COMPLEX VARIABLE

COMPLEX VARIABLE

Introduction:
An ordered pair of real numbers connected by an expression and denoted by is called
a complex number. is a complex number, where √ is called an imaginary unit.
The real numbers and are called real and imaginary parts
of and written as and respectively. Y

𝑃 𝑥 𝑦
In the Argand’s diagram, the complex number is represented
by the point If are the polar co – ordinate of P, r

then and and therefore every non zero 

complex number z can be expressed as , O X
which is the polar form of the complex number.
Then √ is called the modulus of z and is denoted by | |
⁄ is called the amplitude (or argument) of z and is denoted by amp z (or arg z)
If , then the complex number – is called the conjugate of the complex number z and is denoted
by ̅ i.e ̅
In the polar form, ̅ ̅
Clearly, | | | ̅| | | ̅ ̅ ⁄
̅ ̅

Hence, if x and y are real variables, then is called a complex variable.

Definition of a Complex Function:

If by a rule or set of rules we can find one or more complex numbers w for every in a given
domain, we say that w is a function of z and denote it as
Since, both z and w are complex quantities the function is called a complex function.

If for a given z there corresponds one and only one w then the function is called single valued
function, otherwise function is called multiple valued function.
Example: (1) is a single valued function. (2) √ is a multiple valued function.
We shall consider single valued functions only.
Note: Whenever we speak of function we shall, unless otherwise stated, assume single – valued function.

Since, can be put in the form where, u and v are functions

of x and y. Thus, we can write

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Example: If then

Differentiability of a Function :
Definition: Let be a single valued function of z defined in domain D. f(z) is said to be differentiable at

any point z if Is unique as along any path of the domain D

Analytic Functions:
If a single valued function is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D then it is called
analytic or regular or holomorphic function of z in the domain D.
A function is said to be analytic at a point if it has a derivative at that point and in some neighbourhood of that
point. If a function ceases to be analytic at a point of the domain then the point is called a singular point.

Cauchy – Riemann Equations in Cartesian Coordinates:

Theorem: The necessary and sufficient conditions for a continuous one valued function
to be analytic in a region R are
(i) are continuous functions of x and y in a region R and

(ii) at each point of R.

The conditions (ii) are known as Cauchy – Riemann equations or briefly C – R equations.

NOTE: (1) The Cauchy – Riemann equations are only necessary conditions for a function to be analytic.
This means even if Cauchy – Riemann equations are satisfied the function need not be analytic at
that point
(2) When is analytic, its derivative is given by any one of the following expressions.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(3) If is analytic then it can be differentiated in usual manner.
e.g (1) If (2) If
(4) If is analytic then the functions and of real variables
and are called conjugate functions.

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Derivatives of Elementary Functions:

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15.

√ √

16. 17. 18.

√ √

19. 20. 21.

22. 23. 24.

25. 26. 27.

√ √

28. 29. 30.

√ √

Cauchy – Riemann Equations In Polar Coordinates:

Let (r, ) be the polar coordinates of a point whose Cartesian coordinates are (x, y).

Let be the given function.
……………(i)
Differentiating (i) partially w.r.t r, ……………….(ii)

Differentiating (i) partially w.r.t , ( ) by (ii)

Equating real and imaginary parts

Or

i. e

Note: From (ii) We get an important result ( ) ( )

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( )

SOME SOLVED EXAMPLES:

1. If ̅̅̅̅̅̅ are both analytic, prove that is constant.
Solution: Let then ̅̅̅̅̅̅
Since, is analytic
and equations
Since, ̅̅̅̅̅̅ is analytic
( ) and equations
Adding and we get,
Adding and we get,
Since, and constant
Similarly by subtraction we can prove that and constant
Hence, constant

2. If is an analytic function, show that ̅

Solution: Since, ̅
̅ and ̅
Let

̅ ̅

( ̅ ̅
) ( ̅ ̅
)

* ( )+ * ( )+

But, since is analytic,

and

3. If is an analytic function and | | is constant, prove that is constant.

Or A regular function of constant magnitude is constant
Solution: Let but | |

Differentiating it partially w.r.t.

Differentiating it partially w.r.t.
Since, is analytic and

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and
Eliminating we get,

Similarly, we can show that

Since, is analytic
constant

4. If is analytic and if the amplitude of is constant, prove that is constant.

Solution: Let Since its amplitude ⁄ is constant say, we have

Differentiating this w.r.t. and

and
and
Since is analytic, and
…………….. (1)
and …………….. (2)
Multiply the first by and second by and add

Multiply the first by and second by and subtract

But and
and
Since, all four partial derivatives of are zero, and are constants
is constant

5. If is an analytic function and u = constant then is constant.

Solution: If is constant
But
(By equations)
(By data)
is constant

6. Show that the following functions are analytic and find their derivatives.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
Solution: (i)

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and
Further are continuous and Caunchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
Hence, is analytic
Now,

(ii)

and
is analytic and can be differentiated as usual

(iii)

and
is analytic and can be differentiated as usual

(iv)

and
is analytic and can be differentiated as usual

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(v)

and
Further are continuous and Caunchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
Hence, is analytic
Now,

7. If is equal to (a) ̅ (b) show that does not exist

Solution: (a) ̅

Since, Cauchy – Riemann equations are not satisfied and does not exist
Alternatively
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

If the required limit

If the required limit

(b)

Since, and
Cauchy – Riemann equations are not satisfied and hence, does not exist

8. Show that ̅ | | satisfies Cauchy – Riemann equations at and yet is not analytic anywhere
Solution: | |

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and

Hence, and when and

The partial derivatives are also continuous everywhere
Thus, | | is differentiable only at but no other point. There is no
neighbourhood of in which the conditions of analyticity are satisfied. Hence, is not analytic
anywhere

9. Show that is an analytic function and find in terms of z.

( )
Solution: Since,

( ) ( )

and
Further and are continuous except at i.e., is
analytic everywhere except at

( ) ( )
[ ]

(Or to find in terms of put in (i) )

10. Find such that is analytic.

Solution: Let

( )

Since, the function is analytic equations are satisfied

and

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which are satisfied when

11. Find the constants a, b, c, d if is analytic

Solution: We have
and

Since, is analytic, Cauchy – Riemann equations are satisfied

and
and
Equating the coefficient of and we get,
and

12. Find the values of for which the following functions are not analytic.
(i) (ii)
Solution: (i) We have
where

is not analytic at
(ii) We have

……….. [ ]
where
( √ )

( )
√ √ √

is not analytic when √ i.e., i.e.,

13. Find p if is analytic.

Solution: Let

Since, is analytic
and

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The first relation gives,

And the second relation also gives, Hence

14. If
Solution: Let

and
Also partial derivatives are continuous. Hence, is analytic
( )

( )

15. Using Cauchy – Riemann equations in polar form prove that

Solution: We know that Cauchy – Riemann equations in polar form are
…………. (i)
and …………. (ii)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. we get,

…………. (iii)
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. we get,

…………. (iv)
Now, using (iii) and (iv), we get,

( ) ( )

Note: The equation is called Laplace’s equation in Cartesian Form and the equation

is called Laplace’s equation in Polar Form.

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Harmonic Functions:
Any function of x, y which has continuous partial derivatives of the first and second order and satisfies

Laplace’s equation is called a Harmonic Function.

Theorem: The real and imaginary parts u, v of an analytic function are harmonic functions.
Proof: Since, is an analytic function in some region of the z – plane
u, v satisfy C – R equations.
……………….(i)
Differentiating the first w.r.t x and second w.r.t y, we get

Assuming and adding the above results we get,

Similarly differentiating the equations in (i) with respect to y and x respectively,

we can show that the result are harmonic functions.

Note: (1) In other words the above theorem states that if is analytic, then its real and

imaginary parts satisfy Laplace equation

(2) The above theorem states that is analytic then and satisfy Laplace’s equation
i.e and are harmonic functions.
But, the converse is not true. If and are any two functions satisfying Laplace’s equation then
need not to be analytic.

FIND ANALYTIC FUNCTION WHOSE REAL OR IMAGINARY PART IS GIVEN

Method 1: Let and let u be given,
since, u is given we can find
As is analytic, by C – R equations
say
Hence, by mere integration can be obtained.
Note: The method can be used only when we are able to express as a function of , say

Method 2: Milne – Thompson’s Method

Since, ̅
̅ ̅

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
* + * +

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This can be regarded as an identity in two independent variables, and ̅.

We can, therefore, put ̅ and get
Thus, can be obtained in terms of by putting in
when is analytic.
Now, [ C – R equations]
Let

Integrating, we get ∫ ∫
Similarly if given arguing on the above lines we can show that
∫ ∫ where

SOME SOLVED EXAMPLES:

1. Construct an analytic function whose real part is
Solution: Method 1:
Let and let be the required function

[ ]

∫ ∫
Method 2: Milne-Thompson Method:

[Putting in and ]
∫

2. Construct an analytic function whose real part is

Solution: Let

By Milne Thompson Method

∫ ∫
which is the required analytic function

3. Construct an analytic function whose real part is

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Solution: Let

By Milne Thompson Method

[ ]
∫ ∫ is the required analytic function

4. Construct an analytic function whose real part is

Solution: Let
and

By Milne-Thompson method

∫
which is the required analytic function

5. Construct an analytic function whose real part is

Solution: Let

By Milne-Thompson method

∫ ∫ ∫
[ ∫ ] [ ]
is the required analytic function

6. Construct an analytic function whose real part is { }

Solution: Let { }
{ } { }
[ ]
and
By Milne-Thompson method
[ ]
∫
∫
∫
∫

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7. Construct an analytic function whose real part is

Solution: Let

By Milne-Thompson method

8. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is

Solution: We have

We use Milne-Thompson method

Now, ∫ ∫
∫ ∫

9. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is

Solution: Let

By using Milne-Thompson method

∫ ∫ is the required analytic function

10. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is
Solution: Let

By using Milne-Thompson method

∫ ∫ is the required analytic function

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11. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is

Solution: Let

By using Milne-Thompson method

∫ ∫ ∫
is the required analytic function

12. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is

Solution: We have

We use Milne-Thompson method

Now, ∫ ∫ ∫
∫

13. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is

Solution: We have

We use Milne-Thompson method

Now, ∫ ∫ ∫
[ ∫ ]
[ ]

14. Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is

Solution: We have

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⁄
( )

We use Milne-Thompson method

Now, ∫ ∫ ∫

15. If the imaginary part of the analytic function is . Show that the real part

Solution: We have

We use Milne-Thompson method

Now, ∫ ∫
∫( ) ( )

( ) ( )

16. Check whether is harmonic

Solution: ; for a function to harmonic, it must satisfy Laplace’s equation

It does not satisfy Laplace’s equations the function is not harmonic

17. State true or false with proper justification “There does not exist an analytic function whose real part is

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Solution: We shall use the theorem to check whether is a real part of some
analytic function. By the result, must satisfy Laplace’s equation

if it is real part of some analytic function

Now

There does not exist an analytic function whose real part is

18. If is a harmonic function then prove that is an analytic function.

Solution: Since is harmonic

………………. (1)

By data
Let and so that
We have to show that is analytic

Now, [By (1)]

and

and

and
is analytic i.e., is analytic

19. If u, v are harmonic conjugate functions, show that is a harmonic function.

Solution: Let is analytic function
and
And are harmonic

and …………….. (1)

Now,

…………….. (2)
Similarly, we can prove that

But and

…………….. (3)

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Adding (2) and (3), we get

( ) ( ) [By (1)]

is harmonic

20. If and are function of x and y satisfying Laplace equation and if prove that
is analytic (holomorphic)
Solution: Since and satisfy Laplace equation, we have

…………… (1)

and …………… (2)

Now, [By (2)]

And ( ) [By (1)]
Similarly, and
Hence, and
Hence, is analytic

21. If and are functions satisfying Laplace equation, then show that is holomorphic (analytic) where
and

Solution: Since satisfies Laplace’s equation

and …………… (1)

Now, [By (1)] …………… (2)

[By (1)] …………… (3)

Also, …………… (4)

…………… (5)

From (2) and (5), we have

From (3) and (4), we have

Since, satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equations it is analytic

22. Find the imaginary part of the analytic function whose real part is also verify that
is harmonic.
Solution: Let

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By Milne-Thompson method

∫ ∫

Now, [ ]

is harmonic

23. Show that the following function is harmonic and find the corresponding analytic function

Solution: We have

Hence, satisfies Laplace’s equation is a harmonic function

Now

Now, Milne-Thompson Method

∫[ ]

24. Show that the following functions are harmonic. Also find the corresponding harmonic conjugate function
and analytic function.
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(i)
Solution: Since,

is a harmonic function
Since, by Milne-Thompson method

∫ as above is required analytic function

Now,

is harmonic conjugate
(ii)
Solution: We have

satisfies Laplace’s equation is a harmonic function

Now, we use, Milne-Thompson Method

Now,

(iii)
Solution: We have

satisfies Laplace’s equation is a harmonic function

Now, we use, Milne-Thompson Method
Now,

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∫ is the required analytic function

Now,

is the required harmonic conjugate

(iv)
Solution: We have

satisfies Laplace’s equation is a harmonic function

Now, we use, Milne-Thompson Method

harmonic conjugate

(v)

Solution:

it satisfies Laplace equation

is a harmonic function

By Milne-Thompson Method,

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∫ ∫

imaginary part

(vi)

Solution:

it satisfies Laplace equation

is a harmonic function

By Milne-Thompson Method,

∫ ∫

[ ]
[ ]

Harmonic conjugate is

(vii)
Solution:

it satisfies Laplace equation

is a harmonic function
Now we use Milne Thompson method

∫ ∫ ∫

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is the harmonic conjugate

(viii)

Solution: We have
( )

Similarly,
( )

satisfies Laplace’s equation is a harmonic function

Now,

By Milne-Thompson Method

is the corresponding harmonic conjugate

25. Prove that both u and v satisfy Laplace’s equation, but that is not an

analytic function of z.
Solution:
( ) ( )
[ ]
( )[ ] ( )

( )
* +

( ) ( ) ( )

[ ]

( )

and
Hence, satisfy Laplace’s equations
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But Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied as and

Hence, is not analytic

26. State Laplace’s equation in polar form and verity it for and also find v and

Solution: Laplace’s equation in polar form is

Laplace’s equation is satisfied

By Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form

Integrating w.r.t.
Hence,

( )

27. Verify Laplace’s equation for ( ) . Also find v and

Solution: ( )

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
Laplace’s equation is satisfied
By Cauchy-Riemann equations in polar form

( )

( )
Integrating w.r.t.

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( )

Hence, ( ) ( )

Alternatively we can express in terms of and and use Cartesian form of Laplace’s equation, it
may be noted that this method is rather tedius

28. If , find v so that is analytical.

Solution: Since,
and
But by equation in polar coordinates
and

Integrating the first equation partially w.r.t.

where is an arbitrary function

Hence, the analytic function is

29. Find the analytic function whose real part is

Solution: We have and

By Cauchy-Riemann equations and

Integrating w.r.t.

ORTHOGONAL CURVES:
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Theorem: If is an analytic function then the curves and intersect

orthogonally.
Proof: Let
Then ( ) And ( )

Since, is analytic C – R equations give y

( ) ( )

Hence, intersect orthogonally

x
0

ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES:
By orthogonal trajectory of a family of curves we mean a curve
which cuts every member of the given family at right angles.
For example, consider a family to straight lines passing through
the origin given by where m is an arbitrary constant.
It is easy to see that these straight lines are cut by a circle with centre at the origin at right angles at every point of
intersection. Its equation is of the form where a is a parameter.
Thus the family of circles represents the family of orthogonal trajectories to the family of straight
lines given by

Orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves given by .

We have seen that if is an analytic function then the curves intersect
orthogonally i.e is the family of orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves
Hence, to find the orthogonal trajectory of (or ) we find the harmonic conjugate
of (or )

SOME SOLVED EXAMPLES:

1. Find the orthogonally trajectories of the family of the curve
Solution: The orthogonal trajectories of are given by where is the harmonic conjugate of

and

(By equations)

By Milne-Thompson’s method, we put

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Imaginary part
Hence, the required orthogonal trajectories are

2. Find the orthogonally trajectories of the family of the curvs

Solution: The orthogonal trajectories of are given by where is the harmonic conjugate of

and
Also (By equations)

By Milne-Thompson’s method, we replace by and by zero

By integrating

Imaginary part,

Hence, the required orthogonal trajectories are

3. Find the orthogonally trajectories of the family of the curvs

Solution: The orthogonal trajectories of are given by where is the harmonic conjugate of
Let

(By equations)

By Milne-Thompson’s method, we put

Integrating w.r.t. we get,

Imaginary part
The required orthogonal trajectories are

4. For the function , verify that the families of curves and cut orthogonally
where are constant and

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Solution:

( )
( )

( )

( )
( )

Hence, the families cut orthogonally

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