Enzymes

1. Define enzymes [6]

Biological catalysts[1] Made up of proteins (biuret positive) [1]
Speed up chemical reaction via lowering activation energy required to start the reaction[1]
Remain chemically unchanged at the end of reaction thus can be reused[1]
Specific reactions with specific substrates, which is complementary in shape to active site of
enzyme[1]
Sensitive to temperature and pH / can be denatured by extreme temp or pH[1]

2 a) With reference to the lock and key hypothesis, describe enzymatic reaction. [4]
Enzyme is the lock, substrate is the key [1]
The three dimensional structure of the substrate must fit complementarily to the three
dimensional structure of the active site on the enzyme [1]
To form enzyme-substrate complex for reaction to form products [1]
The enzyme remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction and can be reused.[1]
2 b)

With reference to the figure, explain how the inhibitor works in affecting enzymatic reaction. [3]
The inhibitor has complementary three dimensional shape to the active site of the enzyme and
bind, thus blocking /occupy the active site. [1]
Substrate cannot bind to the active site to form enzyme-substrate complex. [1]
The enzyme reaction is inhibited, no products form. [1]

3 a) Describe and explain how enzyme functions are affected by temperature [4]
*note: must quote data if the Q involves graphical / table result analysis
Low temperature, kinetic energy is low, enzyme is inactive, enzyme activity is low
Temperature increases, kinetic energy increases, more effective collision between enzyme and
substrate in forming more enzyme-substrate complex to form products, enzyme activity
increases
Optimum temperature, enzyme is most active, enzyme activity is the highest
Beyond optimum temperature, enzyme denatured due to change in three dimensional shape of
active site. Enzyme activity drops.

3 b) Describe and explain how enzyme functions are affected by pH [3]

pH too acidic, enzyme denatured due to change in three dimensional shape of active site.
Enzyme activity decrease to zero, rate of reaction drops.
Optimum pH, enzyme is most active, enzyme activity is the highest
pH too alkaline, enzyme denatured due to change in three dimensional shape of active site.
Enzyme activity decrease to zero, rate of reaction drops.

3 c) Describe and explain how enzyme functions are affected by substrate

concentration [3]
Increasing substrate concentration increases rate of enzymatic reaction. [1]
Max rate of reaction is reached when all enzymes’ active sites are saturated. [1]
Reaction will only increase further if the concentration of enzymes is increased[1]

4. Describe the importance of water in the human body [4]

Solvent in dissolving substances in the blood plasma
Maintain water potential in the blood plasma
Regulate body temperature by evaporation during sweating
Site of chemical reactions in the cell cytoplasm.

Chap 4: Nutrition in Humans

1. Define digestion and absorption [6]
Digestion - Digestion is the process where large, insoluble molecules are broken
down to small, soluble molecules [1] that can be absorbed into the body cells.
Digestion can be a physical process which involves mechanical breakup of food
into smaller pieces to increase surface area to volume ratio for faster chemical
digestion. [1] Digestion can be a chemical process which involves the breaking of
bonds in molecules which involves enzymes. [1]
Absorption - Products of digestion such as glucose and amino acids [1] will be
taken into the bloodstream [1] through the wall of ileum of the small intestine by
processes active transport and diffusion. [1] fats is absorbed via lacteal through
diffusion.

2.1 Describe the digestion and absorption processes of protein in mammals [6]
physical digestion (mouth, stomach churning, small intestine peristalsis) in the mouth
and stomach to break up into smaller pieces to increase surface area to volume ratio
for faster chemical digestion by enzymes
stomach; pepsin; digest protein (60% digested) into short polypeptides
trypsin from pancreas digest remaining protein (40%) into short polypeptides
erepsin / peptidase from small intestine digest short polypeptides into amino acids
Absorption of a.a in the small intestine into blood stream
via active transport and diffusion

2.2 Describe the digestion and absorption processes of starch in mammals [6]
physical digestion in the mouth to break up into smaller pieces to increase surface
area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by enzymes
mouth; salivary amylase; digest some starch into maltose
pancreatic amylase from pancreas digest remaining starch into maltose in the small
intestine
maltase from small intestine digest maltose into glucose
Absorption of glucose in the small intestine into blood stream
via active transport and diffusion

2.3 Describe the digestion and absorption processes of fats in mammals [6]
physical digestion in the mouth to break up into smaller pieces to increase surface
area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by enzymes
bile synthesized by liver and secreted by gall bladder for emulsification of fats
from big oil droplet to smaller oil droplets [1] to increase SA to vol ratio for faster
rate of chemical digestion by lipases [1]
pancreatic lipase from pancreas and intestinal lipase digest fats into glycerol and fatty
acids in the small intestine
Absorption of fatty acids and glycerol into epithelial cells in the small intestine[1],
combine to fat globule and absorbed into lacteal via diffusion [1]

3. A sample of the juice taken from the stomach after meal is tested with benedict,
biuret, iodine and ethanol emulsion test. Describe and explain the possible results of the
four food tests on the sample. [4]
Benedict – remain blue / green precipitate; very little maltose is present as stomach
does not have carbohydrase to digest starch to simple sugars
biuret – violet; some protein (40%) still present has it is not completely digested in the
stomach by pepsin.
iodine - blue-black; most of starch still present as stomach does not have carbohydrase
to digest starch to simple sugars
ethanol emulsion test – white emulsion; fat is not digested in stomach as it does not
have lipase.

4. In the gastric bypass surgery, a portion of the stomach is removed to help patient in
controlling obesity. Describe and explain the possible implication of the surgical
procedure and changes to the patient’s lifestyle as a result. [4]
Protein digestion will be less efficient/less protein digested as there’s less pepsin in the stomach
to digest proteins to polypeptides[1] patient has to decrease intake of proteins/increase intake of
amino acids that is readily absorbed [1]
Smaller stomach not able to store as much food / stomach stores less food[1] patient has to
take frequent small meals [1]
less gastric juice thus less HCL to activate pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion [1] patient
has to decrease intake of proteins/increase intake of readily absorbed amino acids [1]

*any 2 out of 3
5.1 Describe the role of bile in digestion process [3]
Physical digestion in emulsification of fats to breakup big fat globules into smaller fat
globules
To increase surface area to volume ratio for faster chemical digestion by lipase [1] into
glycerol and fatty acids [1]

5.2 Gall stones is a medical condition in which it can block the bile duct and the
pancreatic duct, preventing the release of the bile juice and pancreatic juice into the
duodenum. Describe and explain the possible impact on nutrient digestion if this was to
happen. [5]
Pancreatic duct:
Absence of lipase/No lipase to digest fat into fatty acids and glycerol [1]
Absence of trypsin/No trypsin to digest proteins into short polypeptide [1]
Absence of pancreatic amylase/no pancreatic amylase to digest starch into maltose [1]
Bile duct:
No/less emulsification of fat globules to smaller fat globules, thus reduce surface area to volume
ratio[1] decreasing the rate of fat digestion by lipase [1]
OR
Hydrochloric acid from gastric juice might burn the internal lining of the duodenum as it is
not neutralised by the alkaline pancreatic juice and bile [1] intestinal and pancreatic
digestive enzymes will denature in acidic pH, thus unable to digest nutrients, resulting in
indigestion. [1]

6. Explain how the small intestine is adapted in absorption of digested nutrients in

mammals [6]
*note: max marks given to surface area points are [2]
long; to increase time for more efficient absorption of digested nutrients
inner wall is folded; to increase surface area for faster absorption of digested
nutrients
presence of numerous finger-like projections called villi on the folds; increase surface
area for faster absorption of digested nutrients
wall of each villus made of one layer of epithelial cells to shorten distance for faster
diffusion and active transport.
presence of lacteal / lymphatic capillaries in villus for faster absorption of fats via
diffusion
rich in blood capillaries for faster absorption of glucose and amino acids via diffusion
and active transport
continuous blood flow to maintain steep concentration gradient between blood and
lumen of intestines for faster diffusion of digested nutrients into blood capillaries

7. Explain how the villus is adapted in absorption of digested nutrients in mammals [4]
wall of villus made of one layer of epithelial cells to shorten distance for faster
diffusion
presence of microvilli on epithelial cells to further increase surface area to volume
ratio for faster absorption of digested nutrients
presence of lacteal/ lymphatic capillaries in villus for faster absorption of fats via
diffusion
rich in blood capillaries for faster absorption of glucose and amino acids via diffusion
and active transport
continuous blood flow to maintain steep concentration gradient between blood and
lumen of intestines for faster diffusion of digested nutrients into blood capillaries

8. Describe the functions of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism. [6]

Maintain constant blood glucose level in the blood plasma
increase blood glucose level above normal  receptor Islet of Langerhans in the
pancreas get stimulated  corrective mechanism to release more insulin  stimulate
the liver and skeletal muscles  excess glucose convert into glycogen to be stored 
blood glucose level back to normal [3]
decrease blood glucose level below normal  receptor Islet of Langerhans in pancreas
get stimulated  corrective mechanism for more glucagon production stimulate liver
 stored glycogen convert back into glucose to be released into blood stream 
blood glucose level back to normal [3]

9. Describe the fate of amino acids in the liver. [4]

Amino acids used to synthesize plasma proteins in the liver
Excess amino acids goes through deamination.
The amino group will be converted to urea to be excreted out of the body
The carbon residue will be converted into glucose and then into glycogen to be
stored in the liver

10. Describe the long term and short term effect of excessive alcohol consumption on
the human body. [6]
Short term
Memory loss; Longer reaction time; Reduced self – control, hang-over
Long term
Liver cirrhosis; gastric ulcers; Addiction leading to withdrawal symptoms ; obesity ;

11. Describe the functions of the liver [5] *overview Q

Produces bile which emulsifies fats in physical digestion [1]
breaks down the haemoglobin to form bile pigments and stores the iron released.
[1]
Excess amino acids are deaminated where their amino groups are removed and
converted to urea for excretion. [1]
Detoxification of harmful substances such as alcohol by alcohol dehydrogenase and
breaking them down into less harmful substances [1]
Regulates blood glucose level with the aid of insulin and glucagon [1]

12. Describe the parts played in the digestion and assimilation (using the nutrients for
cellular activities) of food by the pancreas and liver. [6]
1) The pancreas
Digestive juice to small intestine: lipase (fats to glycerol & f.a) trypsin (protein to
short polypeptides), amylase (starch to maltose)
Islet of Langerhans secrete insulin to regulate blood glucose level by stimulating
liver / skeletal muscles to take up excess glucose and convert to glycogen
Islet of Langerhans secrete glucagon stimulating liver to convert stored glycogen
to glucose when starving.

2) The liver
Bile to emulsify fats to increase SA / vol ratio for faster chemical digestion by
lipase.
 Regulate blood glucose level by stimulated by insulin to take up excess glucose
and convert to glycogen, or stimulated by glucagon to convert stored glycogen
back to glucose.
Deamination of excess a.a to form urea to be excreted.

13. Using named examples and with reference to the chemicals stored, explain the
parts played by storage organs in animals. [6]
Liver – iron storage from breakdown of haemoglobin, used in new haemoglobin and
RBC synthesis
Gall bladder –bile storage produced by liver used for emulsification of fats in physical
digestion of fats to increase SA/vol ratio
Large intestine – storage of undigested substances in the form of faeces. Reabsorb
water and mineral salts

Chapter 5: Nutrition in Plants

1. Describe the process of photosynthesis [4]
Chlorophyll in chloroplast to absorb light energy and convert to chemical energy
Photolysis of water to form oxygen gas and hydrogen ions
Take in CO2 through stomata via diffusion down the concentration gradient from the
environment into the leaf
CO2 is reduced into glucose by combining with hydrogen ions and chemical energy
during light independent reaction

2. Describe the fates of the glucose after it’s synthesized in the leaf. [4]
Excess glucose converted to starch and store in the leaf
Convert into sucrose to load into phloem via active transport to transport to other parts
of the plant via translocation
Combine with nitrates in mineral salt to form amino acids
Convert to fats to be stored
Used in aerobic respiration to release energy for cellular activities
*any 4
4. Describe the general mechanism of stomata opening during the day [6]
Glucose formed in photosynthesis [1] release energy through aerobic respiration[1]
Conc. of potassium ions (K+) increases in the guard cells via active transport.[1]
The water potential of cell sap of the guard cells is lowered.[1]
Net movement of water molecules from adjacent epidermal cells into guard cell by
osmosis.[1]
Guard cells swell and become turgid. [1]
This causes the guard cells to become curved and pull the stoma open [1].
OR (reverse)
At night, no photosynthesis to produce glucose, no active transport to maintain conc
gradient of K+ ions. [1]
conc. of potassium ions (K+) in guard cell is higher than outside, diffuse out down the
conc gradient [1]
The water potential of the cell sap of guard cells is increased.[1]
Net movement of water molecules from guard cell out to adjacent epidermal cells by
osmosis.[1]
Guard cells are plasmolysed and become flaccid. [1]
This causes the guard cells to close the stoma pore [1].

5. Describe and explain how the leaf is adapted for photosynthesis [6]
 Petiole;
o holds leaf in position to absorb maximum light energy [1]
 Thin broad lamina / leaf blade ;
o increase surface area to volume ratio for maximum absorption of light energy
[1]
 Waxy cuticle ;
o prevents excess water loss / reduces water loss through evaporation from the
leaf / transparent for maximum light to enter the leaf [1]
 Stomata present in epidermal layers/lower epidermis ;
o Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in as raw materials for photosynthesis and
oxygen to diffuse out of the leaf [1]
 Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll ;
o Chlorophyll absorbs and transforms light energy to chemical energy used In
the manufacture of sugars [1]
 More chloroplasts in the upper palisade tissue/in palisade mesophyll cells ;
 o More light energy can be absorbed near the leaf surface [1]
 Intercellular air spaces ;
o Allow rapid diffusion/ gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide / oxygen into and
out of mesophyll cells [1]
 Veins containing xylem and phloem situated near mesophyll cells ;
o Xylem transport water and dissolved mineral salts from roots to mesophyll
cells / phloem transport sucrose and amino acids away from the leaf [1]
 Presence of guard cells
o Regulate / control the opening and closing of stomata for gaseous exchange
 thin layer of moisture on mesophyll cells
o Allow gases to dissolve for diffusion to occur

*Any 6

6. Outline the pathway of a carbon dioxide molecule from the time it enters the leaf until
it eventually becomes part of a glucose molecule in a leaf cell. [5]

Photosynthesis used up / depletes CO2 as raw material, causing lower conc in the leaf
[1].

CO2 diffuse from environment down concentration gradient via the stomata into
intercellular air spaces [1]

CO2 dissolve in the thin film of moisture on the spongy mesophyll cell [1]

Dissolved CO2 diffuse into the cell and into the chloroplasts. [1]

Combines with hydrogen ions and chemical energy to reduce into glucose during
photosynthesis [1] OR Combines with water in the presence of light to synthesize
glucose during photosynthesis [1]

11. Compare between plants grown in bright and shady conditions. Suggest and explain
possible differences in their adaptations for survival. [4]
Shady plants have bigger / broader leaves than bright condition plants [1] more SA to
absorb more light for photo [1]
Shady plants have more conc of chloroplast than bright condition plants [1] to absorb
more light and convert to chemical E for photo [1]