MIND

Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chemical Change or Chemical Reaction Physical Change

These are the changes because of the alteration in chemical
composition of the substance. These are irreversible in nature
(in most of the case).
These are the changes in which physical
properties of a substance like state, colour
etc., are altered but its chemical composition
remains the same. These changes are reversible
in nature.

Chemical Equation 1. Combination Reactions

It is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction, in which 2. Decomposition Reactions
In these reactions, two or more reactants react together to give
the reactants symbol/formula are written on the left and Ina these
singlereactions,
product. a single reactant breaks down into two or
products symbol/ formula are written on the right. These two more simpler products.
are separated by an arrow. Thermal Decomposition In these reactions, heat is used to
decompose the substance.
Electrolysis In these reactions, electricity is used to
Steps involved inBalanced
Balancing Chemical
Chemical Equation by Hit and Trial Method
Equations decompose the substance.
Step I Write unbalanced equation and enclose the formulae in brackets. Step II Make list ofInelements
Photolysis presentthe
these reactions, in substance
unbalanced is or skeletal equation. Ste
The reactions in which the total number of atoms of each
Step IV Check the correctness of equation. decomposed by using light energy.
element are equal on both sides of the equation are called
Step V Make the equation more informatory.
balanced chemical equations. 3. Displacement Reactions
In these reactions, one element displaces the other from its salt
solution.
Single Displacement Reactions In these reactions, a more
reactive element displaces the less reactive one from its salt
solution.
Double Displacement Reactions In these reactions, two
different ions in the reactant molecules are displaced by
5.Oxidation and Reduction Reactions each other.
Process which involves addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or
loss of electron is called oxidation. Reduction is the reverse of it, i.e. it
involves removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen or gain of
electron.
Redox Reactions In these reactions, oxidation and reduction process
occur simultaneously.
Oxidising Agent or Oxidant It is the substance that cause oxidation of
other substance and itself get reduced.
4. Neutralisation Reactions
Reducing Agent or Reductant It is the substance that cause In these reactions, acids and
6.Exothermic Endothermic
and bases Reactions
react to form salt and water.
reduction of other substance and itself get oxidised. Reactions accompanied by the evolution of heat are called
Effects of Oxidation Reactions exothermic (e.g. respiration) whereas the reactions occurring by
Corrosion It is the process of deterioration of metal surface by the the absorption of heat are called endothermic reaction (e.g.
action of air, water or chemical. photosynthesis).
Rancidity It is the process of slow oxidation of oil and fats present in
the food materials.
 MIND
Acid
They are the substances that have sour taste and
turn blue litmus red.
According to Arrhenius, these furnish H ions in the
aqueous solution.
Strong Acid
They ionise completely
to furnish H+ ion.
e.g. H2SO4, HCl etc.
Weak Acid
They ionise only
partially to give less
H+ ion.
Dilute Acid
In this acid, the
concentration of acid is
low.
Concentrated Acid
In this acid, the
concentra- tion of acid
Properties of
1. Reaction with Metals
Hydrogen gas is released
which burns with 'pop'
sound.
2. Reaction with Metal
Oxides In this reaction, salt
and water are produced.
3. Reaction with Carbonates
and Hydrogen Carbonates
Carbon dioxide gas is
produced, which turns lime
water milky.
4. Dilution Acids are diluted
by adding acid to water, as
the reaction is highly
exothermic.
5. Electrical Conductance
These conduct electricity in
aqueous solution because
Bases
They are the substances that have bitter taste and turn
red litmus blue.
+ According to Arrhenius, these furnish OH ions in
aqueous solution.
Salt
They are the products of
neutralisation reaction Types
of Strong Base
between acids and bases. Bases They ionise almost completely in
Based on aqueous solution, e.g. NaOH.
ionisation
Common Salt : Sodium Chloride
It is obtained by the reaction of
hydrochloric acid and sodium Weak Base
hydroxide. It is used in food and for They ionise only partially in the
the synthesis of industrially important
Types aqueous solution, e.g. CuO
chemicals like NaOH, H2,Cl2 etc.
of
Acids
Caustic Soda [Sodium Hydroxide] Alkali
It is obtained by chlor-alkali process.
Water soluble bases are called
2NaCl(aq)+2H O(l) Electric alkali. Thus, all alkalies are
2 current bases but all bases are not
Based on 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g) alkali, e.g. NaOH.
concentrati (At anode) (At cathode)
It is used for making soaps, detergents, artificial textile, fibre paper
Properties etc.
of Bases
1.Reaction with Metals
Strong bases produce
hydrogen gas when react
Bleaching Powder with active metals.
It is used for bleaching
2. Reaction with Non-metallic
purpose and has the formula Oxides Salt and water are
the products of such
reaction.
Baking Soda e.g. CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3
It is chemically sodium hydrogen + H2O
carbonate, NaHCO3. It is an 3. Dilution It is the process of
important constituent of baking mixing of base with water and
Washing Soda
Its chemical formula is
Na2CO3.10H2O (hydrated sodium Water of Crystallisation
carbonate). It is used for cleansing Some salts in their dry state
purposes and to remove permanent also have some fixed number
of water molecules associated
with them. These are called
Plaster of Paris the water of crystallisation and
It is chemically calcium sulphate such salts are
hemihydrate, CaSO . ½ H O and is obtained called hydrated salt like
42
by heating gypsum (CaSO4. 2H O) at 3732 K. washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O),
It is used for plastering of fractured bones.
 Elements contain only one kind of atoms like Na, Mg, Cl2, O2 etc.
They are categorised further as metals, non-metals and metalloids.

Metal Non- Metalloids

They are electronegative elements, i.e. have They possess the properties of metals
a tendency to form anion by gaining as well as non-metals. They are very few
electron(s) in numbers, e.g. Ge, Ga etc.
losing electron(s), e.g. Cu, Fe, Au, Na

Metal Extraction
Physical Properties Metallurgy
Malleability It is the property of It is the process of extraction
Physical Properties
metals to get converted into thin of metals from their ores. Metallic Lustre Non-metals
sheets on beating and is except iodine and graphite, do
maximum in gold and silver. not possess metallic lustre.
Ductility It is the property of Conductivity Non-metals are
metals due to which these can Minerals generally poor conductors of heat
be drawn into wires. It is The compounds
maximum in gold.
Oresinand
theGangue
form of which and electricity because of the
metal occur naturally are called absence of free electrons.
The minerals from which metal is Chemical Properties
Conductivity Metals are extracted profitably are called the ores
generally good conductors of and the impurities associated with Reaction with Oxygen Non-metals
heat and electricity because of them are called gangue. also form oxides but their nature is
the presence of free electrons. generally acidic, (e.g. P2O5, SO2 and
Steps of Extraction CO2 as they produce acid with
Chemical Properties water) or neutral, (e.g. CO, H2O,
Reaction with Water In this reaction, metalConcentration
oxide and hydrogen
of Oreare obtained. Metal
NO2oxide
etc.) further reacts with water to form metal hydroxid
Reaction with Dilute Acids Reactive It metals generally form salt and hydrogen withFormation
HCl or H2SO4, but not
of Covalent with HNO3.
Compounds
is the process of removal of
Reaction with Solution of Other Metals impurities of sand, clay etc., from Non-metals react with other non-
Reactive metals displace the less reactive
the metals
metal. from their metals to form covalent
salt solution. compounds
e.g. A+BC  AC+B. like H2S,H2O etc.

Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

Metals of Metals of Metals of The bond formed by the complete
High Medium Low transfer of an electron from a metal
atom to a non-metal atom is called
Electrolysis ionic bond.
Sulphide
of molton
or Cu+AgNO3  Cu(NO3)2 +2+ Ag Properties of Ionic Compounds
The order of reactivity is Pure metal Roasting They are brittle and have high melting
K>Na>>Ca>Mg>Al>Zn>Fe and boiling point.
>Sn>H>Cu>Hg>Ag>Au. They are soluble in water.
This series is called reactivity series.
Carbonate Sulphide They are conductor of electricity in
Alloy formation Alloys are homogeneous oremixtures of two
oreor more metals or a metal and aaqueous solution or in molten
non-metal. Alloy of metal with Hg (mercury) is called amalgam. state because of the presence of
Metal
Oxide to Reduction to Purification of

Calcination Roasting Refining

 MIND
Carbon and Its Compounds

ALLOTROPES OF
These are different forms of carbon that differ in
arrangement and in number but are same
Diamo
nd
The hardest rigid three dimensional
network, which is non-conductor of
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
These are the compounds of carbon except its
oxides, carbonates and hydrogen carbonate salts.
Hydrocarbons
These are the compounds of carbon and hydrogen only.
Saturated Hydrocarbons
 They have only single bonds between any two
atoms.
 Their general formula is CnH2n+2.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
A bond which is formed by the sharing of electrons.
Covalency
It is the number of electrons shared by an
atom in bonding.
Properties of Covalent Compounds
 Weak bond
 Low melting and boiling point

Graphi  They have atleast one multiple bond between two  Insoluble in water
carbon atoms along with the single bonds.  Non-conductor of electricity
te
It is an opaque substance with
hexagonal planar layer structure and
is a good conductor of electricity. It is Alkenes or Olefins Functional Group
 These have a C-C double bond along It is an atom or group of atoms responsible for
with single bonds. the chemical properties of an organic compound.
 Their general formula is CnH2n.
Fullere
ne
It is the recently discovered allotrope
and CATENATIHomologous Alkyn
Series es
A series of compounds having same functional  These have atleast one C-C
group but a difference of —CH2 unit (14 unit triple bond along with single

It is the self linking tendency of an

element in the form of straight chains
or cyclic rings. It decreases with
decrease in element bond strength.
Chemical Properties
In these properties, chemical
composition of the substance gets
changed.
Rules for Drawing Structure
1. Connect all the C atoms by single bond.
2. Satisfy the tetravaleny of each C by available H
atoms.
3. Satisfy the remaining valency, if any, by multiple
bonds.
Ethanol, C2H5OH
 It is obtained from sugar and soluble in water.
 It gives ethene on reaction with conc
H2SO4 at 160 °C.
 It gives sodium ethoxide with Na.
 It is called denatured alcohol, if mixed
with methanol, pyridine, etc.

Oxidati
Combustion Rules for Nomenclature
1.Write the root word according to number of C
Ethanoic Acid, CH3 COOH
It is the reaction inonwhich CO2 and atoms.  Also called acetic acid.
H2It
O is
arethe
obtained
processbyof burning
intake oforganic
2.Add suffix ‘ane’ if all are single bonds or ‘ene’ for
 Its 5-8% aqueous solution is called vinegar.
compound.
oxygen Saturated hydrocarbons
double bond and ‘yne’ for triple bond.  It gives sweet smelling substance ester when
burns
and with blue of
removal flame due to their
hydrogen.
treated with alcohol.
complete combustion. 3.If functional group is present, replace ‘e’ of name
of hydrocarbon by suffix of the group.
 It gives CO2 gas with sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate.
Addition
In them, the reagents add completely
to the substrate. e.g., hydrogenation Fuels
(addition of H2) to vegetable oil to They provide heat and light when burnt. These Soaps
Detergents
obtained ghee (hardening of oil in the are called fossil fuels, when obtained from  These are sodium or potassium salts of long
presence of Ni as catalyst). fossils. e.g., coal, petroleum, etc.  These are ammonium or sulphonate salt of long
chain fatty acids (RCOONa) ; here R = C15H31,
chain carboxylic acid.
C17H35
 They do not form scum with hard water, so
These are obtained by alkaline hydrolysis of
Substitution can be used with it.
In them, an atom or group of atoms Flame fats and oils (saponification).
 These are also called soapless soap.
They remove dirt and oil from clothes by
replace another atom or group from It is the region where combustion of gases takes
the substrate. place. Micelle formation.
It is shown by alkanes and occur in Blue Flame
the presence of sunlight.  Also called non-luminous flame.
 Obtained when oxygen is sufficient or in excess.
Yellow Flame
 Also called luminous flame.
 Obtained when oxygen is sufficient.
 Its yellow colour is because of the presence
of unburnt carbon particles.
 MIND
Periodic Classification of Elements
Earlier Attempts
Lavoisier’s Classification
Elements were divided into two groups,
metals and non-metals.
Dobereiner’s Triads
Here elements were classified into a group of three Valency = group no. (for mass
,
Newlands Law of Octaves
It stated that when the known elements
were arranged in the increasing order of
their atomic mass, every eighth element
had properties similar to first one.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
 It is based on Mendeleev periodic law
which states that the properties of
the elements are the periodic
functions of their atomic masses.
 It contains 8 groups and 6 periods.
Features
Presence of gap for undiscovered elements
Correction in atomic mass
Prediction of properties of element
Limitations
Position of hydrogen
Placing for isotopes
Uncertainty in atomic masses
Presence of a few heavier elements before
Modern Periodic Table
Periodic Properties
These are the properties which show a  It is based on modern periodic law which states
regular trend along a period and in a group. periodic law which states that the properties of
the elements are the periodic function of their
atomic numbers.
 It contains 18 groups and 7 periods.
Valency
 It is combining tendency of an element
to achieve inert gas configuration.
Features
 elements
and atomic 1, 2 group)
of the middle More
element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of other two elemen
details
Valency = group no. –10 (for 13 and 14 Have a separate group
group) =18 – group no. (for rest of the Position of isotopes is clear.
groups).
Elements are operated by definite gap of atomic number
 It remains same in a group. Provides a unique position to hydrogen.
 In a period, it first increases upto 4
and then decreases.
Atomic Size Predicting Position of An Element
 It shows the distance between the nucleus Write electronic configuration of the element.
and valence e–. Period number = number of shells.
 It decreases along a period from left Group number = number of valence e– (if valence e– = 1 or 2) o
to right but increases down a group. +10 (if valence e– >2)
Metallic Character
It is the tendency to lose electron and form a positive ion.
It decreases along a period and increases on moving down a group.
Reactivity
In case of metals, it increases on moving down a group.
In case of non-metals, it decreases on moving down a group.
Non-metallic Character
It the tendency to give one or more electron (s) to form a negative on.
It increases along a period and decreases on moving down a group due to increase in size.
Electronegativity
It is the relative electron attracting tendency of an atom for a sh
It increases along a period from left to right and decreases on m
Nature of Oxides
Oxides of metals are basic and of non- metals are acidic.
The acidic nature of oxides increases along a period from left to right and decreases on moving down a group.
Thethe lighter
basic oneof oxides follow the order.
nature
 MIND
Respiration
It is a process by which food is oxidised to release energy. For this O2
is required from outside of the body. It is a catabolic process of biochemical
oxidation of nutrients such as glucose.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

It occurs in the presence of oxygen and releases largeIt amount
occurs inofthe absence
energy. Theofenergy
oxygenreleased
and releases small amount
by respiration of energy.
is in the form of ATP. ATP stan

Alcoholic Fermentation It is incomplete breakdown of sugar into ethanol and carb

Lactic Acid Fermentation
It is incomplete breakdown of sugar into lactic acid. It takes place in some bacteria or in human muscles.

Respiration in Plants
Plants get energy through the process of respiration that is utilised in growth and life functions. Plant exchange gases through the following

In Stems
In Roots Gaseous exchange takes place by Gaseous
diffusion exchange takes place by lenticels
from air. In Leaves in woodyexchange
Gaseous plants andoccurs
stomata in herbaceous
through stomata. plant

Respiration in Animals
Animals respire through skin or constitute specific organs which make respiratory system of an organism. These organs have a structu

Aquatic Organisms Terrestrial Organisms

Rate of breathing is higher in aquatic organisms as level of dissolved oxygen inThey use
water is atmospheric oxygen
less than level for respiration.
of oxygen in air. Respire through gills.

Respiratory Pigment
Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Humans Haemoglobin Respiration in Human
is the respiratory Beings
pigment
Humans absorb oxygen from atmosphere through the process of that carries
Respiratory oxygen
system in in bloodbeings
human to cellsprovides
of body.oxygen to
inhalation. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs between body and removes carbon dioxide from body. It
blood vessels and alveoli. Carbon dioxide is exhaled from body through constitutes of organs like nostrils, nasal passage, pharynx,
lungs to the atmosphere in a process called exhalation. trachea, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, alveoli, ribs
 MIND
Transportation
It is a life process of carrying absorbed or made substances from one part
of the body to its other parts.

Transportation in Human Beings Transportation in Plants

The transport system of human beings consists of fluid called Plants need a proper transport system to carry water and
blood that is pumped by heart through blood vessels. Blood minerals from root to leaves and stored food from leaves to other
transports nutrients, salts, oxygen, hormones and other parts. There are two transportation pathway, consisting of two
substances around the body. conducting tissues.

Blood
alled haemoglobin. It supplies O2 and nutrients to living cells. It consist of plasma (55%) and blood corpuscles (45%). Blood corpuscles are RBCs, WBCs and plate
Xylem Phloem
It transports
It transports
waterfood
and (like
minerals
sugar)
obtained
from leaves
from the
to other
soil. parts of plant and this transport is term

Functions of Blood
etory products, hormones, oxygen, carbon dioxide, regulation of pH, body temperatureTransport
and protection
of from diseases
Water etc.dueoftoFood
Transport
It occurs transpiration
Productspullofand
photosynthesis are
root pressure. organs of roots, fruits and seeds
growing parts of plant by using energy from ATP.

Heart
g 4 chambers-2 auricles and 2 ventricles. Left auricle and ventricle have pure blood and right auricle and ventricle contains impure blood.
Transpiration
It is loss of water in the form of vapour from aerial parts of plant. It is essential for temperature regulation removing excess of w

Blood Vessels
ke pure blood from heart to body tissues and veins are the tubes that transport impure blood from body tissues to heart.
tubes, which connect arteries to veins and allow exchange of materials between blood and body cells.

Lymph
It is liquid, similar to plasma but contains less proteins. It carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains e

Blood
Flow of Blood in Humans Pressure
Humans show double circulation. It has two components, pulmonary andThe pressure
systemic at which blood is pumped around the body
circulation.
The movement of blood from heart to the lungs and back to heart constitutesby heart is called circulation.
pulmonary blood pressure. Normal BP is
The circulation of blood from heart to different parts of the body except lungs and back to heart constitutes systemic circulation.
 It is a biological process by which an organism removes
harmful metabolic wastes from the body

Excretory system
Excretion in Human
in humans removes the nitrogen Plants excrete various waste products during their
Excretion in Plants
containing wastes such as urea in the form of urine life processes.

Excretory System

Ureter Urinary Bladder Urethra

They are paired, thin muscular tubes coming It is a duct which transmits
Urine is stored
from each kidney and open into urinary urine from the urinary bladder
here
bladder. They help in passage of urine. to the exterior of the body.

Kidney Gaseous Waste Products

It is the main organ of excretory system. It is Carbon dioxide and oxygen are excreted out
reddish brown and bean-shaped organ. through stomata and lenticels.
Functions of Kidney
Removal of excess water and waste .
Regulation of blood plasma concentration. Liquid Waste Products
Regulation of blood pH. Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration through
stomata.

Nephron
Each kidney is made up of thousands of tiny tubules Solid Waste Products
called nephron. It is the structural and functional unit of
Some plants store waste substances in cell vacuoles
kidney.
and tissues with dead cells, get rid of them by dropping
their leaves.

Formation of Urine
Ultrafiltration of blood occurs in glomerulus of
Useful Plant Wastes
Bowman's capsule. Some plants wastes are useful for human beings.
Selective reabsorption of useful substances occurs Examples:
in tubule, forming urine. Essential oils.
Gums to make adhesives and resins to make
glazing agents.
Natural rubber for tyre industry and tannin for
Removal of Urine treatment of leather.
Urine is stored in urinary bladder and pass out
through urethra, under nervous control.

Artificial Kidney
It is a device that removes nitrogenous wastes
products from blood through dialysis, in case of
 MIND
Control and Coordination
The working together of various organs of a living organism in a systematic, controlled
and efficient way to produce proper response to various stimuli is known as
coordination.

Coordination in Humans Coordination in Plants

Humans have nervous system and hormones to control and coordinate
Plants
response
use electrical-chemical
to the change in environment.
means to convey the information from one cell to

Nervous System
It is a system of neurons, nerves and nervous organs which links, coordinates and controls the activities of different organs in the body.

Plant Movements
Plants show two types of movements.

Functions of Nervous system

Regulates voluntary and involuntary movements. Collects information from outside world.
Helps in thinking and reasoning . Controls reflex action of human body. Tropic Movements Nastic Movements
Movement of plant occurs in Movement occurs irrespective
direction of stimulus, to direction of stimuli,
e.g. phototropism, geotropism e.g. photonasty, thigmonasty
hydrotropism and chemotropism. thermonasty and seismonasty.
Neurons
They are structural and functional units of nervous system
which detect information from environment. They are known Plant Hormones
as longest cell of body with length of 90-100 cm each. They They information
are chemicalinsubstances produced naturallyby
in en
p
consist of cell body, dendrites, axon and nerve endings.
Animal Hormones They transfer organism. They are secreted
Auxin helps to grow longer. Gibbrellins help in growth
Neurons are of three types Abscisic acid inhibits growth.
Sensory Motor Relay

Synapse
Small gap between neurons where nerve impulse passes from one neuron to another.

Endocrine glands
They include pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands and gonads; and secrete
Reflex Action
It is a rapid, automatic response to the stimulus
that is controlled through the spinal cord. Hormonal Disorders
 Dwarfism Hyposecretion of growth hormone.
Brain  Gigantism Hypersecretion of growth hormone.
It is the main coordinating centre of the body which  Diabetes When amount of insulin secreted by the body is
enables an organism to think and take decisions. It is in less concentration.
divided into three parts, i.e. forebrain, midbrain and  Goitre Iodine deficiency that causes less secretion
hindbrain. Brain and spinal cord constitute the central of thyroxine.

Peripheral Nervous System Feedback Mechanism

Consists of all the nerves that connects different parts of The amount and timing of hormones released are
body, i.e. cranial, spinal and visceral. controlled by feedback mechanism.
 Asexual Reproduction
It is the production of offspring by a single parent
without the formation and fusion of gamete.
e.g. binary fission in Amoeba, budding in Hydra,
spore formation in Rhizopus, fungus and vegetative
propagation in flowering plant like rose, etc.
Fission
The splitting of a unicellular organism into two
or more than two separate daughter cells.
Binary Fission Parent organism divides into
two identical daughter organisms with definite
orientation, e.g. Amoeba, Euglena.
Multiple Fission Parent organism divides into
many identical daughter organisms e.g.
Plasmodium.
Fragmentation
It is a form of asexual reproduction in which
multicellular organisms break up into two or
more small fragments or pieces, e.g.
Spirogyra.
Significance Variations Sexual Reproduction
 It is a rapid mode of multiplication. Variations are the differences found in
the morphological and physiological It is the process of development of new
 Cell division takes place either individual through formation and fusion
mitotically or amitotically. features of an organism.
e.g. in a colony, some members of gametes,
 The new individuals produced after e.g. human, dogs, cats, frogs, etc.
get resistant against antibiotics as
cell divisions are always genetically
a result of variations.
identical to their parents, e.g. clone.
 A single parent is involved,
e.g. opposite sexes are not
involved.
Significance
 It does not involve the fusion of
gametes. In Flowering  It is not a rapid mode of multiplication.
Plants  Cell division involves meiosis at some
Flowering plants are stages.
Pollination generally  The new individuals produced after
The transfer of pollen grains from the Angiosperms. They cell division exhibit variation, e.g.
anther of the stamen to the stigma of a carry the reproductive offspring are different from parents in
flower is termed as pollination. parts within the flower eye colours, hair etc.
Self pollination In which, the pollen from and seeds enclosed in  It requires the involvement of two
the stamen of a flower is transferred to a fruit, e.g. formation of parents (a male and a female).
the stigma of a same flower. gametes  It involves the formation and fusion of
(gametogenesis).
Cross pollination In which, the pollen gametes.
from the stamen of a flower is transferred
to the stigma of a different flower.
In Human Beings
Fertilisation

Puber
Regeneration
A fully differentiated organism can give rise Fusion of male gamete with female
to new individual organism from tyits body gamete to form zygote.
part,

Reproductive
Male Reproductive

Birth Control
Birth control barrier, hormonal, chemical and Testes
Accessory Glands
Buddi surgical method. Includestructure
Paired paired seminal vesicles, prostate
Barrier Condom, Diaphragm, and urethral
lying in glands.
ng
IntraUterineContraceptive Device (IUCD)
A daughter organism is formed from a small
projection known as bud, which develops as Hormonal Oral contraceptive pills
an outgrowthSpore
due toFormation
repeated cell division on Chemical Spermicide
Living cells of spore have the ability to Surgical Vasectomy, tubectomy.
germinate and give rise to a new colony,
e.g. Rhizopus. Female Reproductive System
STDs Consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair of oviduct,
STDs e.g. AIDS, syphilis transmitted by sexual uterus, cervix, vagina and external genitalia.
Vegetative Propagation contact with infected person.
New plants are obtained from a part of the Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoea
parent plant without the involvement of Syphilis Treponema pallidum
Menstruati
reproductive organs. AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) Fertilisation
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) on
Natural Under favourable condition, various Process of fusion
Menstrual cycle of sperm
begins andpuberty
with egg to produce zygote.
at the age of 11-13 years.
structures take part in this type of reproduction Genital warts HPV (Human Papilloma Virus)
Implantation (embedding is
The first menstruation of called
embryomenarche.
in thick lining of uterus).of
The stoppage
known as natural vegetative propagation, menstruation
Gestation (periodpermanently is called
from development tillmenopause.
child birth).It occurs
e.g. root tubers.
Parturition (strong rhythmic muscular contraction in the uterus).
Artificial The methods such as cutting, layering Tissue Culture
and grafting are known as methods of artificial (In vitro micropropagation) Maintain tissues or
vegetative propagation in order to grow many organs under sterile in vitro to grow disease
plants like sugarcane, roses, grapes, etc. free plants, e.g. ornamental plant like orchids.
 Traits Evolution
Variation Features (similarities or differences)
Difference in traits shown by individuals of a It occurs because of errors in DNA copying
of an individual. and as a result of sexual reproduction. Also
species during reproduction.
called organic evolution.

Environmental Variations
Includes diet, chemicals, radiation, education and environmental pollution. Speciation
Diet Substances to quench physical requirement.
Development Acquired
of one Traitsfrom an existingInherited
or more species species. Traits
Pollution Undesirable changes which attack quality
Non-genetic
Allopatric Speciation of resources.
and non-heritable.
The development of new species from
Genetic population
and occurring
inheritable. in different
e.g. height, area
skin and eyedue to some
colour, etc.physical barrier. Symaptric Speciati
Radiation Ionizing radiation. Chemicals Mutagenic substances
e.g. language, lead toetc.
intelligence, environmental variations.

Inheritance of Traits: Mendelism

Sex-determination
Factors (now termed genes) are theAcarriers of traits.
mechanism by which sex of a newborn is determined. Sex of an individual also affects inherita
Law of dominance
Law of segregation Classification
Genetic Variations Species classification is the reflection of their evolutio
Law of independent assortment.
Genetic differences in a population may arise due to mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction.

Evolutionary Evidences
Mutation
Sudden inheritable change in gene or chromosome. Homologous Characters
Artificial Similar origin and basic structure due to common
vertebrates (lizard, man, frogs).
Natural Sex Determination Sex-Determination
Modification of species by the process of selective breeding in order to produce a new strain of organism.
XY Sex determination
Meiosis e.g. Humans/Drosophila XO Sex determination
Reductional division which is required for gamete formation.
e.g. Insects
ZW Sex determination e.g. Birds
Analogous Characters
Different origin and basic structure but show sim
Sexual Reproduction e.g. wings of bats and birds (looks different) are
Fusion of two gametes which is the reason of variation in offspring.
Human Evolution Fossils
All human
Dead beings
and decayed
presentremains
today belong
of organism
to a simple
from past
species Homo sapiens which has evolved via bipedal locomotion, high cranial cap
are used to study the existence of extinct species.
Mould fossils
Cast fossils
Trace Fossils
true form fossils
Dating of fossils can be determined by carbon dating and digging of earth to the deepest layer.
 When a light ray falls on smooth
REFLECTI
surface it bounces back in same
medium, it is called reflection of light. Convex Mirror Nature of Image and its Formation
Whose reflecting surface is curved
Image
outward. Also called diverging
Object  Between F & P
mirror Focal length = positive i M  Diminished
Laws of Reflection Magnification (m) = positive At 4 r
 Virtual and erect
Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie in same plane at same point. A
A
Angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r). B B
Object P F C
Spherical Mirror At any point
Whose reflecting surface is curved. between 4 & P
N
Object M Image
Mirror At 4  Virtual
It is a smooth reflecting surface whose one side is polished.  Point sized
Concave Mirror
 Behind mirror
Whose reflecting surface is
curved inward. P F
Also called converging mirror
Focal length = negative
Plane Mirror Magnification (m) = – ve or + N
Whose reflecting surface is
plane.
Focal length = infinity (¥)
Nature of image
 Always forms virtual image
 Object distance (u) is always Nature of Image & its Formation
equal to the image distance M
(v). MD M A D
A A
 Always erect image is formed
Object (At

ir B
behind the mirror. P
B B P B C F
 Magnification (m) of the plane P
Object
Object

C F C F A
mirror is +1, which means
A E
the size of object is equal to N
B N D
size of image. N Image
Image Image
Real, inverted Real, inverted
Real, inverted
At F At C
Between C and F
Diminished Same size
Diminished
Image Formation
Flat mirror Where, Object (between F & C) M E Object (at F) M E Object (between F & P)
(u = v) A AD B A
M E
C D C A
B BF P F P
i
C F Br P B
N At infinity N
Image Image
A N
Real, inverted Virtual, erect
u v Image
At infinity Behind mirror
Real, inverted
Magnified Enlarged
Beyond C
Enlarged
 Concave
Lens
 It is also called diverging lens.
REFRACTION Laws of Refraction  Focal length = – ve
Incident ray, refracted ray and normal all lie in the same plane, at a same point.
Ratio of sine of angle i and sine of angle r is a constant called refractive index.
When light rays travel from one medium to other, either they bend towards the normal or away from the normal, it is called refraction of light.

i.e., sin i = constant = µ

sin r
It is also called Snell's law .
Lens
other transparent material with
ncentrating or dispersing light rays, used single (in magnifying glass) or with other lens (in a telescope) is called lens.

Image Formation & its Nature

Object (at infinity) M Image
Sign Convention Convex Lens At focus
A It is also called converging lens. Virtual, erect
Direction of Focal length = + ve Point sized
incident light Magnification (m) = – ve or + ve
upwards

2FFO
1 1
Height

Distance towards
Distance towards right positive
BB′ left negative N
X′ X
P Object (any point between 4 and O)
Height downwards M
negative A Image
Mirror A Between F 1and O
Virtual, erect
A 2F1 B F B O Diminished
1

Power of Lens (P)

Image Formation & its Nature
If is defined as the reciprocal of focal lengt
Object (4) Image
Real Image i.e. Power (P) = 1 (meter)
At focus Real, inverted f
F Object F 2F Beyond 2F
P 2F P  P 2F  P SI unit of Power = dioptre (D)
2F F F Image
(Between F and 2F)
Image
Real, inverted For convex lens, For
P = concave
+ ve lens, P = – ve
Between F & 2F Image
Object F 2F Object F2F Real, inverted
Beyond 2F 2F  P P   At 4
F Image P  (at F ) 2F  F 

Image
Object Real, inverted Image F 2F Image
F 2F P
P
2F  F
P   At 2F 2F F  P  Virtual,
On same erect
side of object
Image (Between
(at 2F)
F and O)
 MIND
Human Eye and The Colourful World
HUMAN EYE
Structure and Function
Cornea
It is a transparent membrane covering in front of eye. (Short sightedness) In this, a person is Itnot able to see distant objects, but can see nearby
Function Maximum
refraction of light takes place.
Lens
It is a transparent living
material.
Function Focus image on retina.
Iris
It is a muscular diaphragm.
Function Controls size of pupil.
Pupil
s a small hole between iris. Function Regulates entry of light.
Ciliary Muscle
It is a muscle which hold the eye lens.
Function Helps in accommodation.
Retina
It has rod and cone cells.
Function Image formation takes place.
Optic Nerve
It is made up of nerve optical
fibre.
Function Transmits
visual information to
Aqueous Humour
The liquid between cornea
and eye lens.
Function Helps to refract
light to be focused on
retina, maintains
REFRACTION SCATTERING OF LIGHT
Defects of Vision Prism Atmosphere
Myopia Angle of Deviation Atmospheric Refraction
is the angle between incident and Refraction
objects.
of light
emergent ray. due to multiple layers of atmosphere is ca
Image formed before retina and corrected by concave lens.
It depends on angle of prism, angle of incidence and angle of emergence.
Dispersion Applications
Hypermetropia It is a phenomenon of splitting of light into its constituent colours. Cause of dispersion is due to
different
(Long sightedness) In this, a person is not able tovelocities
see nearbyof objects.
light in same
Stars seem higher than they actually are due to atmosp
medium.
Image is formed behind retina and corrected by convex lens.
Red light deviates least.
Violet light deviates maximum.
Twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction.
Rainbow
Presbyopia
It is natural dispersion of light
It is due to old age mostly farsightedness.
Corrected by bifocal lens formed by the rain drop, when sunlight falls on it.
Rainbow is formed due to refraction, dispersion and total internal reflection of light.
We see the sun for few minutes even after it has actua
Astigmatism
In this defect, a person can’t identify vertical and horizontal lines.
Corrected by cylindrical lens.
Applications The sun appears oval (or flattened) at sunset and sunri
Sky appears blue due to large scattering of blue colour in comparison with others.
Tyndall effect - The effect by which if light ray is passed through colloidal solution, formation of
Colour Blindness
It is a genetic defect. Persons cannot identify colours.
It can’t be corrected.
Reflection of light from an object in all directions is called s
Conditions for Scattering
Vitreous Humour Small particle scatters shorter wavelength.
The liquid between eye Large particle scatters longer wavelength.
lens and retina.
Function Provides the
eye its form and shape.
 MIND
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
An electric current flowing in a wire produces magnetic field around it.

It is a space surrounding a magnet in which a It is a device which It is a phenomenon of induction of

magnetic force Magnetic
is exerted. Electric Electromagnetic
emf in a coil when there is a change in
converts electrical
It has magnitude as well as direction. energy into mechanical magnetic flux linked with coil.
Magnetic force may be attractive or repulsive in energy.
nature. Used in electric fans, Fleming's Right-Hand Rule
Its SI unit is tesla or weber/m2.
If the thumb, forefinger and
1 T = 1 N/A-m = 104 gauss the middle finger of your right-
hand are at right angle to one
Domestic Electric another in such a way that the
Circuit It uses parallel forefinger points in the
Magnetic Field Lines
direction of magnetic field and
A pattern of continuous curves in a magnetic field connections at various
the middle finger points the
such that the tangent at any point gives the electrical point at direction of induced current
direction of magnetic field at that point. 220 V, 50 Hz power. then the thumb gives the
Field lines come out of North poles and goes Short-circuit occurs
into South pole. No two field lines intersect each when two wires touch
each other due to fault in
the appliance.
Electric Generator
Circular Converts mechanical energy
Overloading occurs due to into electrical energy.
Loop accidental rise in supply
Magnetic field lines are represented by voltage and connecting
concentric circles that appear as straight lines many devices to one Magnetic Flux
near the centre of loop. Magnetic field socket. Product of magnetic field and the area
produced at the centre of loop. Fuse is a safety device through which magnetic field passes.
Directly on the current, directly on the having short length of thin

Electromagnet
Solenoi Soft iron is used for making DC and AC
Magnetic field produced is similar to the
magnetic field produced by a bar magnet. electromagnet or temporary Current If current
Depends on the number of turns per magnet. It works on the magnetic flows in one direction
unit length and current passing through effect of current. It is used in then it is called Direct
it. electric bell, telephone etc. Current (DC).
If the current reverses
Right Hand Thumb Rule direction after equal
Pattern due to Straight Conductor This rule is used to find the intervals of time then it is
Magnetic field lines are represented by concentric direction of magnetic field due to called Alternating Current
circles and become larger as the distance a straight current-carrying wire. (AC).
increases. It states that if we consider AC produced in India
Depends directly on the length of wire, directly ourselves winding a cork screw in reverses its direction
on the current passing through the wire and the direction of current, then the every 1/100 second.
inversely on the distance from the wire. direction of rotation of the cork AC can be transmitted
screw is the direction of the over long distances

Force on a Current-Carrying Fleming's Left Hand Rule

A magnet exerts a mechanical force on a current- If the forefinger, thumb and middle finger of
carrying conductor. left- hand are stretched mutually
Force acting on the conductor is perpendicular to the perpendicular, then forefinger points along the
direction of magnetic field. direction of magnetic field.
 MIND
Our Environment

Ecosystem Human Impact on Environment

It was introduced by Tansley in 1935. All the interacting
organisms in an area together with the non-living components of the environment.

Waste Substances Ozone Depletion

The left over or discarded substance. It can be in the solid, liquid or gaseous forms.
Formation of ozone Ozone (O3) is a molecule f
Types of Ecosystem Food Chain
Components of Ecosystem
Link of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food.
Unidirectional flow from one organism to another.
O2  O + O
UV

Biodegradable O + O2  O3 (Ozone)
Natural Artificial It shields the surface of the earth from UV rays
Substances Use of CFCs have led to the deletion of ozone
Created
Naturally existing without human and maintained by humans.
support. These can be broken down into simple harmless forms naturally by action of microorganisms.
The largest man-made ecosystem is agroecosystem.
Terrestrial (desert, forest, etc). Pollute environment when present in huge quantities.
Aquatic (ponds, lakes, estuaries, aquariums, parks, botanical gardens, etc.
e.g., etc). e.g., Livestock waste, left over food articles, etc.
Energy Flow
Food chain shows how food and energy passes from one organism to another in a habitat.

Non-biodegradable Substances
These cannot be broken down into simpler harmless forms by microorganisms.
Biotic Components Garbage Management
PolluteLevel
Trophic the environment majorly. e.g., plastic, heavy metals etc.
Include all the living organisms present in the ecosystem. The household waste is called garbage.
ude mainly three categories of organisms The transfer of food or energy in the various steps in the food chain forms
Thetrophic
wastelevel.
should be disposed off in a scientifi
rs (make their own food) e.g., plants. Only 10% energy is available to the next trophic level in chain. etc.
Producers
ers (depend on producers for their nutritional requirements)e.g., grazing animals, humans. occupy first trophic level. Methods include Recycling Composting Inciner
Primary Consumers occupy second trophic level.
osers organisms of decay, feed on decaying and dead matter, e.g., bacteria fungi. Landfills
Secondary consumers occupy third trophic level. Sewage treatment Biogas production.

Abiotic Components
Non-living features of ecosystem on which an organism depends. It includes physical factors as light, temperature, wind, etc.

Biological Magnification
Phenomenon of progressive increase in the concentration of toxicant at each successiv
e.g., Pesticides like DDT, sprinkled on plants enters the body of human beings through

Food Web
Network of various food chains being inter connected at various trophic levels.
 MIND
Management of Natural Resources

Inexhaustible Natural Resource (Water) Exhaustible Natural Resource

Water forms the basic necessity for all life forms.

Rainwater is important source of water.
Forests and Wildlife Fossil Fuels
Forest is an extensive area of land covered with trees and other plants.
They are hot spots of biodiversity.
Stakeholders are the person or a group of organisation that may have any kind of interest is project outcome either directly or in
Management of Water Resources
Coal Petroleum
Combustible organic fuel composed of mainly carbon and
Naturally
its compounds.
occuring liquid composed of org

Dams
Act as the barriers being constructed
across rivers to hold water.
Used for irrigation, generation of electricity, etc. Conservation of Forest and Wildlife
Narmada Bachao Andolan was protest against raising the Devi
Amrita height of Sardar
Bishnoi Sarovar
Award Dam
for the and the river
conservation Narmada.
of forest and
Both wildlife
coal in 1731 who
and petroleum arealong
madewith
from363 others sacrified
degradation her life
of biomass for the
millions of p
Chipko Andolan (Hug the Trees Movement) started in 1970They from Renifor
are used village, Garhwal.
energy in different purposes.
Coal and petroleum on burning release out CO2, H2O, oxides of nitrogen

Canals Global Warming

Continuous
onstructed to allow the passage of boats and ships inland or to convey water increase in amount of CO2 (a greenhouse gas) in atmosphere will lead to intense global warming. Thus, resou
for irrigation.

Water Harvesting Need for Conservation

Act of capturing rain water Due to limited
where resources,
it falls or run off inita islocal
mandatory
area. to the control of damage for long term gains.

Three Rs
Tanks
e chamber used to store water for drinking, irrigation and agriculture purpose.
Reduce Recycle
Reuse
Minimise use Process for use again
Conventional Water Water
Traditional Harvesting
Harvesting Use again and again
Digging small pits andtraditional
Different lakes. structures or units are made in different regions for water harvesting.
Built small e.g.
earthen dams.
Bundlus (MP and UP), Kaltas (Karnataka), Ponds (Jammu), Bandharas and Jals (Maharashtra), etc.
By setting dykes, sand and limestone reservoirs, etc.
GAP Sustainable Development
introduced in 1985 to reduce the pollution load on the most important river (Ganga) of India. Encourages growth that meet the current basic human needs while pre
It is the development which can be maintained for a long time without
 MIND
Sources of Energy
Provide adequate amount of energy in a convenient form over a long
period of time.

Energy
Non-renewable Sources of Energy Sources of energy which
Renewable are being
Sources ofproduced
Energycontinuously
sources that once depleted cannot be in nature and are inexhaustible.
e.g. solar energy, nuclear energy, energy from sea etc.

Conventional Sources Wind Energy

Sources of energy which Energy possessed by the Non-conventional Sources
are exhaustible and formed wind due to its high speed. Energy sources which do not deplete and are scarcely
in nature after long period. It is an used by the population.

Fossil Fuels Windmill Solar Cooker

Machine which works with Solar Energy
Natural fuels such as
the energy of blowing air or The energy obtained from the
coal, petroleum and Solar Cells
natural gas formed Sun in the form of ultraviolet
from remains of rays, infrared rays, visible
Hydro Power Plant Wind Generator Solar Panels light etc.
Complete set up, i.e. wind
Power plant which converts Nuclear Fission
turbine generating electricity
theThermal Power of
potential energy Plants
flowing Bio- Geothermal
Nuclear The processNuclear
in which the
Fuel is burnt to produce by using wind energy. EnergyEnergy
water mass nearby nucleus of a
heat energy required to Energy
Internal released
heat of by Fusion The
radioactive atom splits into
make steam which runs the Waste material of living bombarding the nucleus
earth harnessed to of processwhen
in which
thingsWind EnergyandFarm smaller nuclei
(cattle-dung) agenerate electricity.
Improvement
turbine to generate in Used for commercial
two with
bombarded nuclei of energy
low light
Technology heavy atom with low energy elements combine to
purpose. A number of
Plantare
windmills Products
erected
Using conventional sources of
Burning wood in a limited
energy.
supply of oxygen, charcoal Energy from Sea
is produced. Energy obtained from the sea.
Environmental Consequences Tidal Energy Energy obtained due to difference in sea
Animal Product levels due to high and low tides.
Cow-dung is decomposed Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution.
in absence of oxygen to Cutting down of trees from the forest Wave Energy Energy trapped from strong waves.
produce bio-gas. Bio-gas leads to deforestation. Ocean Thermal Energy Energy obtained from the
burns without smoke, Greenhouse effect is resulting in global difference between temperatures of water at surface
leaves no residue and warming. and depths.
 MIND
Electricity
Important Source of Energy

Electric Electric Electric

It is a physical quantity of matter which Rate of flow of electric charges
A closed and continuous path causes it to experience a force when placed
through which electric current flows. through a conductor.
near other electrically charged matter. I = q or 1 A = 1 C/s.
Components of electric circuit A body is negatively charged if it gains t
are cell/battery, bulb, switch/key, electrons. Its SI unit is ampere. It is a scalar quantity.
fuse, connecting wire, ammeter, Measured by ammeter
A body is positively charged if it loses
voltmeter, rheostat, galvanometer 1 mA = 10–3 A, 1 A = 10–6 A
electrons.
Its SI unit is coulomb.
It is a scalar quantity.
Charges are conserved and quantised.
Electric Power
Rate at which electric energy is dissipated
Potential Difference or consumed in an electric circuit.
It is work done per unit charge in moving a unit positive charge between two points. P = VI = I 2 R = V 2/R
Ohm's Law Its SI unit is watt.
V = VB –VA = W or 1V = 1 J/C The current passing through a 1W = 1 J/s, 1kW = 103 W
qq conductor is directly proportional to the Commercial unit of electric energy is kWh.
Its SI unit is volt. potential difference across its ends, such
It is a scalar quantity. Measured by voltmeterthat the physical conditions like 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
1mV = 10–3 V, 1 V = 10 –6 V temperature, density etc.,
remain unchanged. V
VI Joule's Law of
1kV = 103 V, 1 MV = 106
or V = RI I Heating
The heat produced in a conductor is
directly proportional to the (i) Square of the
Property of a conductor dueResistanc
to which it opposes the flow of current through current (I),
or =1IV= 1 V/A
R It is a scalar quantity. (ii) Resistance (R) of the conductor and (iii)
Its SI unit is ohm. the time (t) for which the current is passed.
1 k  = 103  1m  = 10–
H  I2  R  t
Practical Applications
Electric bulb (to produce
light) Electric fuse that
Factors Affecting Resistance in Series Resistance in Parallel protects
Resistance Maximum effective Minimum effective resistance. circuits and appliances.
Length of the conductor resistance. Two or more resistors are
Area of cross-section Two or more resistors are connected simultaneously
Nature of material connected end to end. between two points. Resistivi
Effect of temperature Current remains constant Voltage remains constant but ty
l but voltage varies. current varies.
R= A V = V1 + V2 + I=I +I +I It refers to resistance of a conductor
V3  of unit length and cross-sectional
(where, is resistivity 1 2 3
R = R1 + R2 + R3 area.
of conductor) 1= 1+1+ 1
R R1 R2 R3 It depends on the nature of
 It is a process to transfer source of energy (food) from outside to the body of living organism to
obtain energy for maintaining living structures and performing basic functions of life.

Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition

It is performed by green plants and some bacteria, which manufacture their own food
In heterotrophic from inorganic
nutrition, sources
an organism such
cannot as carbon
make its owndioxide andobtain
food and water.ene

Photosynthesis
It is a process by which green plants synthesise organic food in form of carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll by taking CO2 an
Holozoic Saprotrophic Parasitic
Complex molecules are takenThey feed
in and onbroken
then dead organic matter
These
down into and breakdown
form, livecomplex
organisms
simpler molecules
on or inside out
host to
e.g. Amoeba, cow, goat, dog e.g. yeast and bacteria.
and humans.

Site of Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are the main sites of
photosynthesis that occur in the leaf. They Nutrition in Nutrition in Human Beings
have a green pigment called chlorophyll that Amoeba is an unicellular omnivore that does notcomplex
The have special organstaken
substances for nutrition. It ingests
from outside foo
are brok
traps solar energy as photons and is essential
pigment for photosynthesis.

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis

CO2 It forms carbohydrates.
Water It forms oxygen.
Human Digestive System
Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis Digestion is a catabolic process. Human digestive system consists of a long tubular structure (7-8
Chlorophyll It traps solar energy.
Sunlight It is responsible for photolysis of water.

Alimentary Canal Digestive Glands

Events of Photosynthesis
It consists of following organs: Salivary glands secrete saliva that
Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
Conversion of light energy into chemical Mouth It act as first part of contains enzyme salivary amylase.
energy and spliting of water molecules digestive system. Tongue bears Help in digestion of starch.
into taste buds which help in tasting of Gastric glands They are present in
food. Teeth helps in chewing of
hydrogen and oxygen. stomach and secrete digestive
food. It leads to buccal cavity that
opens into pharynx. The latter juice containing pepsin, HCl and
Mechanism of Digestion continues as oesophagus. mucus.
This process involves five steps: Liver It secretes bile juice
Stomach Oesophagus connects
Ingestion Taking in food into mouth.
pharynx to stomach, that stores for emulsification of fats.
Digestion Conversion of complex food into
and digest food. Pancreas It secretes pancreatic juice
simpler components by the action of various enzymes.
Absorption Digested food is absorbed into blood. Intestine It is main organ of that contains trypsin, amylase
Assimilation Distribution of digested food digestion and absorption. and lipase enzyme.
Anus End point of alimentary
products to cells of body and its utilisation for energy etc. Intestinal glands They secrete
Egestion Elimination of undigested food from anus to outsidecanal body.
from where waste is intestinal juice.
removed out from the body.