Quantum Physics

Engineering Physics by Dr.
Uvais
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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
TOPICS
• Classical Physics vs Quantum Physics
• Blackbody Radiation & Plank’s Hypothesis
• The Compton Effect
• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves
• The Quantum Particle
• The Uncertainty Principle
Text Book
Concepts of Modern Physics
By Arthur Beiser
Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais
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Classical Mechanics Quantum Mechanics
1. All the physic before the beginning of the 20th century 1. QM concepts was revealed in 20th Century.
is called as the classical physics.
2. Sir Issac Newton, Galileo, Micheal Faraday, Lord Kelvin, 2. Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, and Erwin Schrödinger
James Maxwell – Newtonian Mechanics have equal claim in introducing QM.
3. CM is like a ramp. Events (in general) are continuous 3. QM is like staircase. Events are unpredictable, "jumps"
(smooth, orderly and predicable pattern. occur that involve seemingly random transitions
between states.
4. Classical physics is causal; complete knowledge of the 4. Objects in quantum physics are neither particles nor
past allows computation of the future. Likewise, waves; they are a strange combination of both. Given
complete knowledge of the future allows precise complete knowledge of the past, we can make only
computation of the past probabilistic predictions of the future.
5. Light are waves and matter consists of particles. 5. Both light and matter has particle and wave properties
6. Physical quantities (energy, momentum ,spin) can be 6. Physical quantities are quantized(can only take discrete
considered as continuous variables. values) under certain circumstances.
7. When you are dealing with a particle (or say a body) 7. When you are dealing with particles with dimension
which has dimension larger than the de-broglie smaller or comparable to the de-broglie wavelength, take
wavelength, follow Classical mechanics as the whole help of quantum mechanics as the whole system will
system will then be governed by classical laws. then be governed by quantum mechanics.
8. Also you can simultaneously determine the position 8. In quantum mechanics one can never simultaneously
and the momentum of that particle while dealing with determine the position as well as the momentum of a
classical mechanics. Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais
particle with complete precision.
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BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS
Definition of a Black-Body
Black-Body Radation Laws
- The Stefan-Boltzmann Law
- The Wien‘s Displacement Law
- The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
- The Planck Law

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Black Body

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These Heatmaps Reveal Where Humans Feel
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Definition of a Black Body
A black body is an ideal body that absorbs all incident

radiation, regardless of frequency.
 When temperature is increased in BB, it starts remitting out the

absorbed radiations.
 SUN = emits all wavelengths

 Carbon Black = Absorbs almost 99%
of incident wavelengths.
 In laboratory, a BB approximation –
Hollow body with a very small hole leading
to the interior.

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Laboratory BB observations:-
 Any radiation striking hole enters the cavity – trapped by
reflecting back n forth – until its absorbed.
 Cavity walls continuously absorbs and emits radiation – BLACK

BODY RADIATION
 BBR is more when BB is hotter

compared to cold BB.
 Radiation spectrum was observed as

shown and has its peaks at higher
frequency
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Basic Laws of Radiation
1) All objects emit radiant energy.
2) Hotter objects emit more energy

than colder objects (per unit area).
The total power of the emitted
radiation increases with
temperature.
This is Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
3) The peak of the wavelength

distribution shifts to shorter
wavelengths as the black body
temperature increases
This is Wien’s Law.

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Stefan Boltzmann Law
SBL states that radiant power heat emitted by a BB is proportional to

the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
 Stefan Boltzmann Law.
P = AT 4
P = power radiated from the surface of the object (W)

T = temperature (K)
 = 5.670 x 10-8 W/m2K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
A = surface area of the object (m2)

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Wien’s Displacement Law.
Wien's displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for
different temperatures will peak at different wavelengths that are
inversely proportional to the temperature.
lm  T-1
lm T = b = 2.898 × 10-3
m.K
Where,
lm = peak of the wavelength distribution in the
black body emission spectrum.
T = equilibrium temperature of the blackbody. (K)
b = Wien's displacement constant

= 2.898 × 10-3 m.K Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais
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7-Jun-22 Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais VN 18
The Rayleigh-Jeans Law.
• Why the BB spectrum have the shape as shown
• End of 19th century – Lord Rayleigh and James jeans. – study about BB spectrum.
• Acc to CM, the energy per unit volume in the cavity in the frequency interval to
+ ( ) is given by,
The Rayleigh-Jeans
formula
• k = 1.38064852 × 10-23 J/K - Boltzman constant

• T = Absolute temperature
• C = speed of light.
• = frequency
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• RJF contains everything CM need
to say about BBS.
• Acc to RJF, energy density is

increasing with . As goes to
ultraviolet region, energy density
should shoot to infinity - which is
not as per BBS
• This discrepancy is called

ULTRAVIOLET CATASTROPHE

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Planks radiation formula Max Plank
1900
 At high frequency,
 hϑ >> kT  e(hϑ/kT) --> infinity  u(ϑ) d ϑ
0  NO ultraviolet catastrophe
 At low frequency,
 hϑ << kT  (hϑ/kT) << 1  ex = 1+x (when x is <<
1) 
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Plank made two bold and controversial assumptions concerning
the nature of the atomic oscillators in the cavity walls.
1. The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete
values E n, E n = nhf
where n is a positive integer called a quantum number,
f is the frequency of oscillation
h is a constant called Planck’s constant.
 Energy of the oscillator is quantized. Each discrete energy

value corresponds to a different quantum state, represented
by the quantum number n.
2. The oscillators emit or absorb energy only when making a transition from
one quantum state to another.
 Difference in energy will be integral multiples of hf.

 If it remains in one quantum state, no energy is emitted or
absorbed.
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to n = ∞
E
n
Figure shows allowed energy 4hf 4
levels for an oscillator with
frequency f, and the allowed 3hf 3
Transitions.
ENERGY
2hf 2
hf 1
0 0

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Summary
The characteristics of blackbody radiation cannot

be explained using classical concepts.
Plank introduced the quantum concept and Plank’s

constant when he assumed that atomic oscillators
existing only in discrete energy states are
responsible for this radiation.
In Plank’s model, radiation is emitted in single

quantized packets whenever an oscillator makes a
transition between discrete energy states.

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THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Introduction
• What is Photoelectric Effect
• Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
• Clash between Classical predictions & Observed
Experimental results
• Einstein’s model of the Photoelectric Effect
• Explanation for the observed features of PE

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What is Photoelectric Effect?
 The phenomenon of emission of electrons when light hits a material
is called photoelectric effect
 Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photoelectrons
Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
Detector

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Detect
or

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Experimental Observations
 When plate E is illuminated by light of suitable frequency, electrons are emitted
from anode and a current is detected in Ampere.
 Photocurrent produced Vs potential difference applied graph shows that
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons,
KEmax = e Vs
 KEmax of the photoelectron is independent of light intensity.

 Electrons are emitted from the surface of the emitter almost instantaneously.
 No electrons are emitted if the incident light frequency falls below a cutoff
frequency.
 KEmax of the photoelectrons increases with increasing light frequency.

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Classical Predictions
1. There is no time interval between the arrival of light at a metal and
emission of photoelectron. Acc to CM, total energy is spread across wave
front – a time interval is expected between the two process.
2. As the intensity of light is increased (made it brighter and hence classically,
a more energetic wave), kinetic energy of the emitted electrons remains
same.
3. Higher the frequency of the light, the more energy the photoelectrons have.
Blue light results in faster electrons than red light.

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In short experimental results

contradict classical predictions.

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Einstein’s Interpretation of em radiation
(A new theory of light)
 Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy

packets (light quanta called photons now).
 The energy E, per packet depends on frequency f.

E = hf.
 More intense light corresponds to more photons,

not higher energy photons.
 Each photon of energy E moves in vacuum at the

speed of light c, where c = 3x 108 m/s.
 Each photon carries a momentum p = E/C.

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Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect
A photon of the incident light gives all its energy hf to a single

electron and
hf = Kmax + 
 is called the work function of the metal.
=The minimum energy with which an electron is
bound in the metal.

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All the observed features of photoelectric effect could
be explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
1. Because em wave energy is concentrated in photons
and not spread out, there should be no delay in the
emission of electrons. Almost one-to-one interaction
between photons and electrons.
2. All photons of frequency f have same energy. Change
in intensity will change the number of photons and not
energy.
3. Higher the frequency, higher is the photon energy and
hence the KE. (E= hf)
4. Equation shows that Kmax depends only on frequency of
the incident light. The cutoff frequency fc is  related
to by fc h =  .
If the incident frequency f is less than fc , no emission
of photoelectrons.
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Einstein predicted that a

graph of the maximum
kinetic energy Kmax Vs
frequency f would be a
straight line, given by the
linear relation,
Kmax = hf - 
And indeed such a linear
relationship was observed.
And this work wonEngineering

Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1921
Physics by Dr. Uvais
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Summary
• Einstein successfully extended Plank’s quantum

hypothesis to explain photoelectric effect.
• In Einstein’s model, light is viewed as a stream

of particles, or photons, each having energy E =
hf , where h is Plank’s constant and f is the
frequency.
• The maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the ejected

photoelectron is
Kmax = hf - 
where  is the work function

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P1: Find the energy of photon whose wavelength is 700nm?
P2: Find wavelength and frequency of a 100 MeV photon?

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‽ A 100 kW radio transmitter operates at a frequency of 880 kHz.
How many photon per sec does it emit
‽ The maximum wavelength for PE emission in tungsten is 230nm.

What wavelength of light must be used in order for electrons
with a maximum energy of 1.5 eV to be ejected.

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‽ What is the maximum wavelength of light that will cause photo
electron to be emitted from sodium? What will be the maximum
KE of the electron, if 200 nm light falls on a sodium surface?
(work function of sodium = 2.3 eV)

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P3: A sodium surface is illuminated with light having a wavelength
of 300 nm. The work function for sodium metal is 2.46 eV. Find
A. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons and
B. The cutoff wavelength for sodium.

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P4: Molybdenum has a work function of 4.2eV. (a) Find the cut off
wavelength and cut off frequency for the photoelectric effect. (b)
What is the stopping potential if the incident light has wavelength
of 180 nm?

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‽ Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by
each of the following.
a) The human body when the skin temperature is 35°C
b) The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which operates at 2000K
c) The Sun, which has a surface temperature of about 5800K.

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SJ: Section 40.2 P-14. Electrons are ejected from a metallic

surface with speeds up to 4.60 x 105 m/s when light with a
wavelength of 625 nm is used. (a) What is the work function of
the surface? (b) What is the cut-off frequency for this surface?
SJ: Section 40.2 P-16. The stopping potential for photoelectrons

released from a metal is 1.48 V larger compared to that in
another metal. If the threshold frequency for the first metal is
40.0 % smaller than for the second metal, determine the work
function for each metal.

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SJ: Section 40.1 P-1 The human eye is most sensitive to 560 nm light. What is the
temperature of a black body that would radiate most intensely at this
wavelength?
SJ: Section 40.1 P-3 A blackbody at 7500 K consists of an opening of diameter

0.050 mm, looking into an oven. Find the number of photons per second
escaping the hole and having wavelengths between 500 nm and 501 nm.
SJ: Section 40.1 P-5 The radius of our Sun is 6.96 x 108 m, and its total power
output s 3.77 x 1026 W. (a) Assuming that the Sun’s surface emits as a black body,
calculate its surface temperature. (b) Using the result, find lmax for the Sun.
SJ: Section 40.1 P-7 Calculate the energy in electron volts, of a photon whose
frequency is (a) 620 THz, (b) 3.10 GHz, (c) 46.0 MHz. (d) Determine the
corresponding wavelengths for these photons and state the classification of each
on the electromagnetic spectrum.
SJ: Section 40.1 P-9. An FM radio transmitter has a power output of 150 kW and
operates at a frequency of 99.7 MHz. How many photons per second does the
transmitter
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
• Introduction
• What is Compton Effect
• Schematic diagram of Compton’s apparatus
• Experimental Observations
• Classical Predictions
• Explanation for Compton Effect
• Conclusion
• Summary

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THE COMPTON EFFECT
(Further confirmation of photon model)
Energy and momentum of a particle is related by

equation,
E  p c m c
2 2 2 2 4
Here E is the total energy of the particle

P and m are the momentum and mass of the particle.
For massless particle, E = pc
Energy of photon
E = hf = hc / l
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
(Further confirmation of photon model)
What is Compton Effect ?

Arthur Holly Compton (1923) measured intensity of scattered X-rays from solid
target (scattering of X-rays from electrons), as function of wavelength for
different angles.

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THE COMPTON EFFECT
• X-rays are scattered at various angles by electrons as a target. In
such a scattering, a shift in wavelength is observed for the
scattered X-rays and the phenomenon is known as Compton
Effect.
• Classical physics does not predict the correct behaviour in this
effect.
• If x-ray is treated as a photon, conservation of energy and linear
momentum applied to the photon-electron collisions yields for
the Compton shift:
h
Compton Effect λ' - λ0  (1- cosθ)
mec
• Where me is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light, and
 is the scattering angle.
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THE COMPTON EFFECT
Experimental Observations
• According to classical predictions, where X-rays are treated as waves, in
Compton experiment, at a given angle only one frequency for scattered
radiation was expected.
• But, scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength for Compton scattering at 

= 0°, 45°, 90° and 135° shows two peaks.
h
λ' - λ0  (1- cosθ)
• Compton shift depends upon “m”. mec
• While colliding with loosely bound electron, m = me.
• When colliding with tightly bound electron, m = matom
• matom >> me  Δλ is negligible  undetectable.

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THE COMPTON EFFECT
The graphs for three nonzero angles show two peaks, one at l0 and one
at l’ > l0 . The shifted peak at l’ is caused by the scattering of X-rays
from free electrons. Shift in wavelength was predicted by Compton to
depend on scattering angle as
h
λ' - λ0  (1- cosθ)
mec
This is known as Compton shift equation, and the

factor h is called the Compton wavelength.
m ec
h
= 0.00243 nm
m ec
Prediction were in excellent agreement with the
experimental
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X-rays of wavelength 10 pm are scattered from a target. (a) Find the wavelength of the x-rays scattered through 450.
(b) Find the maximum wavelength present in the scattered x-rays. © Find the maximum kinetic energy of the recoil
electron

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Q. What is the frequency of an x-ray photon whose momentum is
1.1* 10-23 kg m/s2

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Q. A beam of x-ray is scattered by a target. At 450 from the beam
direction the scattered x –rays have wavelength at 2.2pm. What is
the wavelength of the x-rays in the direct beam?

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Q. At what scattering angle will incident 100 keV x-rays leave a
target with an energy of 90 KeV

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THE COMPTON EFFECT
Q: A 0.00160 nm photon scatters from a free electron. For
what photon scattering angle does the recoiling electron have
kinetic energy equal to the energy of the scattered photon?

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PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

Evidence for wave-nature of
light
• Diffraction
• Interference
Evidence for particle-nature

of light
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect

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•Light exhibits diffraction and interference

phenomena that are only explicable in terms of wave
properties.
• Photoelectric effect and Compton effect can only
be explained taking light as photons/ particle
• This means true nature of light is not describable in
terms of any single classical picture.
•In short, the particle model and the wave model of
light compliment each other.

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De Broglie
The Wave Properties of Particles
We have seen that light comes in discrete units

(photons) with particle properties (energy and
momentum) that are related to the wave-like
properties of frequency and wavelength.
In his 1923 doctoral dissertation, Louis de Broglie

postulated that because photons have both wave
and particle characteristics, perhaps all forms of
matter have wave-like properties, with the
wavelength λ related to momentum p in the same
way
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de Broglie Hypothesis
h
l Planck’s constant
h  6.63 10-34 Js
de Broglie wavelength
p
and
f= E Energy of the particle
h
frequency of the particle

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p = momentum of the particle,

h h m = mass of the particle
λ= =
p mv V = velocity of the particle
The electron accelerated through a potential

difference of V has a non relativistic kinetic energy
1
2
m v2  e V
m = mass, v = velocity
p=mv = 2me V
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1. Find the de-Broglie wavelength of,
a. a 46g golf ball with a velocity of 30 m/s
b. an electron with a velocity of 107 m/s

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Davisson -Germer experiment

&
Electron Diffraction pattern
These two experiments confirmed de- Broglie relationship p = h /l.
• Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer (1927) confirmed de Broglie’s hypothesis.
• Proved that electrons are diffracted when they are scattered by the regular atomic
arrays of crystal

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Davisson -Germer experiment
Electron Gun Collimator

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D n J Expmt – Studying the scattering of electrons from solid surface –
Classically electrons should scatter in all directions – Observations was
carried out with detector - Midst of expmt, accident happened – air entered
chamber and oxidized Ni block – Baked Ni to remove oxide layer –
Observation was different – Instead of continuous variation of scattered
intensity with angle, DnJ saw some patterns of maxima n minima – whose
position depends upon incident electron energy.
Acc to de Broglie hypothesis, incident electrons are diffracted by the planes
of atoms in Ni block.
When Ni was heated - atoms rearranged itself to form a single crystal – all
atoms arranged in a regular lattice.

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Mathematical Proof for de-Broglie wavelength
Particular case: A beam of 54 eV electron was directed
perpendicular to a Ni target and a sharp maxima occurred at an
angle 540. The angle of incidence and scattering at crystal plane
is 65o. The spacing between the brags planes is d=0.091nm.
Bragg equation : 2d sinθ = nλ
λ = 0.165 nm
De Broglie hypothesis: λ = h/p

p=
λ = 0.166 nm

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 Thus de Broglie's formula seems to apply to
any kind of matter.
 Now the dual nature of matter and radiation is

an accepted fact.
 This states that wave and particle models of

either matter or radiation compliment each
other.

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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
• What is a Quantum Particle?
• How to represent a quantum particle?
• Wave packet
•Phase velocity
•Group velocity

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What is a Quantum Particle?

• Quantum particle is a model by which particles having dual nature are
represented.
• We must choose one appropriate behavior for the quantum particle
(particle or wave) in order to understand a particular behavior.
How to represent a quantum particle?
To represent a quantum wave, we have to combine the essential

features of both an ideal particle and an ideal wave.
An essential feature of a particle is that it is localized in space.

But an ideal wave is infinitely long (unlocalized) as shown in
figure below.

Now to build a localized entity from an

infinitely long wave, waves of same
amplitude, but slightly different
frequencies are superposed.
If we add up large number of waves in a

similar way, the small localized region of
space where constructive interference
takes place is called a wave packet,
which represents a particle.
wave packet
https://youtu.be/EIqKG5TiSYs Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais
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Mathematical Representation of a wave packet
superposition of two waves of equal amplitude, but with slightly different
frequencies, f1 & f2 and wavelengths, traveling in the same direction are
considered. The waves are written as
ω = 2πν
k = 2π/λ
= ω/νp
The resultant wave is, y = y1 + y2

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The resulting wave oscillates with the average frequency,

and its amplitude envelope (in square brackets, shown by
the blue dotted curve in figure) varies according to the
difference frequency.
This envelope can travel through space with a different speed than the
individual waves. – GROUP VELOCITY (Vg) (the group of waves)
dω
υg =
dk
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Relation between group velocity and phase velocity
ω = 2πν
k = 2π/λ
= ω/νp
Substituting for k in terms of l, we get
Vg = V p + l

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Relation between group velocity and particle velocity
(Vgroup = Vparticle)
E 2π 2π 2π p
ω = 2π f = 2π and k= = =
h λ hp h
2π
dω dE dE
vg = = h =
dk 2π dp
dp
h
For a classical particle moving with velocity u, the
kinetic energy E is given by
1 2 p2 2 p dp dE p
E = mu = and dE = or = = u
2 2m 2m dp m
The dB wave group associatedEngineering

with a moving body
Physics by travels with the same velocity as
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The Heisenberg UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
 Quantum theory predicts that,
It is fundamentally impossible to know both the exact position and exact

momentum of an object at the same time.
 This principle is known as Heisenberg uncertainty principle. (werner

Heisenberg in 1927)
 The uncertainties arise from the quantum structure of matter.
For a particle represented by a single wavelength wave existing

throughout space, l is precisely known, and according to de-
Broglie hypothesis, its p is also known accurately. But the position
of the particle in this case becomes uncertain.

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THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
(x)(p) ≥ h/4 Uncertainty in position and momentum
(E)(t) ≥ h/4 Uncertainty in energy and time

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0
2.2:- Ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm is directed to a
potassium surface. Find the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. Work function of potassium is 2.2eV.

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Q (3.3): An electron has a de-Broglie wavelength of 2pm. Find its
kinetic energy, phase velocity and group velocity of its de-Broglie
wave?

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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
1. Explain (a) Stefan’s law (b) Wien’s displacement law (c) Rayleigh-Jeans law.
2. Sketch schematically the graph of wavelength vs intensity of radiation from a blackbody.
[1]
3. Explain Planck’s radiation law. [2]
4. Write the assumptions made in Planck’s hypothesis of blackbody radiation.
5. Explain photoelectric effect. [1]
6. What are the observations in the experiment on photoelectric effect?
7. What are the classical predictions about the photoelectric effect?
8. Explain Einstein’s photoelectric equation. [2]
9. Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment explained by Einstein’s photoelectric
equation? [2]
10.Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference to the photoelectric effect: (a)
photoelectric current vs applied voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic electron vs frequency of
incident light. [1EACH]
11.Explain Compton effect. [2]
12.Explain the experiment on Compton effect. [5]
13.Derive the Compton shift equation. [5]
14.Explain the wave properties of the particles. [2]
15.Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically. [2]
16.Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.
17.Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the particle speed.
18.Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. [1]
19.Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and momentum (b) energy and time.
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Quantum Physics

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Engineering Physics by Dr.

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

A black body is an ideal body that absorbs all incident

 When temperature is increased in BB, it starts remitting out the

 SUN = emits all wavelengths

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

 Cavity walls continuously absorbs and emits radiation – BLACK

 BBR is more when BB is hotter

 Radiation spectrum was observed as

1) All objects emit radiant energy.

2) Hotter objects emit more energy

3) The peak of the wavelength

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

SBL states that radiant power heat emitted by a BB is proportional to

 Stefan Boltzmann Law.

P = power radiated from the surface of the object (W)

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

T = equilibrium temperature of the blackbody. (K)

b = Wien's displacement constant

• k = 1.38064852 × 10-23 J/K - Boltzman constant

• Acc to RJF, energy density is

• This discrepancy is called

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

 Energy of the oscillator is quantized. Each discrete energy

 Difference in energy will be integral multiples of hf.

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

The characteristics of blackbody radiation cannot

Plank introduced the quantum concept and Plank’s

In Plank’s model, radiation is emitted in single

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

 KEmax of the photoelectron is independent of light intensity.

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

In short experimental results

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

 Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy

 The energy E, per packet depends on frequency f.

 More intense light corresponds to more photons,

 Each photon of energy E moves in vacuum at the

 Each photon carries a momentum p = E/C.

Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect

A photon of the incident light gives all its energy hf to a single

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Einstein predicted that a

And this work wonEngineering

• Einstein successfully extended Plank’s quantum

• In Einstein’s model, light is viewed as a stream

• The maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the ejected

where  is the work function

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

‽ The maximum wavelength for PE emission in tungsten is 230nm.

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

SJ: Section 40.2 P-14. Electrons are ejected from a metallic

SJ: Section 40.2 P-16. The stopping potential for photoelectrons

Engineering Physics by Dr. Uvais

SJ: Section 40.1 P-3 A blackbody at 7500 K consists of an opening of diameter