.0 – 5.4
Onions 5.3 – 5.8
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Cabbage 5.4 – 6.0
In the food industry, the pH is usually reduced to preserve food and preserve
shelf life.
2.3.1.2 Moisture content
Water in food that is not bound to food molecules can support the growth of
bacteria, yeast, and mold. The term water activity (aw) refers to this unbound
water. This is calculated as:
Water activity = vapor pressure of food product/substrate
Vapor pressure of water
The water activity (aw) of a food is the ratio between the vapor pressure of the
food itself, when in a completely undisturbed balance with the surrounding air
media, and the vapor pressure of distilled water under identical conditions. A
water activity of 0.80 means the vapor pressure is 80 percent of that of pure
water. The water activity increases with temperature.
Water activity of most fresh fruits is about 0.99 and thus all spoilage
microorganisms are able to grow. In general, bacteria require high water activity
for growth than yeasts and molds. Most foods have a water activity above 0.95
and that will provide sufficient moisture to support the growth of bacteria,
yeasts, and mold. The amount of available moisture can be reduced to a point
that will inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
Food can be made safe to store by lowering the water activity to a point that will
not allow pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus
to grow in it.
aw Spoilage microorganism
0.90-1.00 Bacteria
0.85 - 9.0 Bacteria, molds, yeasts
0.80 - Yeasts
0.85
0.75 - Xerophilic molds, molds and

0.80 yeasts
0.70 - Yeasts
0.75
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0.65 - Osmophilic yeasts
0.70
0.60 - Xerophilic molds, osmophilic

0.65 yeasts
2.3.1.3 Oxidation Reduction Potential
Microorganisms are classified according to their oxygen requirements in order to

multiply as:
1. Obligate anaerobe – Can grow only in the absence of free oxygen e.g.
Clostridium botulinum
2. Facultative anaerobe – Can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen
e.g. Salmonella species
3. Obligate aerobes – Can only grow in the presence of oxygen e.g. Bacillus
cereus
4. Microaerophillic – only grow at low oxygen tension e.g. Streptococci
In practice this is applied in heat canning of food where:
 In packing, all oxygen is removed and then the can is sealed in a vacuum.
 Anaerobes are then destroyed by heat.
2.3.1.4 Nutrient content
Microorganisms require:
 Water
 Source of energy
 Source of nitrogen
 Vitamins and other growth factors
 Minerals
Milk and meat have all these in plenty and thus spoil very fast. Cereals have less
of this and thus can be dried and stored.
2.3.1.5 Natural Antimicrobials in food
Chemical compounds having pharmacological and biological activity and

produced by living organisms are called natural products. Living organisms
produce primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are the
products that have essential function in the organism, while secondary
metabolites could simply be waste products or could have some important
function in their producers. Secondary metabolites can be used as drugs against
diseases such as cancer, inflammation (swelling), and so on and also have
antimicrobial activity. Secondary metabolites possessing antimicrobial activity
are called the natural antimicrobials and could be extracted from different
sources like plants (fruits, vegetables, seeds, herb, and spices), animals (eggs,
milk, and tissues), and microorganisms (fungi and bacteria)
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These natural antimicrobials found in food resist attack by microorganisms.
Examples of these include:
 Eugenol in cloves
 Lysothine
 Lactoferrin
 Conglutinine
 Casein in milk
 Lysozine and conblumin in fresh eggs
Some of the antimicrobial compounds that are present in spices and herbs are
eugenol, thymol, thymol and carvacrol, vanillin, allicin, cinnamic aldehyde, and
allyl isothiocyanate that are, respectively, present in cloves, thyme, oregano,
vanilla, garlic, cinnamon, and mustard.
Garlic extract has antimicrobial activity due to the presence of an organic sulfur
compound allicin, which acts as a growth inhibitor for both Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria.
Antimicrobial activity of orange peel and capsicum was due to the presence of
phenolic compound (coumaric acid).
Depending on legislation of specific countries, addition of antimicrobials may or

may not be allowed in foods. Tyosin, nicin and tetracycline may be allowed in
some countries.
Antimicrobials are undesirable because:
1. They will select for resistant microorganisms in the subject leading to

therapeutic failure when the same antimicrobial is used.
2. They may cause allergic reactions in sensitive subjects e.g. penicillin
sensitivity in man.
3. They will kill starter cultures used in food fermentation e.g. in Mala or
yoghurt.
There are investigations on how natural antimicrobials may be used in food

preservation.
2.3.1.6 External biological covering of foods
These prevent physical entry and subsequent spoilage by microorganisms.

Examples include the Testa of seeds, outer covering of fruits, shells of nuts,
Hides and skins of animals, shell of eggs etc.
In physical inspection of food, if there is breakage/ discontinuity of the outer

covering the food may not be acceptable for human consumption or may be
accepted for more stringent processing activities.
This may be applied in food preservation where packaging of foods prevents

entry of microorganisms e.g. nylon packaging of foods.
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2.3.2 Extrinsic parameters affecting growth of microorganisms
in food
These are defined as properties of the storage environment that affect both the
foods and the microorganism. These include:
 Temperature
 Relative humidity
 Presence and concentration of gasses
2.3.2.1 Temperature of storage
Microorganisms have been reported to grow from -34⁰C to 90⁰C.
Depending on the optimal temperature of growth we have:
1. Psychrophiles/psychrotrophs - Psychrophiles are extremophilic bacteria or

archaea which are cold-loving, having an optimal temperature for growth
at about 15°C or lower, a maximal temperature for growth at about 20°C
and a minimal temperature for growth at 0°C or lower. Psychrotrophs are
cold-tolerant bacteria or archaea that have the ability to grow at low
temperatures, but have optimal and maximal growth temperatures above
15°C and 20°C, respectively. Psychotrophs can withstand temperature but
not multiply. Examples include pseudomonas, Bacillus and Micrococcus
species and several psychrophilic species of archaea, yeasts, fungi and
microalgae
2. Mesophiles / Mesotrophs – These grow at temperatures between 20°C and
45°C but the optimal temperature is usually 30°C to 40°C. They are
found in all genera of food spoilage microorganisms. They may also be
isolated from foods stored at refrigeration temperature but do not grow at
that temperature.
3. Thermophiles/ thermotrophs – Grow at temperatures above 45°C. The
optimum temperature of growth is 55°C – 65°C. Examples include bacillus
and clostridium genuses
Application:
 Increase the temperature of a food with the aim of killing microorganisms

 Decrease the temperature with the aim of slowing down (inhibiting)
growth
It is important to note that organisms with spores and those that are
encapsulated are more resistant to heat.
2.3.2.2 Relative humidity of the environment
The relative humidity is important with reference to the water activity of the food
stored in that environment. If the water activity of a food is x then it should be
stored at a relative humidity of 100 times x. This gives equilibrium of the
environment such that the food does not loose water to the environment nor
gain water from it.
If a food with a water activity of 0.8 is stored at a relative humidity of 60%, the
food loses water to the environment until a water activity of 0.6 % is achieved.
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This my change the flavor of the food. If the same food is stored at a relative
humidity of 90% then it will absorb moisture and spoil faster.
2.3.2.3 Concentration of gasses in the environment
This relates to the presence and concentration of gases in the food environment.
Various microorganisms require for growth, either high oxygen tension (aerobic),
low oxygen tension(microaerobic) or absence of oxygen (anaerobic). Some
microorganisms may grow either in high oxygen tension, or in the absence of
oxygen (facultative anaerobes).
Anaerobic or facultatively anaerobic spore formers are most likely to grow in

canned foods. Microaerophilic bacteria are most likely to grow in vacuum packed
foods since they have low oxygen tension, while Aerobic bacteria are likely to
grow on the surface of raw meat. Aerobic molds will grow in insufficiently dried
or salted products
2.4 Food preservation
Food preservation is a process through which physical and /or chemical agents
are used to prevent microbial spoilage of food. Food preservation aims at
treating food in a manner to prolong its storage life. In food preservation, efforts
are made to destroy organisms in the food, or Increase the period taken by
microorganism to adapt to the food environment before they start to spoil the
food.
Two general principles are employed in food preservation.
(1). Inhibition priciple
(2). Killing principle
2.4.1 Inhibition principle
In this principle, food preservation is achieved by inhibition of growth and

multiplication of microorganisms. The inhibition principle can be achieved by
any of the following methods:
(a). Reduction of water activity e.g. By drying and salting
(b). Reduction in pH e.g. by fermentation and addition of acids.
(c). Use of preservatives, e.g. sodium benzoate
(d). Use of low temperatures (chilling or freezing)
(e). Smoking – which has a drying and preservative effect
Preservation of food by inhibition methods does not necessarily imply the

destruction of organisms. On removal of the inhibiting influence, the food will
undergo spoilage as the microorganism present will grow and multiply to cause
spoilage.
2.4.1.1 Food preservation by Lowering Ph
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Many food products can be preserved by lowering pH so that the growth of
spoilage and pathogenic bacteria is prevented. The lowering of pH can be
achieved by addition of acids and fermentation. Fermentation is the breakdown
of carbohydrates under anaerobic conditions into alcohol or lactic acid and
carbon dioxide.
Lactic acid bacteia are those that will ferment carbohydrayes with lactic acid
being one of the products. You can also have Propionic acid bacteria, butyric acid
bacteria etc.
Fermentation of food ensures:
1. Preserves food by lowering the pH.

2. Makes food more nutritious by production of vitamis and enzymatic
splitting of cellulose into simpler carbohydrates.
Factors affecting growth of microorganisms during fermentation:
a. Acid level of the food

b. Type of starter culture
c. Temperature of incubation
d. Salt concentration in the medium
e. Nutrients available
Most fermentation processes use pasteurised foods. Time is a major factor

during fermentation. For example in the use of lactic acid producing bacteria, the
lactic acid level in the substate as the lactobacillus work on the carbohydrate
until a time when the low pH kills the lactic acid bacteria. Other bacteria take
over and start digesting the proteins releasing ammonia, which reacts with the
lactic acis thus raising the ph again to alkaline.
Lactic acid bacteria have two fermentation patterns:
1. Homofermentative – Produce lactic acid as the only product of glucose

fermentation.
2. Heterofermentative – produce equal molar amounts of lactic acid, carbon
dioxide and ethanol from glucose.
Examples of fermented food products
Table 2: various starter cultures used in preparation of some food products.
Food product Raw material Starter culture

Yoghurt Milk Streptococcus
thermophilus
Country cured ham Pork ham Aspergillus and
penecillum species
Sauerkrant Cabbage Lactobacillus
mesenteroidis
Lactobacillus plantarum
Beer Cereal wort Sacharomyces cereciae
Sacharomyces
carbergensis
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Cakes Wheat flour Sacharomyces cereciae
Wine Grapes anf other fruits Sacharomyces
elipsoidius
Salami meat Lactobacillus plantarum
Fermentation by propionic acid bacterium leads to production of propionates,

acetates and carbon dioxide which preserves the food.
Sacharomyces fermentation leads to production of ethanol and carbon dioxide
Acetobacter species breaks down ethanol to acetic acid and further to carbo
dioxide and water and hence is involved in spoilage of alcohol.
pH can also be reduced indirectly in food by direct addition of weak organic acids
or their salts into the foods e.g. benzoic acid / sodium benzoate, sorbic acid or
its salt, peta hydroxybenzoic acid (paraben). Thes are used in production of
bread, cakes, cheese, syrups and soft drinks.
2.4.1.2 Food preservation by lowering water activity
Lowering of water activity can be achieved by:
• Addition of high content of salt: Sodium chloride and sometimes nitrates

and nitrites
• Addition of high content of sugar
• Drying: sun/air drying; electrical drying or freeze drying.
The salting procedure can be performed in four ways:
1. Dry cure in which the meat or fish is rubbed with salt
2. Pickling: The products are immersed in pickle of brine, usually containing

about 15% salt.
3. The injection cure: concentrated salt injected to muscles
4. Direct addition method
Preservation of food by addition of high content of sugar
Monosaccharides such as glucose(dextrose) and fructose are more effective in

reducing the water activity than disaccharides like sucrose. Thermophiles are
more susceptible to the action of sugar than than other bacteria. Osmophilic
yeasts are able to tolerate very high concentrations of sugar and cause food
spoilage.
2.4.1.3 Food preservation by use of low temperatures
Two methods are employed to arrest microbial growth and multiplication. These
are chilling (cold storage) and freezing. Chilling is keeping food at temperatures
between 0-15oC. The commom chilling temperatures ranges between 4-5oC.
Freezing is keeping food at temperatures between 0oC and -35oC.
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Low temperatures are used to retard chemical reactions and actions of food
enzymes and to slow down or stop the growth and activity of microorganisms in
the food. A low enough temperature will prevent growth of any
microorganisms. Spores are not usually injured at all by freezing. However, most
parasites are killed by freezing.
2.4.1.4 Use of preservatives
Preservatives serve as antimicrobials which prevent or slow down the growth of

moulds, yeasts and bacteria. By preventing the growth of moulds, yeasts and
bacteria, preservatives can improve the safety of food as well as prevent the
wastage of seasonal surplus by making it last longer on the shelf or in the fridge.
An ideal preservative should meet the following criteria:
(i) can inhibit the growth of a wide range of micro-organisms

(ii) should be non-toxic to humans
(iii) should not be expensive
(iv) should not affect the flavour, taste or aroma of the food product
(v) should not be inactivated by the food itself
(vi) should not promote the development of resistant micro-organisms
(vii) should kill rather than inhibit the micro-organisms
Table 1: Common preservatives used in food
2.4.1.5 Smoking
Mainly used in the preservation of meats. Materials used for smoke come from
hardwood sawdust or chips. Softwood products result in sooty deposit. Over 200
components comprise smoke
– At least 80 have been identified
– Almost all exhibit bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties
Benefits of Smoking
 Flavor and Odor Enhancement
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 Color Development on Outside of Product
 Preservation of the product
Liquid smoke is a form of smoking that is widely used in industry. In this process
Wood combustion products dissolved in water. It is usually cheaper and quicker
than the smokehouse process.
2.4.2 Killing principle
In this principle, spoilage microorganisms are destroyed (Killed) in the food, and
the food protected against subsequent contamination by being enclosed in an air
tight container. The specific methods using the killing principle include:
1. Heat treatment: through pasteurization or sterilization
2. Irradiation with either ionizing or electromagnetic radiation e.g gamma

rays, cobalt 60 radioactive particles. Radiations kill microorganisms by
destruction of DNA and by creating toxic reactive compounds in a medium
and in microbial cells
3. Use of gases: by use of ethylene oxide or ozone. The gases destroy both
vegetative cells and spores.
2.4.2.1 Heat treatment
This is where increasing temperature is used to kill microbes by denaturing all

proteins in them. The heat treatment required depends on the kind of the target
micro-organisms to be killed and the composition of the food. Basically, heat
treatment can be classified into three categories:
(i) Pasteurisation (temperature below 100℃) Pasteurisation is a heat

treatment that kills part of the micro-organisms present in food using a
temperature under 100℃. The temperature used ranges from 6575℃. There are
two ways of pasteurisation:
 HTST (High temperature-short time) Food product is heated at high

temperature for a short time. For example, milk is heated to 72℃ and
held for 15 seconds.
 LTLH (Low temperature-long time) Food product is heated at a lower
temperature for longer period of time. For example, milk is heated to
62.8℃ and held for 30 minutes.
 Flash method (80oC for 1-2 seconds)
(ii) Boiling or heating at about 100℃ Most fruits and vegetables can be
preserved for a longer time by applying heat at about 100℃. Inherent enzymes
which initiate self-decomposition can be destroyed after boiling at 100℃. This
process is called blanching.
(iii) Sterilisation (temperature 100℃ or above) It is a process that all micro-

organisms are being killed at high temperature. The time and temperature
necessary for sterilisation vary with the type of food.
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Factors affecting heat resistance of microorganisms include:
a. Temperature time relationship – in general the time taken to kill spores or

cells decreases as temperature is increased
b. Initial concentration of cells or spores – the higher the number of cells or
spores the higher the amount of heat required.
c. Previous history of the vegetative cells/ spores
 Culture medium – In general the medium with all the growth
requirements of the organism will produce more resistant cells or
spores
 Temperature of cultivation – the resistance of organisms increases
as temperatures approaches optimal for the particular organism
 The phase of growth – bacterial cells have the greatest resistance in
the late lag phase and least resistance in the log phase
Figure 1: Bacterial growth curve
d. Composition of the substrate in which the cells/spores are being heated

 Moisture – moist heat is more effective at killing microorganisms
than dry heat
 pH of substrate – cells or spores are more resistant in a substrate
around neutral pH
 Colloidal materials like proteins/fats are protective against heat
 Antiseptic substances in the substrate will aid in the heat
destruction of the microbes
Heat resistance of yeast and yeast spores
Vegetative yeasts are usually killed by 50 -58 C for 10 – 15 minutes. Most

ascospores are killed by a temperature of 60C for 10 – 15 minutes. A few spores
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may survive at this temperature thus yeast and yeast spores are destroyed by
pasteurization temperatures of 62.8C for 30 minutes or 71.7C for 15 seconds.
Heat resistance of Mold or mold spores
Most molds and their spores are killed by a temperature of 60C for 10 minutes.
However, some species are more resistant. Pasteurization of milk and other
foods will usually kill molds and their spores.
Heat resistance of bacteria and their spores
Bacteria that form capsules e.g. proteus or those with high lipids in their cell wall
like mycobacteria are more resistant to heat. In general, bacterial spores are
more resistant to heat than their vegetative forms. In addition, different
vegetative bacteria also have different resistance to heat:
Table 2: Different bacterial forms and their heat resistance
Organism Conditions
Salmonella typhi 4.3 minutes at 50C
Staphylococcus aureus 18.8 minutes at 60C
Escherichia coli 20-30 minutes at 57.3C
Streptococcus thermophillus 15 minutes at 75C
Bacillus anthracis spore 1.7 minutes at 100C
Bacillus subtilis spore 15 – 20 minutes at 100C
Clostridium botulinum spores 100 – 330 minutes at 100C
2.4.2.2 Irradiation
Radiation is energy travelling as waves or particles. Radiations include:
 Cosmic rays
 Gamma rays
 X – rays
 Ultra Violet rays
 Beta particles
The shorter the wavelength of radiation the higher the penetrating power. In
food preservation radiation at wavelengths of 2000 Armstrong is used.
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Figure 2: a typical wave and its components
Radiation can be ionizing or non -ionizing. Ionizing radiation has enough energy
to ionize (remove an electron from an atom) which can change the chemical
composition of the material. Non-ionizing radiation has less energy but can still
excite molecules and atoms causing them to vibrate faster.
The use of radiation for food preservation depends on national legislation. See
the radiation protection act. chapter 243 laws of Kenya.
a. UV light – It has a powerful bactericidal effect. It is non ionizing. It

acts by causing lethal mutations in microbes. However, it has
longer wavelength thus has poor penetrating power. It is mainly
used for sterilization/ killing of microorganisms on surfaces. It is
also used in chill rooms, surgical theaters and also laboratories. It
should not be used on high lipid foods where it causes oxidative
rancidity of unsaturated fats.
b. Beta rays – These are actually particles emitted from a radioactive
substance. The have poor penetrative effect with very little practical
application in food preservation.
c. Gamma rays – These are electromagnetic radiation emitted from an
excited nucleus. This is the cheapest form of radiation to produce
since the source elements are either by products of atomic splitting
(fission) or atomic reaction waste products. They have short
wavelengths and thus very good penetrative power.
d. X – rays – These are essentially gamma rays. The only difference is
the method of production. X-rays are gamma rays produced by a
naturally occurring isotope. They are produced by high speed
electron bombardment of an inert nucleus.
e. Microwaves - Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one
millimetrers. They are used for the destruction molds on bread,
sterilization of beer and wine and general cooking in the household.
Their use is limited due to their heating effect.
While using radiation in food preservation, the absorbed dose is measured in

grays. One gray is 1joule/kilogram.
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Radiation can be used in three ways in food preservation:
a. Radappertisation – this is the use of radiation to sterilize food. The dosage

used is 30 – 40 kilograys
b. Radicidation – Use of radiation to pasteurize foods. The dosage is 2.5 to
10 kilograys.
c. Radurization – Use of radiation to kill some microorganisms in food. The
dosage is 0.75 – 2.5 kilograys. Usually used for fresh meats, fruits,
vegetables and cereal grains
Radiation can also be used on tuber fruits to prevent sprouting.
Side effects of radiation
1. If you have an overdose in food, you will excite the naturally occurring C-
14 and S-32. These have low levels of excitability. The food then becomes
radioactive.
2. Radiolysis – Where radiation breaks water in food to H202 and H2. These
react with food components producing off flavors and bad smells. You can
reduce radiolysis by irradiating in anaerobic conditions or at subfreezing
temperatures.
3. Radiation can break proteins producing ammonia, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulphide, amides, carbonyl groups. They hence reduce the
nutritive value of food.
4. When ground meat is irradiated 50% of cysteine and 10% of tryptophan is
lost.
1.3.1.Use of chemicals in killing principle
Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide are used as fumigants. These are highly
effective against fungi.
2.5 Food Borne Diseases

These are acute illnesses associated with recent consumption of a food. The food
implicated is usually contaminated with disease pathogens or a form of toxicant.
Any disease of an infectious or toxic nature caused by, or thought to be caused
by, the consumption of food or water (WHO).
Some definitions:
Contaminated: Food containing pathogens or toxicants but not necessarily

enough to make one sick.
Infective: Food containing enough pathogenic microorganisms or toxicants to

make one ill
Vulnerable foods: Able to support growth of disease pathogens that may be on

the food
Classification of food borne diseases
Food borne diseases can be classified as:
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a. Food borne infections
b. Food borne intoxications
2.5.1 Food borne infections
These are caused by entrance of pathogenic microorganisms into the body via
food and initiating disease. The pathogenic microorganisms can either be fungal,
bacterial, viral and parasitic. These infections tend to have long incubation
periods as compared to intoxications and are usually characterized by a fever.
1. Bacterial food borne infections include Cholera, salmonellosis, typhoid

fever, shigellosis, Yersiniosis Escherichia coli infection Campylobacteriosis,
Vibrio parahemolyticus and Listeriosis
2. Mycotic food borne infections include Candida spp., Sporothrix spp.,
Wangiella spp. etc),
3. Viral food borne infections include hepatitis A , Norwak virus and
poliomyelitis virus
2.5.1.1 Bacterial food borne infections
2.5.1.1.1 SALMONELLOSIS
2.5.1.1.1.1 Introduction
This is a food borne infection caused by members of the Salmonella genus. The
salmonellae constitute a group of organisms with over 2000 different serotypes.
These organisms are capable of causing disease in animals and man when taken
into the body in sufficient numbers. Many salmonella species have a wide host
range. These are the organisms which commonly cause food poisoning.
However, some are restricted to a single host species e.g. Salmonella abortus
ovis causing abortion in ewes, and Salmonella gallinarum the cause of fowl
typhoid. Conversely, some salmonella serotypes are associated with human
disease and are not known to affect animals e.g. S. Typhi and Salmonella
paratyphi. Salmonellae are ubiquitous in the gut of human and animals and act
as sources of food contamination.
People who are carriers of the salmonellae contaminate the food. A heavy dose
up to 10,000 -1,000,000 organisms per gram of food is required to cause
infection. Salmonellae grow well on food and can exist for a considerable period
in feces, and on pastures.
Some of the salmonella species involved in food poisoning include; Salmonella

typhimurium, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella dublin, Salmonella softenburg,
Salmonella virchow, Salmonella montevideo, Salmonella infantis, and Salmonella
newport. These species are also involved in causing diarrhoea in animals.
2.5.1.1.1.2 Heat Resistance
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The salmonellae are killed by temperatures attained in commercial
pasteurization. They can remain alive in moist earth for one year and in dry
earth for 16 months. They are not destroyed in carcasses or offal maintained at
chilling or freezing temperatures, or in the usual pickling solutions.
Outbreaks occur in different forms:
a). Sporadic cases involving only one or two persons in a household
b). Family outbreaks in which several members of the family are affected
c). Large outbreaks caused by a widely distributed infective food item
d). Institutional outbreaks which may be caused by a contaminated single food

item.
2.5.1.1.1.3 Factors associated with outbreaks
The following factors are associated with occurrence of outbreaks.
a. Consumption of inadequately cooked or thawed meat or poultry,

b. Cross-contamination of food from infected food handlers.
c. Presence of flies, cockroaches, rats, in the food environment that act as
vectors of the disease.
2.5.1.1.1.4 Transmission
Salmonellae reach food in many different ways;
a) Directly from slaughter animals to food
b) From human excreta, and transferred to food through hands, utensils,

equipment, flies etc.
Food poisoning is more likely to occur if the total number of microorganisms

present is high. A smaller number may have no ill effect.
Foods Involved
Any food contaminated with salmonellae may be involved. However, foods

commonly involved are animal derived foods such as:
a. meat and meat products,
b. milk and milk products,
c. egg and egg products
2.5.1.1.1.5 Clinical Symptoms
The ordinary symptoms include abdominal pain, headache, diarrhea, fever,

vomiting, prostration and malaise. In severe cases there is septicaemia with
leucopenia, endocarditis, pericarditis. Severe cases are encountered in babies,
young children, the sick and in elderly persons. The mortality is up to 13 %.
Control Measures
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The following measures can be used to reduce occurrence:
a. Efficient refrigeration and hygienic handling of food.

b. Consumption of properly cooked meat,
c. Complete thawing of frozen meats and adequate cooking.
d. Heat processing of meat, milk , fish and poultry to destroy salmonella
organisms in food
2.5.1.1.2 ENTERIC FEVERS (TYPHOID AND PARATYPHOID FEVERS)
Enteric fevers include typhoid and paratyphoid fevers caused by Salmonella

typhi and Salmonella paratyphi A, B and C respectively. The serotypes are
similar to other salmonella bacteria, but unlike them, they are essentially
parasites of man. S. Typhi possesses capsular vi antigen in addition to the usual
O and H antigens found in other serotypes.
The incubation period is usually 2 weeks, but might vary between 3 and 28 days
for typhoid fever and between 1 and 15 days for the paratyphoid fevers. The
enteric fevers are generalized septicaemic infections with a frequent, if not
constant bacteraemia during the first two weeks of the disease. The abdominal
symptoms are severe, while fever and illness may continue for 4-6 weeks.
The typhoid and paratyphoid bacilli are essentially human parasites and are
acquired mostly from human sources, namely, patients and carriers. The
bacteria can be transmitted by the contamination of water, milk or food by flies.
Only a few organisms are needed to cause disease.
2.5.1.1.2.2 Control Measures
Hygienic control of food and water supplies
Detection and treatment of chronic carriers
Vaccination using TAB-vaccine. The vaccine contains a mixed culture of S. typhi,

and S. paratyphi. The vaccine protects for 5-7 yrs.
2.5.1.1.3 CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
Campylobacter are a group of tiny strictly micro-aerophilic curved or spiral gram

negative rods. Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli cause food
poisoning and are associated with acute enterocolitis in man.
Campylobacter jejuni occur in large numbers in cattle feces, and poultry as

normal flora. Campylobacter coli are commonly associated with human
diarrhoea, and enteritis in pigs mostly in association with Treponema
hyodysenteriae.
2.5.1.1.3.1 Disease in man
Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli because illness characterized by diarrhoea,

abdominal pain, fever, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal complaints. The
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jejunum, ileum and colon are primarily affected resulting in acute inflammation
and occasionally, abscess formation. The disease is self-limiting.
2.5.1.1.3.2 Clinical Signs
Incubation period ranges between 2-11 days with an average of 3-5 days. It is
preceded by fever, followed by foul smelling and watery diarrhea, which runs for
3-4 days. The diarrhea may sometimes contain blood and mucus in feces.
Abdominal pain is associated with backache, and a high mortality. The condition
is self-limiting but may last for up to 10 days.
2.5.1.1.3.3 Mode of infection
Infection occurs by ingestion of campylobacter organisms in contaminated

foodstuffs. Foods involved includes meat from infected animals, unpasteurized
milk and possibly cross-contamination from these sources to foods eaten
uncooked or unrefrigerated. Among the meats, poultry constitutes the greatest
potential source of infection to humans.
Microorganisms are present in poultry gut and feces up to 1,000,000

organisms/g of feces. Carelessness in the kitchen e.g. cutting chickens with the
same knife used to cut other foods without proper cleaning prior to use. Pork is
also a major source of Campylobacter coli. Contamination of pork occurs during
slaughter.
2.5.1.1.3.4 Prevention
Effective control can be achieved by:
a. Thorough cooking of all foodstuffs derived from animal sources.

b. Prevention of re-contamination after cooking.
c. Proper refrigeration of foods.
d. Recognition, control and prevention of campylobacter infections in animals
e. Maintenance of high standard of hygiene.
2.5.1.1.4 ESCHERICHIA COLI FOOD BORNE INFECTION
Escherichia coli are potential food poisoning pathogens which are widely
distributed in low numbers in food environments. E. Coli strains involved in food
borne infection fall into the following groups:
1.Enteropathogenic E. Coli (EPEC),
2.Enterotoxigenic E. Coli (ETEC),
3.Enteroinvasive E. Coli (EIEC)
4.Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)
Each group is composed of unique O:H serotypes. Each group posseses virulence
factors characteristic of that group. The serotypes are characterized by using O-
somatic and H-flagella antigens.
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Enteroinvasive E. Coli
EIEC strains cause illness that is characterized by watery diarrhea in most

patients. In addition, there is fever, nausea, and abdominal cramps. Bloody
diarrhea may occur in fewer than 10 % of patients. The presence of mucus and
polymorphonuclear leucocytes in stool is typical of these strains. The illness is
usually self-limiting, lasting for 2 to 3 days.
A relatively high dose (108cells) is necessary to produce disease in volunteers.

The median incubation period is 18 hours (range 2-48 hrs). Food borne spread is
the usual mode of transmission. However, person-to-person spread has also
been reported.
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)
EHEC infection is caused by Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7. It causes

haemorrhagic colitis in humans that is characterized by diarrhea, abdominal pain
which may be severe and vomiting. Few patients develop fever. Illness lasts for
4 to 8 days, although it may extend to 13 days for severe cases.
Patients with complications have bloody diarrhea, acute ulcerative or ischemic

colitis and sub-mucosal edema with severe colonic inflammation.
The organism E. coli O157:H7 is heat sensitive, but resistant to freezing. It

grows poorly at 44oC-45oC, with no growth at 45.5oC, suggesting that its
presence may not be detected by fecal coliform assay test. Deaths occur in
patients who develop hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). HUS can be recognized
by acute renal failure, micro-angiopathic hemolytic anemia and
thrombocytopenia.
2.5.1.1.4.2 Control Measures
Infections with the causative organism can be prevented by:
a. Proper cooking of hamburger and other meats

b. Avoidance of cross-contamination of foods in the kitchen, and
c. Good personal hygiene.
2.5.1.1.5 SHIGELLOSIS (BACILLARY DYSENTERY)
Shigellosis is caused by members of the genus Shigella. The species involved

include Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella boydiiand Shigella sonei.
All strains of shigella posseses potent exotoxins which are carbohydrate-lipid

protein complexes. The infective dose is smaller than that of salmonellae, except
S. typhi.
The illness begins 1 to 4 days after ingestion of bacteria and may last 4 to 7
days.
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Symptoms include watery or bloody diarrhea, fever, stomach cramps, nausea or
vomiting, dehydration and prostration in severe cases and convulsions in young
children. The diarrhea which starts as a thin watery discharge quickly looses its
fecal character to be composed of nothing but pus, mucus threads and blood. At
this stage, there are agonizing pains and constant tenesmus. Death from
bacillary dysentery is uncommon when efficient treatment is provided. However,
S. Dysenteriae infections have been reported to have a case fatality rate of 20 %
and the mortality rate is higher in children than adults.
Human cases and carriers are the only important sources of infection. Spread is
by fecal-oral route, and person-to-person transmission is common. The bacteria
leaves the body in stool of an infected person and infects another person
through contaminated hands, food, water, or objects (toys, pens etc). Any type
of food can transmit the Shigella pathogens to cause disease in man.
Flies can spread Shigella germs when they get into contact with infected stool
and then contaminate drinking water or food. Shigella organisms may remain
viable in tap water for as long as 6 months, and in sea water for 2 to 5 months.
2.5.1.1.5.3 Preventive Measures
Preventive measures include:
a. Practice good hygiene and sanitation.

b. Wash hands well with water and soap each time you use the ablution.
c. The home and surroundings should be kept clean to prevent
contamination of food and water supply.
d. Proper disposal of human waste or sewage.
e. Keep kitchen work surfaces clean.
f. Use boiled or chlorinated water
g. Eat properly cooked of food, and
h. Drink properly pasteurized milk and other liquid foods such as juices.
i. Reconstitute juice with potable water
2.5.1.1.6 CHOLERA
Cholera is caused by Vibrio cholera bacterium. Cholera vibrios are ingested in

drink or food. In natural infection, the dosage is usually very small. The
organism multiply in the small intestine to produce a very potent enterotoxin,
which stimulates a persistent out pouring of isotonic fluid by the gut mucosal
cells.
Man is the only natural host of the cholera vibrios. Spread of infection is from
person-to-person, through contaminated water or foods. Shrimps and
vegetables are the most frequent carriers. Cholera is an infection of crowded
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poor class communities and it tends to persist in such areas. Cholera outbreaks
occur either as explosive epidemics usually in non-endemic areas or as
protracted epidemic waves in endemic areas.
Cholera is typically characterized by the sudden onset of effortless vomiting and

profuse watery diarrhea. Vomiting is seen frequently, but very rapid dehydration
and hypovolemic shock. The frequent watery stools may be accompanied with
small parts of the mucosa being liberated from the intestines. Death may occur
in 12 to 24 hrs due to rapid dehydration.
Patients may produce up to 20-30 stools per day, losing many litres of water and
electrolytes. Patients therefore exhibit extreme dehydration, urine is suppressed,
the skin becomes wrinkled, the eyeballs are sunken and the voice becomes weak
and husky. Blood pressure falls, the heart sounds become barely audible and the
pulse become rapid and weak just before death.
2.5.1.1.6.3 Diagnosis
1.Provision of potable water
2.Proper sewage disposal
3.Proper cooking and hygienic handling of food
4.Observation of personal hygiene
5.Vaccination -The heat killed, phenol preserved vaccine has protection that
lasts for 3 to 6 months.
2.5.1.1.7 VIBRIO PARAHEMOLYTICUS FOODBORNE INFECTION
Vibrio parahemolyticus is a pathogenic bacterium, whose natural habitat is the

sea. Human infections occur solely from sea foods such as oysters, shrimps,
crabs, lobsters, clams and related shellfish. Cross-contamination may lead to
other foods becoming vehicles.
Symptoms
V. parahemolyticus causes gastroenteritis and extra intestinal infections in man.

The mean incubation period is 16.7 hrs (range 3-76 hrs) and Symptoms include:
diarrhea (95 %), cramps (92 %), weakness (90 %), nausea (72 %), chills (55
%), headache (48 %) and vomiting (12 %). Symptoms last from 1 to 8 days
with a mean of 4.6 days.
2.5.1.1.8 VIBRIO VULNIFICUS FOODBORNE INFECTION
Vibrio vulnificus causes a severe foodborne infection. The case fatality rate for V.
Vulnificus septicaemia exceeds 50 %. In immunocompromised hosts, V.
Vulnificus infections can cause fever, nausea, myalgia and abdominal cramps,
24-48 hours after eating contaminated food. The organism can cross the
intestinal mucosa rapidly leading to sepsis within 36 hours of the initial onset of
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symptoms. Cases are most commonly reported in warm-weather months and
are often associated with eating raw oysters.
2.5.1.1.9 LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES INFECTION
Listeria monocytogenes is a gram positive bacterium that is pathogenic to both

animals and human beings. The organism is widespread in nature and is a
transient constituent of the intestinal flora excreted by 1-10% of healthy
humans. It is extremely hardy and can survive for many years in the cold in
naturally infected sources.
2.5.1.1.9.2 Vehicle foods
Listeria monocytogenes occurs after consumption of raw vegetables, salads, raw

milk, soft cheese, meat and meat products. milk, ice cream, cheese, poultry,
sauerkraut, salads, sea foods, meat and meat products contaminated by Listeria.
Delicatessens and other ready-to-eat foods are important in causing Listeria food
poisoning.
In man, Listeria monocytogenes causes abortion in pregnant women and

meningitis in newborn infants and immuno-compromised adults. Pregnant
women, infants and elderly people are particularly at risk of infection with
Listeria monocytogenes. The infection is fatal in susceptible individuals with a
mortality of 25-30%. Deaths have been reported in fetuses, neonates and other
individuals with compromised health status.
2.5.1.1.10 YERSINIA ENTEROCOLITICA INFECTION
This organism has been isolated from beef, lamb, pork, sea foods, vegetables
milk and cakes, vacuum-packed meat. Of all the sources, swine appears to be
major source of strains pathogenic to man. Virulence appears to be as a result of
tissue invasiveness of this organism.
2.5.1.1.10.2 Symptoms
Symptoms of syndrome develop several days following ingestion of

contaminated foods. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever,
vomiting, headache and pharingitis. Children appear to be more susceptible than
adults. The organism may be shed in stools for up to 40 days following illness.
A variety of systemic involvement may occur as a consequence of the

gastroenteritis syndrome. They include pseudo appendicitis, mesenteric
lymphadenitis, peritonitis, terminal ileitis, reactive arthritis, colon and neck
abscess, cholecystitis, intussusceptions and erythema nodosum. The organism
can be recovered from urine, blood, cerebrospinal fluid and eye discharges of
infected individuals.
2.5.1.2 Viral Food Borne Infections

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Viruses are common pathogens transmitted through food. Hepatitis A and
Norwalk-like virus (Novovirus) are the most important viral food borne
pathogens. These viruses are highly infectious and may lead to widespread
outbreaks.
Characteristics of viral food borne infections
 Only a few viral particles are necessary for the disease to develop
 High numbers of viral particles are further transmitted via feces of
infected persons (up to 1011particles per gram of feces.
 Specific lining cells are necessary for virus replication. Accordingly, they
cannot multiply in foods or water.
 Food borne virus are relatively stable and acid resistant outside host cells
2.5.1.2.1 Infectious Hepatitis A
The incubation period is long, being an average of 30 days (range 15-50 days).
It is a systemic infection characterized by gastrointestinal manifestations and
liver injury, fever, malaise anorexia, nausea, abdominal discomfort, bile in urine
and jaundice. The duration of the disease could be from a few weeks to several
months.
2.5.1.2.2 NORWALK-LIKE VIRUS (NOVOVIRUS) FOOD BORNE

INFECTION
Novovirus infection is relatively mild with an incubation period of 3 days. Clinical

manifestations/symptoms include vomiting and diarrhea, and rarely convulsions.
Asymptomatic infection are common and may contribute to the spread of the
infection. Infections have resulted from consumption of raw oysters.
2.5.1.3 RICKETTSIAL FOODBORNE INFECTION
2.5.1.3.1 Q-Fever
Q-fever is caused by Coxiella burnetti and has an incubation period of between

2-4 weeks. Symptoms include a sudden onset of fever, dry cough and chest pain
due to a pneumonitis. Hepatic disorders which include slight jaundice occur in
severe cases. Mortality is low with complete recovery.
2.5.1.3.1.1 Epidemiology
Q-fever is mostly an occupational disease among people who handle livestock

and raw animal products (e.g. farm and slaughterhouse workers etc). Infection
occurs through consumption of raw milk, contaminated butter and cheese.
Infection may also occur through contact with infected placentas, contaminated
straw beddings and animal carcasses or slaughterhouse offal.
Serology including CFT, micro-agglutination and FAT. Isolation of agent (in well
equipped laboratory due to the high risk of infection).
2.5.1.3.1.3 Control
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Pasteurization of milk and milk products (heating at 63oC for 30 min or 72oC for
15 sec). Safe disposal of offal
2.5.2 FOOD BORNE INTOXICATIONS
These are diseases caused by consumption of food containing:
1.Biotoxicants which are found in tissues of certain plants and animals.
2.Metabolic products (toxins) formed and excreted by microorganisms (such as

bacteria, fungi and algae), while they multiply in food, or in gastrointestinal tract
of man.
3.Poisonous substances, which may be intentionally or unintentionally added to

food during production, processing, transportation or storage.
Food borne intoxications have short incubation periods (minutes to hours) and
are characterized by lack of fever. Food borne intoxications can be classified
into:
a. Bacterial intoxications
b. Fungal intoxications
c. Chemical intoxication
d. Plant toxicants, and
e. Poisonous animals.
2.5.2.1 Bacterial food borne intoxications
1. Staphylococcus aureus intoxication
2. Bacillus cereus food borne intoxication
3. Clostridium perfringens food borne intoxication
4. Clostridium botulinum food borne intoxication
2.5.2.1.1 Staphylococcus Aureus Food Borne Intoxication
This is a type of food borne intoxication is caused by consumption of food

contaminated with staphylococcal enterotoxins produced by certain strains of
Staphylococcus aureus while growing in food. The organism produces the
following five serologically different enterotoxins that are involved in food borne
intoxication. These are:
1. Staphylococcal enterotoxin A(SEA),
2. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB),
3. Staphylococcal enterotoxin C (SEC),
4. Staphylococcal enterotoxin D (SED),
5. Staphylococcal enterotoxin E (SEE)
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Individual strains of S. Aureus may produce one or more of enterotoxin types
while growing in food
2.5.2.1.1.1 Growth Conditions
Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobe, non-spore forming gram

positive coccids. It grows at a range temperature between 12-44oC (optimum
37oC) and pH range 4.0-9.83 (optimum 7.4-7.6). Growth occurs in an
environment containing up to 18% sodium chloride and water activity of 0.86 -
0.88 when growing aerobically and 0.9 under anaerobic conditions.
2.5.2.1.1.2 Toxin Production
Toxin production occurs at growth temperature 12-44oC, pH 4.2 and salt

concentration of ≤10%. No toxin production occurs at temperatures below 12oC,
pH < 4.2 and > 10 % salt.
All the staphylococcal enterotoxins are heat stable (withstand heating at 100oC
for one hour) and ordinary cooking procedures, pasteurization and drying do not
inactivate these enterotoxins. They are insensitive to pH changes (pH stable)
and resistant to most proteolysis enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, renin, and
pepsin). The enterotoxins are also not affected by irradiation. All the five
enterotoxins have the similar potency
2.5.2.1.1.3 Competition With Other Organisms
Staphylococcus aureus is a poor competitor and therefore grows poorly or not at

all when growing together with other microorganisms. Majority of S. Aureus food
poisoning are due to foods in which the microbial flora is substantially reduced,
such as cooked, cured or pasteurized foods.
2.5.2.1.1.4 Vehicle Foods
Milk and milk products including pasteurized milk, yoghurt, chocolate milk,
fermented milk, cream filled pastries, poultry, fish, shellfish, meat and meat
products, non meat salads, egg and egg products, vegetables and cereal
products have been involved.
2.5.2.1.1.5 Reservoirs
Staphylococci are found in varying numbers in air, dust, water, food, feces and
sewage. The primary habitat of S. Aureus is the mucous membranes of the
nasopharynx and skin of man and animals. The organism is found in the nose,
skin, saliva, intestinal contents and in feces. Human carriers of this organism are
numerous and are undoubtedly the source of a number of outbreaks.
Contamination of foods may be traced to food handlers with minor septic hand
infections or severe nasal infections. The nasal mucous membrane is another
particularly important source of staphylococci of human origin.
2.5.2.1.1.6 Disease Symptoms In Man
Incubation period is 1-6 hrs after consumption of food contaminated with at

least 1.0 μg of enterotoxin. Clinical signs include salvation, nausea, vomiting,
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abdominal cramps, sometimes diarrhea with prostration. It has an attack rate of
5-100%, but fatalities which occurs in children, the old and debilitated victims
are rare. Duration of illness is 24-72 hrs. Dose of 1.0 μg or more is needed to
cause disease.
1.Use of clinical symptoms – incubation time(1-6hrs), clinical symptoms include

nausea, headache, vomiting and diarrhea.
2.Enumeration of organisms in food and stool (presence of ≥106cfu/g of S.

Aureus in food in indicative of involvement of the disease in an outbreak.
3. Enterotoxin detection in suspect food, stool and in vomitus of victims using

various methods which include:
a). Serological (e.g. ELISA, reverse passive latex agglutination, or
b). Biological e.g. monkey feeding tests
4). Use of molecular biology techniques. Gene probing and polymerase chain
reaction.
1. Practice good personal hygiene including good personal conduct in food

establishment and when handling food.
2. Use of spoons when serving foods to prevent contamination of cooked foods
3. Fast cooling of cooked food and keeping such foods at low temperatures.
4. Discourage consumption of left-overs
2.5.2.1.2 BACILLUS CEREUS FOOD BORNE INTOXICATION
This is a food borne intoxication caused by consumption of enterotoxins

produced by some strains of Bacillus cereus. The organism produces the
following enterotoxins which are involved in a food borne intoxication
a. Two diarrhoeal enterotoxins: -hemolysin BL enterotoxin, non-hemolytic

enterotoxin, and
b. Emetic toxin
Bacillus cereus is a common soil saprophyte and is easily spread to many types
of foods, especially of plant origin. It is frequently isolated from meat, eggs and
dairy products. Cereal dishes e.g. rice, spice, mashed potatoes, herbs,
vegetables, minced meat, cream and milk pudding have been involved in B.
Cereus poisoning.
2.5.2.1.2.3 Symptoms of Disease in Man
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1. Emetic syndrome
The syndrome is characterized by nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and

sometimes diarrhea that occur 1-6 hrs after consumption of contaminated food.
The syndrome is associated with ingestion of rice and pasta based foods.
2. Diarrhoea Syndrome
In the diarrhea syndrome, patients experience profuse diarrhoea (watery stool),

abdominal cramps and tenesmus (rarely vomiting) beginning 8 to 16 hours after
ingestion of contaminated food. Fever is absent and symptoms resolve within
approximately 12 hours.
1. Use of clinical signs
2. Enumeration of organism in food using selective media. B. Cereus strains of

same serotype should be found present in significant number ≥ 105 cfu/g in
incriminated foods, in feces and vomitus of affected persons.
3. Detection of enterotoxins in foods. Enterotoxin detection has been done using

biological and immunological methods.
1. Good hygiene should be observed in food establishments and by food

handlers.
2. Proper cooking of foods to destroy spores
3. Keep food at low temperature and fast cooling of food.
2.5.2.1.3 CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS INTOXICATION
This is a food borne intoxication caused by Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin

(CPE) produced in the gastrointestinal tract by enterotoxigenic strains of C.
perfringens.
The organism is found in the soil, dust, water, sewage marine sediments,
decaying materials, intestinal tracts of humans and other animals. This organism
is a spore-forming, anaerobic, gram positive bacillus.
Food poisoning strains have a variety of origins including human and animal
feces, abattoirs, sewage and flies. Spores produced by these organisms can
resist boiling for 4 or more hours. If the spores are present as contaminants on
raw meat they may resist boiling or steaming, and on slow cooling the spores
will germinate into rapidly multiplying bacterial cells, which produce large
amounts of toxin.
2.5.2.1.3.2 Cause of Intoxication
Clostridium food borne intoxication is caused by the ingestion of food containing

large numbers of vegetative cells of enterotoxigenic C. Perfringens type A and
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some type C and D strains. These cells multiply in the intestine and sporulate
releasing Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE). Sometimes CPE may be
pre-formed in food, and once the food is consumed, symptoms may occur within
1-2 hours.
2.5.2.1.3.3 Characteristics of CPE
Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) is synthesized during sporulation. CPE

is heat labile (destroyed at 60oC for 10 min) and its activity is enhanced by
trypsin. The food poisoning strains are heat resistant and survive heating at
100oC for 1 hr).
The food involved are those that are prepared one day and served the next day.
Foods that have been involved include red meats, chickens, fish, pork, fruits,
vegetables, spices etc. The heating of such foods is inadequate to destroy heat
resistant endospores. Upon cooling and warming the endospores germinate and
grow.
Cooking kills the vegetables cells of Cl. Perfringens but activates surviving
spores, which will germinate and multiply. Foods poisoning occurs when the level
reaches 107-108 cells/g of food. Growth is enhanced by anaerobic conditions
achieved after removal of oxygen by cooking.
2.5.2.1.3.5 Mode of Transmission to Foods
1. Directly from slaughter animals
2. Contamination of slaughter meat from containers, handlers, dust, and water.
3. Cross -contamination in the kitchen environment.
2.5.2.1.3.6 Symptoms of Disease in Man
Symptoms appear 6-24 hours after ingestion of a large number of viable

vegetative cells up to 5x108/g food, but not after ingestion of spores. Symptoms
include nausea, intestinal cramps, pronounced diarrhea. Vomiting is rare and the
illness takes a duration of 1-2 days.
1.Use of clinical signs. Typical symptoms (abdominal pain and profuse diarrhea),
12-24 hrs following consumption of food.
2.Enumeration of C. Perfringens in foods and stool (counts of ≥105cfu/g of food)
3.Detection of enterotoxin in food and patient stool using serological methods

e.g. ELISA, RPLA etc.
1.Proper cooking of food and eating freshly prepared foods.
2.Thorough washing and sanitation of containers
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3.Hygiene handling of cooked food
4.Fast cooling of cooked food. Storing food in small quantities will enhance
cooling.
5.Proper reheating of cold cooked food before consumption
6.Storage of leftovers or unused foods in freezers
2.5.2.1.4 CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM FOOD BORNE INTOXICATION
Clostridium botulinum food borne intoxication (botulism) is a type of food

poisoning caused by consumption of enterotoxins produced by strains of
Clostridium botulinum. C. Botulinum is an obligate, spore-forming anaerobe, and
Gram-positive bacilli. The strains are divided into proteolytic and non-proteolytic
types according to whether they hydrolyze proteins or not.
The intoxication is caused by botulinal toxins A, B, E, F and G, produced by C.

Botulinum type A, B, E, F and G, while the organism grows in food.
C. botulinum types C and D produce toxins C and D that cause disease in

animals
Type E strains are non-proteolytic while the rest are proteolytic.
Spores of C. Botulinum type A can survive temperatures of 120oC.
2.5.2.1.4.2 Growth Characteristics
Proteolytic strains grow at temperature range between 10-50oC, while non-

proteolytic grow at 3.3-45oC (optimum 35-37oC). Toxin production occurs at
temperature range between 25-30oC. Both strains grow at minimum pH of 4.5.
Proteolytic strains produce an active botulinal toxin, while non-proteolyic strains
produce inactive pro-toxin that require activation by trypsin.
2.5.2.1.4.3 Characteristic of Botulinal toxins
These toxins are neurotoxins, that are highly toxic, heat labile (inactivated by
heating at 80oc for 10 min), unstable at alkaline pH (but stable below pH 7.0)
but resistant to pepsin and acidic environment. The toxins can resist the action
of the gastric and intestinal juices. Botulinus toxin is one of the most lethal
poisons known. The calculated lethal dose for an adult person is 10 μg.
2.5.2.1.4.4 Types of Foods Implicated
Foods associated with anaerobic conditions such as spoiled canned meat, or

hams and bacon stacked without air access, are particularly liable to be
infective. Home made fermented foods have been incriminated, together with
smoked, pickled and canned foods that are allowed to stand and then eaten
without adequate cooking. Uncooked fresh foods are safe because they are
eaten before the toxin has had time to develop, while, if foods are cooked, the
toxin is destroyed.
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2.5.2.1.4.5 Role of Preservatives in Meat
Nitrates/nitrites are used in canned meat as preservatives. The salts reduce

chances of growth of C. botulinum and inhibit toxin production. The danger of
botulism has been the deciding factor in the formulation of food processing
techniques, especially canned meat.
2.5.2.1.4.6 Mode of Transmission
1. Contamination of food due to improper handling.
2. Insufficient heating of food to destroy spores.
3. Spores present in animal tissues e.g. meat and fish.
2.5.2.1.4.7 Symptoms of The Disease in Man
Adult botulism
The period of incubation in man is usually 12-72 hrs. Symptoms include nausea,
vomiting, fatigue, dizziness, headache, dryness of skin, mouth and throat,
constipation, lack of fever, nerve paralysis and great muscular weakness, double
vision, respiratory failure and death. Duration of illness 1-10 days and mortality
is high up to 60-100% of affected persons. The earlier the appearance of
symptoms, the higher the mortality rate.
Infant Botulism
Occurs in infants less than 1 year of age following ingestion of spores in honey
and syrup. The spores germinate in the gastrointestinal tract with toxin
production. A high number of spores are found in feces of infants during acute
phase of the disease. The number reduces as recovery progress. Symptoms are
similar to adult botulism
1. Use of clinical symptoms
2. Isolation of C. Botulinium strains from food.
3. Demonstration of botulinal toxins in suspected food, patient serum, vomit and

stool using the following methods:
i). Biological methods e.g. mouse challenge and protection test
ii). Serological methods e.g. diffusion, electrophoresis, ELISA etc
Ensuring proper manufacturing practices e.g. ensure proper sterilization and

preservation of canned meat.
•Preserved foods possessing rancid or other odors should be rejected

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•Proper heating of food before consumption to destroy heat labile neurotoxins.
Food should be heated to 80oC and temperature maintained for at least 10
minutes before eating.
•Pickled foods are rendered safe if the brine used contains not less than 10%
common salt, in weaker brines, microorganisms can continue to multiply.
Ensuring fast cooling of food. This will ensure that spores that may be remaining
do not germinate in food.
•Utmost care should be taken in the manufacture of cans, their transport,

handling, storage and subsequent use during packaging of product.
2.5.2.2 FUNGAL INTOXICATIONS
These are caused by consumption of metabolites produced by fungi, when

growing in food. These metabolites are called mycotoxins. Grains, oilseeds, fruits
and vegetables are mostly involved if they are stored at high humidity (≥ 0.75)
or if they are not properly dried before storage. Poor dry storage practices of
grains and other foods leads to mould growth and production of mycotoxins. Of
significance to public health is aflatoxicosis.
2.5.2.2.1 AFLATOXICOSIS
Aflatoxicosis is caused by aflatoxins produced by the fungi, e.g. Aspergillus

flavus. Four types of aflatoxins have been described i.e. aflatoxin B1, B2, G1and
G2. Animals consuming feeds contaminated with aflatoxin B1leads to secretion
in the milk of aflatoxin M1and M2.
2.5.2.2.1.1 Effects of Aflatoxins
When consumed in large doses, they are lethal in causing acute hemorrhagic
syndromes. Sub-lethal doses cause histotoxic changes. Long term consumption
of small doses cause liver tumors as these are potent carcinogens.
2.5.2.2.1.2 Prevention of Aflatoxicosis
•Proper drying and storage of grains and other affected foods
•Quality control of potentially hazardous foods to ensure that they do not

contain above the allowable limits of 20 ppb before consumption by use of
appropriate analytical tests.
•Use of fungicides as seed dressings to protect stored cereals and other foods
like pulses and potatoes against fungal invasion.
2.5.2.3 CHEMICAL FOODBORNE INTOXICATION
This is a type of food borne intoxication arising from consumption of food

containing poisonous chemicals. These may be intentionally or unintentionally
added to foods as a result of producing, processing, transporting or storage. A
number of substances can enter the food chain from the environment and
through their use as growth promoters or veterinary therapeutics giving rise to
chemical residues.
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2.5.2.3.1 Chemical Substances Involved
Chemical food borne intoxication involve the following substances:
•Heavy metals e.g. antimony, mercury, arsenic, flouride, lead, cadmium,

cyanide etc.
•Pesticides and insecticides e.g. DDT, BHC Organochlorines and

organophosphates.
•Herbicides
•Fungicides e.g. organomercurials
•Preservatives e.g. nitrites, nicotinate, etc
•Antibiotics e.g. pencillin, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol etc.
•Radionuclides e.g. cesium, strontium, radium, molybdenum, barium,

ruthenium, lanthanum, iodine isotopes etc.
2.5.2.3.2 How Chemicals Enter Foods
•Accidental contamination by Heavy metals, Pesticides, and radionuclides.
•Intentional addition e.g. preservatives such as nitrite and sodium nicotinate for
color preservation and fungicides used as dressing during storage.
•Leaching from containers e.g. zinc galvanized containers by acid foods, copper
surfaces, lead pipes, asbestos roofs.
•Usage: Presence of such chemicals in food as a result of use of their use in

animal and crop husbandry
•Maliciously added to cause harm (is rare).
2.5.2.3.3 Clinical Signs And Symptoms
Chemical food borne intoxication exhibit a very short incubation period, usually a
few minutes to a few hours, with an average of one hour. Symptoms are mainly
due to effect on gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system and include
nausea, headache, convulsions, gastrointestinal irritation, abdominal cramps,
vomiting and diarrhea, pallor, cyanosis, blurred vision, sweating, and collapse.
Other signs may be due to effects on circulatory system. Symptoms of

radionuclide toxicity depend on dose, time and organ affected.
2.5.2.3.4 Preventive Measures
•Do not use utensils or containers that are able to leach chemicals such as
antimony, cadmium, zinc, copper, etc.
•Use of coloured pesticides and proper storage of the same.
•Prevent contamination of foods when using insecticides.
•Prevent acid foods or carbonated liquids from contact with exposed copper.
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•Prevent misuse or avoid use of dangerous additive e.g. sodium nicotinate.
•Education of persons preparing food (e.g. possibility of Zn poisoning).
•Ensure that withdrawal periods are observed after use of pesticides and
antibiotics in animal and crop husbandry.
2.5.2.4 BIOTOXICATIONS
These are disorders resulting from ingestion of a poisonous substance (a

biotoxin) present in the body of a plant or animal. Such substances are derived
from plants or animals presumably as a result of metabolic activities. Only a
small proportion of the species of fish and shellfish taken for human
consumption throughout the world contain biotoxins.
2.5.2.4.1 ANIMALS BIOTOXICATIONS
This type of intoxication occurs as a result of consumption of poisonous animals.

Animal tissues may be rendered poisonous by bacterial and enzymatic
decomposition, but some are naturally toxic. Primary toxicity occurs due to
inherent toxicants that arise due to normal metabolic processes.
Secondary toxicity arises due to external toxicants contaminating animal tissues

such as pesticides, heavy metals and drug residues. Inherent animal toxins are
water soluble and heat labile. High concentrations of these toxins are usually
found in viscera and dark meats. Most human poisoning involves secondarily
transvector toxins.
2.5.2.4.2 TOXIC FISHES
They include puffers, triggerfish and parrot fish. The fish toxin affects the
peripheral nervous systems. The fishes may become poisonous by feeding on
poisonous marine organisms. A mortality rate of 50% may occur in humans.
Types of biotoxications associated with fish include ciguatera poisoning,
tetraodon poisoning and scombroid toxicity.
2.5.2.4.3 PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISONING
This results from consumption of shellfish such as oysters, mussels and clams
that have become toxic after consumption of toxic dinoflagellate protozoa, which
pre-dominantly feed on planktons containing saxitoxin and accumulating the
toxin in their tissues. Saxitoxin is heat stable, highly toxic with curare-like
activity.
The toxin acts by blocking the propagation of nerve impulses without

depolarization. Small doses leads to tingling of mouth and lips, while higher
doses leads to paralysis, collapse and death. Mortality is about 1-22 %. There is
no known antidote.
Prevention
1.Avoiding sea foods from waters laden with toxic dinoflagellates.
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2.Reduce toxin activity by heating above 100oC. Thorough cooking may reduce
70 % of the toxin activity in muscles.
2.5.2.4.4 POISONOUS MAMMALS
Mammals are not commonly inherently poisonous, but secondary toxicity may
affect many of them. The toxin may be of various types e.g. heavy metals,
pesticides, toxic plants, therapeutics, fungal or bacterial toxins. Most human
poisoning involves secondarily transvectored toxins.
2.5.2.4.5 PREVENTION OF ANIMAL BIOTOXICATIONS
Eating of unknown meats from vertebrates or invertebrate sources is always a

threat to the consumer. Local eating customs should be followed and local
quarantine regulations strictly adhered to in order to reduce the risk. Avoid sea
foods and always heat foods to above 100oC to denature the inherent heat labile
toxins that may be present in animal tissues.
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Topic three: MILK HYGIENE
Introduction
This topic introduces the learner to aspects of milk hygiene. The learner is first
introduced to what constitutes normal milk, then information is provided on
how milk contamination occurs and to diseases that can be passed on in milk
and finally the learner is introduced to milk processing.
Topic time
hour]
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to describe normal milk in
terms of gross and chemical composition as well as its physical properties. In
addition, they should be able to describe the sources of milk contamination,
pathogens that may cause disease through milk as well as harmful chemical
residues in milk. Finally, they should be able to describe mil processing
techniques as well as examples of milk products.
Topic summary
In this topic you have learnt that milk is an important animal product
consumed by a vast majority of the population. In order to perform quality
control of milk from producers the characteristics of normal milk (physical,
chemical and gross) must be enumerated. In addition, sources of milk
contamination and a thorough overview of milk contaminants is given. A
description of pathology’s caused is discussed. Finally, milk processing and
how it relates to milk hygiene is discussed as well as milk products.
Further reading
a. Modern food microbiology 5th edition (1998)– by James M. Jay
b. Dairy technology in tropics and subtropics- JCT Van deberg
c. Dairy Processing handbook – Tetrapak Processing AB

a. Visit a large supermarket. Identify at least 5 milk products sold.
Enumerate which processing techniques they have undergone and how
they have been processed to ensure hygiene. (requires submission)
b. Visit a milk dairy and a milk processing plant. Identify milk quality
control practices and processing techniques.
3. Topic Content
3.1. Introduction
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According to the Kenya Bureau of Standards milk is the normal, clean and fresh
secretion obtained by practically emptying the udder of the healthy cow properly
fed and kept but excluding that got during the first seven days after calving.
This definition is narrow because it does not include other animal species which
are also important sources of milk in many parts of the world and Kenya such as
camels, dairy goats, buffaloes etc.
Clean milk has a normal flavour with low bacterial count and is safe for human
consumption. The biological function of milk is to supply nutrition and
immunological protection to the young mammal.
Milk is most commonly derived from the cow which is widely distributed
throughout the world. Other important sources are the buffalo, goats, camels,
sheep and reindeer. Currently Kenya has about 3.3 million heads of cattle
producing about 4 billion liters of milk annually. The main dairy cattle breeds
kept include the Friesian, jersey, Ayrshire, Guernsey, local breeds and crosses
thereof. Most of the milk in Kenya is produced by small holder farmers.
Kenyans consume 20 – 120 liters of milk per person per year. Milk is
undoubtedly the most complete single food and is intended for the young of the
species. In human beings milk is recommended for infants, the sick and
debilitated, old people and those facing malnutrition.
Milk hygiene and control is important for four reasons (WHO):
1. To prevent transmission of diseases from animals to man

2. To prevent transmission of communicable diseases of man and toxic
substances though contaminated milk
3. To prevent diseases or physical defects that may arise from malnutrition
4. To improve the nutritional status of man in general, and infants, children
and mothers in particular
3.2. Physical properties of milk
The physical properties of milk can be divided into the following aspects:
1. The pH
2. The oxidation reduction potential
3. Density / specific gravity
4. Freezing point
3.2.1.Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
The pH of milk ordinarily falls between 6.6 and 6.8. In milk testing a pH of below
6.6 denotes presence of colostrum or fermentation by lactose fermenting
bacteria while a pH of above 6.8 usually denotes presence of mastitis. Freshly
drawn milk has got “Amphoteric Reaction” i.e. it changes red litmus to blue and
blue litmus to red.
There are two ways to measure the pH of milt. These are through direct and
indirect means. Direct methods include:
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1. Use of indicator dyes
2. Use of pH meter
3. Titratable acidity – quality test commonly performed on raw milk. It
assesses the total acid (lactic) in milk. Sometimes pH meter do not give
full results because organic acids do not dissociate 100%.
Indirect methods
Lowering the pH of milk alters the physical stability of its constituents. This
usually can be detected by protein precipitation. Indirect methods include:
Clot on boiling test – In this test milk is heated to 75 – 80 C in a water bath. If

the lactic acid level is above or equal to 0.24% the milk clots
Alcohol test – this is a rapid test and is good for accepting or rejecting milk on
the platform. In this test one-part milk is mixed with one part 68% ethanol. Milk
with low pH will clot.
3.2.2.Oxidation Reduction Potential of milk
The oxidation reduction potential of milk ranges from +0.2 to 0.3 volts. Fresh
milk owes this to the amount of oxygen in it.
Microorganisms growing in milk use up oxygen altering the oxidation reduction

potential of milk. The larger the number of bacteria present, the faster the
changes occur. Oxidation reduction potential indicator dyes methylene blue and
resazurin are commonly used to assess the hygienic quality of milk. These dyes
owe their color to the unstable state of their outer shell electrons. Gain or loss of
electrons indicates a change in color. E.g. in resazurin it changes from blue to
purple to pink and finally to colorless. If this change occurs in a short time this
indicates high bacterial count and low keeping quality of milk.
3.2.3.Density / Specific gravity
In milk quality testing the density of milk is calculated as the weight divided by
the volume of the milk at 20C. The specific gravity is calculated as the density of
milk divided by the density of water all at 20C. According to KEBS the density of
milk should be 1.026 – 1.032.
Specific gravity, however, is the density of a substance divided by the density of

water at the same temperature. The density of milk decreases as temperature is
increased, but the specific gravity remains relatively constant at range 1.025
to1.032 at 15.5 0C. Variations in Sp. gravity are due to variation in amount of
various constituents e.g., Milk fat has a Sp. gravity of 0.935 to 0.945, milk sugar
1.67; salts about 4.0; and proteins 1.31 to 1.346.
There are two ways of measuring the density of milk
1. Weighing milk that has been heated then cooled to 20C.

2. Use of a lactodensimeter (lactometer)
If milk temperature is not 20C a correction factor of 0.00025 per 1C difference is

used.
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3.2.4.Freezing point depression
The freezing point of milk is its most constant physical property. It usually
depends on the amount of solute particles present. The normal value is between
-0.525C to -0.565C. Milk has lower freezing point is than water due to the
presence of lactose and salts in aqueous phase. The freezing point is affected by
:~ Increased acidity (Decrease FP)~addition of preservatives (Decrease FP)
~addition of water.
3.2.5. Boiling Point
Milk is slightly heavier than water because of its solute content and boiling point
of a liquid is influenced by factors responsible for its Sp. gravity. Milk boils at a
temperature slightly higher water boils at 100.2 0C) at sea level, while average
milk boils at (100.17 0 C).
3.2.6. Viscosity
It is the resistance to flow and is the reverse of fluidity. It can be expressed in

only relative terms and for convenience the relative viscosity of any fluid is
compared with water. Water flows with ease, Syrup and honey pour much more
slowly and posses greater viscosity. Milk is 1.5 to 1.7 times more viscous than
water owing to the presence of solids in milk.
3.2.7. Adhesiveness of milk
A piece of paper moistened with milk sticks to a flat surface of wood, glass or
metal. This property is undoubtedly due to casein, which is used in large
quantities in the manufacture of casein glue, one of the strongest glues made.
3.2.8.Refractive index
Milk has a R.I. of about 1.35, that of water being 1.33. Addition of water would
therefore lower the refractive index of milk. But since considerable variation is
found in values for genuine milk, it is not possible to use this property alone as a
criterion for the genuineness of milk samples.
3.2.9.Colour
Milk is a liquid of yellow white colour which varies from bluish white to light
yellow, depending upon the breed of the cow, the feed fed to the cow, and the
quantity of fat and other solids present in it. Cow milk is yellow white that of
buffalo sheep, goat and other Spp. is white. Yellow colour of the milk is due to a
pigment known as carotene which is synthesized from the green feed fed to the
cow that chiefly occurs in liver. The white colour (apolescence) of milk is due to
reflection of light by the fat globules, colloidal casein & calcium phosphate
3.2.10. Taste / Flavour
Milk is slightly sweet in taste. This is due to the presence of lactose (Milk Sugar)
in it. The Sweet taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of chloride in
Milk and some proteins.
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3.2.11. Smell
Milk has got a characteristic odour of its own, when it is drawn from the udder.
Freshly drawn milk has a “cowey” odour which disappears when kept exposed
for some time. Milk has got the capacity to acquire odour from the surrounding
and also from the feed etc. but these are abnormal.
3.3. Gross Composition of Milk
In broad terms milk is composed of five main constituents some of which occur
in solution and others in suspension as emulsions or colloids. These are:
 Water
 Proteins – in suspension and in solution
 Lipids (fats) in emulsion
 Carbohydrates (mainly lactose) in solution
 Ash (minerals)
 Other inclusions e.g. somatic cells
The gross composition of cow’s milk varies widely between breeds, individual
animals and under different conditions.
Common terms used in describing the composition are:
Total solids – this includes the fats, protein, lactose and ash (mineral content).
Solids not fat – This is the total solids but not including the fat component.
Water content is just the total volume of the milk less the total solids.
3.3.1.Factors affecting the gross composition of milk

1. Difference due to breed
2. Difference in composition between one milking and another
3. Changes in composition during milking
4. Variability of milk from different quarters
5. Changes during the lactation period
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6. Feeds and nutrition
7. Environmental temperature
8. Infection of the udder
9. Other factors
3.3.1.1. Difference due to breed
Fat is the most variable milk component between different breeds. Guernsey and
jersey breeds produce fat averaging a little more than 5%. Friesians produce
milk with butterfat content at around 3.4%.
3.3.1.2. Difference between one milking and another
Fat percentage is most affected by this phenomenon. The highest fat percentage
is in milk drawn after the shortest milking interval, if intervals are not equal.
3.3.1.3. Changes during lactation period
Colostrum is richer in all milk components except lactose, water, potassium and
pantothenic acid. There is a gradual change to normal milk with lactation.
According to KEBS after 7 days the udder secretion is considered normal milk
and can be marketed. Considerable changes in composition occur with the
progress of lactation with the greatest changes at the beginning and at the end
of lactation. Gestation affects composition of milk indirectly by hastening the
lactation period. SNF start increasing from the 4th month of pregnancy and
continues up to the end of pregnancy. In non-pregnant cows, no such change is
observed.
3.3.1.4. Infection of the udder
Mastitis or inflammation of the udder has great influence in the composition of

milk. Principle effects are decreased SNF, casein and lactose, increased serum
proteins, sodium chloride and other salts. Presence of anti-trypsin, nagase
enzyme, serum albumin, catalase and somatic cells.
The osmotic pressure of the milk in the udder and that of blood is at equilibrium
at all times. Lactose is mostly responsible for maintaining the osmotic pressure
of milk and other constituents like casein. When the udder is inflamed, synthesis
of lactose, casein and fat is impaired and because the osmotic pressure with
blood must be maintained salts of blood and other constituents flow into the
milk. In addition, inflamed tissue seems to become permeable to blood proteins.
3.3.1.5. Feeds and nutrition
If you reduce the amount of feed to lactating animals by half the milk volume
and SNF are reduced. SNF returns to normal with restoration of the full ration.
There is usually little effect on fat.
3.3.1.6. Environmental temperature
Increased environmental temperature has been shown to decrease the amount

of milk produced by the cow.
3.3.1.7. Variability of milk from different quarters
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The rear quarters have been reported to produce more milk with higher fat,
protein and lactose content than the front quarters.
3.3.1.8. Changes in composition during milking
The concentration of fat, FFA, and TS has been shown to increase with the
course of milking, however, lactose and density present opposite trends.
3.4. Chemical composition of milk

3.4.1.Lipids
Lipids are important in milk composition because of the economic importance

given to them. In addition, lipids have nutritive value because they are a rich
source of energy, are a carrier of the fat soluble vitamins and contain significant
amounts of essential fatty acids. In addition, fats impart a rich pleasing flavor to
milk.
Composition of fats
Lipids comprise of compounds of varying complexities which include cephalins,

lecithins and sterols. Triglycerides are more plentiful and important in milk
because 98% of the lipids in milk are triglycerides.
Glycerides in general are formed as a result of the combination of glycerol with a

saturated or unsaturated fatty acid. Combination of glycerol with one fatty acid
(at one position) gives a monoglyceride, at two positions gives a diglyceride and
at three positions gives a triglyceride. Diglycerides and triglycerides containing 2
or three molecules of the same fatty acid are reffered to as simple glycerides. If
different fatty acids are present, they are called mixed glycerides.
Occurrence of fat in milk
Fat occurs in milk as an emulsion made of microscopic fat globules with a

membrane. These globules are dispersed within the milk phase presenting a
large surface area. There are about 60 types of fatty acids in milk. They can be
divided into saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids in milk
include:
1. Butyric acid
2. Capric acid
3. Caprylic acid
4. Caproic acid
5. Myristic fatty acid
6. Palmitic fatty acid
7. Stearic fatty acid
These saturated fatty acids are important because they are highly significant in
flavors. In addition, some of them are volatile and hence are responsible for
hydrolytic rancidity. Unsaturated fatty acids in milk include:
1. Oleic acid
2. Linoleic acid
3. Linoleinic acid
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Unsaturated fatty acids are important because:
1. They play a big role in oxidative deterioration of milk which results to

oxidized flavor
2. They are an important component of essential fatty acids required by the
body
3.4.2.Proteins
These form a total of 3.5% of the total solids in milk. They are comprised of
casein and whey (serum) proteins. Casein occurs as a complex of particles called
micelles. The casein is bound to calcium, magnesium, organic phosphates and
citrates. This complex exists as a colloid in milk and is referred to as calcium
caseinate or calcium phosphocaseinate. Casein can be separated from milk
through a variety of methods. These include:
1. High speed centrifugation
2. Acidification by either addition of an acid or fermentation of lactose by
starter cultures to lactic acid. This results in casein separating from the
complex.
3. Rennet coagulation – Rennet is an extract from the abomasum of veal
calves which contains the enzyme renin (replaced by pepsin in older
animals) Renin separates casein from the calcium complex.
The whey proteins in milk are composed of the lactoglobulins and the
lactoalbumins. The lactoglobulins are immune globulins with properties similar to
immunoglobulins. These are found in highest amounts in colostrum.
Lactoalbumins include alpha lactoalbumin and the serum albumins. Sometimes
the lactoglobulins are included as a class of lactoalbumins.
Other proteins in milk include the protease peptone fraction and the enzymes.
Milk enzymes are proteins and natural constituents of milk. There are several
enzymes in milk the two most important being the lipases and alkaline
phosphatase. The lipases are notorious for causing hydrolytic rancidity. There
are two types of lipases: the plasma lipase and the membrane lipase. Alkaline
lipase hydrolyses phosphate esters. Both these enzymes are heat labile and are
destroyed by pasteurization temperatures. In fact, the alkaline phosphatase test
is used to check for the adequacy of pasteurization.
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3.4.2.1. Milk enzymes
Enzymes are a group of proteins produced by living organisms. They have the
ability to trigger chemical reactions and to affect the course and speed of such
reactions. Enzymes do this without being consumed. They are therefore
sometimes called biocatalysts.
The enzymes in milk come either from the cow’s udder or from bacteria. The
former are normal constituents of milk and are called original enzymes. The
latter, bacterial enzymes, vary in type and abundance according to the nature
and size of the bacterial population. Several of the enzymes in milk are utilised
for quality testing and control. Among the more important ones are peroxidase,
catalase, phosphatase and lipase.
3.4.2.1.1. Peroxidase
Peroxidase transfers oxygen from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to other readily

oxidisable substances. This enzyme is inactivated if the milk is heated to80°C for
a few seconds, a fact which can be used to prove the presence or absence of
peroxidase in milk and thereby check whether or not a pasteurisation
temperature above 80 °C has been reached. This test is called Storch’s
peroxidase test.
3.4.2.1.2. Catalase
Catalase splits hydrogen peroxide into water and free oxygen. By determining
the amount of oxygen that the enzyme can release in milk, it is possible to
estimate the catalase content of the milk and learn whether or not the milk has
come from an animal with a healthy udder. Milk from diseased udders has a high
catalase content, while fresh milk from a healthy udder contains only an
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insignificant amount. There are however many bacteria which produce this kind
of enzyme. Catalase is destroyed by heating at75°C for 60 seconds.
3.4.2.1.3. Phosphatase
Phosphatase has the property of being able to split certain phosphoric acid
esters into phosphoric acid and the corresponding alcohols. The presence of
phosphatase in milk can be detected by adding a phosphoric-acid ester and a
reagent that changes colour when it reacts with the liberated alcohol. A change
in colour reveals that the milk contains phosphatase. Phosphatase is destroyed
by ordinary pasteurisation (72°C for 15 – 20 seconds), so the phosphatase test
can be used to determine whether the pasteurisation temperature has actually
been attained.
3.4.2.1.4. Lipase
Lipase splits fat into glycerol and free fatty acids. Excess free fatty acids in milk
and milk products result in a rancid taste. The action of this enzyme seems, in
most cases, to be very weak, though the milk from certain cows may show
strong lipase activity. The quantity of lipase in milk is believed to increase
towards the end of the lactation cycle. Lipase is, to a great extent, inactivated by
pasteurisation, but higher temperatures are required for total inactivation. Many
micro-organisms produce lipase. This can cause serious problems, as the
enzyme is very resistant to heat.
3.4.3. Lactose
Lactose is a sugar found only in milk. Lactose (milk sugar) is a disaccharide, with
a molecule containing the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. Lactose is
water soluble, occurring as a molecular solution in milk. In cheesemaking most
of the lactose remains dissolved in the whey. Evaporation of whey in the
manufacture of whey cheese increases the lactose con-centration further.
Lactose is not as sweet as other sugars; it is about 30times less sweet than cane
sugar, for example.
If milk is heated to a high temperature, and is kept at that temperature, it turns

brown and acquires a caramel taste. This process is called caramelisation and is
the result of a chemical reaction between lactose and proteins called the Maillard
reaction.
3.4.4.Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances which occur in very small concentrations in both
plants and animals. They are essential to normal life processes. The chemical
composition of vitamins is usually very complex, but that of most vitamins is
now known.
Milk contains many vitamins. Among the best known are A, B1, B2, C and D.
Vitamins A and D are soluble in fat, or fat solvents, while the others are soluble
in water.
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3.4.5.Minerals and salts in milk
Milk contains a number of minerals. The total concentration is less than 1%.
Mineral salts occur in solution in milk serum or in casein compounds. The most
important salts are those of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. They
occur as phosphates, chlorides, citrates and caseinates. Potassium and calcium
salts are the most abundant in normal milk. The amounts of salts present are
not constant. Towards the end of lactation, and even more so in the case of
udder disease, the sodium chloride content increases and gives the milk a salty
taste, while the amounts of other salts are correspondingly reduced.
3.4.6.Other Constituents
Milk always contains somatic cells (white blood corpuscles or leucocytes). The
content is low in milk from a healthy udder, but increases if the udder is
diseased, usually in proportion to the severity of the disease. The somatic cell
content of milk from healthy animals is as a rule lower than 200 000cells/ml, but
counts of up to 400 000 cells/ml can be accepted. Milk also contains gases,
some 5 – 6 % by volume in milk fresh from the udder, but on arrival at the dairy
the gas content may be as high as 10 % by volume. The gases consist mostly of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen. They exist in the milk in three states:1
dissolved in the milk2 bound and non-separable from the milk3 dispersed in the
milk Dispersed and dissolved gases are a serious problem in the processing of
milk, which is liable to burn on to heating surfaces if it contains too much gas.
3.5. MILK BORNE DISEASES

3.5.1. Introduction
The spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms causing illnesses could come from
the animal, handler, environment, water, equipment, air, and raw materials and
due to poor sanitation practices. The knowledge about sources of contamination
will be helpful in preventing or reducing such spoilage causing and pathogenic
microbes in milk.
Milk is, an efficient carrier for a variety of disease producing microbial agents.
Disease control, however, can be maintained only by constant supervision of the
health of dairy animal and by adequate controls at all points from the time the
milk leaves the udder until it reaches the consumer.
Such microbial agents can be conveniently classified as :
a) Communicable disease causing microbes - viruses, rickettsiae, bacteria,

protozoa, and other parasites-and/ or their toxins;
b) Specific and non - specific sensitizing agents; and
c) Toxic chemicals - pesticides, preservatives, drugs, radionuclides, and other

substances.
3.5.2. Milk as vehicle of microbes
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Milk, by virtue of possessing all sorts of nutritional factors, can serve as an
excellent media for microbes, especially including pathogens. Bacteria have the
ability to utilize various milk constituents to grow and multiply. While growing at
the expenses of milk constituents these microbes release certain metabolites like
lactic and other organic acids, gases, enzymes, flavouring compounds, pigments,
toxins etc in the system which may be useful and/or harmful, and thus, effects
the quality of milk. Generally, these metabolites lead to different spoilage
conditions in milk products and make these unfit for consumption. For this
reason, raw milk is inherently dangerous and should not be consumed by
anyone, at any time, for any reason
Milk spoilage is manifested by a reduction in aroma, flavor, texture and

nutritional value of foods. In extreme cases the dairy products become totally
unpalatable. In addition, some microbes are known to release toxins that may
cause damage to health of consumers.
3.5.3. Different Sources of Pathogens
 A variety of pathogens may gain access to milk from a number of sources

and cause different types of food borne illness. Two main ways of
transmission of disease through milk:
1. Pathogens from diseased animals voided in milk
2. Pathogens entering the milk from external sources after milking
 Sources of contamination of milk after milking:
- Milker’s hands
- Dirty udder cloths/straining filters
- Dust
- Faecal material from animals
- Dirty water
- Containers (dirty & unsterilized)
- Flies and other insects
- Rats and mice (droppings)
- Birds (droppings)
3.5.3.1. Animals
The health of dairy animals is a very important parameter because a number of

diseases including brucellosis, Q-fever, salmonellosis, staphylococcal and
streptococcal infections and foot and mouth disease virus may be transmitted to
man through milk. The microbes causing these diseases may be transmitted to
milk either directly from the udder or indirectly through the infected body
discharges that may drop, splash or be blown in to milk.
3.5.3.2. Handlers
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The diseased persons may transmit diseases like typhoid fever, scarlet fever,
diphtheria, septic sore throat, infantile diarrhea by contaminated hands or by
coughing, sneezing and talking during milking or subsequent handling of milk at
farm level.
3.5.3.3. Environment
Dairy farm environment may also introduce pathogens in to milk products at

different stages of production and processing. Some common air borne
pathogens are like Group A Streptococci, Corynebacterium diptheriae,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Coxiella burnetii and some viruses of respiratory
origin. Contaminated water, fodder and unclean vessels and containers used for
handling milk and other unhygienic conditions at farm and plant may
significantly contribute to pathogens and spoilage causing micro-organisms in
milk.
3.5.4.Diseases from Animal to Man and Milk to Man
Table 1: common pathogens voided in milk that cause disease in

man and animals
Pathogen Disease
Genus: Mycobacterium
Mycobacterium bovis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(hominis) Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium avium
Genus: Brucella
Brucella abortus
Brucella melitensis
Brucella suis Brucellosis
Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcal infections
and/orintoxications
Coxiella brunette Q-fever
Genus: Salmonella
Serotypes:
Salmonella enterica enterica
Typhimurium
Salmonella enterica enterica Salmonellosis
Enteritidis
Salmonella enterica enterica
Dublin
Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis
Genus: Streptococci
Streptococcus haemolytica
Streptococcus pyogenes Septic sore throat, angina,
Group A Streptococci rheumatic heart disease,
glomerulonephritis
Genus: Leptospirosis
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Leptospirosis
icterohaemorrhagiae
Leptospira canicola Leptospirosis
Leptospira Pomona
Table 2: Common pathogens contaminating milk and causing

disease in humans
Pathogen Disease
Salmonella typhi Mainly human pathogens
Salmonella paratyphi [enteric fevers]
Typhoid fever/paratyphoid fever
Vibrio cholerae Cholera (milk-borne infection
rare)
Shigella spp Shigellosis
Enteropathogenic E. coli Colibacillosis/diarrhoea
Genus: Campylobacter
C. jejuni
C. coli Enteritis and other syndromes
Streptococcus Group A and Septic sore throat, angina,
others rheumatic heart disease
Staphylococcus
Most S. aureus Food poisoning
Mycobacteria bovis Tuberculosis
Corynebacterium diphtheria Diphtheria
3.5.4.1. Tuberculosis
The causative microorganism is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. German physician

Robert Koch (1843-1910) revealed the micro-organism, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis from contaminated raw milk, and its role in infant mortality.
Koch also reported that another strain, M. bovis, was responsible for tuberculosis
in cows, and that it was species specific and believed that cow strain would not
infect humans. Milk borne tuberculosis is directly or indirectly related to
consumption of raw milk from infected dairy herds. The tuberculosis traceable to
raw milk was the result of external contamination or lesions in the udders of
cows racked with bovine tuberculosis. The milk buckets, too, were easily
contaminated by workers.
There are two types of tuberculosis, pulmonary and non pulmonary type.
Pulmonary is caused by human type of microorganisms that affects mainly
respiratory tract. Bovine type bacillus cause non pulmonary tuberculosis.
Tuberculosis of cattle is produced by Mycobacterium bovis. Avian type of the
microorganism may cause both types of tuberculosis.
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Human

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- Mycobacterium bovis - Cattle and human
- Mycobacterium avium - Birds, swine but rarely human
Human type tuberculosis bacilli may gain access to milk from milkers and other
handlers. It causes human type tuberculosis in cattle. This cannot be
immediately noticed and may give tuberculin negative test but after 2 - 3
months, this test will be positive. Such suspected animals are usually held under
observation and rested periodically. If the reaction disappears, these are
restored to their normal status in herd. Such cattle may excrete bacilli in their
milk from apparently normal udders.
Milk animals other than cattle are also affected with tuberculosis mainly by
bovine type. Buffaloes and goats are less frequently affected by tuberculosis.
Bovine type infection in man appears to be practically nonexistent, in spite of a
considerable proportion of cows being infected. It may mainly be attributed to
the habit of boiling milk before consumption. Sour milk may kill human and
bovine tuberculosis bacilli within 18 - 24 h
Avian type tuberculosis bacilli also cause natural infections in cattle. Human
infection with avian type bacilli is quite rare.
Symptoms
Tuberculosis is characterized by the onset of paranchymal pulmonary infiltration

recognizable by X-ray examination, pleurisy, followed by advanced stage that is
accompanied by cough, fever, and fatigue and weight loss. Incubation period is
4 - 6 weeks from infection to demonstrable primary lesion.
Prevention and control
- Animals should be subjected to tuberculin test.
- Animal suffering with tuberculosis should be isolated.
- Proper heat treatment of milk. The traditional habit of boiling every lot of
milk before consumption in India is good, in combating the incidence of
tuberculosis.
- Overcrowding of animals must be avoided and living conditions must be

improved
- Tuberculosis patients should be prohibited from handling cattle as well as

milk.
- Proper disinfection should be followed.
3.5.4.2. Brucellosis
It is one of the most common milk-borne diseases. Brucellosis, also called

Bang's disease, Crimean fever, Gibraltar fever, Malta fever, Maltese
fever, Mediterranean fever, rock fever, or undulant fever, is a highly
contagious zoonosis caused by the ingestion of unsterilized milk or meat from
infected animals or close contact with their secretions. Brucella spp. are small,
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Gram-negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming, rod shaped (coccobacilli)
bacteria. This function as facultative intracellular parasites causing chronic
disease that usually persists for life. Symptoms include profuse sweating and
joint and muscle pain. Malta fever, the disease now called brucellosis first came
to the attention in 1850s in Malta during the Crimean War. In cattle, this disease
is also known as contagious abortion and infectious abortion.
The popular name undulant fever originates from the characteristic undulance
(or wave-like nature) of fever, that rises and falls over weeks in untreated
patients. In 20th century, this name, along with brucellosis, gradually replaced
the 19th century names Mediterranean fever and Malta fever. Brucellosis in
humans is usually associated with the consumption of unpasteurized milk and
soft cheeses made from milk of infected animals, primarily with Brucella
melitensis and with occupational exposure of workers, veterinarians and
slaughterhouse workers. Some vaccines used in livestock, B. abortus, also cause
disease in humans, if accidentally injected. Brucellosis induces fevers, sweating,
weakness, anaemia, headaches, depression and muscular and body pain.
The main symptoms are like muscular pain and sweating and the duration of
disease can vary from a few weeks to months or years. In the first stage of
disease, septicaemia occurs and leads to undulant fevers, sweating and
migratory arthralgia. Blood tests characteristically reveal leukopenia and anemia,
and demonstrate positive Bengal Rose and Huddleston reactions. During
episodes of Malta fever, melitococcemia (presence of brucellae in blood) can
usually be demonstrated by means of blood culture in tryptose medium. If
untreated, the disease can become chronic. The focalizations of brucellosis occur
usually in bones and joints and spondylodiscitis of lumbar spine accompanied by
sacroiliitis is very characteristic of this disease.
Diagnosis of brucellosis
- Blood cultures in tryptose broth, bone marrow cultures. The growth of

brucellae is extremely slow and the culture poses a risk to lab personnel due to
high infectivity of brucellae.
- Demonstration of antibodies against the agent either with, ELISA or 2-

mercaptoethanol assay for IgM antibodies associated with chronic disease
- Histologic evidence of granulomatous hepatitis
- The preferential erosion of antero-superior corner of lumbar vertebrae and

marked osteophytosis are suspicious of brucellic spondylitis.
- Segregation of infected herd to avoid cross infection and if possible the

infected animals should be slaughtered.
- Herds should be properly vaccinated.
- Adequate heat treatment should be given to milk for the destruction of

causative microbial agents.
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3.5.4.3. Diphtheria
Diphtheria is caused by only toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae.

Rarely, a diphtheria-like illness is caused by a toxigenic strain of C. ulcerans or
C. pseudotuberculosis. C. diphtheriae has three biotypes: gravis, intermedius,
and mitis. The gravis biotype is associated with the most severe disease, but any
strain may be toxigenic. All clinical isolates of C. diphtheriae should be tested for
toxigenicity. Nontoxigenic strains can cause sore throat and other invasive
infections, and are associated with endocarditis.
Illness
Classic diphtheria is an upper-respiratory tract infections characterized by sore

throat, low-grade fever, and an adherent pseudomembrane of the tonsil(s),
pharynx, and/or nose. The disease can involve almost any mucous membrane.
For clinical purposes, diphtheria can be classified according to the site of the
infection:
Anterior nasal diphtheria
Anterior nasal diphtheria usually presents with mucopurulent discharge from

nose that may be bloody and a white pseudomembrane on nasal septum.
Pharyngeal and tonsillar diphtheria
Pharyngeal and tonsillar diphtheria, the most common type of infection, initially
presents with malaise, sore throat, anorexia, and low-grade fever. Within a few
days, a bluish-white pseudomembrane forms on one or both tonsils that can
extend to the tonsillar pillars, uvula, soft palate, pharynx and nasopharynx. Over
time, the pseudomembrane evolves, assuming a dirty gray color with areas of
green or black necrosis surrounded by a minimal amount of erythema. Attempts
to remove the pseudomembrane cause bleeding. With severe disease patients
can develop edema of the anterior neck. If a significant amount of toxin is
absorbed into the blood stream, patients may develop pallor, rapid pulse, coma
and death. The differential diagnosis of diphtheria includes streptococcal
pharyngitis, viral pharyngitis, Vincent's angina, infectious mononucleosis, oral
syphilis and candidiasis.
Laryngeal diphtheria
If the infection involves larynx, it may occur either as an extension of

pharyngeal form, or as laryngeal involvement alone. Patients can present with
fever, hoarseness and a barking cough. The pseudomembrane can cause
potentially fatal airway obstruction.
Cutaneous diphtheria
Cutaneous diphtheria, caused by either toxigenic or nontoxigenic strains of C.

diphtheriae, is usually mild, typically consisting of non-distinctive sores or
shallow ulcers, and rarely causes toxic complications. The disease may present
as a scaling rash or as clearly demarcated ulcers. A chronic skin lesion may
harbor C. diphtheria along with other micro-organisms. Skin infections with C.
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diphtheria are common in tropical climates, and this is likely the reason for high
levels of natural immunity among local populations in these regions.
Reservoir
Infected humans are the reservoir.
Modes of transmission
Diphtheria is transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets or

less commonly, through contact with discharge from skin lesions. Historically,
raw milk and fomites were known to have served as vehicles.
Incubation period
The incubation period is usually 2-5 days (range 1-10 days).
Communicability
Persons are communicable for up to 4 days after treatment with effective

antibiotics has been initiated. Untreated persons generally shed bacteria from
the respiratory tract or from skin lesions for 2-4 weeks after infection. A chronic
carrier state is rare, but known to exist, and such a carrier may shed micro-
organisms for 6 months or more.
- adequate heat treatment of milk.
- Infected person should not be allowed to handle milk and milk products.
- Unhygienic practices like sneezing and coughing by the dairy persons

should be avoided.
- Proper vaccination of individuals against disease is an efficient

prophylactic measure.
3.5.4.4. Q - Fever
Q-fever is caused by Coxiella burnetti. Raw milk is commonly implicated as a

vehicle for transmission of disease. Coxiella burnetti is more heat resistant than
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It can survive pasteurization, if the specified
temperature is not maintained and also freezing temperatures. In view of the
considerable heat resistance of this microbe the time-temperature combination
used in pasteurization is selected on the basis of heat inactivation of this
microorganism. It has been found to be viable for 2 years at -20˚C and resist
0.5 per cent formalin and 1 per cent phenol. It has also been observed to remain
viable for 25 days in rennet cheese, 42 days in cottage cheese, whereas in
yoghurt it is killed within 24 hours due to acidity. All these features make Coxilla
burnetti a micro-organism of great public health significance for its pathogenic
potentials.
Individuals, who have frequent direct contact with animals, including

veterinarians, meat workers, and sheep and dairy farmers, are at higher risk. Q
fever is rarely fatal. Most patients get Q fever by coming in contact with animals
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infected with the Q fever bacteria, their tissues, or fluids. Transmission may
occur through breathing contaminated air or dust from an area with a large
concentration of animals. Tissues from animals giving birth pose a particular
risk. People can also become infected indirectly from animals through
contaminated materials like wool, straw, and fertilizer. There is a risk of Q fever
from consumption of contaminated raw milk. Sheep, cattle, goats, cats, dogs,
some wild animals like bobcats and rodents, birds, and ticks carry the bacteria.
Most infected animals do not show signs of illness, but Q fever may sometimes
cause abortion.
Only about one-half of all people infected with C. burnetii show signs of illness.
For patients who become ill, the first symptoms of Q fever resemble flu and may
include fever, chills, sweats, headache, and weakness. Q fever may rarely
progress to affect liver, nervous system, or heart valve. Q fever is diagnosed by
identifying the bacteria in tissues or through a blood test that detects antibody
to the micro-organism. Patients with mild transient illness usually do not require
treatment. Placenta, other birth products, and aborted fetuses should be
disposed of immediately. Seek veterinary assistance, if animals have
reproductive or other health problems.
Sources
Mostly human infection is by inhalation of infected dust of the fecal matter.

Infected cattle continue to excrete the microorganisms in milk for a long time.
Symptoms
High fever, headache, weakness, malaise, severe sweating and virus like
pneumonia.
- Adequate heating of milk and cream
- Calving sheds should be away from the milking sheds and dairy
- Animals should be properly vaccinated
- Survey for determining the prevalence of infection in an area should be

carried out
3.5.4.5. Viral infections
The rapid growth of the frozen and convenience foods has given rise to increased
concern about the possible role of such foods in the dissemination of viral
infections. Although, food is rarely reported a vehicle for viral distribution. A few
breakouts of poliomyelitis have been traced to raw milk. Personal contact and
mechanical distribution by flies are believed to be the usual routes of infection
with enteric viruses.
Outbreaks of infectious hepatitis have occurred in which foods appear to be the

most probable means of transmission. Epidemiological evidence suggests that
ingestion of raw clams or oysters taken from sewage polluted waters could be a
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mean by which infectious hepatitis is spread. A number of factors can influence
the importance of any food as a vehicle for the spread of a virus. Among these
are the opportunities for contamination with infectious virus, the ability of a virus
to survive and remain infectious under conditions of handling and storage, the
extent of adsorption to food, the effect of ingredients like flavourings and
preservatives, and competition from other contaminants. However, unlike
bacteria, viruses will not multiply in the foods. They will either survive at a
constant level or die out. Since some frozen foods are subject to a great deal of
handling in manufacture, are kept frozen, and require little or no cooking in the
home, they would appear to be likely sources of viral distribution, should they
become contaminated during preparation.
3.5.4.5.1. Enteroviruses
These are a group of viruses that can cause severe epidemics of diarrhea in
infants and children on ingestion of contaminated milk. Among these most
common human pathogens are polio and coxsackie viruses. Milk and its products
are commonly contaminated with enteroviruses mainly through fecal
contamination. Unheated milk contaminated after pasteurization play a
significant role in the transmission of disease, especially in developing countries.
However, polio virus can be inactivated in milk by pasteurization. Compared to
polio virus, coxsackie viruses are more resistant to heat treatment
3.5.4.5.2. Poliomyelitis
Like many other diarrheal diseases, poliomyelitis occurs commonly.
Sources
- Person to person contact is the main mode of spread of viruses
- Flies may also serve as a vector for the spread of the disease
- Fecal contamination of water and milk
Symptoms
First, there is a minor disease associated with viremia characterized by gastro

intestinal disturbance. Then headache, fever, muscle stiffness and paralysis
associated with cell destruction in central nervous system.
- Proper pasteurization of milk
- Hygienic measures should be strictly followed to avoid fecal contamination
- Infected persons should not be allowed to handle milk.
- Immunization is also effective in preventing disease.
- Proper vaccination of the children confers protection against disease.
3.5.4.5.3. Infectious hepatitis
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Among various viral diseases, infectious hepatitis is considered as one of the
most serious viral disease for which milk may be important vehicle for
transmission. The illness is also known as hepatitis A and is caused by Hepatitis
A virus, whereas hepatitis B is not transmitted through milk.
Sources
- Since the disease spreads through person to person contact, hence

handlers can be an important source
- Defective water supply in a milk plant may also introduce the virus to milk
- Polluted environment in milk plant may also contaminate milk
Symptoms
Nausea, vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, chills, anorexia,

lassitude, sore throat, bile in urine and jaundice.
- Proper sanitary conditions should be maintained during production and

processing of milk
- Infected persons should not be allowed to handle milk
- Fecal contamination of water should be avoided
- Adequate heat treatment of milk is likely to inactivate the virus
3.5.5.PREVENTION OF INFECTIOUS MILK-BORNE DISEASES

1. Prevent pathogens from animals from entering milk by
preventing/controlling/eradicating animal diseases
 Screening and culling animals positive for a given disease e.g. TB (skin
tests with PPD-purified protein derivative), brucellosis (ELISA, MRT-
Milk Ring Test)
 Prompt treatment of clinical cases
 Vaccinations: Anthrax, FMD, leptospirosis, brucellosis
 Maintaining good udder health
 Good management, feeding and breeding
2. Preventing pathogens in man (workers) from entering the milk
 Institute and observe routine medical check-ups of workers to reveal

the sick and the carriers of communicable diseases e.g. sore throat,
TB, salmonellosis (the sick and carriers), campylobacteriosis
 Positive stop from handling and treat promptly
3. Preventing multiplication of harmful bacteria
 Milk is a good medium for growth of microorganisms; high numbers

increase chances of disease causation
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 Cool milk immediately post-milking to low temperatures <10oC (<7oC
better) so as to inhibit multiplication of both pathogenic and spoilage
microorganisms
 Achieve this within 3hr post milking
 N/B: Milk is a good medium for microbial growth and low numbers of
microorganism reduces chance of infection or toxin production
4. Inactivate/destroy the pathogens present
 Heat treatment [pasteurization 72oC for 15 Sec (or boiling)],

sterilization (UHT >135oC for 1-2 Sec)
 UV treatment and infra-red radiation [not common]
1. Provision of potable water
 Of good bacteriological quality for use by dairy, drinking by humans as
well as cows
2. Use of hygienic methods of production and distribution of milk
 Housing, fly control, clean burn, clean sanitised/sterilised containers
protected from contamination
 Closed milking systems (machine milking)
7. Practise hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system
 And good total management practice (MP)
3.6. RESIDUES IN MILK AND DISEASE CONDITIONS CAUSED

 Residues of certain substances pose great threat to human health
when they occur in milk/milk products and when they are consumed.
They include:
a. Antibiotics
b. Pesticides/herbicides
c. Radionuclides (radioactive particles)
d. Mycotoxins
e. Plant toxins
f. Other
o Disinfectants
o Adulterants
3.6.1.Antimicrobials
 Milk shall not contain any antibiotics (KEBS)
 Antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents gain entry into milk mainly
through therapeutic and prophylactic treatment of animals or as
feed additives or when directly added intentionally to milk as
preservatives by unscrupulous people
 Hazards
a. Allergic reactions
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- Anaphylactic shock and possible death in allergic persons e.g. allergic
to penicillin;
- Possible sensitization of those not yet allergic by consuming small
doses in milk overtime
b. Bacterial resistance
- Selection of resistant bacteria strains, especially pathogens
- Possible development of resistance of sensitive bacteria as a result of
consumption of sub-lethal doses in the milk-via plasmid transfer
- Useful drugs become useless, cannot be used to treat illnesses
anymore; non-pathogenic organisms become pathogenic
c. Alteration of the status quo
- Of the normal gut flora often leading to superinfection i.e.
opportunistic infections e.g. by Candida albicans
d. Technical
- Destruction/inhibition of starter cultures in milk processing-hampering
manufacture of cultured milk products (technological disadvantage)
3.6.2.Pesticides/herbicides
 Pesticides and herbicides are employed in livestock and agriculture to
fight ectoparasites e.g. ticks on animals, tsetse flies, plant pests and
weeds
 Dipping of animals as well as consumption of contaminated fodder,
forage and feeds are common sources/ direct accidental contamination
of milk may occur
Public Health importance of chlorinated hydrocarbons

(organochlorines)
 Accumulative effects [chronic toxicity-usually concentrated in animal

fat(butter)]
 Possible carcinogenic effect
 Nervous disorders on starvation and release of these from adipose
tissue
 Sexual impotence (reports from S. America)
 Diarrhoea
 Stomach-ache
KEBS tolerance levels
Pesticides Calculated on Calculated on fat

whole milk basis basis
Aldrin; dieldrin 0.1ppm 0.25ppm
Heptachlor,
heptachlorepoxide,
endrin
DT and its analogies 0.05ppm 0.25ppm
(total) Lindane, BHL
Pesticide limits in milk KEBS: KS 05-10:1992

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Pesticide Maxlimit
Aldrin and deldrin 0.006
Heptachlor 0.006
DDT 0.05
Lindane 0.01
SHC-HCl 0.01
Endrin 0.01
3.6.3.Radionuclids [radioactive particles]

 Barium[Ba190], Cesium[Cs137], Iodine[I131], Strontium[Sr90,Sr89],
Cobalt[Co60]
 These are products of nuclear fission e.g. atomic bomb tests and
nuclear reactors.
 They pollute the atmosphere setting up a chain reaching man
eventually.
 Chain:
- Precipitated by the Atmosphere and absorbed by the soil and plants
and eaten by [animals and man]
 Nuclear reactor accidents for example: Chernobyl nuclear accident
June 1986 in Georgia, former Soviet Union, caused massive spread of
radio activity over a large area including Western Europe and other
countries. Cos and sheep were heavily contaminated
 Ghana declined
 Public health importance
- Causes mutagenesis. Most dangerous to infants because their cells are
highly active with a high metabolic rate and therefore easily mutated
- Causes leukemia and other forms of cancers
3.6.4. Mycotoxins
 Examples: Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin-A, Penicillinic acid, Zealalenone
 These are chemical products of fungi metabolism.
 One of the most important from public health point of view is
aflatoxin
 Aflatoxins are produced by:
 Aspergillus flavus
 Aspergillus parasiticus
 Aspergillus niger
 In contaminated cereals/grains/feeds improperly stored under high
humidity and temperature leading to fungal growth and toxin
production
 Two classes of aflatoxins:
a. Aflatoxin B (B1 & B2)
 Blue i.e. appears blue under fluorescent microscope.
 Its converted to M1 in the animal’s body and appears as M1 in
milk-equally potent as B1 and B2
b. Aflatoxin G - Green i.e. fluorescents green
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 Highly toxic
 Highly heat resistant
 Not destroyed by cooking
 Obtained through ingestion of contaminated foods
Public health importance of aflatoxins
 Liver damage: Hepatocellular carcinoma; cattle are fairly resistant.

 Human cases have been reported e.g. in Machakos and Muranga as a
result of consuming contaminated maize grains
3.6.5.Plant toxins
 When grazing in pastures, glaucoma producing alkaloids have been
detected in milk
3.6.6.Others
a. Disinfectants e.g. Cl, I, QACs
b. Adulterants e.g. peroxides, formaldehyde
c. Bacterial enzymes/toxins
3.7. MILK ABNORMALITIES (DEFECTS)
 Normal milk should be a free flowing white to yellowish fluid without

abnormal odours/flavours.
 It should not contain any extraneous materials such as dirt, animal dung,
animal hairs etc.
 The abnormalities commonly encountered in milk and milk products can be

grouped broadly into three categories:
- Off-flavours/odours
- Discolourations
- Consistency changes
3.7.1.Off-flavours/odours
 Three factors contribute to the occurrence of off-flavours in milk:
- Sensitivity of milk to chemical changes
- The ability of the cow (dairy animal) to act as condenser of odour

substances from feeds, weeds, and barn air
 Excellent qualities of milk as a fermentation medium
3.7.1.1. Off-favours due to chemical changes

3.7.1.1.1. Oxidized flavour
 This is the most important single off-flavour of milk and a number of its
milk products
 Comes from the oxidation of fat in presence of oxygen catalysed by Fe,

Cu, and sunlight
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 It’s mainly the highly unsaturated fatty acids, which are involved
Terms such as metallic, cardboard, oily and tallowry are commonly used to
describe the off-flavour
3.7.1.1.2. Rancidity flavour
 Occurs as a result of partial or complete hydrolysis of glycerides by

lipase enzymes to release volatile free short chain fatty acids e.g.
butyric acid, which are responsible for the off-flavour
 Lipids [Lipase hydrolyses] volatile FFAs(off-flavour)
 Short chain butyric acid is most important
 Agitating, homogenous and warming of milk enhances hydrolysis of

glycerides and increases rancidity
 Pasteurisation destroys lipase enzyme thus preventing rancidity
 Prevention: Pasteurise milk before homogenisation or immediately after

homogenisation and always handle raw milk with care
 Methionine…[sunlight-riboflavin]…methional + CO2 + NH3
- Sunlight facilitates breakdown of methionine and catalysed by

riboflavin
3.7.1.1.3. Heated flavour
 This results from overheating of milk to temperatures more than 74 oC i.e.

higher than those normally used for pasteurisation
 Heating milk to high temperatures releases free volatile sulphryl (-SH) groups
from beta-lactoglobulins and proteins of fat globule membrane
 Volatile sulphides and in particular hydrogen sulphide (H2S) impart the

cooked flavour
 Some people like this flavour others don’t, particularly those used to drinking
raw milk
3.7.1.2. Microbiological flavours
 Microorganisms growing in the milk produce them
 The flavours are varied because of the versatility of micro-organisms in

producing chemical changes
 Prevention: Good hygiene
Examples
 Manure-like: from dirt or coli-aerogeous bacteria
 Sour flavour from lactic acid producing bacteria. With more than 0.24% lactic
acid you get sourly taste
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 Sour/rancid: from aerobic spore formers e.g. Cl. Botulinum
 Soapy flavour from pasteurization resistant bacilli
3.7.1.3. Drug flavours
 From oral or parenteral treated milking animals with drugs e.g. aloes and
phenothiazines
3.7.1.4. Absorbed flavours
 Milk is a good absorber of odours
 The odour substance may enter the milk either before or after milking
 Entering before milking is more important
 Before milking (via the cow)
 There are two routes:
a. Respiratory tract
- Mouth/Nose ---Lungs---blood---udder---milk
- Odour substances breathed into lungs---enters blood stream---then

the udder and ---into the milk (the cow acts as odour trap)
b. Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
 Mouth---intestines---blood---udder---milk
 Odour substances ingested---enter the git---are absorbed into blood—end up

in milk
Types and sources of absorbed off-flavours
 From the animals themselves-sex flavours in goats
 From feeds e.g.
- Fermented feeds e.g. ensilage-fermented flavour
- Onion/garlic-characteristic flavour
- Cabbage, grape, beets, turnips-aromatic type flavour
- Fish meal-fishy flavour
- Ketone bodies due to ketosis. Ketone bodies are released into the milk
from the blood-get cowry flavour
- Barn air: from the surroundings, boma, dung-ammonia---hence

ammoniacal odour
 N/B: Lactating animals and milk should always be kept at a place without
odours and containers should be tightly closed and should not be permeable
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3.7.2.Discolourations
3.7.2.1. Gross particles
 Dark or other coloured particles such as dirt or soil, intentionally or

unintentionally added to milk will present undesirable milk appearance
 Clarification and removal is necessary before marketing
3.7.2.2. Yellow milk
 Yellow milk has various causes
a. Normal variations
 Due to species or breed of animals, for example Friesian (Holstein) breed of

cattle has white milk compared with jersey and Guernsey breeds.
 Due to feedstuffs given to the animals which contain carotenoids e.g. green
fodder, maize, carrots etc.
 Due to physiological changes, which make colostrum appear yellow
b. Abnormal variations with various causes:
 Microorganism e.g. Pseudomonas spp, Serattia, Yeasts and molds; yellow

bacteria or fungi in milk
 Diseases e.g. Piroplasmosis, babesiosis, icterus, mastitis, leptospirosis
 Drugs e.g. Tetracyclines, acridine dyes
3.7.2.3. Red milk
 Blood: due to mastitis, injury to udder or teat; frequent in newly freshened

cows
 Feedstuffs: various types of leafy plants owing to admixture of red dye
 Microorganisms: red yeast
 Diseases: piroplasmosis and poisoning. Heavy lyses of RBC releasing Hb
 Drugs: Phenothiazines etc.
3.7.3. Consistency changes
 Change from normal fluid milk
 The observed different consistency changes in milk are due to various

causes:
- Colostrum: is thicker than normal milk due to physiological changes

e.g. has increased solids and less water
- Clots, pus, flake, watery milk: common in mastitis
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- Ropy/slimy milk: Microorganisms are exclusively responsible.
Coliforms mostly implicated
- Foamy milk: due to physiological changes, feedstuffs, microorganisms

and disease
3.8. HYGIENE IN MILK PRODUCTION AND MARKETING

3.8.1.Hygiene at the farm
Cow
 Ensure healthy cow with healthy udder
 Institute test programme for disease control e.g. TB, brucellosis
Humans
 Healthy workers free from communicable disease
 Practise personal hygiene
 Have educational programmes
Other animals
 E.g. fowls, swine etc. avoid in the milking barn
 Facilities [Well designed and constructed buildings and structures]
 Clean milking house
 Good lighting
 Efficient manure and urine disposal system
 Efficient control of flies, pests, dust etc.
Water
 Provision of potable water, hot and cold water for cleaning and other
purposes
Clean milking equipment and materials
 Buckets, cans, pipes, sterilised preferably by steam
 Machines-cleaned and sanitised
 Towels (clean). Preferably disposal towels
Milking exercise
 Ensure animal body is clean
 Clean the udder and teats with sanitised water
 Dry with clean towel, preferably disposal paper towel
 Test for milk first for mastitis-strip cup
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 Closed system (machine milking) preferred to hand milking open system:
no dirt, urine, flies etc. in milk
 Teat dipping
Milk handling
 Straining using clean filter cloth
 Cooling to less than 10oC within 2-3 hours
 Store and transport under cooling conditions
3.8.2.Hygiene at the dairy plant
 Hygiene control at the reception
 Check:
- Wholesomeness
- Adulterations
- Physical and chemical changes
 Biochemical tests
 Platform tests
1. Organoleptic test
- Smell
- Visual
- Tasting is not allowed in case of pathogens e.g. Brucella or tb bacilli
2. Alcohol test
3. Specific gravity (lactometer test)
4. Freezing point depression
 Laboratory tests
- 10 minutes resazuin dye test
- Sediment test
- Clot on boiling test
- Titration of titratable acidity
- Somatic cell counts (SCC)
- Antibiotic residues test
- Butter fat %
- Solids not fat
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3.9. MILK PROCESSING
 Milk processing involves reducing concentration of one or more of the major

constituents and/or chemical degradation of one of the constituents
 Treatment of milk in a number of ways involving heating is also involved
 Why process?
- For the purpose of hygiene and quality control/to safe guard human
health
- Prolongation of shelf-life (keeping time)
- Economic reasons-value addition
3.9.1.Clarification (Filtration)
 Clarification is the removal of extraneous insoluble material from milk

which include:
- Dirt particles
- Animal hairs
- Soil
- Leucocytes
- Epithelial cells
- Some bacteria
Methods of clarification
 Centrifugation of cold milk using modified cream separator. Homogenisation

comes later
 Filtration using cloth filters
 N/B: Clarification does not improve bacteriological quality, but gives

aesthetic satisfaction and improves sediment quality by removing gross
materials like dirt and hairs
A. Standardisation of butter fat
 Why standardise fat?
1. For economic reasons
2. To guarantee constant fat content
3. To meet national and international standards
 Standardisation involves adjusting BF% by partial removal of cream or

addition of cream to milk
 Two procedures are used:
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1. Continuous method by adjusting the separator, which standardizes
the butterfat
2. Completely skimming part of the milk then mixing it with whole

milk
 Milk heated to 40-45oC is ideal for separation of cream using high speed
(6000rpm) cream separator. The other product is skimmed milk, very rich in
proteins
 KEBS requires that BF% must always be specified if milk is standardised

(whole unprocessed milk BF% minimum 3.3%)
3.9.2.Homogenisation
 This is breaking of fat globules into finer particles and more stable
state of dispersion
 Diameter of fat globules in cattle milk ranges from 0.1-10micrometers
 Milk fat should be in liquid state to be homogenised and milk heated to 55-
60oC (at least 40oC) is suitable for homegenisation
Procedure
 Milk is pumped under high pressure (150 bars) through very small fine holes
 It is atomised and by abrasion/shear forces break up the fat globules to very

small particles <1micrometer diameter
 The particles are evenly distributed in milk and do not therefore coalesce to
form cream layer
 Globule SA is increased 4-5 times making the fat easily attacked by lipase
enzymes causing rancidity
 To prevent this immediate pasteurization is necessary to destroy the

enzymes
3.9.3. Pasteurisation
 Pasteurisation is defined as the process of heating every particle of milk

to at least 63oC and holding it continuously at or above this
temperature for at least 30 minutes
 Or at 72oC and holding it continuously at or above this temperature for at

least 15 seconds in an equipment which is properly operated and approved
by the health authority
 The milk is heated at specific temperatures and times
Objectives of pasteurisation
1. To destroy all pathogenic microorganisms harmful to human

health except spore formers
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2. To destroy most (99%) of the total microorganisms that can cause
spoilage of milk
3. To inactivate milk enzymes and enzymes produced by microorganisms
- With negligible effect on composition and nutrition
Methods of pasteurisation
1. Batch Holder Method [63oC for 30min at LTLT[Low Temperature Long

Time]
2. Continuous process[72oC for 15 seconds at HTST [High Temperature

Short Time]
3. Flash Method [80oC for a short time 1-2 seconds]
 In the continuous process, if the temperature of the milk is below the set
temperature (say 62oC), temperature control sensor sets diversion valve to
open and divert the milk back for re-pasteurisation
 Pasteurised milk is NOT STERILE
3.9.4.Cooling
 The milk is cooled quickly to 5oC after heat treatment to retard growth of the
surviving microorganisms and then kept in storage milk awaiting packaging
 N/B
- Test for proper pasteurisation soon after pasteurisation (alkaline

phosphatase test)
- Must ensure no contamination after pasteurisation [pasteurisation milk

is not sterile]
- Keeping time (shelf life) is approximately 3 days under refrigeration
3.9.5.Milk sterilisation
 Sterilisation is destruction of all living things. All microorganisms including

spore formers are destroyed
Method
 Ultra High temperature (UHT) continuous process
 This involves heating milk under pressure at 135-150oC for a few seconds;
e.g. steam is injected into the milk and water of condensation is later
removed
 Heating is followed by rapid cooling to 7-10oC. Aseptic packaging must be

done to remain sterile
 N/B: Keeping time-3 months at room temperature
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 Beyond 3 months reactivation of enzymes leading to chemical and physical
changes may occur and milk becomes unfit for human consumption
3.10. MILK PRODUCTS

3.10.1. Dried milk powder (dried milk)
 This product is prepared from high quality whole or skimmed milk, which
is pasteurised
 Skimmed milk powder has better keeping quality
Purpose
 To remove virtually all the water with little irreversible changes
 To reduce cost of transportation
 To improve the storage of the product
 To provide a product which can be utilised for food manufacturing

operations
Methods of Drying Milk
 Spraying drying (most important)
 Hot rotating drum
1. Spray drying
 Pre-concentrated milk (condensed in a vacuum evaporator) is atomised

i.e. sprayed in small droplets into stream of dry hot air forced through a drying
chamber at high temperatures, 160-250oC
 Water evaporates rapidly
 Milk powder settles at the bottom
 It is removed by means of separation bags or separation cyclones
 Powder temperature: 90-120oC when it leaves
2. Hot rotating drum
 Milk is spread in a thin film on the surface of internally steam heated

(135-150oC) rotating horizontal drum
 It is dried in one rotation
 Powder is removed by one or more scraper knives
 Disadvantages of drum dried milk: Powder has burnt particles
 N/B: Drying heat especially in spray drying cannot be relied upon to

destroy pathogens 100%
Procedure and Requirements
 Good quality milk

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 If stored it should be at 3-5oC; product is used a baby food or in baby
food manufacture
 Milk pre-heated 85oC
 Hygienic drying process
 Control of possible recontamination with e.g. birds or rodents faeces
 Packaging under aseptic conditions
 N/B: although because of low aw bacteria do not grow, disease outbreaks

have been reported due to salmonella as a result of re-contamination
 Reconstitute using cold boiled water
 Shelf-life of the product
- Whole milk powder -6 months
- Skimmed milk powder-3 years
 Preservation principle: Inhibition due to low aw
Other requirements
 Uniform composition
 White to cream colour
 No scorched milk particles
 No dirt or extraneous matter
 No abnormal taste or odour
3.10.2. Condensed milk
CONDENSED MILK (EVAPORATED)
Requirements
 Quality controlled milk
 Pasteurised
 Vacuum concentrated by heating at low pressure (aim is to increases TS to

25-30%)
 Homogenisation
 Canning
 Sterilisation by heating at 150oC, 2-3 seconds
 Shelf life: Unopened, undamaged cans-2 years or more; opened cans-24

hours
 Product especially used in production of chocolates
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3.10.3. CONDENSED SWEETENED MILK
 This is prepared same as above, but sugar (heat treated) is added to give
sugar in water concentrated of >62%
 There is no final sterilisation. Sugar tolerant microbes for example Micrococci

and pathogenic Staphylococci may grow
 Complete filling of cans is essential to avoid growth of yeasts/molds
 Unopened cans kept very well. Keeping principle is low aw
Problems associated with concentrated milk
 Blowing of containers due to gas produced by microorganisms e.g. Yeasts

genus Turulopsis and molds of genus Aspergillus
 Thickening-due to bacterial coagulants Grittiness (sand feel)-due to small

lactose crystals; they feel like small sand
 Age-thickening, a serious defect which causes viscosity until a jelly-like

product is formed.
3.10.4. CULTURED PRODUCTS [Butter and Ghee]
Butter
 Butter is a milk fat made from milk cream
Procedure
 Separation of cream from milk using cream separator
 Ripening (10-18 hr)
 Cream is cooled and starter bacteria added to increased acidity and flavour
that some people like
 Pasteurisation of cream at a higher temperature than for normal milk to kill

all the pathogens, other microorganisms and inactivate enzymes, which is
important so that starter culture can grow
 Cream is also deodorised
 Ripening (12-18hr)
 Cream is cooled and starter bacteria added to increase acidity and flavour
that some people like
 Churning at 10-25oC until fat granules (pea size) form and fat separates out
from the butter milk
 Draining and washing off butter milk with boiled cold water
 Salting (about 2%) using dry salt or in brine (12%)
 Working the butter i.e. kneading the granules to adjust the water content and
its dispersion in the butter to obtain a homogenous fatty product
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 Packaging, storage, freezing and canning
Milk Skimmed/butter Proposed

milk butter
Fat 4 0 81min
Proteins 3.4 3.4 81 min
Lactose 4.8 4.8 2 max SNF
Minerals 0.7 0.7 2 max SNF
Water 87 91 17 max
 Preservation principle: inhibition, low aw
 Preservation problems: oxidative rancidity
Ghee
 Is pure milk fat, a very stable compound
 However, rancidity is high with high water content
 Composition
- Fat = 99%
- Water 0.3%
- Proteins and minerals =traces
Processing
 It is prepared by heating butter or cream to 110-140oC to evaporate water

and volatile fatty acids
 Preservation principle is inhibition; aw is extremely low and adequately

nutrients (e.g. sugars) are absent
 Processing problems are hardly any; microbial and rancidity problems are
limited
 Shelf life depends on water content, temperature, salt and atmosphere

(rancidity and mold growth)
Margarine [Not a cultured product]
 Margarine is not a pure milk product. It’s composition varies widely. It is a

mixture of:
- Animal fats (beef, mutton, whale, fish etc.)
- Vegetable oils (coconut, palm, cotton seed)
- Milk fats (not always)

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 The oils are hardened by hydrogenation of the unsaturated fatty acids
 Additives: colours, flavours, vitamins, emulsifiers (even distribution of fat),

antispattering agents etc.
 Quality: good keeping quality, low water activity
 Adequate nutrients but sugars are absent
 It’s cheaper than butter
Yoghurt
 Yoghurt is a fermented liquid milk product from whole OR skimmed milk
Topic four: Meat Hygiene, Slaughtering and Meat

Inspection
Introduction
This topic introduces the learner to aspects of meat hygiene and inspection.
This is important because meat is an animal product that is widely consumed
by people. Due to its nature and high nutritive value both spoilage and
pathogenic bacteria can grow on it. In addition, it can serve as a vector for
zoonotic diseases. Thus, in this topic the learner is equipped with knowledge
on important aspects of meat hygiene.
Topic time
hour]
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to describe the transport of
slaughter animals to slaughter houses and meat inspection procedures carried
out to ensure meat is fit for human consumption. In addition, they should be
able to describe meat quality parameters. They should also be able to
describe documentation required for transport of animals and meat. They
should demonstrate knowledge on basic slaughter house design and sighting.
Finally, they should demonstrate knowledge on meat processing techniques.
Topic summary
In order for meat to be safe for human consumption it must come from a
healthy animal. You have been taken through how to transport animals to the
slaughter house, rest animals in the lairages, perform ante mortem inspection
of animals, stun the animals, slaughter the animal and how to perform post
mortem inspection of the animals. Meat transport will also be covered. You
were also introduced to slaughterhouse design and how to dispose of
slaughterhouse wastes. Moreover, you were taken through meat quality traits
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such as the color, tenderness, water holding capacity among others. Finally,
you were introduced to meat processing.
Glossary All definitions in the notes.
Further reading
a. Meat Control Act – Chapter 356 laws of Kenya
b. Meat Science – R. A. Lawrie

a. Visit a local supermarket. Identify at least 5 meat products sold.
Enumerate which processing techniques they have undergone and how
they have been processed to ensure hygiene.
b. Visit a meat slaughter house. Identify the different parts of the
slaughter house as well as meat inspection procedures being conducted.
(requires submission)
4. Topic Content
4.1. Introduction
Meat is defined as the flesh of animals used as food. In practice this definition is
restricted to a few dozen of the 3000 mammalian species; but it is often widened
to include, as well as the musculature, organs such as liver and kidney, brains
and other edible tissues.
4.2. Meat Hygiene and inspection in Kenya
Meat Hygiene and Inspection in Kenya
Meat hygiene is the creation of conditions and implementation of measures

necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of meat at all stages of the meat
production chain. Effective hygiene control is vital to avoid the adverse human
health and economic consequences of unsuitable meat and meat related
illnesses.
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance is the process of ensuring that meat will not cause harm to
the consumer when it is prepared and eaten according to its intended use.
Everyone including farmers, processors and regulators have a responsibility to

assure consumers that meat is safe and suitable for consumption
Objectives of meat hygiene
1. Safeguard the health of the people through production, distribution and

consumption of safe meat;
2. Promote national and international trade of meat;
3. Prevent avoidable meat losses and promote conservation of livestock
resources
Scope of Meat Hygiene
Meat hygiene programs are aimed at controlling the hygiene standards of the
meat at all levels of meat production chain including:
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1. Prevention of disease in animals;
2. Maintenance of appropriate nutritional level of food animals;
3. Prudent use of veterinary medications and other chemicals in food animals
and observing the recommended withdrawal periods;
4. Ensuring use of appropriate use of methods of slaughter;
5. Thorough ante-mortem and postmortem inspection;
6. Hygienic transportation of meat to butcheries and/or markets;
7. Ensuring the hygienic state of the butcheries and meat markets;
8. Ensuring appropriate meat storage conditions before they reach the
consumer;
9. Prevention of contamination of meat;
10. Prevention of meat deterioration and spoilage by controlling
temperatures, humidity.
Meat fit for human consumption Is food which has been passed and
appropriately branded by an inspector and in which no subsequent
changes have been found due to disease, decomposition or
contamination.
It is important to note that there are three key elements in the above definition.
In order for food to be classed as fit for human consumption, it must be
1. Safe,
2. Wholesome, and
3. Processed in a hygienic manner.
Safe
This means that food products must be free from any substance which may be
harmful to man (include both infectious agents and toxic substances of either
endogenous or exogenous origin).
Wholesome:
This means that food products must be free from defects which may be either
endogenous diseases or exogenous non-microbial contamination and
adulterations. Whereas the primary aim in a safe food product is to exclude
harmful microbes from the food chain, wholesomeness is much broader in
that it implies that the food products must be free from both microbial
organisms, non-microbial contaminants and even religiously and
aesthetically acceptable to the consumer.
Hygienic processing:
Food products are processed in the manner to ensure compliance with the
above requirements and to protect those involved in the process from
occupational hazards such as tuberculosis, brucellosis, salmonellosis,
leptospirosis among others.
Hygienic processing also implies that a production system is in place which does
not create environmental hazards to the public.
4.2.1.Transport of slaughter animals

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Transport of animals by rail, truck or on the hoof must be carried out carefully
to ensure the quality of the meat. Prevention of damage during
transport, ante-mortem inspection and rest before slaughter are therefore
essential.
The main requirements are that:
i. The owner should be in possession of a movement permit
ii. Healthy animals on the farm should remain so until slaughter.
During transportation care must be taken to guard the animals against

fractures, bruises, lacerations, lack of water and food, contamination, Stress,
Disease
Driving on Hoof
Cattle in developing countries are often driven on hoof over 800km, of about
48km per day, to reach consumer area. Therefore, important - holding
grounds to provide a daily intake of water, rest and fodder for the animals in
transit.
Road transport
Single-decked lorries are used for large animals, whilst sheep, goat and
pigs can be transported in double-deckers.
The lorries should have non-slip floors. The landing platform should be fitted
with batons to prevent slippage. Where animals are transported on
winding roads, it is essential to round off the corners inside the vehicle
as very often animals suffocate due to persistent pressure from other
animals. For long distance transport under tropical conditions, it is essential
that the lorry have a roof or a tarpaulin.
Rail transport
The floors of the rail wagons should be fitted with baton to prevent
slippage and should have a roof. Adequate ventilation is essential to
prevent suffocation during the journey.
The division of the wagon into several compartments is advisable.

Entrance should be by a loading ramp or collapsible door.
Air transport
Expensive, hence limited to mostly small animals like pigs and possibly
poultry
Sea transport
This means of transportation is very useful in international cattle trade

preferably within a limited geographical area.
It is always better to slaughter animals at place of origin.
1. Precautions to be taken include;

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2. Journey should be made in careful manner
3. Avoid sudden stops & starts.
4. Avoid Cornering & swings.
5. Protect from animals from harsh weather.
6. Loading & unloading should be proper
7. No overcrowding
8. Never transport Unfit/sick & likely pregnant animals.
9. Vehicle should be well labelled
10. Segregate animals - age, breed, Physiological state etc
Effects of transport on slaughter animals
Stress - Animals get stressed if required to make adjustment to its physiology

or behaviour.
Bruising – Bruising may occur during transportation. The most common causes:
 Rough handling,
 Vehicle design effects,
 Horns
 Temperaments,
 Bites,
 Stunning box design
 Mixing of animals
Loss of weight due to sweaty respiration, journey time and season. On average
Pigs loose 2.2-5.2kg/24hr journey and thus it is advisable to give pigs water
before the journey.
Shipping fever
Salmonellosis
Shock, indigestion, abortions, ketosis,
Mastitis, toxaemia and gastritis ulcers etc
4.2.2.Lairaging of Animals
Lairage serves as a resting ground for the tired and stressed animals. Resting
period depends on the length and mode of journey, animal species, age,
condition. Undue holding is also not advised.
Lairages are pens for animals for immediate slaughter and should have direct
access to the slaughter hall. They serve the purposes of providing rest for
animals while waiting for slaughter for at least 24hrs and not exceeding 72hrs,
and also to provide place and facility to inspect the animals prior to slaughter.
Lairage should have adequate space to contain 3days supply of cattle and 2days
supply of sheep, goats and pigs. Provided with litter and drainage, provided with
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watering and feeding troughs, the feed of animals should be however be
withheld for 12-18 hours before slaughter, but ample supply of drinking water
should be made available during this period. This lowers the bacteria load in the
intestine and facilitates easy removal of the hide or skin during dressing of
carcass. Stunning is made more effective and brightness of the carcass is also
improved. The lairage should also have facilities whereby diseased animals could
be isolated. Between the lairage and slaughterhouse, there should be facility to
wash dirty animals before slaughter.
Movement permit
This is an official document under Cap 364 that authorizes animal(s) to be

moved from or into a restricted area or from one district to another
The permit states:
(a) Number and description of the animals to be moved;
(b) The route by which the animals are to travel;
(c) The period for which the permit holds good;
(d) The place to which the animals may be moved;
(e) The method by which the animals may be moved;
(f) Such other particulars as the Director may from time to time direct necessary
to complete the journey.
Movement Permit issued in triplicate:
1) Original shall be given to the applicant;
2) The second shall be sent immediately to the veterinary officer of the

district to which the stock are to be moved
3) The third shall be retained by the issuer of permits.
No Objection Chit
This is an official document issued by the destination district / restricted area

showing no objection for the stock to be moved there.
Rest prior to slaughter
Animals transported by rail, road or hoof should not be slaughtered on the day
of arrival but should be allowed to rest in the lairage. The transporting vehicle,
whether lorry or rail wagon should be subjected to thorough cleaning with
disinfectant immediately after discharging the animals.
The quality and condition of the carcass and its storage depend greatly on the
care taken prior to slaughter. Nervous, tired and excited animals could have a
raised temperature causing imperfect bleeding. Muscular fatigue reduces
glycogen content in the blood, which after slaughter changes into lactic acid,
thus causing favourable conditions for the growth of spoilage and food-borne
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bacteria. Tiredness and excitement also cause penetration of bacteria from the
intestinal tract to the meat.
The beating of animals, or brutal pulling and dragging prior to slaughter must be
eliminated since in addition to being cruel, it has and adverse effect on the
muscle and hence economic value of the animal.
4.2.3.Steps in Meat Inspection
Ante-mortem Inspection - The examination of animals prior to slaughter

to assess their suitability as a source of products fit for human
consumption (animals are passed as being fit for slaughter).
Post-mortem Inspection - The examination of carcasses and organs after

slaughter to assess whether these products are fit for human consumption.
Hygiene and Sanitation Inspection - The inspection of facilities,

equipment and processes to assess whether the production system is hygienic.
Meat inspection may be performed by various groups of people -

Veterinarians, trained inspectors and company quality control personnel.
In Kenya meat inspection falls under the meat hygiene section of the Veterinary
Department and may be performed by veterinarians, paravets with a certificate
in Animal Health and holders of a two year certificate from the Meat Training
Institute, Athi River.
Ante-Mortem Inspection
Ante-mortem inspection is carried out on all (cattle, sheep, swine and goats)
animals at arrival in the slaughterhouse immediately before slaughter except in
case of emergency. The ante-mortem inspection is carried out (if possible) on
the unloading ramp and in the lairages under ample light.
Important details to note during the inspection
(a) Disease signs including presence of notifiable diseases
(b) Species, sex, colour, age, behaviour and body temperature.
(c) Body condition - state of nutrition;
(d) Gait and general demeanor;
(e) Reaction to environment;
(f) Digestive system (lips, mouth, anus, rumination, quality of faeces

and appetite);
(g) Vulva, vagina and mammary gland;
(h)Respiratory system (nasal openings and respiration).
Post Mortem Inspection
The post-mortem inspection shall follow as soon as possible after the slaughter
of the animal, except in cases of emergency slaughter. Evisceration shall be
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effected within 30 minutes in pigs and 45 minutes in cattle, sheep and goats
after slaughter. If many animals of the same species are slaughtered, the parts
and organs removed from a carcass shall be kept beside that carcass for
purposes of identification before inspection
4.2.4.Dressing of Slaughter Animal
Dressing techniques and sequence of dressing operations vary from place to

place and are very much influenced by the equipment and facilities available in
the abattoir. The present trend in organized abattoirs is towards line dressing
whereby once the animal has been hoisted to the bleeding rail, it is not lowered
to the floor till the entire dressing operation is completed. The carcass is
conveyed by gravity or power driven along an overhead rail. Equipment such as
brisket saw, hock cutter, hide puller, bone cutter etc. facilitate the dressing.
The process includes the opening of the carcass, flaying, evisceration, splitting,
inspection and despatch.
1. Flaying: This is the removal of the hide and skin of cattle (buffalo), sheep
and goat.
2. Dehairing: The removal of hair and bristles of pigs. This can be done by hand
or by dehairing machine. Plucking or Defeathering is the removal of feathers
of poultry. This canbe done by 2 methods (a) Dry method whereby the
feathers are plucked after destroying the nerve centre behind the brain with a
knife. (b) Wet method: here, scalding tank with water is heated to 1300F is
used to loosen the feather and facilitate plucking.
3. Evisceration: Removal of the viscera from the carcass.
Dressing of Cattle
1. After stunning, the animal is hoisted by one leg to the overhead rail. It is
brought above bleeding trough or gully and an incision is made just in front
of sternum cutting the main blood vessels.
2. Bleeding is done into a specially built bleeding trough which carries the
blood into a blood-collecting tank. Complete bleeding is essential as blood is
an excellent medium for multiplication of bacteria throughout the carcass.
3. A cut is made across the larynx, the oesophagus is tied off and the head is
skinned and detached at the atlas joint.
4. Now the forelegs (shanks) are removed.
5. The hind legs are skinned and removed while the carcass is hung by
tendons on the spreader.
6. Deskinning (flaying) is carried forward from hind and forequarters and hide
is now pulled with the help of a hide puller.
7. Brisket is now opened along with the midline and the pelvic cavity is
opened along the abdominal cavity. Evisceration commences and plucks as
well as viscera and removed. A careful cut releases the viscera which are
separated into “thoracic viscera”: lungs, heart, liver, spleen and the pouch
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which includes stomach and intestines. The thoracic viscera are hung on
hooks over the viscera inspection table or on special edible offal carries
attached to overhead rails. This is done without delay. The intestinal contents
should not be allowed to spill over the carcass and the floor of the slaughter
hall. The testicles, penis and tail should be removed and not allowed to
contaminate the carcass. The mammary gland should also be removed
without it being punctured.
8. Now the carcass is sawn into two halves along the vertebral column.
9. Spray washing of the carcass. The carcass is then inspected and from the
inspection line the carcass is transferred to the chilling room.
Dressing of Sheep and Goat
1. Every effort should be made to ensure that dirt is not carried on the
hair/wool into the slaughter place.
2. After stunning, the animal is hoisted to overhead rail and an incision is

given in the jugular furrow near the head severing both carotid arteries.
3. The forelegs are knuckled and a cut is made to the front, the forelegs are
removed at knee.
4. The neck and cheeks are skinned along with the shoulder. The throat is
opened up and oesophagus is tied.
5. The hind legs are knuckled and a cut is made to the root of the tail. The
legs are skinned.
6. The skin is incised in the middle of the bell and skinning proceeds towards
the flank. Now skin is pulled down over the backbone and base of the head.
7. The head and hind legs are removed. Treatment and the use of the head
depend on different customs in various countries.
8. A small cut in the abdomen is extended to the brisket and the breast bone
is also split.
9. The pluck and viscera are removed. Kidney and its fat are left in the
carcass. Under conditions where a sheep/goat gantry hoist does not exist, all
processes should be carried out on a skinning cradle.
10. Spray washing of the carcass is done followed by transfer to the chilling
room.
Dressing of Pig
1. Sticking (Killing). After stunning, the pig is hoisted to the overhead rail. An
incision of 5 to 10cm is made at the mid - point of neck facing breast bone.
The knife is inserted in this incision at an angle of 450 and is forced down and
back at least 12 – 15 cm to a point below the front of the breast bone. The
knife is given a slight twist before it is withdrawn. Care should be taken not
to insert the knife into the chest cavity.
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2. Bleeding.
3. Scalding; the animal is dropped in the scalding tank maintained at a

temperature of 60 -620C for about 6 minutes.
4. Scrapping or Dehairing. Raise the animals on the overhead rail and pull off
the dew claws and toes while hot. Scrap the loosened hair with the help of a
hog scrapper or dull knife hindquarter downwards. Then rinse the carcass
with warm water.
5. Singeing. It is done with the help of a blow lamp in which a high

temperature is achieved and all the remaining hair is burnt. Besides, singeing
sterilizes the cuticle and firms up rind giving it a better appearance and
keeping quality.
6. Removal of head. Done at atlas joint before the carcass is opened.
7. Evisceration. Viscera is removed and examined.
8. Splitting of the carcass
9. Final inspection of head and carcass.
10. Spray washing of carcass and transfer to the chilling room.
The dressed carcass shall be examined visually for:
(a) Body condition - state of nutrition;
(b) Evidence of bruising, haemorrhage, injuries or discoloration;
(c) Efficiency of bleeding;
(d) Local or general dropsy (oedema);
(e) Abnormalities, swellings or deformities of bones, joints, muscles or other

tissues;
(f) Conditions of serous membranes (pleura and peritoneum).
Viscera are examined either in situ or as they are removed from the carcass. The
lymph nodes shall be examined by palpation and deep, multiple, longitudinal
incisions and if required they shall be removed for detailed inspection. The
carcass muscles are inspected by viewing and incision.
Any carcass, organ or part demanding a more detailed examination shall be

retained and marked by the inspecting officer with a label stating “DETAINED”.
Any incision or excision shall be made if possible in such manner as not to impair
the market value of the carcass, organ or part.
Visual inspection, alone or together with palpation and or incision of the

following parts or organs shall be carried out as a routine measure—
(a) Blood (colour, clotting, staining ability and presence of foreign

matter);
(b) Lungs (trachea, bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes (LNs));

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(c) Head (pharynx, tongue, lips, sub-maxillary and retro-pharyngeal
LNs);
(d) Heart (peri-, ecto- and endorcardium, myocardium);
(e) Diaphram; Liver (surface and substance, bile ducts and lymph
nodes);
(f) Stomach and intestines—(omentum, mesentery and mesenteric

LNs);
(g) Kidneys (surface and substance, and if necessary renal lymph

nodes);
(h)Spleen (incision when necessary);
(i) Uterus (ovaries, vagina and vulva);
(j) Testicles;
(k) Mammary gland (supra mammary lymph nodes);
(l) Feet;
(m) Muscles (routine incisions
(n)Fat, connective tissue, bones, joints and tendon sheaths;
(o) Carcass lymph nodes (routine inspection)
Specific Meat inspection procedures
Cattle.
 Visual inspection of gums and palate;
 Visual inspection, palpation and incision of tongue (ventral aspect-root)

which should be loosened but not detached; extensive incisions of the
external muscles of mastication parallel to the lower jaw;
 Visual inspection of the heart after opening of pericardium and an incision

into the heart muscle shall be made from the base to the apex (further
incisions shall be made if Cysticercus bovis is suspected)
 Visual inspection of oesophagus;
 Visual inspection of the muscles exposed during splitting of carcass

 Routine inspection; three incisions into the muscles of the shoulder
proximal to the elbow joint (M. triceps brachii), any other incision or
excision permissible, without mutilation of the carcass, if suspect
Cysticercus bovis
 Prescapular, external and internal iliac, external inguinal/supramammary,
ischiadic and renal lymph nodes shall be incised;
 Stomach, intestines and mesenteric lymph nodes shall be viewed, where
necessary incised;
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 Lungs – viewed, palpated and their basic lobes incised in order to open
the bronchii;
 Liver visually inspected, palpated and incised (an incision shall be made
across the thin left lobe and under the caudate lobe);
 Adrenal glands examined by observation and palpation;
 Uterus and ovaries examined; if considered necessary, incised.
Pigs
 The carcass of baconers and heavier pigs – a split before inspection and
the back-bone and tail inspected;
 Expose and incise submaxillary and ratropharyngeal lymph nodes;
 Viewing of lips and gums;
 Palpation, viewing and incising the tongue detached from the head bones;
 Open up the pericardium and visually inspect heart, incise by one cut
stretching from the base to the apex;
 Detach the leaf fat to expose the kidneys;
 View, palpate and incise the lobes of lungs to expose the bronchii;
 Visually examine all exposed muscles especially neck, loin
 and ham muscles as well as the fleshy part of the diaphragm;
 Prescapular, iliac, superficial inguinal supra mammary lymph nodes shall

be examined by palpation and if necessary incised;
 Gastrosplenic and mesenteric lymph nodes shall be incised;
 incisions into shoulder muscles may be omitted
Sheep and Goats
 Examine as practicable the lips, gums, tongue and nasal cavities;
 Examine in detail prescapular, superficial inguinal/ supramammary and

precrural lymph nodes;
 View palpate and incise lungs and their basic lobes;
 Liver is viewed and palpated, and an incision shall be made into the
thickest portion of the organ or across the thin left lobe;
 Mammary gland is examined by observation and palpation.
Procedures on the detection of cysticercus bovis
(a) Carcass showing one to five cysts shall be retained for a minimum of ten
days in a temperature not above minus ten degrees centigrade or
sterilized by heat and then released unconditionally for sale;
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(b) Carcass of which the head or tongue, or thoracic or abdominal viscera, are
infested with one or more cysts shall be retained and treated and released
as above (subparagraph (a));
(c) Carcass showing six to twenty cysts shall be retained and treated in
accordance with subparagraph (a) above, but released conditionally as
“contract” meat only, meaning that the meat can only be sold to
specified users or retailers.
4.2.5.Transport Permit
Any person transporting meat shall hold a permit to transport meat. The
transport permit satisfies that the carrier or container complies with the standard
specifications stated in Cap 356 which is issued after payment of a fee. A permit
shall remain valid up to the 31st December of the year in which it is issued.
Meat consignment intended for transportation shall be accompanied by a

“certificate of transport” signed by the inspecting officer in charge of the
abattoir, slaughterhouse or processing plant from which the meat is consigned,
and, shall be embossed with a meat inspection stamp.
4.3. Slaughtering and Handling of meat
Slaughtering means putting the food animals to death and thereafter preparing
the carcasses for human consumption. The slaughter of food animals
should not cause unnecessary suffering to the animals and bleeding
should be as efficient as possible. Besides, it should be safe for the handlers
also. There are several methods of slaughter:
(1)Home Slaughter;
(2)Emergency slaughter;
(3)Dry slaughtering;
(4)Muslim method of slaughter or Halal
(5)Humane Slaughter of Food Animals
Home Slaughter
In developing countries animals are often slaughtered at home, and this

practice is likely to continue for many years. Domestic slaughter of
animals is not recommended, instead, animals should be taken for slaughter at
an approved slaughter slab.
Emergency slaughter
As an emergency, animals that have been hit by a vehicle, or have

broken limbs, or have been gored by horns, or damaged in any other
accidental way can be slaughtered on the understanding that slaughter
takes place immediately after the accident before the multiplication of
pathogenic and other micro-organisms can start and all broken, damaged or
bruised bones or meat are considered as condemned and discarded as
such.
Dry slaughtering
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This occurs when all the operations: flaying, evisceration, splitting and
dispatching are done without the carcass coming into contact with water,
either directly or through wet walls, floors or equipment. In dry slaughtering, all
operations are performed on the rail from the point of entry to exit. This
however does not interfere with strict meat inspection.
Muslim method of slaughter or Halal
When animals are to be slaughtered according to Muslim injunction, the meat

produced thereof is known as Halal meat. The following principles are followed:
(1)The animal must be healthy and conscious;

(2)Slaughter should be quick, with a single stroke cut to the throat without
inflicting suffering to the animal; Stunning is not allowed.
(3)The animal should be slaughtered lying on the floor with its head
facing Mecca. The neck of the animal is severed by cutting the four
major blood vessels (carotid arteries and jugular veins) with a sharp
knife. The spinal cord is left intact. It ensures efficient bleeding thus
enhances the keeping quality of meat.
(4)The name of Allah be invoked during the slaughter
(5)Pig is regarded as unclean animal, consumption of pork is
prohibited, it is not acceptable to slaughter pigs under the same roof as
cattle, sheep or goats
Humane Slaughter of Food Animals
This is also known as scientific slaughter that avoids unnecessary pain

and cruelty to food animals and ensures as complete bleeding as
possible. It also ensures speed of operation and safety of the personnel.
Stunning is a process employed to create a state of immobility or

unconsciousness at the time of slaughter. Immediately, the animal is hoisted
and blood vessels on the neck are severed (sticking) to bleed the animal to
death.
NB: in stunning the animal is not killed but only made unconscious.
4.4. Stunning Techniques and Devices
Three main categories: Mechanical, Electrical and Chemical
Mechanical instruments.
Instruments such as captive bolt pistol, percussion or stunner cause damage

to the brain so the animal immediately looses consciousness. Application
point of captive bolt pistol differs with species. In effective stunning, the
animal immediately collapse followed by tonic spasms and then movements
of the hind legs.
Electrical stunning.
It is conveniently employed in stunning of small ruminants, pigs and poultry.

The instrument carries electrodes by which alternating current is passed
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through the brain. Bleeding is very efficient and the power consumption
is extremely low. If the current remains low, missed shock may occur
resulting in paralysis of the animal, although it remains fully conscious.
It affects the quality of meat besides compromising the safety of the

handler. On the other hand, too high a current may cause splash
(appearance of petechial haemorrhages throughout the subcutaneous tissue
in pigs when the capillaries rupture due to excessive increase in blood
pressure).
Signs of efficient electrical stunning
(a) hind-legs stretched out violently
(b) fore legs stiff
(c) head and neck bent backward
(d) cessation of respiration.
Advantages of this system :
(i) saves manual labour and permits speedy operation
(ii) humane because unconsciousness is immediately produced and the

electrode is painless on application
(iii) no mutilation of any part of the animal, hence may be acceptable by

certain religions.
Disadvantages include:
(i) blood splashing may occur
(ii) needs steady electricity
Chemical stunning.
Carbon dioxide gas stunning
This is most suitable for pigs. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and can be
contained in a tunnel. The gas blocks the nerve endings. On exposure to gas,
pigs become anaesthetised then shackled and bled.
Advantages:
(i) Bleeding is quite efficient since carbon dioxide stimulates respiration

favouring blood circulation
(ii) There is no splashing because blood pressure is not increased.
(iii) Less dangerous than electrical and mechanical methods.
Disadvantages:
(i) the system is not fast and requires a lot of space.
(ii) animals have different sensitivity to carbon dioxide

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4.5. BASIC CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONAL
ABATTOIR
4.5.1.Definitions
Abattoir- any establishment where specified animals are slaughtered and

dressed for human consumption and that which is approved, registered and/or
listed by the authority for such purposes.
A competent authority - the official body charged by the government with the
control of meat hygiene, including setting and enforcing regulatory meat hygiene
requirement. The Directorate of Veterinary Services.
Lairage - a place that provides temporary housing for animals prior to slaughter.
Isolation pens- special pens in which animals can be held, separated from their
congeners to facilitate Veterinary inspection or treatment.
4.5.2.Consideration for location of an Abattoir

 Size of the area.
- Range of operations
- target market(s) to be covered by the abattoir
- Other consideration in determining the size of the area is capital (funds
available for the project).
- Distance from the cattle and meat markets where purchase of live
animals can be made and meat can be sold.
- Availability of electricity.
- Water source/supply.
- Access road
- An abattoir must not be sited close to residential to avoid
environmental pollution and the adverse effect on people’s health.
- It also prevents accidents from moving animals
- It must not be close to a latrine
- It must be located away from factories to avoid smoke or dust which
can cause contamination of meat and meat products.
- It should have adequate space for lairage, areas for digging pits for
condemned meat, for tripe and hide treatment facilities and also for
future expansion.
- The whole slaughter facility complex should be fenced
4.5.3.General Principles of Abattoir Design and Construction
The design of abattoir varies from situation to situation. There can be no single
blue print for all the situations. The guiding principle should be to provide all
related services under hygienic conditions at lowest cost. In general, the
following basic guidelines should receive serious consideration:
There should be provision of an area for the containment of animals prior to

slaughter
1. The operational facilities should be so designed and located that a clear

demarcation exists between clean and unclean sections. Workrooms, structures
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and equipment should be designed and constructed to allow for effective
cleaning and monitoring of hygienic status.
2. Facilities for personnel should include changing rooms, toilets with hand-
washing and drying facilities, showers and a separate room for eating and
drinking.
3. Suitable conditions must be provided for the preparation and storage of meat.
4. A maintenance programme must be followed to ensure that facilities and

equipment meet the required standards.
The abattoir should have the following essential facilities:
1. Resting place for animals before slaughter
2. Ante-mortem examination
3. Humane slaughter
4. Flaying, dressing and washing of the carcases.
5. Hanging carcasses and edible offals.
6. Handling by products.
7. Inspection of meat and disposal of condemned carcasses or part thereof.
8. Staff welfare
4.5.4.Lairages
The lairage provides temporary housing for the animals prior to slaughter and
it’s design should take into account the following needs; animal welfare,
maintaining cleanliness and separation of sick or “suspect” animals. It must be
designed and constructed to allow the following physical activities:
Animal and activities Human activities
- Eating Ante-mortem inspection

- Drinking Sorting
- Lying and resting Cleaning and disinfection
- Comfortable movement
The key elements in the design of a lairage are:
- Sufficient light for satisfactory ante-mortem inspection.
- Floors that drain easily and do not compromise the cleanliness of animals’ coat
- No sharp objects that could injure animals.
- Isolation pen available for the containment of sick or “suspect” animals, with
separate drainage.
- Physical separation of lairage (dirty area) from the area where edible products
are produced.
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4.5.5.Equipment for hygienic and efficient slaughtering
All equipment used in the slaughterhouse should be durable and made from
easily sterilized material. Its size should be in relation to the function it
performs.
 Overhead rails with the following accessories:
o overhead rollers
o beef trees sheep carriers
o pig shackles
o extension chains for beef quarters
hooks for beef quarters
• Pipe-made dressing rails
The basic equipment used in the different slaughter procedures are as follows:
• Hand tools :
o stunning pistol,
o sticking and skinning knives,
o axe/meat and bone cutting saws/choppers.
• Floor rings
• Skinning cradles
• Visceral inspection table and hook rail
• Pig scalding vat and dressing equipment
• Sanitation equipment
o Sterilizer
o Dirt –removing carts
• First-Aid Materials
4.6. DISPOSAL AND TREATMENT OF ABATTOIR EFFLUENT
Abattoir Effluent
• the outgoing water from the abattoir environment containing waste materials
• are highly nitrogenous, biologically degradable
• with relatively high concentrations of suspended and dissolved solids, fats,

scraps, blood, gut contents, detergents, hair and hide scraps.
• some of these materials can be recovered and may eventually be useful

materials.
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The load or concentration of organic matter is measured in terms of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) and is expresses as ppm or mg/litre.
• The BOD is the amount of oxygen required to decompose the organic matter
completely by aerobic biological action in certain period at 20oC.
• While the BOD of normal domestic sewage is 250 – 300 ppm (mg/litre),
• that of abattoir effluent is between 1600 and 2000ppm (about 5 to 6 times the
BOD of normal domestic waste).
• abattoir effluent thus has a high potential for polluting the water courses,
• it is then important that on-site treatment of the effluent is carried out before
the effluent is connected to the municipal sewer line.
General Principles of Treatment
Although there are several systems of effluent treatment, the basic
principle involves
• screening of solids, removal of fat particles
• decomposition of organic matter by bacteria either aerobically
or anaerobically in the tanks or ponds.
• The entire process can be carried out in two stages.
o In the first stage, gross solid particles suspended solids
and fat particles are separated (physical
process/treatment).
o In the second stage, remaining organic matter is
subjected to biodegradation (biochemical process).
In general, abattoir effluent treatment involves the following steps:
i. Physical Processes
• Screening.
• Sedimentation
ii. Biological Process
The aim of the biological process is to remove the organic component in the
effluent where it cannot be removed by physical methods.
• Aerobic Pond System.
• Anaerobic System.
iii. Chemical Process
iv. Treatment of Manure Laden Effluent

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4.7. Meat Quality
Specific Parameters for Meat Quality

Meat colour, Water holding capacity by meat protein, Meat pH, Cooking loss,
Tenderness and texture, Flavour and smell
4.7.1. Meat Colour
Myoglobin is the principle pigment in meat that is responsible for meat color. It
is purplish but when it binds to oxygen it becomes right red. It binds oxygen
under low oxygen partial pressure as compared to haemoglobin.
Quality, type of myoglobin, physical condition of other meat components

determine the color of meat.
Muscle activity determines amount of myoglobin. L. dorsi has 0.044 mg/g while
Psoas major has 0.082mg/g 
Plane of nutrition of the animal is important. A diet with high content of iron will
result in high amounts of myoglobin
Age of the animal. The older the animal the higher amounts of myoglobin in the
muscles compared to the young. Calves have whitish meat compared to meat
from 3 year old cattle which have reddish meat.
Species. Species differences in the muscle content of myoglobin is evident.

Rabbit 0.02%; sheep 0.25%; Pig 0.06%; Ox 0.50% and whale 0.91% mb/gm
Chemical state of the iron in the myoglobin. The Fe++ binds oxygen and when in
Fe+++ cannot bind.
When meat is exposed to high oxygen pressure, oxygen diffuses and binds
myoglobin and a bright red layer of Oxymyoglobin is formed. The depth of this
layer is determined by the oxygen pressure. The oxymyoglobin under low
oxygen pressure is reduced to oxidized form, the brown metmyoglobin. This
pigment is formed when the partial pressure of oxygen falls to 4mmHg.
Oxygenation can lead to formation of Reduced myoglobin (purple),

Oxymyoglobin (Bright red). Deoxygenation can take place through Reduction
(electron gain) and Oxidation (electron loss) leading to formation of
Metmyoglobin (Brown)
In fresh meat the red oxymyglobin layer fades. The fading is affected by oxygen
utilization. The cytochrome enzymes consume oxygen and their residual activity
in the muscle affect the depth of the oxymyoglobin layer. The more activity the
smaller the depth of this layer.
Refrigeration reduces the rate of fading of oxymyglobin. Low temperatures

increase the rate of oxygen diffusion in the muscle hence a deeper oxymyoglobin
layer. The achieved Depth is where diffusion equals utilization. Low
temperatures also reduce the residual activity of cytochrome oxidase enzymes.
Reduction of temperature by 3-5 o C halves the rate of metmyoglobin formation.
Aged meat fades faster than fresh meat although it is brighter initially.
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Packaging of meat in oxygen impermeable films has the result of having a small
oxymyoglobin layer formed at the surface and the purplish myoglobin
predominates. The residual activity of cytochrome oxidase enzymes depletes the
thin layer of oxymyoglobin formed leading to fading of the meat
Cooking. Myoglobin is heat resistant and is not denatured until the internal
temperature reaches 80- 85 o C. The oxymyoglobin is denatured and turned to
grey heamichromogen the color associated with cooked meat. This is different
compound from metmyoglobin (brown).
Curing. Cured meats have a characteristic red color due to the conversion of
myoglobin to nitrosomyoglobin. The compound is formed by combination of nitric
oxide (nitrous acid) with myoglobin to form nitrosomyoglobin. Nitrosomyoglobin
is unstable in presence of light and oxygen transformed to nitrosometmyoglobin.
During curing compounds like ascorbates and nicotinamide are used and these
slows the rate of nitrosometmyoglobin formation.
Pre-slaughter handling of animals may affect the meat color as seen in cases of
DCB and PSE.
Discolorations of meat
Bacteria growth on meats stored in vacuum packs produce H 2 S which reacts

with myoglobin to from a green pigment that discolors meat. During curing
catalase enzyme is destroyed. Lactobacillus produced peroxides which react with
nitrosomyoglobin to form a green oxidized porphyrin
On the fats of cured meats occasionally are pink green discolorations as a result
of deposition of metabolic by products of halophilic bacteria. Also found in fats of
cured meats is a yellow- brownishdiscoloration due to lipofuscin deposition. Old
dairy animals fat is colored yellow due to deposition of caretenoids
4.7.2. Water Holding Capacity
Water-holding capacity (WHC) is the ability of meat protein to hold its water or
added water due to external pressure effect such as centrifugation. There are
three compartments (forms) of water bound in meat, namely: water bound
chemically by protein (4-5%), water bound weakly by protein (4%) and bulk
(free) water among protein molecules (10%). A decrease in WHC can be seen
through fluid exudation called weep in unfrozen raw meat; or drip in frozen meat
which is thawed, folds in cooked meat.
Muscle contains 75% water. Much is lost through drip (3-15%), evaporation
(3%) and cooking (40%) Gains may also occur during processing (10%) 
Water loss is important for two reasons, 1) meat is sold by weight and 2)Water
loss contains nutrient  Water is held in meat in layers. 5% is tightly bound while
90-95% held loosely by weak forces H-bonding.
Water is held by capillary forces in the space between myofilaments. The space
is called interfilamental space and varies between 320- 570 nm.
This IFS is affected by pH, ionic strength, pre and post rigor factors and
sarcomere length. Most of the changes in water affects the loosely bound or free
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water. An IFS increase by three times results in a 6-fold increase in volume.
There are constraints to unrestricted increase in IFS.
Any changes to net charges on the myofilaments increases electrostatic

attraction or repulsive forces may lead to changes in the water holding capacity.
Factors affecting WHC in Fresh (uncooked meat). Since pm glycolysis is typical
in any muscle, the muscle proceeds to the ultimate pH of 5.5, this pH
coincidentally is the IP of principal meat proteins, loss of WHC is inevitable as a
consequence of death. Extent of post mortem fall in pH. At slaughter the pH is
neutral, as pH reaches ultimate, this coincides with the IP of muscle proteins.
The electrostatic forces decrease as the net negative charges decrease and this
increases the attractive forces. At IP the net charge is zero and WHC is at
minimum or lowest. Above the IP, net charge changes to be positive and WHC
increases again.
The higher the ultimate pH the less the water lost. Sarcoplasmic proteins
responsible for WHC are affected by pm fall in pH. ATP loss and following
formation of actomyosin causes loss of WHC at any pH because WHC of
actomyosin is less than that of myosin and actin  The effect of the extent of pH
fall on WHC is referred to as the net charge effect of WHC
Rate of post mortem fall in pH. Denaturation of sarcoplamic proteins is worsened

the faster the rate of pH fall. A fast rate (i.e of ATP breakdown) increases the
tendency of actmyosin formation and this expresses water held in the IFS out as
drip. PSE is a case in point of the effect of fast rate of pH fall at elevated body
temperatures
ATP breakdown. As pm changes continue after slaughter, ATP is broken down. In

muscle ATP is associated with Mg 2+. These together with Ca 2+ from
sarcutubular system as ATP depletion progresses have the to combine with
negatively charged reactive groups thus reducing the IFS and reducing WHC.
These effects Are known as steric effects on WHC
Conditioning. AS meat is allowed to condition, some loss in WHC due to Pm

glycolysis may be recovered. This is due to a rise in meat pH. However the slight
rise may not account for the gain in WHC seen. The other possible reason id the
proteolytic enzymes at PM that cause subtle changes in membrane permeability
allowing diffusion and redistribution of ions. Divalent cations like Mg 2+ and Ca
2+ being replaced by monovalent ion like K +. This causes repulsion and
increase in IFS and therefore WHC.
Processing. In curing salts are added. Of these the most important are the NaCl
and polyphosphates. Addition of these causes swelling of fibers and uptake of
water. This swelling is limited by the structural constraints mentioned before.
Cl- ions increase the net negative charge, cause electrostatic repulsion, increase
IFS and hence WHC  Swelling seen during curing is as a result of reduction in
the structural constraints. Both salts cause extraction of the A-band,
depolymerize myosin filaments and weaken the myosin head binding to actin
Heating. At 45-60 o C, myofibrils are denatured and shrink. This leaves a gap
between the fiber and surrounding endomysium. The gap becomes annular
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channels for water to get lost due to tension exerted on the water by the
endomysium. At 60-70 o C, collagen is denatured, myofirils network shrinks
further and more fliud is lost as the cooking loss (40%).
Drip. This loss is seen before cooking. At slaughter myofibrils are under tension
from the endomysium. As PM glycolysis proceeds, ATP is lost, actomyosin bond
is formed, pH falls and this decreases the electrostatic repulsion and reduces
IFS. Gaps occur between the collagen and myofibril. The tension developed at
rigor expels water through the gaps and is seen as drip.
Species. WHC of pork is higher than that of beef. This is a reflection of rate and
extent of pH fall. Age. Age does not seem to influence WHC of pork but certainly
in beef veal has higher WHC than beef. This too is a reflection of the rate and
extent of pH fall.  Between muscles there is a difference in WHC. This is
possibly due to differences in glycogen content t and thus pH fall 15
Level of intramuscular fat. Muscles having high intramuscular fat have been
shown to have a higher WHC. The reasons are unknown but possibly the fat
loosens the microstructure allowing water to be retained. 16
Different WHC is also found among muscles and muscle locations of the same
muscle due to different amount of lactic acids which affect pH.
WHC is also related to marbling, i.e. marbling will loosen the microstructure of
meat and give more opportunity for meat protein to bind water.
WHC can be assessed by using several methods including press method (Hamm,
1972), Centrifugation method with a very rapid velocity (Bouton et al., 1971).
Assessment with Hamm Method 300 mg meat sample is put on water-free filter
paper between 2 glass plates, then it is subjected to 35 kg/cm2 pressure for 5
minutes.
The area of water subtracted with the area of sample is the water released from
the press process. Total water content (KAT) is measured with AOAC (1980)
Water Holding Capacity (%) = KAT (%) – KAB (separated water content) (%)
The area of water subtracted with the area of sample is the water released from
the press process. Total water content (KAT) is measured with AOAC (1980)
Water Holding Capacity (%) = KAT (%) – KAB (separated water content) (%)
4.7.3.Meat pH
The ultimate pH of meat is meat pH after undergoing post-mortem glycolysis.

Meat pH is related to water holding capacity, cooking loss, and tenderness. Meat
pH decreases after the slaughter of animals. Decrease in pH is caused by the
occurrence of anaerobic post-mortem glycolysis which produces lactic acids. The
more glycogen supply stored during slaughter, the lower ultimate pH of meat.
Meat pH Meat pH is related to WHC, meat juice, tenderness, cooking loss, i.e. an
increase in pH will increase meat juice and WHC, but decrease cooking loss.
Factors affecting ultimate meat pH Pre-slaughter factors: age, species, breeds,
types of animals, resting, slaughter method, type of muscle, muscle location,
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muscle glycogen supply. Post-slaughter factors: electrical stimulation, chilling,
aging, storage, and cooking.
In order to test for meat pH, meat is finely ground, then added with H2O with a
ratio of 1:9. The meat is homogenized, then its pH is measured with pH meter
which has been calibrated with pH 7 and 4 buffer.
Cooking and meat pH - Cooking can increase the value of meat pH because it
leads to acidic group loss (amino acids).
4.7.4.Cooking Loss
Cooking loss is the loss of meat weight or mass due to cooking process. Cooking
loss is a function of temperature and duration of cooking. The loss of mass
consists of water and other water-soluble components namely: protein, vitamin,
and mineral. Meat with lower cooking loss has better quality compared to that
with higher cooking loss because the loss of nutrients during cooking is higher.
The value of meat cooking loss is around 1,5 – 54%, with the average of %.
Factors affecting cooking loss

Intrinsic: age, species, breed, sex, type of animal, type of muscle, muscle
location, length of sarcomere, marbling fats. Extrinsic: temperature, duration of
cooking, Cooking loss increases due to an increase in the temperature and
duration of cooking. Cooking loss decreases, linearly, as the animal age
increases. Marbling fats will inhibit the release of meat juice during cooking,
although meat with more marbling will lose more fats.
Meat is cut in cuboid shape with the size of length x width x thickness (5x3x2)
cm and measured in scale. Sample is put in a plastic and vacuumed. Sample is
heated at the temperature of 80oC for 60 minutes. Sample is chilled and
measured in scale.
4.7.5.Texture and tenderness
This is the most highly rated meat quality attribute by the average consumer
Texture - Texture is the function of size bundles into which the perimyseal
connective tissue divides the muscle longitudinally as seen by the eye. This
divides muscle into fine and coarse grained. The size of the bundles is not only
determined by the number of the fibers but also by the size of the muscle fibers.
Coarseness of texture increases with age but is not apparent in fibers that are
small.
In general coarseness is greater in muscles of male animals and those of large

frame (breed). The amount of perimyseal connective tissue is important in
determining coarseness. There is no direct relationship between coarseness and
tenderness.
Tenderness Is the impression of the palate and involves ease of penetration by

the teeth, ease with which meat breaks into fragments and amount of residue
remaining after chewing
Pre-slaughter factors
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Species is the most general factor but this is a reflection of the texture. Large
fiber size like those seen in cattle compared to sheep and pigs.
Age- increasing age denotes decreasing tenderness. Over 40 months of age the
difference is very small
There are differences between muscle in tenderness with Psoas being the most
tender and Semimembranosus being tough.
Tenderness within a muscle may vary greatly. Tenderness of beef Biceps femoris
increases from insertion to origin
Muscle composition - Made up of three proteins – myofibrillar (actin, myosin,

tropomyosin etc), connective tissue ( collagen, elastin and reticulin) and
sarcoplasmic proteins Only collagen seems to be important in affecting
tenderness Connective tissue is found in three areas in meat as epimyseal,
perimyseal and endomyseal connective tissue
Collagen constitutes 2% of total body protein. It is arranged on parallel, stagger

overlap with the length of 300nm and 1.5 nm wide. Its basic primary structure is
made up of 3 Amino Acids; glycine, proline and hydroxyproline. The third residue
is always glycine while the other interchange between proline and
hydroxyproline.
Glycine is important at this position as it forms hydrogen bonding with glycine of

adjacent fibers to stabilize the molecule (Intramolecular cross links). Collagen is
helical in shape, with 3 strands wound around one another to form a triple super
helix The N and C terminals are not involved in helix formation but in
intermolecular cross links
Chemical analysis shown that there are several distinct tissue specific collagens -
based on AA sequence of the triple helical strands(One α 1 and two α 2 ) Five
types of α 1 hence Type I-V.
1. Type I predominantly found in Peri and epimysium

2. Type II in cartilage and interveterbral discs
3. Type III in perimysium
4. Type IV in endomysium
5. Type V in endomysium
There are two types of cross links are found in collagen- heat labile and heat
stable ones. Meat with higher proportion of collagen with heat labile bonds on
heating these are denatured and the meat is tender. Meat with a higher
proportion collagen with heat stable bonds is tough on cooking because collagen
retains some residual tensile strength.
When cooked, myofibrillar are denatured at 45 o C and collagen at 65 o C. If

collagen is that with heat stable bonds, it contracts, expels water and tight
packing of myofibers increasing collagen content per unit area – tough meat.
Quantity of collagen is also important. Meat with high content of collagen is
tough. However, veal though has higher collagen than meat from mature beef is
tender meat. The reason here is the type of collagen. In veal has heat labile
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bonds, mature beef have heat stable bonds. Heat labile bonds are transformed
to heat stable bonds with age.
Post slaughter factors
Extent of shortening PM. As muscle undergoes glycolysis, there is reduction in

tenderness. However, at ultimate pH, tenderness increases. This is a reflection
of WHC
Conditioning. Meat kept under chill conditions for 14 days. Referred to as ageing,
ripening and conditioning. If meat is conditioned, increrase in tenderness due to
rigor is reversed. This is not because of breakdown of actomyosin bond or
collagen. No evidence of increase in soluble hydroxyproline content. The answer
seems to lie on the loss of muscle structure during this period. Desmin is a
protein of the Z disk. It holds the actin filaments in parallel. During conditioning,
desmin is extracted out. Equally Troponin T a third component of Troponin
complex is lost. Enzymatic action during this period have been implicated in the
increase in tenderness.
CAF, CANP, CASF are names to one enzyme that has been widely studied. This
enzyme has been linked with disappearance of Desmin and Troponin If it acts on
these proteins and loosens the myofibrillar structure leading to increase in
tenderness, it must be active at pm period.
CAF has optimum activity at pH 7.0 at pH 5.4 the ultimate it retains 15-25% of
its activity. Since it is calcium dependent, at optimum activity pH 7.0 [Ca 2+ ]is
at 1-5mM in the cytoplasm. During pm period, in order to stimulate activity [Ca
2+ ] is at 0.5mM and this can stimulate about 6% of its optimum activity
Other enzymes are the Cathepsins B and D. Cathepsin B and D have been found
to act on myofibrillar proteins but not collagen
Cooking. This may either increase or decrease tenderness. Collagen is denatured

at 65 C, and turns into gelatin. Myofibrillar coagulate at 45 o C. These effects
have the effect of increasing the protein per unit area and toughen the meat.
This is an effect of temperature and time. Long time, low temperatures have
effect of making meat tender, good for meat with high connective tissue content.
High temperature, short time cooking toughens meat
Artificial Tenderization. Not new. Beating, marinating, use of acids (honey).

Enzymes have been used as dips, injected preslaughter.
Enzymes from plant: papain (papaya), bromelain (nanas), and ficin (ficus). Meat
tenderizing enzymes can be injected right before the animal is slaughtered.
Enzyme solution can also be used on meat cuts by soaking, sprinkle, smearing,
and injection. Meat tenderizing can also be done by injecting sodium salt (NaCl,
STPP, lactic Na).
4.7.6.Flavour and Smell
Factors affecting meat flavour are: feeding, age, species, breeds, sex, fats,
duration and condition of storage after slaughter, and cooking method, duration,
and temperature. The smell and flavour of cooked meat are determined by water
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and fat-soluble precursors, and volatile substance of meat The flavour and smell
of meat are determined by the composition of fatty acids composing the meat
fats, especially marbling fats. The oxidation of fatty acids will form carbonyl
compound which will cause undesirable flavour and smell of meat.
Flavour is a complex sensation. It involves sensations from taste, smell and less
defined from pressure sensitive areas of the mouth Uncooked meat has little
odor and bloodlike taste. It is only when cooked does the true flavor come out.
Fullness and satisfying fell of juices in the mouth plays a great role in
appreciation of flavor.
Species. Muscle proteins are similar and perform similar biochemical functions.
Differences in composition is very small. If one cooked lean meat from lamb,
pork and beef there is no species flavor differences noticed. However if one
cooked fat tissue from lamb, pork and beef, typical species flavor become
evident.
Age. Typical flavor increases until maturity. Calves of 6 months do not have the
same flavor intensity like mature bulls at 12 months.
Breed. Few reports have shown differences in flavor of dairy and beef breeds.
The difference is in intensity than lack of flavor
Sex. In the meat industry, objection to entire males for meat is not founded
except in pork. Entire males have a better FCE, more lean to fat ratio and meats
with meat cuts with less fat. Pork from males used for breeding have a
characteristic objectionable off flavor called boar taint. This is as a result of
accumulation of 5 α androst- 16-en-3one (androstenone compound) in the fat.
At 6 months, 1ug/g or 1ppm is found in fat of such animals and can be detected
while cooking
Diet. Feed contains naturally occurring odoriferous compounds that contain

hetero atoms of sulphur, oxygen or nitrogen. They are unsaturated but get
modified by rumenal dehydrogenation and are deposited in the aft as saturated
compounds. Diet before slaughter could affect flavor. Animals feed on Lucerne
the flavor due to Lucerne could be detected by trained taste panelists. Use of
protected feed supplements could alter the flavor. Compounds like linoleic acid
protected in feeds by formaldehyde treatment confer the meat fishy flavor.
Degree of fatness. Good fat cover and high degree of marbling are not indicative
or a guarantee of good flavor. Meat of different degree of fatness have no flavor
differences in rating except in flavor intensity Fat is essential for flavor and there
is sufficient fat in the lean for development of normal species flavor
pH effects. Meat of high pH like DCB has lower favor intensity than meat of
normal pH Storage.
Meat stored at chill temperatures of 0-4 o C (conditioning) has increased flavor

intensity compared to meat that is not conditioned. Conditioning increases the
release of volatiles (alkanes, pryazines, pyridines, benzonoids, pyrolles and
furans) which are flavor precursors Frozen storage. Shelf life of frozen meats is
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determined by organoleptic changes. These are mainly chemical and not
microbial These are due to development of oxidative rancidity. Pork, veal are
more susceptible than beef. Attempts to prolong shelf life in beef has been
attempted by feeding vit. E protected supplements before slaughter. Vit. E is a
potent antioxidant
Cooking Method. Method greatly influences final flavor. Microwave cooking only
releases one third of the volatiles released during boiling.
Off flavours
Storage. There is loss of volatiles during storage. At -30 o C faint diacetyl odor is
witnessed
Sex odors. Review case of boar taint as an off-odour Feed.
Taints from feed prior to slaughter are detectable by panellists. Cattle fed on
pastures sprayed with dieldrin give a taint while those feeding on ragweed and
have deficiency in tryptohan metabolism have skatole taint
Environment. Meat kept in vicinity of chemicals such as oils, paints absorb these
and are detected when cooked
Metabolic deficiency. Animals unable to excrete ketone and uraemia get tainted
with these. Management. Use of chemical insecticides and drugs prior to
slaughter without observing withdraw period can result in taints
Heating. Cooking liberates H 2 S which reacts with mesityl oxide to give the
meat a catty odour.
Irradiated foods - Irradiation liberates H 2 S mercaptans and carbonyls which

give meat a bitter stale taste.
4.8. Meat processing
Meat can be defined as edible animal flesh, including processed or manufactured

products derived from such tissue Including not only beef but also chicken and
other poultry, and such animal flesh as pork, lamb, venison and others.
Processed meat refers to a whole muscle product that has been transformed into
a manufactures product by chemical, enzymatic, or mechanical treatment. Meat
is a perishable commodity. The need for meat preservation and the trend toward
urbanization are the main reasons for the development of the processed meat
industry.
Examples include
1. Canning
2. Chemical additives
3. Cold storage
4. Comminution
5. Curing
6. Drying
7. Fermentation
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8. Irradiation
9. Restructuring
10. Smoking
4.8.1.Canning
Involves sealing meat in a container and then heating it to destroy all

microorganisms capable of food spoilage
Requires processing of canned product in a retort cooker (12 psi) to achieve the
destruction of bacterial spores at temp. exceeding the boiling point of water
4.8.2.Chemical additives
Ingredients added to processed meat such as ascorbic acid, erythorbate, Nitrate

(NO3) and nitrite (NO2), phosphates, salt, spices, sugar and water.
Functions:
Ascorbic acid and erythorbate: to retain processed meat color, act as antioxidant
Nitrate: antioxidant that slows rancidity
Nitrite: inhibits spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, contributes to flavor,

prevents warmed over flavor, stabilize color
Phosphates: increase juiciness, inhibit rancidity, retain moisture, solubilize

proteins
Salt: flavor and tenderizes
Spices: inhibit bacteria growth, contribute to specific flavors
Sugar: binds to water, facilitates browning reactions, provides flavor, act as

substrate for fermentation
Water: provides calorie reduction (fat replacer), carries and distributes dry
ingredients, juiciness and tenderness
Cold storage Refers to refrigeration and frozen storage
Refrigerated storage is the most common method of meat preservation. Storage

life for refrigerated storage is between 5-7 days at 3oC (inhibit pathogenic
bacteria)
Freezer storage (-18oC): excellent method of meat preservation
Although does not kill spoilage and pathogenic microorganism it stops their
growth and reproduction
4.8.3.Comminution Refers to size reduction
Muscle tissue is chopped, diced, emulsified, ground and transformed into minute
particles for incorporation into sausage.
4.8.4.Curing
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Refers to addition of salt, sugar, and sodium nitrite to meats for the purpose of
colour development, flavour enhancement, preservation and safety.
4.8.5.Drying
Common method of meat preservation, removes moisture so that microorganism

cannot grow
Fermentation: fermentative bacteria added into meat to produce acids (eg lactic
acid bacteria)
These acids contribute to flavour and also decrease the pH of the meat,
inhibiting the unwanted microorganisms
Irradiation: a pasteurization method accomplished by exposing meat to low and

medium doses of radiation generated by electron accelerators or by exposure to
gamma sources
Restructuring: flaked or ground beef or pork can be reformed into loaves or

portions resembling steaks through the process of restructuring e.g. smoked
sliced beef and boneless hams
Smoking: for imparting desirable smoked appearance and flavour characteristics

to ham, turkey and other meats
Vacuum packaging: vacuum packed to inhibit spoilage microorganisms which are

aerobic (spoilage organism common to meat).
Topic five: Fish Hygiene

Introduction
Fish are a major source of proteins in humans and animals and contributed
about 3 billion shillings to the Kenya GDP in 2017. This topic introduces the
learner to aspects of fish hygiene. This is aimed at equipping them with skills
and knowledge so as to prevent spread of disease to humans through
contaminated fish and fish products.
Topic time
Lecture Hours (LH)/Practical Hours (PH) – 7.5/4.5
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assessments and practice exercises [5 hours]and Optional further reading [2.5
hour]
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to describe the different
classes of fish and shell fish and how spoilage occurs in each class. The learner
should be able to differentiate fresh and spoiled fish. The learner should be
able to describe diseases and conditions from fish and shell fish including
microbial, parasitological and toxicological causes. Finally, the student should
be able to describe how assessment of the quality of fish is done.
Topic summary
In this topic you have learnt that fish can be divided into salt water and fresh
water fish. Shell fish include crustaceans, oysters, squid and scallops. Fresh
fish can be differentiated from spoiled fish by observation (color, smell and
organs) and microbiological methods. Spoiled fish and those harboring
pathogenic microbes and substances can cause life threatening diseases in
man. These hazards can be broadly described as natural toxins,
microbiological contamination, chemical contamination, pesticides, drug
residues, decomposition in scombroid toxin-forming species or in any other
species where a food safety hazard has been associated with decomposition
and parasites. Assessment of fish quality before being passed for consumption
includes organoleptic tests, chemical and microbiological tests. Fish
preservation can be achieved through drying, freezing, salting, pickling,
smoking and canning.
Glossary-All definitions in the notes.
Further reading
a. Hygiene requirements, controls and Inspections in the Fish Market
Chain. FAO, 2013.
b. Importance of hygienic processing of fish. 2018. Mahendra Pal
a. Visit a local fish market. Attempt to identify spoilt fish and healthy fish.
What methods of preservation are being utilized?
b. Fish hygiene is controlled by the fisheries management and
development act of 2016. What does this law say on fish hygiene and
inspection?
c. The regulations to operationalize fish inspection are currently being
discussed. Read the Fish, Fishery Products and Fish Feed Safety and
Quality Regulations 2019. Discuss and provide a summary on the role of
animal health specialists in fish hygiene and safety. (requires
submission)
5. Topic Content
5.1. Introduction
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The main objective of fish hygiene is to prevent spread of disease to humans
through contaminated fish and fish products. There are two regulatory
documents, both national and international.
Codex Alimentarius – A collection of internationally adopted standards for food

and food products important in trade including fish.
Kenya bureau of standards – Assures the quality and safety of food including fish
in Kenya.
FAO and WHO also has a codex committee to cater for hygiene aspects of
production, storage and distribution. It standardizes quality of fish, shell fish and
products.
Fish is a major source of proteins in humans and animals and it is a 8 billion

sector in Kenya. Fish may be divided into the following groups:
• Fresh water fish
• Sea water/ marine fish
• Aquatic plants and miscellaneous animals e.g. shell fish and crustacea.
In Kenya fresh water fish are dominant produced from Lake Victoria and inland
aquaculture. Fish are relatively nutritious being made up of 60% protein and
have relatively low levels of cholesterol.
During their life fish are in contact with many deleterious microorganisms and
substances that may be natural or man made in nature. Utilization of fish thus
raises public health concerns. Fish are also able to transmit many diseases and
intoxications. Fish can spread viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases as well as
intoxications such as mercury poisoning.
In addition, there is a major problem in the storage life of fish and thus
harvesting, transporting and storage are important. In order to deal with the
public health aspects of environmental pollution assessment should include:
a. Identify substances present in fish and shell fish that are a potential risk
to humans.
b. Monitor the population and patterns of food consumption
c. Selects the components of the population at risk
d. Monitor the environment for distribution of hazardous chemicals and

microorganisms.
These investigations require an interdisciplinary approach. Public health agencies

then make conclusions whether the products present an unacceptable risk to
human beings. Action that public health agencies take include:
a. Prevention of contamination of the fish or shell fish by removal or

reduction of the pollution source
b. Treatment of the product to make it safe for human consumption
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c. Restriction of fish and shell fish resources from specified areas containing
hazards
d. Restriction of the rate of intake and quantities of intake of contaminated

fish and shell fish by the general public.
Objectives of fish inspection
1. To protect the health of the consumers.
2. To improve the quality of fish.
3. To prevents the fraud and deception.
4. To must create confidence in consumers.
5. To ensure that fair trade is practiced.
Hygienic measures to be taken during fishing
1. Equipment used for fishing should be properly washed with potable water.
2. Fish should be put in ice-box as soon as it is caught.
Fish should be protected from the sun, dust, dirt, wind and other contaminates.
5.2. Fish and shellfish spoilage
Fresh and sea water fish
Fresh and sea water fin fish contain high levels of proteins and nitrogenous
substances. They contain no carbohydrates. Not all nitrogenous substances are
in form of protein and may include ammonia, creatinine etc. Fat content also
varies with species. The micro-flora in fish is usually associated with the
environment where they are caught. Generally, the outer shine, gills and the
intestines are the organs that contact most with the environment.
Fresh iced fish is usually spoiled by bacteria whereas salted fish invariably
undergoes fungal spoilage. The dominant flora associated with fish include
pseudomonas, arcanobacteria and Moraxella species.
The most susceptible part to fish spoilage is the gill region because of the high
vascularization. This is closely followed by the eye. The earliest signs of fish
spoilage are Off odors – if fish are not eviscerated immediately intestinal flora
find their way from the intestines into the flesh. This process is aided by
proteolytic enzymes (aspartic protease, pepsin, serine proteases, trypsin,
chymotrypsin and elastase) from the intestinal canal or both.
Spoilage bacteria are also capable of growing on slime (composed of

mucopolysaccharides, free amino acids, trimethylamine oxide (TMAO),
piperadine derivatives and other compounds). Spoilage organisms first utilize
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simpler compounds and then other compounds and in the process release
various volatile off odors.
During fish spoilage TMAO, creatinine, taurine, anserine and certain amino acids
decrease with increase in Trimethyl amine (TMA), ammonia, hydrogen sulphide,
indole and others. This can be used to quantify fish spoilage. TMA and ammonia
are most important. TMA is produced from TMAO and is the main odorant for
degradation of fish. Volatiles that also constitute the spectra of off odors
include mercaptans, di timethyl sulfides, alcohols etc.
Shell fish
Crustaceans
These include lobsters, shrimp, crabs and clay fish. These differ from bony fish in
that they have 0.5% carbohydrates. Shrimps have higher free amino acids than
fish and also have enzymes which break down proteins. Spoilage usually stars
from the outer surfaces. Presence of high amounts of free amino acids and
nitrogenous extractives make them susceptible.
Oysters
This is the name most commonly used for different groups of bivalve molluscs
dwelling in the shallow marine waters and have a rough irregularly shaped shell.
The shell comprises of two highly calcified bony valves which encompass a pulpy
body. Gills filter plankton in water and strong adductor muscles hold the shell
together.
The shell contains meat that varies in cololur , flavor and texture. They can be
eaten both raw and cooked. They are a rich source of iodine, iron, selenium,
vitamin D, protein, vitamin A and B.
Squids
Belong to a group of molluscs called cephalopods and include octopi and cuttle
fish. They are soft bodied and have two muscular tentacles and powerful arms.
Scallops
Are edible bivalves and part of the oyster family. They have a distinct
appearance with a highly irregular shell with the muscles controlling the shell
being much larger and more developed than those of the oysters.
Overall Molluscan chemical composition differs from the teleost and crustacean
shell fish by having significant amounts of carbohydrates much of which is
glycogen. They also contain high levels of nitrogenous bases. Many genera of
bacteria are found on them.
Spoilage is mainly fermentative and the pH is used commonly as a measure of

spoilage.
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Fresh fish Spoilt fish
Skin – Aqueous, transparent mucus Dull pigmentation, opaque mucus
Eyes – convex, bulging, transparent Concave in the center with milky
cornea. cornea
Gills – bright color, no mucus Discolored or yellowish with milky
mucus
Vertebrae - Uncolored Red vertebrae, slightly pink
Flesh – firm and elastic, no pitting on Soft, flaccid, pitting on thumb
thumb pressure. Timely rigor mortis pressure. Delayed rigor mortis.
Odor – Sea weedy odor Sour odor. In fatty fish a rancid smell
Total bacterial counts - low High bacterial counts and change in
bacterial flora composition.
Food safety hazards that are reasonably likely to occur must be controlled for
each fish and fishery product. One publication broadly categorizes the hazards
that need to be considered:
• natural toxins;
• microbiological contamination;
• chemical contamination;
• pesticides;
• drug residues;
• decomposition in scombroid toxin-forming species or in any other species
where a food safety hazard has been associated with decomposition;
• parasites, where the processor has knowledge or has reason to know that
fish or fishery products containing parasites will be consumed without a
further process sufficient to kill the parasites, or where the processor
represents, labels, or intends the product to be so consumed.
5.3. Diseases from fish and shell fish
There are two groups of diseases:
1. Those affecting the consumer
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2. Those causing occupational diseases among people employed in the
fish industry
Consumer diseases:
 Bacterial – infections and intoxications

 Parasitic
 Viral
 Chemical poisonings
 Biotoxins
 Allergic reactions
 Undetermined etiology
Occupational diseases
 Secondary bacterial infections facilitated by mechanical injuries

 Bites and stings
 Allergic reactions
 Incidental conditions
5.3.1.Bacteria
Sources of contamination:
a. Direct through polluted water

b. Secondary – during landing, processing, storage, distribution or
preparation for consumption. This is especially important when fish are
eaten raw.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus – produces an enterotoxin that is responsible for

poisoning and causes diarrhea. It is a mesophyte abound in warmer waters or
temperate zones. Freezing and cooking destroys it. Is responsible for majority of
the poisoning in japan where fish are either eaten raw or slightly pickled.
Cholera – It can be found in fresh and shell fish. Can persist at refrigeration
temperature for 2-5 days.
Salmonellosis – Spread by fish contaminated with human or animal excreta or

grow in water contaminated by the organism.
Botulism – Type E botulism is associated with fish and shellfish borne

intoxications. Clostridium botulinum type C widely distributed in water in many
parts of the world. The spores are heat sensitive. Outbreaks occur where raw or
improperly processed sea foods are consumed. The organism is not proteolytic
and thus no organoleptic changes.
5.3.2.Parasitic diseases
Most of the parasitic diseases are fish borne helminthoses in human beings. The
food habits of people are the main factors influencing incidence of diseases.
Eating of raw or improperly cooked or processed fish is a risk factor.
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Trematodes
Over 50 species infest fish. All of them have molluscs as intermediate hosts with
the second hosts being the fish. Final hosts are humans or predator fish eating
the infested fish. The cercaria penetrate the gills of the fish from the molluscs
and encyst in the flesh. They change to the metacercaria which is infective to
human beings. The most common species are Opisthorchis, Clonorchis and
paragonimus.
Cestodes
The most important is Diphylobothrium latum.
Egg
Adult
Embryo
tapeworms
Plerocercoids procercoids
Nematodes
Adults of these tapeworms are found in the intestines, kidneys or other organs
of fish eating organisms. The most common genera are Anisarkis,
Angiostrongylus cantonensis (causing eosinophilic meningitis in man) and
Capillaria philipinesis.
Controlling parasites
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- The process of heating raw fish sufficiently to kill bacterial pathogens is also
sufficient to kill parasites.
- The effectiveness of freezing to kill parasites depends on several factors,

including the temperature of the freezing process, the length of time needed to
freeze the fish tissue, the length of time the fish is held frozen, the species and
source of the fish, and the type of parasite present. The temperature of the
freezing process, the length of time the fish is held frozen, and the type of
parasite appear to be the most important factors. For example, tapeworms are
more susceptible to freezing than are roundworms. Flukes appear to be more
resistant to freezing than roundworms.
- Freezing and storing at an ambient temperature of –20 °C or below for 7 days

(total time), or freezing at an ambient temperature of –35 °C or below and
storing at an ambient temperature of –35 °C or below for 15 hours, or freezing
at an ambient temperature of –35 °C or below and storing at an ambient
temperature of –20 °C or below for 24 hours are sufficient to kill parasites. Note
that these conditions may not be suitable for freezing particularly large fish (e.g.
thicker than 15 cm).
- Brining and pickling may reduce the parasite hazard, but they do not eliminate
it, nor do they minimize it to an acceptable level. Nematode larvae have been
shown to survive 28 days in 21 percent brine.
- Fish that contain parasites in their flesh may also contain parasites within their
egg sacs (skeins), but generally not within the eggs themselves. For this reason,
eggs that have been removed from the sac and rinsed are not likely to contain
parasites.
- Trimming away the belly flaps of fish or candling and physically removing
parasites are effective methods for reducing the numbers of parasites. However,
they do not completely eliminate the hazard, nor do they minimize it to an
acceptable level.
5.3.3.Viral
Infectious hepatitis A
5.3.4.Allergy
Some people are allergic to certain varieties of fish and shell fish.
Occupational diseases
There are some infections of hands with staphylococcus and streptococcus

among workers. This is facilitated by wounds in the hands.
Dermatitis is also common and is caused by:
 Contact with nets and ropes bearing the marine organism

 Contact with detergents and salts used in processing
 Contact with such organisms such as sea weed, invertebrates etc.
Bites and stings

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Occur due to many species such as the sting ray, dog fish etc.
5.3.5.Natural toxins
A wide variety of aquatic biotoxins, such as saxitoxins, gonyautoxins, paralytic

shellfish poison (PSP), maitotoxin, ciguatoxin, aleterin, palytoxin, scaritoxin,
gambierotoxin, tetrodotoxin, and other non-protein toxins, are among the most
toxic substances known and have been responsible for numerous deaths
throughout the world (Halstead, 2002).
The possible presence of natural toxins in fish and shellfish has been known for a
long time. Most of these toxins are produced by species of naturally occurring
marine algae.
The preventive measures for the presence of toxins in shellfish are monitoring,
control and classification of shellfish harvesting areas.
Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP)
Causative organisms: Gambierdiscus toxicus, Prorocentrum spp., Ostreopsis

spp., Coolia monotis, Thecadinium sp. and Amphidinium carterae.
Toxins produced: ciguatoxin/maitotoxin
CFP produces gastrointestinal, neurological, and cardiovascular symptoms.

Generally, diarrhoea, vomiting, and abdominal pain occur initially, followed by
neurological dysfunction including reversal
of temperature sensation, muscular aches, dizziness, anxiety, sweating, and a

numbness and tingling of the mouth and digits. Paralysis and death have been
documented, but symptoms are usually less severe although debilitating.
Recovery time is variable, and may take weeks, months or years. There is no
antidote, supportive therapy is the rule, and survivors recover.
Absolute prevention of intoxication depends upon complete abstinence from

eating any tropical reef fish, as there is currently no easy way to measure
ciguatoxin or maitotoxin routinely in any seafood product prior to consumption.
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) (Puffer fish poisoning [PFP])
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is one of the most potent non-proteinacous toxins known and
has been responsible for numerous fish poisonings. The toxin is named after the
order Tetraodontidae (common names: puffer fish, balloonfish, globefish, fugu,
toadfish, blowfish), as many of these often carry the toxin. Apart from
Tetraodontidae, the toxin has been found in goby, blue-ringed octopus, various
gastropods, newts and horseshoe crab.
Symptoms of PFP occur within minutes and rarely more than 6 hours after
ingestion of toxic fish. The distribution of the toxin in the fish is mainly in the
ovaries (eggs), liver and skin. The muscle tissue is normally free of toxin.
The toxin has been shown to be produced by a range of symbiotic bacteria,

widespread in some environments. They include Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio
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damsela, Staphlococcus, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Shewanella sp. The toxin is
thought to be released in the gut and finds its way to the muscle and other
organs.
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
Causative organisms: Alexandrium spp., Gymnodinium catenatum, Pyrodinium

bahamense. These are taken up by the shellfish from its diet and the toxins
produced, saxitoxins, end up in the shellfish tissues.
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a potentially life-threatening syndrome.

Symptoms are neurological and onset is rapid. In non-lethal cases, the duration
of the effects can be a few days. Symptoms include tingling, numbness, and
burning of the perioral region, ataxia, giddiness, drowsiness, fever, rash, and
staggering. The most severe cases result in respiratory arrest within 24 hours of
consumption. If the patient is not breathing or if a pulse is not detected, artificial
respiration and cardio-pulmonary resuscitation may be needed as first aid. There
is no antidote, supportive therapy is the rule, and survivors recover fully.
PSP is prevented by large-scale proactive monitoring programmes (assessing

toxin levels in mussels, oysters, scallops, clams) and rapid closure to harvest of
suspect or demonstrated toxic areas.
Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP)
Causative organism: Karenia brevis.
Toxins produced: brevetoxins.
NSP produces intoxication nearly identical to that of ciguatera. In this case,

gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms predominate. In addition, formation
of toxic aerosols by wave action can produce respiratory asthma-like symptoms.
No deaths have been reported and the syndrome is less severe than ciguatera,
but nevertheless debilitating. Unlike ciguatera, recovery is generally complete in
a few days.
Diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP)
Causative organisms: Dinophysis sp.
Toxin produced: okadaic acid.
DSP produces gastrointestinal symptoms, usually beginning within from 30

minutes to a few hours after consumption of toxic shellfish. The illness, which is
not fatal, is characterized by incapacitating diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, and chills. Recovery occurs within three days, with or without
medical treatment.
Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)
Causative organisms: Pseudo-nitzschia sp.
Toxin produced: domoic acid.
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Amnesic shellfish poisoning can be a life-threatening syndrome. It is
characterized by both gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. Gastroenteritis
usually develops within 24 hours of the consumption of toxic shellfish; symptoms
include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhoea. In severe cases,
neurological symptoms also appear, usually within 48 hours of toxic shellfish
consumption.
These symptoms include dizziness, headache, seizures, disorientation, short-

term memory loss, respiratory difficulty, and coma.
Scombrotoxin (histamine) formation
Biogenic amines are non-volatile amines formed by decarboxylation of amino

acids by bacteria. Although many biogenic amines have been found in fish, only
histamine has been considered a reliable marker for the toxicity.
Seafood-related scombrotoxin poisoning is primarily associated with the

consumption of fish containing high levels of free histidine such as scombroid
species: mackerels, tuna, mahi-mahi, marlin and bluefish. When such fish are
subjected to temperature abuse, bacterial decarboxylation of histidine leads to
histamine formation.
The illness caused by the consumption of fish in which scombrotoxin has formed
is most appropriately referred to as “scombrotoxin poisoning”. Despite a widely
reported association between histamine and scombroid food poisoning,
histamine alone appears to be insufficient to cause food toxicity.
Controlling scombrotoxin (histamine) formation
Rapid chilling of scombrotoxin-forming fish immediately after death to reduce

proliferation of the decarboxylating bacteria is the most important element in
any strategy for preventing the formation of scombrotoxin (histamine),
especially for fish that are exposed to warm waters or air, and for tunas which
generate heat in their tissues.
5.3.6.Environmental chemical contaminants and pesticides
A modest concentration of contaminants is ubiquitous in the clean aquatic

environment. Risks from chemical residues (mercury, selenium, dioxins,
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), kepone, chordane, dieldrine and
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT]) are a particular concern with
recreationally caught fish and shellfish from coastal waters or highly polluted
waters, as well as commercial catches from the same areas.
Mercury
Mercury is a heavy metal that exists naturally in the environment. Major sources
include the burning of fossil fuels (especially coal) and municipal waste
incineration. Mercury can exist in several forms, the most hazardous being
organic methylmercury. In waterways (lakes, rivers, reservoirs, etc.), mercury is
converted to methylmercury, which then accumulates in aquatic organisms,
especially in large, old, predatory fish.
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Fish and fish products are the major source of methylmercury in humans.
Mercury has long been recognized as neurotoxic to humans, but in the last ten
years, its potentially harmful effects on cardiovascular diseases (CVD) have been
described. An upper limit of 1 mg/kg is widely accepted for species that
accumulate mercury, or 0.5 mg/kg for other species.
Sources of mercury in the environment include:
• natural emission (over millions of years): 55000–180 000 tonnes/year

(natural vulcanism, continuous gaseous emissions from the earth’s crust);
• anthropogenic sources (in the last 150 years): 8 000–38 000 tonnes/year;
• concentration in seawater: 0.5–15 ng/litre;
• concentration in freshwater: 1–5 ng/litre.
Lead
Lead concentration in seawater is 0.02–4 μg/litre. Lead is deposited mainly in

fish bones. There is no age dependent accumulation of lead but concentration
increases in parallel with the concentration in water (polluted areas). Typical
concentrations found in edible parts of fish are 2–20 μg/kg.
Cadmium
Cadmium is also widespread in the earth’s crust, from where it enters the
environment. It is toxic to humans and animals causing kidney damage and
neural tube defects. Cadmium (Cd) concentration in seawater is 0.02–0.25 μg/L.
Cadmium bio-accumulates in aquatic apical predators in the same way as
mercury but tends to accumulate in the liver and kidney. Swordfish have a
particularly high risk of having a muscle concentration above permitted limits.
Marine invertebrates, especially molluscs and cephalopods, accumulate Cd in
their intestines (hepatopancreas). To avoid Cd contamination of the edible parts,
all intestines must be removed from cephalopods immediately after catch.
Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds
Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic. Dioxins

are commonly formed when organic substances smoulder or burn in the
presence of chlorine. This may happen in industrial operations within metallurgy,
paper mills, chemical industries (the Seveso case) and others. The major source
of dioxin-like compounds has been the PCBs synthesized for a number of
industrial applications up until the 1970s. These compounds are relatively stable
once released into the environment.
Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds are fat-soluble and so accumulate in the fat
deposits of fish and animals, and amounts will increase in moving to higher
levels of the food chain.
Organochlorine pesticides
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), such as DDT, and their metabolites

accumulate in mammals and are highly toxic. They are now widespread in the
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environment and may continue to pose health threats to both wildlife and
humans owing to their persistence, bioaccumulative ability, and potential
toxicity.
Seafood consumption is an important route of human exposure to organic

contaminants. Fish are harvested from waters that are exposed to varying
amounts of industrial chemicals, pesticides, and toxic elements. These
contaminants may accumulate in fish at levels that can cause illness. The hazard
is most commonly associated with long-term exposure; illnesses associated with
a single exposure (one meal) are very rare. Concern primarily focuses on fish
harvested from freshwater, estuaries, and near-shore coastal waters (e.g. areas
subject to shore-side contaminant discharges), rather than from the open ocean.
Pesticides used near aquaculture operations may also contaminate fish.
5.3.7.Aquaculture drugs
Reasons for the use of drugs in aquaculture include the need to: (i) treat and
prevent disease; (ii) control parasites; (iii) affect reproduction and growth; and
(iv) provide tranquilization (e.g. for weighing).
Relatively few drugs have been approved for aquaculture. This factor may lead
to the inappropriate use of unapproved drugs, general-purpose chemicals, or
approved drugs in a manner that deviates from the labelled instructions.
5.4. ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF FISH
One or more of the following types of examinations are conducted before

releasing the fish as fit for human consumption.
1. Organoleptic tests: At landing sites and in markets, raw fish is assessed to

determine the changes in appearance, color and consistency; and also for the
presence of abnormal odor and flavor. If upon organoleptic test, the fish or fish
products are found as unfit for human consumption, organoleptic test should be
repeated. Microbiological and chemical tests should be conducted and if it is still
found unfit, the fish must be discarded.
2. Parasitological examination: Different types of parasites are found in fish and

the most common is Diphyllobothrium latum. Before releasing the fish as fit for
human consumption, it should be checked for the presence of parasites. Fish
infested with parasite shall not be placed in the market, and should be frozen at
– 200c for 24 hours.
3. Chemical tests: Ammonia, trimethylamine, dimethylamine and other volatile

basic compounds associated with fish spoilage, are measured. Ammonia test kit,
gas chromatography, high pressure liquid chromatography are used to measure
these compounds.
4. Microbiological test: Various types of microbes may either be present in the

environment or contaminate the fish during handling. Total Aerobic Count (TAC)
and Standard Plate Count (SPC) are considered synonyms and used for
determination of total counts of the organism in a product. Iron agar, oxoid agar
are rich nutrient agar than plate count agars and gives significantly higher
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counts. Furthermore, iron agar also yield number of hydrogen sulphide
producing bacteria which in some fish products are the specific spoilage bacteria.
5.5. Methods of Fish Preservation
The following methods are employed to preserve the fish.
1. Freezing: Freezing is the most satisfactory method currently available for a

long term preservation of fish and seafood. It is considered as the best way of
preventing fish from spoilage. It is effective for retaining flavour, colour and
nutritive value of fish.
2. Drying: The fish is hanged on wire or rope in open air on dry warm day. If the
color has changed to yellow, the fish is collected.
3. Salting: Salting is a process where the common salt, sodium chloride, is used
as a preservative, which penetrates the tissues, thus checks the bacterial growth
and inactivates the enzymes. The fish is soaked in brine (concentrated salt
solution).
4. Pickling: It is the spreading of dry salt grains over the fish.
5. Smoking: The fish is laid on sticks, which are then placed in smoke box or
chamber. The fire is ignited from the bottom. Smoke moves upwards removing
the water from the fish and imparting it pleasant flavour.
6. Canning: It is used as one of the methods to preserve fish. Canned fish

means commercially sterile fish in hermetically sealed containers. In canning,
the spoilage can be averted by killing micro-organisms through heat.
Topic six: Environmental hygiene

Introduction
The interaction between the environment and public health will be discussed.
Topic time
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hour]
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to describe the importance
of the environment to public health. In particular the learner should be able to
describe the component s of the environment, the role of public health to the
environment, components of environmental health, environmental risk factors
and the impact of animal health activities to the environment
Topic summary
In this topic you have learnt that the environment encompasses all living and
nonliving things surrounding us. It also plays a major role in disease both in
animals and man. The role of the environment in public health was elucidated.
Components that determine environmental health were also be discussed. The
role of the environment in public health and environmental risk factors for
diseases of public health were also discussed. Finally, the impact of animal
health activities on the environment was discussed.
Glossary – All definitions in the notes.
Further reading
a. Animal Health and the environment. FAO. 2006
a. Examine the environment around your homestead, what are the main
living and non-living things found in your environment, how do they
interact with each other, what environmental risk factors can be found
therein that can cause or modulate disease? (self-assessment)
b. Visit a dairy/pig/chicken farm. How does these animal keeping activities
affect the environment in the farm? How is the environment involved in
the prevalence of diseases of public health importance in the farm?
(self-assessment)
6. Topic content
6.1. Introduction
The environment is the sum of the total of the elements, factors and conditions
in the surroundings which may have an impact on the development, action or
survival of an organism or a group of organisms.
Hygiene generally refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation
of health and healthy living.
Sanitation means promoting health through the prevention of human contact

with the hazards associated with the lack of healthy food, clean water and
healthful housing, the control of vectors (living organisms that transmit
diseases), and a clean environment. It focuses on management of waste
produced by human activities.
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Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors
external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviors. It
encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors that
can potentially affect health.
6.2. The role of environmental health in public health
Environmental health is a part of public health where the primary goal is

preventing disease and promoting people’s health. Environmental health is
associated with recognising, assessing, understanding and controlling the
impacts of people on their environment and the impacts of the environment on
the public. The role of the environmental health worker, therefore, includes the
following functions of public health:
 Improving human health and protecting it from environmental hazards.
 Developing liaison between the community and the local authority, and
between the local and higher levels of administration.
 Acting independently to provide advice on environmental health matters;

designing and developing plans of action for environmental health.
 Initiating and implementing health/hygiene, sanitation and environmental

programmes to promote understanding of environmental health principles.
 Enforcing environmental legislation.
 Monitoring and evaluating environmental health activities, programmes

and projects
6.3. Components of environmental health
The table below describes the areas of environmental health and hygiene that
will be of importance to you
Components of hygiene and environmental health.
Description Concerns
Personal hygiene Hygiene of body and clothing
Water supply Adequacy, safety (chemical, bacteriological, physical) of
water for domestic, drinking and recreational use
Human waste Proper excreta disposal and liquid waste management
disposal
Solid waste Proper application of storage, collection, disposal of waste.
management Waste production and recycling
Vector control Control of mammals (such as rats) and arthropods (insects
such as flies and other creatures such as mites) that
transmit disease
Food hygiene Food safety and wholesomeness in its production, storage,
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preparation, distribution and sale, until consumption
Healthful housing Physiological needs, protection against disease and
accidents, psychological and social comforts in residential
and recreational areas
Institutional Communal hygiene in schools, prisons, health facilities,
hygiene refugee camps, detention homes and settlement areas
Water pollution Sources, characteristics, impact and mitigation
Occupational Hygiene and safety in the workplace
hygiene
6.4. Environmental risk factors
Infectious agents play a part in the transmission of disease. Infectious agents

are pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and
parasites. To cause a disease, they must be introduced into our bodies in
sufficient quantities. The environmental conditions and practices that facilitate
the carrying of such infectious agents into our bodies are termed
environmental risk factors. A good example is drinking water, which can be
contaminated by human faecal matter that contains these infectious agents.
When this water is consumed, we are likely to get diarrhoeal diseases.
Major environmental risk factors with related diseases and conditions.
Environmental risk factors Related diseases and conditions
Contaminated water, lack of latrines, Diarrhoeal diseases, trachoma,

poor hand washing, inappropriate solid schistosomiasis, ascariasis,
waste management, open defecation, trichuriasis, hookworm, typhoid
vector infestation fever, relapsing fever
Indoor air pollution Chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease, lower respiratory
infections, lung cancer
Outdoor/ambient air pollution Respiratory infections,

cardiovascular diseases, lung
cancer
General environmental hazards (climate, Diarrhoeal diseases, malnutrition,

mosquitoes, nutrition) malaria and other vector-borne
diseases; heat exhaustion
Environmental hazards in workplaces Injuries, hearing loss, cancer,

(excess noise, heat, dust, chemicals) asthma, back pain, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease
6.5. Impacts of animal health on the environment
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Use of veterinary products
With the increased use of veterinary products for the treatment of disease,
control of parasites and enhancement of production levels, it is essential that all
those concerned with the handling and administration of such products be made
aware of their potential danger to the environment.
Veterinary products are generally supplied with explicit details on their use,
disposal, possible side-effects and, in the case of pesticides, their toxicity rating
and recommendations for neutralization in case of accident. This information
should be in an appropriate language. The details included on the packaging
may, however, vary from country to country depending on national regulations
governing registration. To ensure an adequate standard of packaging and
instructions on use, close cooperation should be established and maintained
between animal health services and registration authorities. Products destined
for use and administration by untrained personnel, such as livestock owners,
should be supplied with instructions in the appropriate language. Labels
proposed by manufacturers for new products should be submitted to registration
authorities for prior approval.
Use of pesticides
Strict control over the importation, registration, distribution and use of pesticides
should be exercised, while users should be adequately trained in their handling
and methods of application. Recommendations on this aspect are contained in
the FAO/WHO Guidelines for pesticide use.
Presence of toxic residues in animal products
Following the administration of veterinary drugs, their residues may be present

in edible products of treated animals. Potential health hazards emanating from
residues in food can be divided into toxicology, immunopathology and
microbiology. This last aspect is a consequence of use in feed of antimicrobial
substances at subtherapeutic levels.
Other chemicals are used in animal husbandry. These include additions such as
antioxidants or antifungal agents used to preserve the quality of the feed,
colourants, disinfectants and pesticides. These are also a cause of public health
concern.
Control over the presence of residues of pesticides, drugs and hormones in

meat, milk, eggs and other animal products is not yet common in developing
countries, but it is advisable to reinforce the control of these products.
Land use
The intensification of livestock production as part of the development process

may, if not properly carried out, contribute to land degradation through
overgrazing, reduced soil fertility, erosion and desertification. This is particularly
true in marginal areas unsuitable for agriculture, where most extensively
managed ruminants are kept. Major animal health activities, such as vaccination
campaigns or parasite (e.g. tsetse or ticks) control programmes, have positive
Page 131 of 138

impacts on productivity and size of animal populations that lead to increased
animal population pressure and may contribute to land degradation unless
correct land-use planning is implemented.
Proper land-use planning and utilization, taking into account the diverse
agricultural, topographical and geographical aspects involved, is essential to
reducing the risk of adverse ecological developments while increasing
productivity and animal disease control. Therefore it requires a multidisciplinary
approach to ensure the correct planning and utilization of the land.
Pollution
In a similar way, the intensification of livestock production results in increased

use of veterinary products, such as pesticides, and the production of different
types of waste, like manure from feedlots. The pollution or contamination of the
environment, especially water supplies, due to animal wastes (manure and liquid
manure) is an increasing problem and must be foreseen when planning new
animal housing, especially in the industrial production systems. Proper action
has to be taken for the careful use or safe disposal of the slaughterhouse waste.
These can be valuable by-products if appropriately processed. This should
involve sterilization or rendering of ail condemned or contaminated material
before further processing and release for use. Improper disposal of this type of
waste can lead to an increase of predatory animal species (e.g. hyenas, rural
dogs, etc., on land and sharks with disposal to sea).
As well, waste food from international sea and air traffic must be sterilized to
avoid dissemination of animal disease through contaminated animal products.
Environmentally friendly methods of applying insecticides (targets and traps for

tsetse control) and acaricides (pour on) are becoming available. These have the
potential for reducing possibilities of contamination of the environment and
should be utilized where practical. The use of pesticides may be minimized by
using breeds or their crosses that are resistant to parasitic species, e.g.
trypanotolerant cattle or tick-resistant breeds.
Topic seven: Water Hygiene

Introduction
Water is a basic need for animals and man and is essential for life. Water can
also serve as a carrier of pathogens making it important from a public health
standpoint. This topic discusses aspects of water hygiene including sources,
quality parameters, treatment and also discusses water borne diseases.
Topic time
Lecture Hours (LH)/Practical Hours (PH) – 7.5/4.5
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assessments and practice exercises [5 hours]and Optional further reading [2.5
hour]
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic the student should be able to describe the uses of and
importance of water in farms, the physical properties of water, quality
parameters of water and the water treatment processes. In addition, the
student should have sufficient knowledge in water borne diseases and
sewerage treatment.
Topic summary
In this topic you have learnt that potable Water / drinking water is water that
is safe enough for drinking and food preparation. Water has a lot of uses in the
farm including drinking by both animals and man, cleaning, and other
agricultural uses. Water may contain in it particles either in solution or
suspension. To determine the composition of water a knowledge of the
physical properties of water is important including its turbidity, pH, color, odor
among others. These and others including presence of microorganisms,
Presence of suspended solids and minerals are used to determine the quality
of water. Because water found in nature is rarely potable, water has to
undergo treatment to make it potable. Processes involved are sedimentation,
filtration, disinfection and storage. Water can be a carrier of many pathogens
making it a public health hazard. These water-borne diseases were also
discussed. Finally, water treatment goes hand in hand with sewage treatment
and this was also discussed,
Glossary – All definitions in the notes.
Further reading
a. Water and sewerage disposal handbook. FAO. 2006
a. Visit your county water treatment works and summarize the water
treatment processes. (required assignment)
b. Visit your county sewage treatment works and summarize the sewage
treatment processes
c. Visit at least three dairy/pig/chicken farms. Examine the water used by
the animals for drinking. Is it potable water? What are the public health
risks of using non potable water in animals? How would the water in the
farm be made potable?
7. Topic content
7.1. Introduction
Potable Water / drinking water, Is water safe enough for drinking and food
preparation. Potable water must be free of pathogens (disease causing
organisms) and have a desirable
 taste
 odor (smell)
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 color and
 turbidity (cloudiness) and
 contain no harmful chemicals.
Uses of water
1) Domestic Use – This makes up to 10% of total water usage about 300
liters per person/day (toilet flushing, drinking, bathing, food preparations etc.)
2) Agricultural Use - Agriculture accounted for 67% of the world's total

freshwater withdrawal, and 86% of its consumption – according to estimates for
the year 2000. By 2025, agriculture is expected to increase its water
requirements by 1.2 times, industry by 1.5 times, and domestic consumption by
1.8 times. By the year 2000, an estimated 15% of the world's cultivated lands
were irrigated for food crops, accounting for almost half of the value of global
crop production.
3) Industrial Use for such purposes as processing, cleaning, transportation,

dilution, and cooling in manufacturing facilities. Major water-using industries
include steel, chemical, paper, and petroleum refining.
4) Commercial Use - Includes fresh water for motels, hotels, restaurants,

office buildings, other commercial facilities, and civilian and military institutions.
5) Mining- Includes water for the extraction of naturally occurring minerals;

solids, such as coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such
as natural gas.
6) Hydroelectric power.
7.2. Sources of Water
1) Ground water – underground water
2) Surface – Rivers, Streams, lakes
3) Rain water
7.3. Physical Properties of Water
Turbidity is the amount of cloudiness in the water. It is caused by suspended

matter in water including clay, silt, finely divided organic matter such as
plankton. Turbidity is an expression of the optical property of a sample which
causes light to be absorbed or scattered. Turbidity in water is measured in
Nephlometric Turbidity Units. Drinking water should not exceed 5 NT. Clear
water – see through
Color in drinking-water may be due to the presence of organic matter such as

humic substances, metals such as iron and manganese, or highly colored
industrial wastes. Experience has shown that consumers may turn to alternative,
perhaps unsafe, sources, when their water displays aesthetically displeasing
levels of color, typically exceeding 15 TCU. Drinking-water should ideally be
colorless.
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• Odor in water is due mainly to the presence of organic substances. Some
odors are indicative of increased biological activity, while others may originate
from industrial pollution. Sanitary surveys should include investigations of
sources of odor when odor problems are identified. Water should not have any
objectionable odor or taste.
The following are the properties of water
• Cohesion
• Adhesion
• Capillarity
• High Specific Heat
• High Heat of Vaporization
• Solid water (ice) is less dense than liquid
• Solvent
• Transparent
7.4 Quality parameters of water
The table below shows the maximum allowable values for various parameters in
water.
7.5 Water treatment
Summary of Mainline Water Treatment Processes
• Storage
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• Disinfection
– Physical: UV radiation, heat, membrane filters
– Chemical: Chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, iodine, other

antimicrobial chemicals
• Filtration
– Rapid granular media
– Slow sand and other biological filters
– Membrane filters: micro-, ultra-, nano- and reverse osmosis
• Other physical-chemical removal processes
– Chemical coagulation, precipitation and complexation
– Adsorption: e.g., activated carbon, bone char, etc,
– Ion exchange: synthetic ion exchange resins, zeolites, etc.
7.6 Water borne diseases
Diseases related to water can be divided into the following classes:
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 Water borne diseases
 Water based diseases
 Water washed diseases
 Water related diseases
Water borne diseases
These are diseases caused by ingestion of water contaminated by human or

animal excrement, which contain pathogenic microorganisms. These include
cholera, typhoid, amoebic and bacillary dysentery and other diarrheal diseases.
These diarrhaeal diseases include Giardiasis (Protozoan), Cryptosporidiosis
(Bacteria), Campylobacteriosis (Bacteria), Shigellosis (Bacteria), Viral
Gastroenteritis (Virus) and Cyclosporiasis (Parasite).
In addition, water-borne disease can be caused by the pollution of water with

chemicals that have an adverse effect on health. Examples include Arsenic,
Flouride, Nitrates from fertilizers, Carcinogenic pesticides (DDT), Lead (from
pipes) and other heavy Metals
Water washed diseases
These are diseases caused by poor personal hygiene and skin and eye contact
with contaminated water. These include scabies, trachoma, typhus, and other
flea, lice and tick-borne diseases.
Water based diseases
These are diseases caused by parasites found in intermediate organisms living in

contaminated water. These include diseases such as Schistosomiasis and
Dracunculiasis
Water related diseases
Water-related diseases are caused by insect vectors, especially mosquitoes, that

breed or feed near contaminated water. They are not typically associated with
lack of access to clean drinking water or sanitation services. They include
dengue fever, filariasis, malaria, onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis and yellow
fever.
7.7 Sewage treatment and disposal
Sewage is a mixture of domestic and industrial wastes – composed of over 99%

water, some ions, suspended solids and harmful bacteria that must be removed
before the water is released into water bodies.
Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater,

primarily from household sewage – involves physical, chemical, and biological
processes to produce environmentally safe treated wastewater (or treated
effluent).
Sewage treatment may also be referred to as wastewater treatment, although

the latter is a broader term which can also be applied to purely industrial
wastewater.
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The treatment of wastewater is divided into three phases:
1) Pretreatment - Large solids (i.e. those with a diameter of more than 2cm)
and grit (heavy solids) are removed by screening. These are disposed of
in landfills.
2) Primary treatment - The water is left to stand so that solids can sink to
the bottom and oil and grease can rise to the surface. The solids are
scraped off the bottom and the scum is washed off with water
3) Secondary treatment - The sludge is further treated in 'sludge digesters':

large heated tanks in which its chemical decomposition is catalyzed by
microorganisms. The sludge is largely converted to 'biogas', a mixture of
CH4 and CO2, which is used to generate electricity for the plant. The
liquid is treated by bacteria which break down the organic matter
remaining in solution. It is then sent to oxidation ponds where
heterotrophic bacteria continue the breakdown of the organics and solar
UV light destroys the harmful bacteria.
Page 138 of 138


PUBLIC HEALTH DIP BARATON

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BARATON COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HEALTH

AHHP 0215: PUBLIC HEALTH AND EVIRONMENT

ANHE 451: PUBLIC HEALTH AND EVIRONMENT

ANHP 0215: PUBLIC HEALTH AND EVIRONMENT

Is this course for you?

Introduction to the course

Course Study Skills

Topic activities and assessment quizzes

a. Provision of sufficiently hygienic, safe and nutritionally adequate animal

a. Suitability of human consumption of meat, milk, eggs and other products

a. Epidemiology, prevention and control of infectious or zoonotic diseases

a. antemortem inspection of animals before slaughter

1.1.3.Hygiene of other food products

Public health is involved in food hygiene in general including cereals, vegetables,

1.2. Functions and responsibilities of public health practitioners

Public health practice by animal health professionals is present in Kenya by

a. Inspectorate portfolio – Concerned with food control.

Food spoilage is defined as damage or injury to food rendering in unsuitable for

Food product Storage life (days) at 21oC

Raw beef and mutton 1-2

Raw fish 1-2

Raw poultry 1-2

Dried salted or smoked 360 or more

meat and fish

Fresh fruits 1-7

Dried fruits 360 or more

Leafy vegetables 1-2

Root crops 1-20

Dried seeds 360 or more

2.1.1 Causes of food spoilage

• (b). Enzyme activity: Action of enzymes found inherently in plant or

(i). Aesthetic aspect of their presence,

(ii) Possible transmision of pathogenic agents,

(iii). Consumption of food.

• (e). Physical changes. These include those changes caused by freezing,

2.2 Microbial spoilage of food

Microorganisms in food can be useful (in food processing e.g. fermentation) or

2.2.1 Microorganisms in food

Microorganisms that can be found in food include:

Bacteria – Clostriduim, Bacillus, Salmonella among others

Fungi – Aspergillus, mucor, absidia among others

Yeast – Candida, sacromycetes among others

Vermin e.g. Cockroaches, ants, flies, insects, rats etc.

Spoilage microorganisms cause putrefaction of foods. Low levels of these can be

Sources of microorganisms in food include:

2.3 Parameters affecting growth of microorganisms in foods

These can be divided into intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

2.3.1 Intrinsic parameters

Moisture content / water activity

Oxidation reduction potential

Natural antimicrobials in food

External biological covering of foods

2.3.1.1 pH (potent of Hydrogen)

Most microorganisms grow best at a pH of 7. Very few grow at pH levels of

2.3.1.2 Moisture content

Water activity = vapor pressure of food product/substrate

Vapor pressure of water

0.85 - 9.0 Bacteria, molds, yeasts

0.75 - Xerophilic molds, molds and

0.60 - Xerophilic molds, osmophilic

2.3.1.3 Oxidation Reduction Potential

Microorganisms are classified according to their oxygen requirements in order to

In practice this is applied in heat canning of food where: