EEE 1203: Electronic Devices and Circuits

1st Year 2nd Semester

Energy Bands in Solids

By Md. Ibrahim Abdullah

Computer Science and Engineering
Islamic University

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 Lecture Contents
• The nature of the Atom,
• Atomic energy levels,
• Valence and conduction bands,
• Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators.

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 Atom’s and Atomic Model
• Atom - An atom is composed of a number
of electrons moving in circular or elliptical
orbits (Proposed By Bohr in 1913) around a
relatively heavy nucleus of protons and
neutrons.
– Mass of Electron is of nearly 9.1 ×10−31
kg and a charge of 1.6 ×10−19 C.
– The diameter of an atom is
approximately 10−10 m and that of the
nucleus about 10 −15 m.
• The number of protons in the atom of an element gives its
atomic number
• Atomic mass number is determined by the number of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus.
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 Atom’s and Atomic Model
Using Planck’s Theory, Bohr made the following postulates :
1.The atom has a massive positively-charged nucleus;
2.The electrons revolve round their nucleus in circular orbits, the
centrifugal force being balanced by the electrostatic pull between
the nucleus and electrons;
3. An electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit
but in just certain definite discrete orbits.
– Only those orbits are possible (or permitted) for which the orbital
angular momentum (i.e. moment of momentum) of the electron
is equal to an integral multiple of h/2π i.e. orbital angular
momentum= nh/2π where n is an integer and h is Planck’s
constant. Such orbits are also known as stationary orbits;

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 Atom’s and Atomic Model
4. While revolving in these permitted stationary (or stable) orbits, the
electron does not radiate out any electromagnetic energy.
– In other words, the permissible orbits are non-radiating paths of
the electron;
5. The atom radiates out energy only when an electron jumps from
one orbit to another. If E2 and E1 are the energies corresponding
to two orbits before and after the jump, the frequency of the
emitted photon is given by the relation E2 -E1 = hf or ∆ E= hf
where f is the frequency of the emitted radiations.
• An electron-volt (eV ) is the measure of an amount of kinetic
energy gained by a single electron accelerating from rest through an
electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum
• 1 eV = 1.6 × 10 −19 joules

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 Normal, Excited and Ionized Atom
• When the electron is completely removed from the atom, the
atom is said to be ionized.
• When the electron is forced into an outer or higher n-value
orbit, then the atom, is said to be excited (excited state).
– The atom does not remain in the excited state longer than
10−8 second
– the electron under the attractive force of the nucleus jumps
to the lower permitted orbit by losing energy.
– The electron may return by several jumps, thereby emitting
many different radiations of different frequencies.
• When electrons remain in its’ orbit, it is normal state of the
atom

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 Orbital (or Azimuthal) Quantum Number
• According to Bohr’s postulates, there is only one orbit (and hence
one energy level) corresponding to each value of the principal
quantum number n.
• Experimental evidence revealed that all orbits (except n= 1 orbit)
consist of more than one orbit called sub-orbits.
• This group of sub-orbits is collectively known as shell. For example,
– n = 1 shell or K-shell consists of only one orbit known own sub-
orbit or sub-shell.
– The n= 2 shell or L-shell consists of two sub-shells.
– Similarly, n = 3 shell or M-shell consists of three sub-shells.
• In other words, the number of sub-shells is equal to the n-value of
the shell. The 2n2 electrons of the shell now get divided between
these sub-shells.

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 Orbital (or Azimuthal) Quantum Number
• In order to distinguish between different sub-shells belonging to a
given shell, a new quantum number called orbital (or azimuthal)
quantum number l has been introduced.
• This quantum number can have integral values lying between zero
and (n −1) i.e.0 ≤ l ≤(n −1). It is helpful as -
– It gives the number of sub-shells which are contained in one
shell. The number of sub-shells is equal to the number of values
which l can have subject to the restriction 0 ≤ l ≤(n −1)
– It helps to distinguish between different sub-shells of a shell by
its different values for each sub-shell. Consider the following
cases :
1. n= 1 shell. Here, l can have only one value i.e. zero. Hence, K-
shell has only one subshell with two quantum numbers of n= 1
and l= 0.
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Orbital (or Azimuthal) Quantum Number
– 2. n= 2 shell. Here, l= 0, 1. Hence, this shell has two sub-shells
which are distinguishable from each other by their different
quantum numbers of n= 2, l= 0 and n= 2, l= 1. (Fig. next).
– 3. n= 3 shell. Here l= 0, 1, 2, showing that M-shell has three
sub-shells which differ in their l-values. The two quantum
numbers for the three sub-shells are :
n= 3, l= 0; n= 3, l= 1; n= 3, l= 2.

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Orbital (or Azimuthal) Quantum Number

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 Electron Configuration of Atoms
• Electron configuration of an atom is meant the distribution of its
electrons in its various subshells around the nucleus.
• Following three rules govern the electron distribution-
1. Maximum number of electrons a shell can have is = 2n2.
2. In the nth shell, there are n sub-shells having different values
of l such as 0, 1, 2..... (n − 1).
3. Each sub-shell can accommodate a maximum of 2(2l + 1)
electrons.

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 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
• In 1925 Pauli states that in an atom, no two electrons can have the
same set of values for its four quantum number n, l, ml and ms.
• In other words, no two electrons can be described by an identical
set of four quantum numbers.
• They may have at the most three numbers alike but at least one
must be different.
• He atom which has two electrons. These electrons occupy K-shell
(n = 1) and are designated as 1s2 electrons. Their four quantum
numbers are as follows :

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 Energy Bands in Solids
• In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite
energy associated with it.
• In solids all the atoms are close to each other, the energy levels of
outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighboring atoms.
• When two single or isolated atoms are bring close to each other
then the outermost orbit electrons of two atoms are interact or
shared with each other. i.e, the electrons in the outermost orbit of
one atom experience a attractive force from the nearest or
neighboring atomic nucleus.
• Due to this the energies of the electrons will not be in same level,
the energy levels of electrons are changed to a value which is
higher or lower than that of the original energy level of the
electron.

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 Energy Bands in Solids
• However, the energy levels of inner orbit electrons are not
much affected by the presence of neighboring atoms
• The electrons in same orbit exhibits different energy levels.
The grouping of this different energy levels is called energy
band.
• In general, in an assembly of N atoms, the number of possible
energy states is N.
– Since only two electrons of opposite spin can occupy the
same state (as per Pauli’s Exclusion) the maximum number
of electrons which these N states can occupy is 2N.

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 Classification of Energy Bands
• Valence Band
– The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence
electrons. These valence electrons contain a series of energy
levels and form an energy band known as the valence band.
– The valence band has the highest occupied energy.
• Conduction Band
– The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to
which a few of these valence electrons leave the outermost
orbit even at room temperature and become free electrons.
– The free electrons conduct current in conductors and are
therefore known as conduction electrons. The conduction band
is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest
occupied energy levels.

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 Classification of Energy Bands
• Forbidden Energy Gap
– The gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is referred to as the forbidden gap.
– The forbidden gap doesn’t have any energy and no
electrons stay in this band.
– If the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence
band electrons are tightly bound or firmly attached to the
nucleus. We require some amount of external energy that
is equal to the forbidden energy gap.

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 Classification of Energy Bands
• If a valence electron happens to absorb enough energy, it
jumps across the forbidden energy gap and enters the
conduction band

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 Energy Bands
• An electron in the conduction band can jump to an adjacent
conduction band more readily than it can jump back to the
valence band from where it had come earlier.
• However, if a conduction electron happens to radiate too much
energy, it will suddenly reappear in the valence band once again.
• When an electron is ejected from the valence band, a covalent
bond is broken and a positively charged hole is left behind.
• This hole can travel to an adjacent atom by acquiring an electron
from that atom which involves breaking an existing covalent
bond and then re-establishing a covalent bond by filling up the
hole.

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 Energy Bands

•Fig. (a) shows the energy band diagram of an unexcited silicon atom
(Z= 14) with its electronic distribution.
•When silicon crystal is given thermal or light energy from outside [Fig.
(b)], some electrons gain sufficient energy to jump the gap from the
valence band into the conduction band thereby becoming free
electrons [Fig. (c)].

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 Energy Bands
• For every electron which jumps to conduction band, a hole is
created in the valence band. In this way, an electron-hole pair
is created.
• In Summary:
1. conduction electrons are found in and freely flow in the
conduction band ;
2. holes exist in and flow in the valence band ;
3. conduction electrons move almost twice as fast as the
holes.

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Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

• Forbidden gap plays a major role for determining the electrical

conductivity of material. Based on the forbidden gap materials are
classified in to three types, they are
– Insulators
– Conductors
– Semiconductors

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Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors
Insulators-
• Insulators are those materials in which valence electrons are bound
very tightly to their parents atoms, thus requiring very large electric
field to remove them from the attraction of their nuclei.
• In other words, insulators have no free charge carriers available
with them under normal conditions.
• In terms of energy bands, it means that
– insulators have a full valence band,
– have an empty conduction band,
– have a large energy gap (of several eV) between valance and
conduction band
– at ordinary temperatures, electrons have less probability to
surmount energy gap.

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Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors
Conductors
• The materials which easily allow the flow of electric current through
them are called as conductors.
– Metals such as copper, silver, iron, aluminum etc. are good
conductors of electricity.
• In a conductor, valence band and conduction band overlap each
other. Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a conductor.
• A small amount of applied external energy provides enough energy
for the valence band electrons to move in to conduction band.
• In conductors, large number of electrons are present in conduction
band at room temperature, i.e, conduction band is almost full with
electrons. Where as valence band is partially occupied with
electrons.

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Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors
Semiconductors
• The material which has electrical conductivity between that of
a conductor and an insulator is called as semiconductor.
Silicon, germanium and graphite are some examples of
semiconductors.
• In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between valence band
and conduction band is very small. It has a forbidden gap of
about 1 electron volt (eV).
• At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied
with electrons and conduction band is empty because the
electrons in the valence band does not have enough energy to
move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor
behaves as an insulator at low temperature.
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Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors
Semiconductors
• At room temperature some of the electrons in valence band
gains enough energy in the form of heat and moves in to
conduction band.
• When the temperature is goes on increasing, the number of
valence band electrons moving in to conduction band is also
increases.
– This shows that electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor increases with increase in temperature. I.e.
a semiconductor has negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance.
• The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in
temperature.
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