UNIT III

ENERGY SCIENCES

Fuels: Definition, classification, characteristics of a good fuel. Coal-proximate & ultimate analysis-
significance. Petroleum- refining, knocking, octane number, cetane number. Cracking-definition,
types of cracking, fluid-bed cracking. Limitations of fossil fuels. Alternative and non-conventional
sources of energy – solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear and biomass (advantages and disadvantages).
Battery technology: Features of batteries, Rechargeable batteries- lithium ion and Zn-air batteries.
Fuel cells-methanol-oxygen fuel cell, Solar cells- principle and applications.

FUELS

INTRODUCTION:

Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent, which on proper

burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically for domestic and industrial
purposes. Eg., Wood, Charcoal, Coal, Kerosene, Petrol, Producer gas, Oil gas, LPG etc.,
During the process of combustion of a fuel (like coal), the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, etc.
combine with oxygen with the simultaneous liberation of heat at a rapid rate.

Fuel + Oxygen ---> Products + Heat

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:
Chemical Fuels: It is of two types viz., Primary or Natural Fuel and Secondary or Derived
Fuel.
Primary Fuel or Natural Fuel:

Solid Liquid Gaseous

Wood Crude oil Natural gas

Peat
Lignite
Coal
Dung
 Secondary or Derived Fuel

Solid Liquid Gaseous

Coke Tar Coal Gas

Charcoal Kerosene Water gas
Petroleum Diesel Oil gas
Coke Petrol Bio gas
Coal Fuel oil Blast furnace gas
Briquette Synthetic Gasoline gas Coke over gas

CALORIFIC VALUE

Calorific value of a fuel is “the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit mass (or volume)
of the fuel is burnt completely”

Units of Heat:
- Calorie
- Kilocalorie
- British Thermal Unit (BTU)
- Centigrade heat unit (CHU)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL:

o High calorific value

o Moderate ignition temperature
o Low moisture content
o Low non-combustible matter content
o Moderate velocity of combustion
o Products of combustion should not be harmful Low cost
o Easy to transport
o Combustion should be easily controllable
o Should not undergo spontaneous combustion
o Storage cost in bulk should be low
o Should burn in air with efficiency without much smoke
o In case of solid fuel, the size should be uniform so that combustion is regular.

COAL:
- Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a result of alteration of
vegetable matter (eg., plants) under certain favourable conditions. It is chiefly composed of
C, H, N and O besides non-combustible inorganic matter.
 -
- The successive stages in the transformation of vegetable matter into coal are – wood, peat,
lignite, bituminous coal, steam coal and anthracite, these stages of transformation is called as
ranking of coal. Anthracite is probably the purest form of coal and contains 95 % carbon.

ANALYSIS OF COAL:

The composition of coal varies widely and hence it is necessary to analyse and interpret the
results from the points of view of commercial classification, price fixation and proper industrial
utilization. The quality of a coal is ascertained by the following two types of analysis.

1. Proximate Analysis
2. Ultimate Analysis

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:

It is a qualitative analysis dealing with the determination of

i. Moisture content
ii. Volatile matter
iii. Ash content
iv. Fixed carbon.

(i) Determination of moisture content in coal:

A known amount of finely powdered coal sample, taken in a silica crucible is heated in an electric
hot air oven for about one hour at 105-110°C. After which crucible is taken out and cooled in
desicator and weighed.

% of moisture content = Loss in weight of coal x 100

Weight of coal taken initially

Significance of Moisture:

High moisture content of the coal is undesirable for the following reasons:
1) Reduces the calorific value of coal
2) Increases the consumption of coal for heating purpose.
3) Lengthens the time of heating.

(ii) Determination of volatile matter in coal:

It is the loss in weight of moisture free powdered coal when heated in a crucible fitted
with cover in a muffle furnace at 925+ 20°C for seven minutes. the crucible is taken out and cooled
first in air, then inside a dessicator and weighed again.

% of volatile matter in coal = Loss in weight of moisture free coal x 100

Weight of coal taken
Significance of volatile matter:

During burning of coal, gases like CO, CO2, CH4, N2, O2, hydrocarbons etc. that come out
are called volatile matter of the coal.

It has been found that the coal with higher volatile matter content ignites easily has lower
calorific value, burns with long yellow smoky flame and will evolve more coal gas when heated in
the absence of air.

(iii) Determination of ash in coal:

It is the weight of residue obtained after burning a known weight of coal in an open
crucible in the presence of air at 700-750° C for 30 minutes.

% of ash in coal = Weight of residue ash formed x 100

Weight of coal taken

Significance of ash content:

1) Ash is the combination product of mineral matter in the coal. It consists mainly
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with varying amount of other oxides such as Na2O, CaO,
MgO etc.
2) Ash containing the oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt easily.
3) High ash content in coal is undesirable because it
i) increases transporting, handling and storage costs
ii) is harder and stronger
iii) has lower calorific value

(iv) Determination of fixed carbon:

It is determined indirectly by deducting the sum total of moisture, volatile matter and ash
percentage from 100.

% of fixed carbon in coal = 100 - % (moisture + volatile matter + ash content)

Significance of Fixed carbon:

It is the pure carbon present in coal. Higher the fixed carbon content of the coal, higher will
be the calorific value of the sample.
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS (Quantitative /Elementary analysis):

Ultimate analysis refers the determination of weight percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen and sulphur of pure dry coal. This analysis gives the elementary, ultimate constituents of
coal. This analysis is essential for calculating heat balances in any process for which coal is
employed as a fuel.
It is useful to the designing of coal burning equipments and auxiliaries.

a) Determination of carbon and hydrogen in coal:

A known amount of coal is burnt in presence of oxygen there by converting carbon

and hydrogen of coal into CO2 and H2O respectively.

(i) C +O2 CO2 and

(ii) H2 + ½ O2 H2O

The products of combustion CO2 and H2O are passing over weighed tubes of anhydrous CaCl2 and
KOH which absorb H2O and CO2 respectively.

The increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube represents the weight of water formed while the increase in
the weight of KOH tube represents the weight of CO2 formed.
The percentage of carbon and hydrogen in coal can be calculated in the following way

C (12) + O2 CO2 (44)

44 g of CO2 contains 12 g of carbon

% of carbon = Increase in weight of KOH tube x 12 x 100

Weight of coal sample taken 44

Significance of Total Carbon: It is the sum total of fixed carbon and the carbon present in the
volatile matters like CO, CO2, hydrocarbons. Thus, total carbon is always more than fixed carbon in
any coal. High total carbon containing coal will have higher calorific value.

b)Determination of hydrogen:
Consider the following reaction.

H2 (2) + ½ O2 H2O(18)

18 g of water contains 2 g of hydrogen.

% of carbon = Increase in weight of CaCl2 tube x 2 x 100

Weight of coal sample taken 18
Significance of Hydrogen:
It increases the calorific value of the coal. It is associated with the volatile matter of the coal. When
the coal containing more of hydrogen is heated, it combines with nitrogen present in coal forming
ammonia. Ammonia is usually recovered as (NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer.

(c) Determination of nitrogen:

This is done by Kjeldhal’s method.

A known amount of powdered coal is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid in the presence
of K2SO4 and CuSO4 in a long necked Kjeldhal’s fask. This converts nitrogen of coal to ammonium
sulphate. When the clear solution is obtained (ie., the whole of nitrogen is converted into ammonium
sulphate), it is heated with 50 % NaOH solution and the following reaction occurs:

(NH4)2SO4 + 2 NaOH Na2SO4 + 2 NH3 + H2O

The ammonia thus formed is distilled over and is absorbed in a known quantity of standard
0.1 N H2SO4 solution. The volume of unused 0.1 N H2SO4 is then determined by titrating against
standard NaOH solution. Thus, the amount of acid neutralized by liberated ammonia from coal is
determined using the formula.

% of Nitrogen = Volume of acid used x Normality of acid x 14 x 100

weight of coal sample taken 1000

% of Nitrogen = Volume of acid used x Normality of acid x 1.4

weight of coal sample taken

Significance: Presence of nitrogen decreases the calorific value of the coal. However, when coal is
carbonized, its N2 and H2 combine and form NH3. Ammonia is recovered as (NH4)2SO4, a valuable
fertilizer.

(d) Determination of sulphur in coal:

A known amount of coal is burnt completely in Bomb calorimeter in presence of oxygen.

Ash thus obtained contains sulphur of coal as sulphate which is extracted with dil.HCl.
The acid extract is then treated with BaCl2 solution to precipitate sulphate as BaSO4. The
precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and weighed. From the weight of BaSO4,
the percentage of sulphur in coal is calculated in the following way.

BaCl2
-2
S (32) + 2O2 SO 4 BaSO4 (233) + 2 Cl-

233 g of BaSO4 contains 32 g of sulphur.

% of Sulphur = Weight of BaSO4 x 32 x 100
weight of coal sample taken 233

Significance:

It increases the calorific value of the coal, yet it has the following undesirable effect-The
oxidation products of sulphur (SO2, SO3) especially in presence of moisture forms sulphuric
acid which corrodes the equipment and pollutes the atmosphere.

e) Determination of oxygen in coal:

It is calculated indirectly b deducting the combined % of carbon, HydrogenNitrogen and

Sulphur from 100
% of oxygen in coal = 100 - % (C + H + N + S + ash).
Significance:
The less the oxygen content, the better is the coal. As the oxygen content increases, its
moisture holding capacity also increases.

PETROLEUM PROCESSING AND FRACTIONS:

Petroleum or crude oil is a dark greenish-brown, viscous oil found deep in earth crust. It is
composed mainly of various hydrocarbons (like straight-chain paraffins, cycloparaffins or
naphthalenes, olefins and aromatics), together with small amounts of organic compounds
containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

Mining of petroleum:

It is done by drilling holes in the earth’s crust and sinking pipes upto the oil-bearing
porous rocks.

Refining of petroleum(crude oil):

The crude oil is separated into various useful fractions by fractional distillation and finally
converted into desired specific products. The process is called ‘refining of crude oil’ and the
plants set up for the purpose, are called the oil refineries. The refining involves

Step 1: Removal of solid impurities :

Crude oil is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous substances. This is allowed to stand undisturbed
for some time, when heavy solid particles settle down and gases evaporate. The supernant liquid is
then centrifuged wherein the solids get removed

Step 2 : Separation of water (Cottrell’s process):

The crude oil from the oil well is an extremely stable emulsion of oil and salt water. The
process of freeing oil from water consists in allowing the crude to flow between two highly
charged electrodes. The colloidal water-droplets coalesce to form large drops, which separate out
from the oil.

Step 3: Removal of harmful sulphur compounds:

This involves in treating oil with copper oxide. A reaction occurs with sulphur compounds,
which results in the formation of copper sulphide (a solid), which is then removed by filtration.

Step 4: Fractional distillation:

The crude oil is then heated to about 400°C in an iron retort whereby all volatile
constituents, except the residue (asphalt or coke) are evaporated. The hot vapours are then passed
up a fractionating column, which is a tall cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal
stainless steel trays at short distances. Each tray is provided with small chimney, covered with a
loose cap. As the vapours go up, they become gradually cooler and fractional condensation takes
place at different heights of column. Higher boiling fraction condenses first, while the lower
boiling fractions turn-by-turn.

Fig :Fractionating Column

Cracking:

It is defined as the decomposition of bigger hydrocarbon molecules into simpler low

boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight. For example,
 C10H22 (Decane) C5H12 (n-Pentane) + C5H10 (Pentane)

Boiling Point=174°C
B.P. = 36°C

There are two methods of cracking in use:

1. Thermal cracking 2. Catalytic cracking

Thermal cracking:

The heavy oils are subjected to high temperature and pressure, when the bigger hydrocarbon
molecules break down to give smaller molecules of the paraffins, olefins plus some hydrogen. This
process may be carried out either in liquid-phase or vapour-phase.

Liquid-phase thermal cracking: The heavy oil or gas oil stock is cracked at a suitable
temperature of 475-530°C and under pressure of 100 kg/cm2. The cracked products are then
separated in a fractionating column. The yield is 50-60 % and octane rating of the petrol produced is
65-75.

Vapour-phase thermal cracking: The cracking oil is first vapourised and then cracked at
about 600-650°C and under a low pressure of 10-20 kg/cm2. This process is suitable only for those
oils, which may be readily vaporized. It requires less time than the liquid-phase method. Petrol
obtained from vapour-phase cracking has better anti-knock properties, but poorer stability than
petrol from liquid-phase cracking.

Catalytic cracking:

The quality and yield of gasoline produced by cracking can be greatly improved by using a
suitable catalyst like aluminium silicate [Al2(SiO3)3] or alumina [Al2O 3].

There are two methods of catalytic cracking in use:

(a) Fixed-bed catalytic cracking:

The oil vapours are heated in a pre-heater to cracking temperatures (420-450°C) and then forced
through a catalytic chamber maintained at 425-450°C and 1.5 kg/cm2 pressure. During the passage
through the tower, about 40 % of the charge is converted into gasoline and about 2-4 % carbon is
formed. The later gets adsorbed on the catalyst bed. The vapours produced are then passed through a
fractionating column, where heavy oil fractions condense. The vapours are then led through a cooler,
where someof the gases are condensed along with gasoline and uncondensed gases move on. The
gasoline containing some dissolved gases is then sent to a stabilizer, where the dissolved gases are
removed and pure gasoline is obtained.
 The catalyst, after 8-10 hours, stops functioning, due to the deposition of black layer of carbon,
formed during cracking. This is re-activated by burning off the deposited carbon. During the re-
activation interval, the vapours are diverted through another catalyst chamber.

(b) Moving-bed catalytic cracking:

The solid catalyst is very finely powdered, so that it behaves almost as a fluid, which can be
circulated in gas stream. The vapours of cracking stock (gas oil, heavy oil, etc.) mixed with fluidized
catalyst is forced up into a large reactor ‘bed’ in which cracking of the heavier into lighter molecules
occurs. Near the top of the reactor, there is a centrifugal separator (called cyclone), which allows
only the cracked oil vapours to pass on to fractionating column, but retains all the catalyst powder in
the reactor itself. The catalyst powder gradually becomes heavier, due to coating with carbon, and
settles to the bottom, from where it is forced by an air blast to regenerator maintained at 600°C.

In regenerator, carbon is burnt and the regenerated catalyst then flows through a stand pipe
for mixing with fresh batch of incoming cracking oil. At the top of the regenerator, there is a
separator, which permits only gases (CO2, etc.) to pass out, but holds back catalyst particles.
KNOCKING:

In an internal combustion engine, a mixture of gasoline (petroleum) vapour and air is used as
a fuel. After the initiation of the combustion reaction by spark in the cylinder, the flame should
spread rapidly and smoothly through the gaseous mixture; thereby the expanding gas drives the
piston down the cylinder.
The ratio of the gaseous volume in the cylinder at the end of the suction stroke to the volume
at the end of compression stroke of the piston is known as the compression ratio. The efficiency of
an internal combustion engine increases with the compression ratio.

the rate of oxidation becomes so great that the last portion of the fuel air mixture gets ignited
instantaneously which is called pre-ignition producing an explosive violence known as knocking.
The knocking results in loss of efficiency, since this ultimately decreases the compression ratio.

The chemical structure of the petrol is responsible for knocking. The tendency of fuel
constituents to knock is in the following order:

Straight chain paraffins (n-paraffins) > branched chain paraffins (iso paraffins) > olefins >
cycloparaffins (naphthalenes) > aromatics.
Thus, olefins of the same carbon chain length possess better antiknock properties than the
corresponding paraffins and so on.
The extent of knocking of petrol is measured by a test called octane rate or octane number

Effects of knocking
a. Decreases life of engine
b. Causes Piston wrap

c. Consumption of fuel is more

 Octane Number

The resistance to knocking offered by petrols is expressed in terms of an arbitrary

scale called octane number
Octane number is the percentage by volume of isooctane present in a mixture of
isooctane and n – heptane which has the same knocking characteristic as the petrol
under test.
The octane value of isooctane is arbitrarily taken as 100 and that of n – heptane as
zero.
Different standard mixtures ( 90:10; 80:20, 75:25 etc) of isooctane and n–heptane are
prepared and the compression ratio of each of these is determined under standard
conditions.
The compression ratio of the fuel under test is determined under the same conditions.
Suppose the compression ratio of the fuel is same as that of 80 :20 mixture, the
octane number of the fuel is 80.

Fuels with octane rating greater than 100 are quite common nowadays and they are rated by
comparison with a blend of iso-octane with tetra ethyl lead (TEL) which greatly diminishes the
knocking tendency of any hydrocarbon with which it is mixed. The value of octane number in such
cases is determined by extrapolation.

CETANE NUMBER:

The resistance to knocking offered by diesels is expressed in terms of an arbitrary scale

called cetane number
• It is the percentage by volume of cetane present in a mixture of cetane and - methyl
naphthalene which has the same knocking characteristic as the diesel under test.

CH3-(-CH2-)14-CH3
2-methyl naphthalene n-hexadecane
Cetane number=0 Cetane number=100

The cetane number of a diesel fuel can be raised by the addition of small quantity of certain pre-
ignition dopes like ethyl nitrite, isoamyl nitrite, acetone peroxide.

An oil of high octane number has a low cetane number and vice-versa. Consequently,
petroleum crude gives petrol of high octane number and diesel of low cetane number.
 Prevention of Knocking

Addition of lead tetraethyl (TEL) to Petrol:

Lead tetraethyl decomposes the peroxides formed and prevents knocking.
In the process, lead gets deposited on the inner walls of the engines and at spark plugs.
Hence dichloroethane and dibromoethane are added along with tetraethyl lead.

These convert the lead into lead halides, which are volatile and escape with exhaust
gases.
The release of lead compounds pollutes the atmosphere.
Catalytic converters (rhodium catalyst) are used in IC engines to convert CO in the
exhaust to CO2. Lead tetraethyl used as anti knocking agent poisons the catalyst and
hence leaded petrol is not advisable in such IC engines.

Addition of MTBE:
Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is added to petrol (unleaded petrol) to boost its
octane number. The oxygen of MTBE brings about complete combustion of petrol
preventing peroxide formation and hence knocking is prevented.

MTBE can be used as antiknocking agent in IC engines with catalytic converter

Hydrogen

Hydrogen is an abundant element that is currently produced in molecular form for a wide range of industrial
uses. In recent years, it is also starting to be used for stationary power production in fuel cell systems and to
power fuel cell electric vehicles including buses, forklifts, and passenger cars. One highly compelling attribute
of hydrogen is that it can be produced in many different ways and using a variety of feedstocks.
A range of potential hydrogen production methods and pathways are available. These include reformation,
gasification, electrolysis, and other advanced processes. Depending on the production pathway hydrogen fuel
can be classified into various types.

Green hydrogen: Produced through water electrolysis process by employing renewable electricity. The reason
it is called green is that there is no CO2 emission during the production process. Water electrolysis is a process
that uses electricity to decompose water into hydrogen gas and oxygen.

Blue hydrogen: Sourced from fossil fuel, the CO2 is captured and stored underground (carbon sequestration).
Companies are also trying to utilize the captured carbon called carbon capture, storage and utilization (CCSU).
As no CO2 is emitted, so the blue hydrogen production process is categorized as carbon neutral.

Gray hydrogen: Produced from fossil fuel and commonly uses steam methane reforming (SMR) method.
During this process, CO2 is produced and eventually released to the atmosphere.

Black/Brown hydrogen: Produced from coal-the black and brown colours refers to the type of bituminous
(black) and lignite (brown) coal. The gasification of coal is a method used to produce hydrogen, CO and CO 2
are byproducts released into atmosphere.
Turquoise hydrogen: Extracted by using the thermal splitting of methane via methane pyrolysis. The process
though at the experimental stage, remove the carbon in a solid form instead of CO2 gas.

Purple hydrogen: Made using nuclear power and heat through combined chemo thermal electrolysis splitting
of water.

Pink hydrogen: Generated through electrolysis of water by using electricity from a nuclear power plant.

Red hydrogen: Produced through the high temperature catalytic splitting of water using nuclear power thermal
as an energy source.

White hydrogen: Naturally occurring hydrogen.

Yellow hydrogen: relatively new phrase for hydrogen made through electrolysis using solar power.

Methods of Hydrogen production involves:

Steam methane process
Gasification process
Hydrocarbon Pyrolysis
Electrolysis of water

Electrolysis of water:

Electrolysis is the process through which water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen molecules using
electricity and an electrolyzer device. Electrolyzers are effectively fuel cell devices that operate in reverse.

The overall electrolysis reaction is:

H2O + e- 1⁄2O2 + H2 (“water splitting”)

Hydrogen can be produced via electrolysis of water from any electrical source, including
utility grid power, solar photovoltaic (PV), wind power, hydropower, or nuclear power.

Mechanism of water electrolysis:

In water electrolysis process, electrolyzer is a system that uses electricity to break water into hydrogen and
oxygen. Through electrolysis, the electrolyzer system creates hydrogen gas. The oxygen that’s left over is
released into the atmosphere or can be captured or stored to supply other industrial processes or even medical
gases in some cases.
An electrolyzer contains a cathode (negative charge), an anode (positive charge) and a membrane. The entire
system also contains pumps, vents, storage tanks, a power supply, separator and other components. Water
electrolysis is an electrochemical reaction which takes place within the cell stacks. Electricity is applied to the
anode and cathode across the proton exchange membrane (PEM) and causes the water (H2O) to split into its
component molecules, hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

Types of Electrolyzers:

Alkaline electrolyser
They use a liquid electrolyte solution, such as potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, and
water. Hydrogen is produced in a cell consisting of an anode, a cathode and a membrane. The cells are
usually assembled in series to produce more hydrogen and oxygen at the same time. When current is applied to
the electrolysis cell stack, hydroxide ions move through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode of each
cell, generating bubbles of hydrogen gas on the cathode side of the electrolyser and oxygen gas at the anode.
They have been in use for more than 100 years and do not require noble metals as a catalyst; however,
they are bulky equipment that obtains medium purity hydrogen and are not very flexible in operation.

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser

PEM electrolysers use a proton exchange membrane and a solid polymer electrolyte. When current is applied to
the battery, water splits into hydrogen and oxygen and the hydrogen protons pass through the membrane to
form hydrogen gas on the cathode side. They are the most popular because they produce high-purity
hydrogen and are easy to cool. But, they are somewhat more expensive because they use precious metals as
catalysts.
Solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC)
SOECs operate at a higher temperature (between 500 and 850 ºC) and have the potential to be much more
efficient than PEMs and alkaline electrolysers. The process is called high-temperature electrolysis (HTE) or
steam electrolysis and uses a solid ceramic material as the electrolyte. Electrons from the external circuit
combine with water at the cathode to form hydrogen gas and negatively charged ions. Oxygen then passes
through the sliding ceramic membrane and reacts at the anode to form oxygen gas and generate electrons for
the external circuit. Technologically they are less developed than the above.
There are other types of electrolysers that are not yet as efficient or cost-effective as the above, but have a lot of
potential for development.
One example is photoelectrolysis, which uses only sunlight to separate water molecules without the need
for electricity. However, this device requires semiconductors that have not yet been sufficiently developed.
Two marks questions
1. Classify fuels on the basis of their physical state with examples.
2. List out the major characteristics of a good fuel.
3. Why gaseous fuels are recommended in the place of solid and liquid fuels?
4. Explain shortly the role of coal in power plants?
5. Name the highest-ranking coal. Give its approximate calorific value.
6. Justify how determination of volatile content in a coal sample helps in designing furnaces in
metallurgy.
7. Mention the criteria in the selection of a good coal.
8. A good sample of coal should contain less nitrogen content. Give reason.
9. Rationalize your reason why a good sample of coal should contain less amount of ash and
high amount of fixed carbon?
10. Enumerate the significance in the determination of moisture in coal?
11. What is Knocking? How can it be prevented?
12. Define octane and cetane number.
13. Arrange n-octane, naphthalene, isooctane in the increasing order of their knocking tendency?
14. Gasoline containing TEL is used in internal combustion engines. Give reason.
15. Why a small quantity of ethyl bromide is added to petrol along with anti knocking agent
TEL?
16. In catalytic cracking process, catalyst requires regeneration. Give reason.
17. Define cracking of petroleum? Mention the types of cracking.
18. State the conditions under which fluid bed catalytic cracking occur?
19. What is straight run petrol? How is it obtained?

Essay questions - 8M

1. Explain in detail how is coal analyzed by proximate analysis method and give its
significance.
2. Describe the ultimate analysis of coal sample with its significance.

3. What is knocking? Explain the significance of Octane number and Cetane number in
determining the efficiency of petrol?

4. a) What is catalytic cracking of petroleum? Explain fluidized – bed catalytic method

with a neat labelled diagram. (5M)
b) Write short note on knocking in internal combustion engines. (3M)
5. Explain the significance of the following constituents present in a coal sample
a) Moisture content b) Volatile matter c) Total carbon d) Sulphur e) Oxygen
6. a) Give the composition of petroleum and explain how is it refined in distilleries. (4M)
b) Explain the fluidized catalytic cracking process with a neat labelled diagram. (4M)
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