eCommons@AKU

Theses & Dissertations

2024

Examining the role and implications of twitter on news production

in Ugandan newsrooms: a case of nation media group Uganda
Elizabeth Amongin

Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.aku.edu/theses_dissertations

Part of the Communication Technology and New Media Commons, and the Journalism Studies
Commons
 THE AGA KHAN UNIVERSITY

Graduate School of Media and Communications

EXAMINING THE ROLE AND IMPLICATIONS OF TWITTER ON NEWS

PRODUCTION IN UGANDAN NEWSROOMS: A CASE OF NATION MEDIA
GROUP UGANDA

By

Elizabeth Amongin
552231

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Arts in Digital Journalism

Nairobi, Kenya

09/02/2024
© Copyright
 COPYRIGHT

Copyright © 2024, Elizabeth Amongin

 ii

APPROVAL PAGE

The Aga Khan University

Graduate School of Media and Communications

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master
of Arts in Digital Journalism

Members of the Thesis Evaluation Committee appointed to examine the thesis of

ELIZABETH AMONGIN-552231, find it satisfactory and recommend that it be
accepted.

_____________________________
Prof. Nancy Booker,
Dean,
Chair, Thesis Evaluation Committee

____________________________
Hesbon Hansen Owilla, Supervisor

____________________________
Member,
Thesis Evaluation Committee

09/02/2024
 iii

DECLARATION

EXAMINING THE ROLE AND IMPLICATIONS OF TWITTER ON NEWS

PRODUCTION IN UGANDAN NEWSROOM: A CASE OF NATION MEDIA
GROUP UGANDA

I, ELIZABETH AMONGIN-552231, declare that this thesis is a product of my research

endeavours. It does not incorporate without acknowledgement any material previously
submitted for a degree or diploma in any university and that to the best of my knowledge
it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except
where due reference has been made in the text.

_____________________________
Signature

______________________________
Date
 iv

DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this work to my parents, Mr and Mrs. Epajja Ojulu.
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This degree would have been impossible without the guidance, support, and

inspiration of many. Firstly, I would like to thank God for my good health, strength, and

sound mind throughout the entire process of carrying out and writing this research paper. I

would also like to thank my supervisor, Mr. Hesbon Hansen Owilla, for his time, effort and

consistency as he tirelessly guided and shared insights for every written draft during the

entire process. I will forever be indebted to him. I am thankful for his support and the speed

at responding to all written drafts. I would equally like to thank Mr. Henry Kibira for being

supportive and heeding my calls whenever I found difficulties. I would also like to thank

all the staff of the Graduate School of Media and Communications staff for being

supportive and helpful. I also appreciate the support of Arthur Arnold Wadero and Eve

Masawi during the entire drafting of this study. May the Almighty God bless you.
 vi

ABSTRACT

Social Media, particularly Twitter, has increased and eased the news production
process by enhancing sourcing, gathering, and distributing news content. This study
examined the implications of applying or using witter in the news production process in
Ugandan newsrooms. This study focused on Nation Media Group -Uganda (NMG-U) and
the New Media Theory guided it. The study applied a qualitative study approach and in-
depth interviews to collect data from 22 journalists and editors who were purposely
selected. The study used a case study design to establish the role of Twitter in news
sourcing and the attribution of quotes This study found that handles or accounts that are
consistent with sharing valuable information that benefits the journalists and the audience
are highly considered for news sourcing and quotes. Accuracy and fact-checking processes
are carried out to establish reliability. The study also found that audience feedback
influences the decision-making process in the newsrooms. It is also worth noting that the
study established that engagement is seen in the form of likes and comments from the
audience. The study as well found that Pack journalism and misinformation are slowly
derailing the newsroom. The study recommends that media organisations train journalists
in the audience and engagement field so that they can provide the necessary support and
insights in the production processes, enabling the companies or organisations to work faster
than expected because it would imply that the company is more efficient. Media
organisations need to look at content in a uniquely relevant context to address pack
journalism.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

APPROVAL PAGE ............................................................................................................ ii

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................ v
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .......................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background to the Study ....................................................................................... 2
1.3 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 8
1.4 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................... 10
1.4.2 Research Questions .......................................................................................... 10
1.5 Justification of the Study ..................................................................................... 10
1.6 Significance of the Study .................................................................................... 11
1.7 Scope of the Study............................................................................................... 12
1.8 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................... 12
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms ......................................................................... 13
1.10 Summary ........................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 16
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 16
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 16
2.2.1 New Media Theory ........................................................................................... 16
2.3 General and Empirical Literature Review ........................................................... 20
2.3.1 News sourcing on Twitter and quote attribution in the news production process
................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Influence of audience engagement and feedback on the news production process
................................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.3 Implications of Twitter integration in the news distribution process ............... 29
2.3.4 Twitter Usage in Uganda .................................................................................. 32
2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 34
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 34
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 34
3.2 Research Approach and Research Design ........................................................... 34
3.2.1 Research Approach .......................................................................................... 34
3.2.2 Research Design ............................................................................................... 35
3.3 Population............................................................................................................ 36
3.4 Target Population ................................................................................................ 36
 viii

3.5 Study Site ............................................................................................................ 37

3.6 Sample Size ......................................................................................................... 37
3.7 Sampling Procedures ........................................................................................... 38
3.8 Research Method ................................................................................................. 38
3.9 Data Generation Tools ........................................................................................ 39
3.10 Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................... 39
3.11Pre-testing of Data Generation Tools ................................................................. 40
3.12 Validity and Reliability of Research Tools ....................................................... 40
3.13 Data Analysis and Presentation Plan ................................................................. 41
3.14 Ethical Considerations....................................................................................... 41
3.15 Summary ........................................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................ 43
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION ............................. 43
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation ........................................................... 43
4.2.1 Response Rate .................................................................................................. 43
4.2.2 Findings ............................................................................................................ 44
4.2.2.1 News sourcing and quote attribution on news production ........................ 44
4.2.2.2Influence of Audience Engagement and Feedback on the news production
process ................................................................................................................... 47
4.2.2.3 Integration in the News Distribution Process ............................................ 49
4.3 Summary of Key Findings .................................................................................. 51
4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 53
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................. 53
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Discussions of Key Findings ............................................................................... 53
5.2.1 News Sourcing and Story Attribution .............................................................. 53
5. 2.3 Audience Engagement and Feedback in News Production ............................. 57
5.2.4 Integration of Twitter in Newsrooms ............................................................... 58
5.3 Conclusions and Implications for Practice .......................................................... 60
5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 62
5.5 Areas for Further Research.................................................................................. 64
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 65
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 72
Appendix A: Interview Guide ................................................................................. 72
Appendix B: Description of Participants................................................................. 74
Appendix C: AKU Ethics Review Committee Approval Letter ............................. 75
Appendix D: Introductory Letter from AKU .......................................................... 76
Appendix E: UNCST Research License ................................................................. 77
 ix

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AKU: The Aga Khan University

AI: Artificial Intelligence

BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation

COVID-19: Corona virus pandemic

DM: Daily Monitor

IBEC: Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission

MDA’s: Ministry Department Agencies

MoH: Ministry of Health

NMG: Nation Media Group

NTV: Nation Television

NRM: National Resistance Movement

UBC: Uganda Broadcasting Corporation

UCC: Uganda Communications Commission

UCAA: Uganda Civil Aviation Authority

UHRC: Uganda Human Rights Commission

 x

US: United States

X: Twitter
 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

Globally, the incorporation of social media, particularly Twitter (x), into newsroom

activities has significantly changed and altered the media business (Muindi, 2018). In

Uganda, just like the rest of Africa, social media platforms like Twitter have become a

driving force and central in news production and distribution (Lui & Berkowitz, 2020).

According to the Uganda Communications Commission’s (UCC) report, by the end of

December 2020, 30.8 million devices were connected to a network, and over 37 million

consumers were able to access a smartphone, which led to an increased dependence on

social media for news content (Karlsen & Aalberg, 2021). A study conducted by the Pew

Research Centre in 2022 showed that Twitter. is by far the most common social media site

used by U.S. journalists in their day-to-day journalism work (Jurkowitz & Gottfried, 2022).

In Uganda, Twitter gained prominence after the Ugandan government banned Facebook

after the tech giant banished all fake NRM accounts (Wadero, 2022).

Houston et al. (2018) explained that Twitter had become a robust platform that

journalists use to generate story ideas and influence public opinion. The platform has

enabled and empowered journalists to source, discuss and build personal brands because

information on the platform is distributed faster (Craven, 2022). Media houses and

journalists utilize this to gather and engage audiences. Benavides, Tabernero and Brito

(2022) noted that as news users interact with the content, brand commitment is attracted by

the attention that the media outlet seeks through constant content production and sharing.
 2

This has generally altered the selection, making and sharing processes of news because

journalists can quickly check tweets to identify relevant, newsworthy or tending content

that could be relevant for the audience (Smock, 2014). This study sought to examine

Twitter's implications on news sourcing, and storytelling and how the adaptation of existing

story ideas have changed the news production process in Ugandan newsrooms. This study

also examined the power that Twitter (as a platform) has on the media.

1.2 Background to the Study

The past three decades have proved that social media, especially Twitter, is an

influential tool in news sourcing, story idea generation and consumption, which are useful

in journalism (Benjamin, 2023). Scholars have discussed the different ways to access news

content conveniently because of social networking and the ability to access content in user-

friendly formats (Schwaiger, Volger & Eisenegger, 2022). As a result, consumers or

audiences can consume news because journalists share news snippets on individual social

networks like Twitter and media organization's pages to update their audiences. This,

therefore, forced the audience’s involvement with the production of news, and it has

rendered a new age of journalism and participation where the audiences can provide facts

that can later be used as evidence to produce news from different angles (Brandel & Kho,

2022). It was also imperative to note that without waiting for the news bulletins at the top

of the hour or prime time, it is easy to follow news updates through social media platforms

because reporting Live events and updating audiences is a prerequisite in most media

houses lately (IfeKristi & Omowale, 2020).

 3

Due to audience participation and insight, media companies tend to produce content

that appeals to the satisfaction of the consumers, and both parties can exchange their views

more often (Conill & Tandoc, 2018). Social media, particularly Twitter, has transitioned

beyond the distribution role, which is powered by a data and information-driven society.

Media companies are forced to produce content that appeals to these platforms' audiences

(Steensen, Ferrer-Conill, & Peters, 2020). Even though journalists still do the selection,

production and sourcing of news, today, consumers have a hand in what nature of news

content is published and can push the media to hold institutions and people in authority

accountable and responsible for actions that are not in the public's interest. For example, in

January 2023, videos implicating Uganda’s Civil Aviation Authority (UCAA) as corrupt

made rounds on individual Twitter accounts that later on made local media houses to

investigate further. During the newscast, most media houses had this as a headline story

and the audiences were also asked to share their views under the #Opinion Poll segment.

Because Twitter is driven by more likes, Tweets, comments and re-tweets, media

houses then posted more questions to investigate further about the videos by asking, What

has been your experience with Entebbe International Airport?” As more consumers shared

their views, and media personalities shared their opinions via video applications that would

later be shared on Twitter, it created more awareness that the authorities called for an

immediate press conference without denial. Later on, the implicated individuals were

suspended from duty.

 4

Although Twitter has provided a convenient platform for accessing information, it

poses a threat to authenticity and storytelling since it is complex to verify all information

sourced from the platform (United Nations, 2022) and according to shows that journalists

widely use the platform to generate story ideas., Xinhli and Li (2019) contended that this

dependence may encourage journalists to produce content subjectively. The subjective

presentation of news involves emotions and personal opinions to involve the audience.

Since social media sites are driven by participation or engagement, legacy media houses

strive to share content that appeases their audiences and involves a personalised form of

storytelling.

A study by Newman et al. (2022) showed that solution-based topics interest

audiences for instance, news related to governance, corruption, taxpayers’ accountability

and culture attracted more engagement and participation. Due to this, journalists are

indirectly pushed to produce content in line with the same. This shows that storytelling

techniques have changed because Twitter favours brief and precise content, which

audiences prefer (Kulkarni et al., 2022). To compete with other news sources, media

outlets have become more creative by sharing content on the go (Wilding, Molitorisz, &

Mckewon, 2018).

According to the UHRC (2022), journalists have embraced the digital

transformation of story idea generation through using social sites like Twitter. They have

derived their efforts to publish soft, emotional, and subjective news. Since social networks

have moved beyond the distribution role, they have become firmly embedded in the
 5

production of news because having and maintaining a social presence requires sharing,

discussing, and contributing information which increases consumer experiences with news

(Kramp & Loosen, 2017). Personal experiences with news, therefore, allowed the

consumer to concentrate on what interests them (Moller et al., 2019). An analysis by

Newman et al. (2021) showed that topics revolving around solutions journalism,

information about public figures and climate change attracted more participation. For

instance, before the official release of her autobiography, Queen Sylvia Nagginda of

Buganda, speculation about her giving birth to twins made rounds online. However, the

suspicion was cleared after Daily Monitor published a story confirming that the royal

family had kept the twin sisters away from the public. This is an example of how audiences

still trust legacy media houses as reliable sources of information.

Consequently, Twitter had been identified as a place for crowd-sourcing and

mobilisation. Since it supports and facilitates participatory journalism, it has expanded

news sourcing options for content producers (Antonakopoulous & Veglis, 2022). For

instance, on several occasions, political leaders like the President of Uganda, His

Excellence, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni have confirmed death announcements and other

important communications via his Twitter handle (Jungher, 2016). Today’s mainstream

media heavily relies on official elite sources from government institutional accounts,

politicians, MDAs, and doctors (Cummins, 2022). Audiences Twitter expect instant access

to news and responses, which has frequently pushed newsrooms to update their Twitter

timelines to feed consumers with timely content.

 6

According to Zhang and Li (2019), Twitter provides on-the-scene information,

especially in developing news or breaking news. Journalists depended on citizens to share

accounts of events, especially in natural disasters like floods and fire. For example, when

Wabiduku market, located in Kiwatule, a Kampala suburb was in flames, the reporters

relied on the accounts of eyewitnesses and citizens who rescued the survivors and property.

In another incident, when the Inspector General of Police, Andrew Felix Kaweesi, was

gunned down in 2017 on his way to work, the media relied on eyewitness accounts and

videos captured by onlookers. This kind of news sourcing is commonly used during

protests, riots, and war-infested regions because social media, particularly Twitter,

represents a unique and convenient arena for news gathering and sharing. Journalists had

used the platform to identify topics and sources in the trending topics sections, a reason

why journalists use the platform. Grauer (2018) noted that Twitter is a useful tool for

verification, especially during fast-moving events. He further noted that the verification

tool helped in sieving the correct information, especially in the wake of fake news and

misinformation.

Media organisations have shifted their communication through posts, transformed

texts into short and objective sentences, and published their news on social platforms for

their online users because this has become an inherent practice in the newsroom (Kalsnes

& Larson, 2017). This shift to social media, particularly Twitter, suggested that not only

had the shift to new media platforms changed how messages are conveyed, but also

newsrooms have adopted a new distribution strategy where content is shared on different

platforms (Neto et al., 2019). A survey done by Andi (2021) showed that 60% of users
 7

access news via social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube.

This implies that the messages are conveyed in different formats to sustain attention.

In 2016, NMG-Uganda formally unveiled its digital strategy as a response to the

changing trends in news production. Journalists working in the same media house were

required to post or tweet about news events because Twitter-trained journalists and non-

trained journalists actively manage the media organisation’s Twitter accounts. This is done

to ensure that the audiences are current with events (Namasinga, 2018). With over 3 million

followers on Twitter, users are constantly aware of what will be published since the online

teams share videos and photos and attach links that lead the audience to the entire stories

on both the Daily Monitor and NTV websites. Therefore, this facilitates conversations

between audiences and media management, allowing a proper flow of dialogue and

feedback.

According to Bambino (2020), NTV Uganda and Daily Monitor are both

subsidiaries of NMG, and the two are the media outlets that have the highest number of

followers on Twitter, Journalists use the platform to share breaking news. Twitter statistics

showed that Daily Monitor has 1.6 million followers, NTV has 2 million followers, and K.

FM has 203.5k followers. All these platforms update audiences every 30 minutes.

However, this also depends on the nature of events. For live events, updates are shared

every 10-15 minutes.

 8

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Twitter has a market share of 57.09% Olupot (2021) compared to other social media

platforms in Uganda. This made it one of the most used social media platforms. Vorhaus

(2020) noted that Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Snapchat and Instagram have a combined

2.4 billion users, but because of the Facebook ban in Uganda, Twitter seemed to be the

platform of choice for journalists and many Ugandans. These users receive breaking stories

on their feeds and go to the news sites to learn more.

The digital news report established that the Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19)

accelerated structural shifts towards a more digital, mobile, and platform-dominated media

environment (Newman et al.,2021). This implies that more audiences rely on social media

platforms like Twitter and journalists for the right information. Journalists also

predominantly used the platform for branding and sharing news stories, which has

sometimes led to these journalists amassing followers on these platforms. For instance,

Faridah Nakazibwe, the Luganda news anchor and head of the News department at NTV,

has a following of 925.7K followers. This is an advantage because all these followers can

engage with news content and other relevant announcements the news anchor shares.

Social media sites are instrumental in news reporting, especially in publishing and

developing news, and the platform easily aided media houses in tapping potential

consumers who may not prefer news content from websites, which has pushed most media

outlets and journalists into maintaining a digital presence on platforms like Twitter (Jukes,

2019). Since audiences are now part of the news agenda, their feedback and opinion
 9

influence the newsroom's decision-making (Heravi & Harrower, 2016). Different Twitter

campaigns and opinions using hashtags like the KampalaPothole exhibition have forced

media houses to write more about the issues raised in these Twitter campaigns. Twitter has

allowed media houses to get access to different societal issues that gain traction through

hashtags, a situation that has forced newsrooms to sometimes rely on Twitter for news tips

and which Arjomand and Ghazinejad (2021) argued that it could expose journalists and

media houses to unreliable and less credible news that risks tarnishing a media house brand.

However, even though statistics show that social media has become a significant

force in the newsroom, especially in news gathering and dissemination as the digital

platform of choice, the implications of the prominent usage of Twitter in Ugandan

newsrooms remain less clear because Bichachi (2023) notes that the next coming years of

journalism will be defined by how media organisations transform digital platforms into

satisfying the ever-changing needs of their audiences or consumers. Therefore, journalists'

and media consumers' dominant usage of platforms like Twitter called for studies on the

implications of social networking sites like Twitter on newsroom production, specifically

news reporting, sourcing, and storytelling.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study’s general objective was to examine Twitter's implications on news

production. This study examined the implications of using Twitter on how journalists

reported news stories, sourced for authoritative newsmakers and experts, and how Twitter

activities by the consumers implicate storytelling.

 10

1.4.1 Specific Objectives

1. To analyse the process of news sourcing on Twitter and attribution of quotes in

news production in Ugandan newsrooms.

2. To analyse how audience engagement and the feedback from Twitter influence the

news production process.

3. To determine and describe how the integration of Twitter in the news production

process influences news distribution.

1.4.2 Research Questions

1. What is the process of news sourcing and quote attribution on Twitter in news

production in Ugandan Newsrooms?

2. What is the role and influence of audience engagement and feedback from Twitter

in the news production process?

3. What are the implications of integrating the use of Twitter in the news distribution

process?

1.5 Justification of the Study

Previous studies and surveys about the use of Twitter have focused on the adoption

and distribution role of the platform in newsrooms. A study conducted by Benetti in 2020

focused on using Twitter as a news source, particularly in data journalism in Brazil. To

understand how news websites in Germany referred to Twitter, a content analysis by

Kapidzic et al. (2022) was conducted, and the findings showed that tabloid papers
 11

incorporated the largest number of tweets especially on human interest stories. In another

study by Selnes and Orgeret (2020), the scholars focused on how social media revitalises

news journalism in Uganda. The study discussed how journalists in three Ugandan print

media organisations used Facebook and Twitter daily. These studies discussed the

efficiency of Twitter but did not focus on the impact of incorporating it in news production.

While the need to establish how to make the most out of technological advances is

lingering, it is imperative to understand that newsmakers do not source news stories from

a specific platform (Doyle, 2015). Twitter is an essential platform in the newsroom, and

there was a need to understand the implications or impact of using the platform in the news-

making process. The current study focused on the implications and adaptation of using

Twitter for storytelling, packaging, and news distribution.

1.6 Significance of the Study

Social media, particularly Twitter, has enabled audiences and media makers to

contribute to the news process. This nature of participatory journalism has been cemented

thanks to the advanced technologies that have created a space for engagement and dialogue.

By examining the implications of Twitter on news sourcing, this study will anchor media

practitioners into understanding what implications arise by relying on the platform for news

gathering, sourcing, and distribution.

Communication scholars would use this study to develop theoretical frameworks

that will be used to determine how audience engagement and feedback on Twitter influence

the news production process. Therefore, newsmakers will be in a position to understand or

 12

make relevant decisions in the news-making process. It is, therefore, significant that the

media continues to limit dependence on social media platforms for news sourcing and

distribution by verifying information.

Scholars may use this research to determine the implications of Twitter journalists

using Twitter as a news distribution platform on news distribution. It will further advance

insights into the use of Twitter in newsrooms. Additionally, this study will give more

insight and understanding into the news-making process.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study was limited to Nation Media Group (NMG) - Uganda. This media house

was selected for this study because it has a significant presence on Twitter with more than

2 million followers on most of the Twitter accounts attached to the media house compared

to other media houses in Uganda. The accounts also have a higher engagement compared

to other media outlets. It is also significant to note that NMG is the largest privately owned

media group with different radio stations, a newspaper and 2 local television stations across

the country. Additionally, the media publishes on all platforms and employs the biggest

number of journalists in the country. The media house is also regarded as the most

authoritative and balanced and publishes locally and internationally.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

This study was strictly focused on one social media platform - X (formerly Twitter),

yet most newsrooms and journalists utilise the other three popular social platforms, namely
 13

Facebook, YouTube and WhatsApp. This implies that the study may not draw concrete

findings for all other social media platforms journalists and editors use in their daily work.

It was also complex to gather data from all journalists who used the platform mainly for

distribution purposes,, the study examined the entire news production process.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

News Sourcing: In the context of this study, the term refers to the process of

gathering information from people, organisations, documents, and objects that share

relevant ,and visible insights regarding a specific topic or subject of discussion (Fisher,

2018).

Social Media Tax: A tax imposed by the Uganda government requiring Ugandans

to pay a daily levy of Uganda Shillings (UGX) 200 (USD 0.05) in order to access Facebook,

Twitter, and WhatsApp. President Yoweri Museveni directed the introduction of the social

media tax as a transgression tax to punish social media users in Uganda for the

consequences of their views as a means to raise government revenues (Mwesigwa, 2021).

Convergence: This study applied Gracia-Aviles, Kaltenbrunner, and Meir's (2014)

definition to mean content distribution on a digital device like a smartphone, tablet, or

computer for content consumption.

Participatory Journalism: According to Luce, Jackson, and Thorsen (2016), this

term is defined as citizens or audiences getting involved in professional journalistic work

 14

by identifying, sharing, and commenting via different platforms like social sites or

discussion forums.

Twitter Blue: This option in paid subscription adds a blue check mark to an

account and offers early access to select features, like Edit Tweet. The blue check mark

only appears on eligible profiles after a review is made to ensure that the subscribed

account meets all eligibility criteria (Tobitt, 2022).

Social Site: A term used as an umbrella definition that explains a variety of online

programs, like blogs, business networks, collaborative projects, enterprise social networks

(SN), forums, microblogs, photo sharing, product reviews, social bookmarking, social

gaming, SN, video sharing, and virtual worlds (Aichner, 2019). In the context of this study,

a social site is a digital platform used to gather, connect, and distribute news items.

Developing News: In the context of this study, developing news is the act of

publishing or sharing news with immediacy and live reporting as events unfold or happen.

This nature of reporting is commonly used on social media platforms because they aid

convenience, and it is easy to make changes (Esktrom & Ramslav, 2021).

Audience Engagement: According to Steensen, Ferrer-Conill, and Peters, (2020)

audience engagement refers to the perceptive, responsive or actual involvement that

consumers experience or have with media content. The authors note that scholars and

journalism researchers have continuously tried to link the concept of audience

engagement and news production, discussing the role of engagement as an important

aspect of the creation of sustainable business models since lately, most media activities
 15

or products are created for the benefit of the audience who are required to pay

subscription fees to access the created content. With this, media has to create content that

is worth consuming, this argument was used in the context of this study.

Digital Strategies: Hovey (2021) defines the term as a harmonized method of

combining different technologies to give experiences that ease the process of achieving

or attaining a goal. The process entails using advanced technologies or devices that make

the production or efficiency significant. This term is used in this study as how media

organisations deliberately use or take advantage of the available technologies like the

Internet, Artificial Technologies (AI) and mobile devices to produce and share content

for their audiences. The author further notes that the efficiency and efficacy of a digital

strategy rely on the need to understand past experiences and learn from them.

1.10 Summary

This Chapter discussed the background of the role of social media in the new era of

journalism by highlighting the changes and risks it provides to media houses both locally

and regionally. It focused mainly on the advantages and challenges media houses are

exposed to inform of citizen journalism and Twitter’s influence on the news production

process. The chapter also defined the objectives and developed research questions to

establish the role of Twitter in adapting and generating story ideas. The chapter also

discussed the significance, justification, scope of the study and the limitations the

researcher encountered.
 16

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter discussed the literature related to the use of social media in

newsrooms, the changing scope of traditional journalistic sourcing practices, the influence

of Twitter in story ideation and how social media, particularly Twitter, has affected the

traditional distribution mechanisms in media outlets. It focused on literature in the areas

of social media influence on news dissemination and generation, and the chapter gave an

overview of the ongoing discussions on whether newsrooms are relying on social media

for news production. It as-well discussed the new media theory.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 New Media Theory

Holmes (2009) noted that this theory was invented by Marshall McLuhan when the

need arose to explain the genesis of new advances in communication technology, which

had given birth to new brands of timeless and borderless communication. As a result, many

content consumers can access the media and express opinions and attitudes because the

content is inclusive (Halttunen et al., 2019). This theory has focused more attention on

digital media as a defining factor in how people in the modern information age encounter

information and influence the mode of news production.

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The first key tenet of the theory states that digital platforms are decentralised and

that they allow an unlimited number of people to engage with different platforms and

information at ago. Garg (2023) noted that decentralised platforms allow users to interact

with each other and have more control over what they want to view based on their previous

search data. The users, therefore, have more control over what they want to engage with.

For instance, when a user is interested in news content on television A, content from the

same television will appear more frequently hence users can access the information without

time or geographical limits. As a result of emerging technologies and unlimited

technologies, users can experience exclusive content which is influenced by

recommendations (Kopanen, 2022). In the context of this study, this means that Twitter

users can run campaigns that gain traction on the digital media, generate public interest and

consequently get picked up by media organisations due to the number of user

recommendations and the trending of such issues. For instance, popular cartoonist and

Professor Jimmy Ssentongo alias Jim Spire started a revolution on the poor road conditions

that forced the government into road renovation. Ugandan media houses further published

articles in line with the same following rants from Twitter users. Therefore, the new media

theory help address is the question of how such issues and campaigns that gain traction get

picked up by the media and how that influences news production.

The second key tenet holds that communication is two-way as this process entails

creating meaning and understanding information as the exchange of ideas and interaction

occurs (Fatimayin, 2018). As a result of new media technologies, the provision to allow

huge volumes of communication by providing the possibility of increased speed of

 18

communication has been altered by the fact that new media provides interaction

opportunities (Neuman,1991). As a result of the new media environment, audiences can

swiftly outwit the traditional media by publishing their content immediately. Audiences or

any online user can create and share their views and opinions which can tempt media

organisations or journalists into picking up these as story ideas for their target audiences

(Johnson, 2019). Media organisations have created direct means of receiving feedback

from comment sections, increasing the risk of publishing unverified information.

Thirdly, new media is democratic because free participation by individuals is

allowed. It also enhances and influences individual space and time as audiences share views

and opinions regarding topics about lifestyle, health, politics or economics (Mcquail,

2010). A situation that potentially enjoins the public in contributing to what becomes the

most important discussion or news of the day. New media has several impacts on

democracy and free speech which has diversity and has been enhanced through wider

participation. The most common feature of regulation is to turn off the channel or censor

the content when those in control of information communication consider the content

unsuitable for public consumption. New media is associated with change because it brings

flexibility in information production and distribution, ideally an imperative advancement

for democracy.

Since new media identifies with the use of mobile and computerized technologies

for distribution, it has therefore affected all forms of consumption, distribution, and

production because it represents a convergence of two aspects, media technological

 19

advancement and computing (Manovich, 2001). This has, therefore, made audiences access

information at their convenience, with or without the media as the gatekeeper. Hassan and

Thomas (2006) stated that this kind of change is set to get faster and more inclusive and

affect the process of news gathering, sourcing, and distribution by dictating how media

organisations find and produce news.

This implied that, because of digital platforms like Twitter, content producers can

change and create content that consumers can interact with and share opinions or views

that can later be attributed in news stories. The duo further explains that because

information is impartial, all audiences can consume content as long as it is carried across

different networks. However, this theory failed to highlight what is new for society yet

Cover (2004) argues that new media theory concludes that interactivity and audience

participation are the only new “trends” in media history. He further noted that new media

theory has been used to understand new media techniques and give specific notions in

regard to audience, governance, and democratization. However, the theory failed to explain

the new forms/trends within new media and how they affected audience engagement.

Logan (2010) notes that the author of the new media theory concluded by considering only

television and radio transformations. Nevertheless, today, changes have been inspired by

newer technological advancements that are interactive and more personalised. Today’s new

media is digital and more interconnected with one another. Information is easily accessed,

changed and retrieved.

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The theory as well failed to describe aspects of virtual reality and Artificial

Intelligence which are now predominantly a major aspect in many newsrooms. It instead

expressed the existence and epistemological aspects. The author had to describe and assess

the specific technologies in question. This theory was applied by discussing and analysing

how Twitter involves a two-way communication process by highlighting that audience

feedback is an essential tool in understanding what content audiences respond to and what

motivates audiences to rely on digital platforms for news. Additionally, the theory aided

the study in understanding how social sites like Twitter have become pivotal in news-

making.

2.3 General and Empirical Literature Review

2.3.1 News sourcing on Twitter and quote attribution in the news production process

The traditional sourcing norms, such as favouring official sources and press

releases, had been the traditional sourcing practices, including official communications

such as press releases (Wamunyu & Wahutu, 2019). However, social media has provided

available, updated and onsite information in most instances regardless of war, natural

disasters and other geographical limits (Zhang & Li, 2019). Because social media is

convenient to work with in highly demanding and mobile contexts, journalists took

advantage of the different opportunities to access news sources through personally verified

accounts because Santana and Hoppy (2016) note that the internet is an indispensable

everyday tool. The duo posited that finding sources is part of the basics of journalism

practice. Moreover, as a result of the digital disruption, sources and audiences can share
 21

tips on personal accounts in regard to different topics so journalists do not necessarily have

to interact directly with them but can follow up and investigate more about issues raised by

sharing or viewing their opinions on their personal Twitter accounts. According to Hladik

and Stetka (2015), involving social media in the sourcing process is composite and new

dimension that scholars conceptualize as an indicator of a composite and unique news

system.

A study on Twitter by Santana and Hoppy (2016) showed that journalists have

grown comfortable with utilising Twitter over time to attribute news quotes. The study

established that 1,080 journalists often used microblogs like Twitter for news sourcing. The

social site has therefore become a direct channel for communication especially for the elites

who effectively use platforms like Twitter to circulate information which journalists can

attribute. Social elites like politicians, and government leaders commonly use this kind of

source attribution to effectively circulate messages that journalistsan later use as sources

(Hladik & Stetka, 2015). An analysis of British Newspapers between 2007 and 2014

showed that most cited authors were tweets from politicians, media professionals, and

average users (Kapidzic, Neuberger, & Mirbabaie, 2022). This implies that Twitter is a

vital news-sourcing tool in production.

The dominance of mobile phones and the emergency of digital platforms facilitated

options of following and shared information in several ways. This can be done either

through audio, visual and text. Since Twitter is a space increasingly used by several people,

the comments and tweets can lead to story tips that can be used during news gatherings
 22

(Antonakopoulous & Veglis, 2022). Brandtzaeg and Spangenberg (2015) noted that

journalists turned to social sites to research topics, attribute quotes, and curate information.

The duo established that in the US and Europe, the vast majority of journalists turned to

social media platforms like Twitter every day to search, attribute and source news.

Since mobile technology has enabled and fostered information sharing, a study by

Tan (2022) showed that 28.9% of participants in 2017 majorly received news via social

media platforms like Twitter and this hiked in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic,

audiences or users were forced to constantly use their mobile phones for accessing news

sites. Rony, Yousuf, and Hassan (2018) noted that contemporary journalists and editors are

more inclined to see social media sources as important and influential in their day-to-day

lives because they work and come from an equal setting. To curb misinformation and fake

news, media producers or journalists ensure news eligibility by checking who has shared

the information, under what circumstances they are allowed to share or tweet information,

and why they are sharing it. What is the nature of engagement on their posts? How often

do they post? Since the re-branding of Twitter, it has become easier to verify the

authenticity of information because media houses, government officials, and other elites in

society are required to pay a specific subscription fee to receive a badge. Media houses and

government institutions are identified with a blue and golden colour badge to distinguish

the source of information and for verification purposes (Citizen Digital, 2022). For

instance, during the pandemic, Ugandan media houses attributed the C-19 patient numbers

by relying on what the MoH Twitter page shared. As a result, physical contact was

prohibited, a habit that has continued to be used in most Ugandan newsrooms.

 23

Consistent news/content sharing is paramount in identifying sources. Journalists

engaged and attributed quotes to/with elite Twitter users who consistently posted tweets

authoritatively. This was likely to increase the dependence of using these tweets for future

information releases encouraging journalists to continuously share news-related

information because the elite category also considers as a form of branding which is

advantageous to the journalists and media houses (Molyneux & Mcgregor, 2021). The date

and time of posting newsworthy information is also considered in eliminating the spread

of fake information. Comparisons are made to identify and rule out newsworthiness. This

nature of news sourcing has aided journalists in building a network since the platform is

limitless as it allows everyone to participate (Johnson, 2019).

Social Media platforms like Twitter have not eradicated traditional practices like

one-on-one interviews with sources. However, they are aiding collaboration with audiences

who provide resourceful information or insights for journalists to consider (Gagnon 2015).

Media houses and journalists use Twitter in ways that fit into the established norms and

practices of identifying and verifying sources for relevant information. Santana and Hoppy

(2016) noted that news falls into two categories; scheduled and unscheduled and they

explain that audiences come in handy during unscheduled events like shooting, and natural

disaster. Audience accounts are rarely vital for the scheduled events in news sourcing.

Reporters’ response to news is highly dependent on the two. And this applies to news

sourcing since social site usage has continued to grow due to technological advancement,

for instance, the use of artificial intelligence is now being incorporated in the newsroom. It
 24

has, therefore, allowed people to create networks and engage in meaningful discussions

that can provide relevant information for news stories (Gagnon-Dufresne et al., 2023).

Media houses and journalists fully know the value of Twitter as a news-sourcing

tool. The platform has changed the way journalists do their jobs. Twitter gave journalists

new ways to find and track news, identify sources, and be more aware of activities and

individuals deemed important for news stories (Boyle & Zeugror, 2017). Global media like

BBC have established monitoring hubs that observe what other online digital platforms

like social media accounts of Embassies, consul, newsrooms and other government

institutional bodies to identify story tips or newsworthy information (White, 2022). The

hub was established in 2009. This has, therefore, made newsrooms create positions like

social media Editor whose role may entail identifying story tips and relevant news sources

for particular news stories. According to De Vito (2014) the establishment of new

newsroom positions showed that news organizations tend to depend on social networks

like Twitter for substantial information and quote attribution.

Twitter’s combined receptivity and the concept of real-time information allowed

journalists to source information conveniently (Herari & Harrower, 2016). In Africa,

particularly Nigeria the trend is the same. A study conducted by (Inobemhe and Santas,

2021) found out that the adopted social media platforms particularly Twitter were useful

in the newsroom operations of the selected broadcast media organisations that their study

focused on. Journalists in the selected newsrooms showed that the adopted platforms serve

as news sources. The study also established that new media technologies aided media
 25

organisations in getting news to the audience even before the traditional media and that

social media such as Twitter helped in this regard. South African media outlets have also

utilized the advantages of social media platforms, particularly Twitter andews sourcing

(Findlay, Bird, & Smith, 2018).

Regionally, a study conducted by Muindi (2018) established that the use of Twitter

for news sourcing by journalists had been created within a set of different processes of

authenticating news informants. The study was undertaken to understand how Kenyan

journalists used Twitter as a sourcing platform. It further found that the platform has been

applied as an innovation in the sourcing processes, specifically at the Daily Nation. In East

Africa, Kenyan media houses are the most proactive, considering Kenyans are active,

especially in civic discussion and politics (Nyabola, 2018). As cited by Yi Dionne (2019)

in Digital Democracy delivers a powerful lead on politics and social media in Kenya,

Dionne quoted Nyabola stating that, social media gives or provides citizens an opportunity

or road map to engage their governments in new and effective ways. When traditional

media offers government-sanitized news, social sites like Twitter make and enable citizens

to challenge government accounts and respond to particular events in a timely way. This is

evidenced in the 2022 Presidential Kenyan election, where media house Twitter platforms

like Citizen were washed with several global and local audiences following live updates

from the country’s electoral body IBEC as events unfolded.

To maintain journalistic practices and norms in an ever-changing digital world,

media houses have been pushed to create and ensure meaningful ways that have promoted
 26

decent and meaningful discussions that aid news sourcing and quote attribution on Twitter.

This study sought to examine how Ugandan newsrooms were able to derive newsworthy

information from audiences on their Twitter platforms and maintain ethical journalism

standards.

2.3.2 Influence of audience engagement and feedback on the news production process

The media ecosystem was intruded by non-traditional actors who have disrupted

and transformed the news packaging routines in the newsroom. Unlike before, editors and

journalists had immediate access to contact their audiences, which has propelled more

pressure to achieve and satisfy the audience’s expectations. As a result, media managers,

editors and journalists were forced to create clickable headlines on social media timelines

to maintain social media engagement. There’s been the notion that triggering emotions and

personalization are necessary to attract audiences. The struggle for engagement, readership

and viewership has forced editors to create precise and “punchy” headlines because

exceptional journalism is a result of teamwork, right from the reporter at the scene of the

event to the designer who ensures that the story is visually appealing and lastly to the editor

who ensures that the story is grammatically correct. Depending on the nature of the

newsroom, this entire workforce must add value to the packaging of the content as required

by the audiences that have greatly influenced the news sourcing process in the newsroom

(Welber & Opgenhaffen, 2018: Cheruiyot, Wahutu, Mare, Ogola, & Mabweazara, 2021).

To stay afloat with sustaining audiences, media organisations and Journalists used

Twitter by embedding links on posts to encourage their audiences to find the content on
 27

the website. According to Oschatz, Steir, and Maier (2021), using Twitter in the news

production process was a reflection of a converged media system and this has been powered

by audience activities of liking and re-tweeting or commenting. In their study on using

Twitter as a tool in political communication, the scholars established that embedded tweets

have a small but recognizable effect on audiences and their likelihood of reading or finding

more details. For instance, when Queen Elizabeth died, the BBC shared on their Twitter

handle, “The queen is dead,” and later on shared a link for burial arrangements and more

details (BBC, 2022). This tweet forced audiences worldwide to share the news and most

Ugandan media houses picked up the same tweet for their audiences before publishing the

story. Audiences are more inclined to engage with content that appeals to their emotions.

Journalists selected, adapted, and produced content that suited specific platforms

because social media platforms have moved beyond the popular distribution role (Hase,

Boczek & Scharlow, 2022). For example, content packaging for Twitter audiences differs

from other platforms as the platform provides 280 characters for non-Americans and non-

subscribers (Forbes 2023). This shows that media houses have an opportunity to share

multi-media content, especially with a generation of audiences that prefers information

published in different formats that has been labeled as avoiding news, running away from

watching news. Multi-media content is ideal for maintaining and engaging audiences

(Newman et al., 2022)

Twitter functioned as an always-on, real-time knowledge system, alerting

journalists to emerged trends or issues (Jukes 2019). This has been powered by hashtags,
 28

which Potnis and Tahatman (2021) describe as tags that differ in practicality depending on

the social media platform. Twitter hashtags unite users by categorising and coordinating

audiences to join different conversation trends and options (Watson, 2020). These features

enable news producers to share content conveniently for consumption and drive feedback,

which is essential in understanding the magnitude of preferred content. For instance, during

the COVID-19 pandemic, media houses like Reuters adopted the #AskReuters, allowing

users or audiences to start conversations and ask questions. This enabled journalists and

audiences to convene and discuss curbing issues like the spread of fake information,

conspiracy theories and propaganda (Culliford, 2020)

Social media sites have influenced the way audiences receive news. They have

created a broad or wider environment for users to choose their specific news preferences

(Rauhfleisch, Vogler, & Eisenegger, 2020). This has forced content producers to share

content that fits into the consumption habits of online audiences, which as a result of an

irrational move of suiting the audience’s needs, has made media managers tailor news that

fits into what the audiences prefer (Al-Rawi, 2019). Content is precise, and some media

organisations have adopted a clickbait-style of headline writing to attract immediate

feedback. Most media oragnisations demand multi-skilled journalists, sharing content on

the go by giving updates through videos, links, or pictorials accompanied by a story

(Mutabazi, 2019).

According to Maher (2023), Twitter consumption has evolved with new features as

the company seeks to verify journalists. This has forced and encouraged media houses to
 29

present or share news content to various audiences. This has altered the slotted time for

newscasts. As events unfold, news is shared via 20–25-word tweets to inform the public

within minutes of an event (Hanley, 2014). For instance, when a popular vlogger, Isma

Tusubira, popularly known as Olaxes, was gunned down on 6th May 2023, media houses

got the information after the public shared videos of the deceased shot dead in his van

(Nagitta & Bagala, 2023). Features to record, write, and edit texts have created several

citizen journalists. When prominent politicians are gunned down, it is the audiences that

share the videos as proof before the media houses confirm the authenticity of the accounts.

These examples portray that the media ecosystem is evolving faster than before, and media

houses need to critically assess their gatekeeping role by understanding the implications of

social sites like Twitter (Meisinger, 2018).

2.3.3 Implications of Twitter integration in the news distribution process

According to Newman et al. (2022), the smartphone is the most important digital

device for accessing global news. Journalistic or news content is easily accessed because

of the new technological innovations and the evolution of the internet. Audiences can

watch, read, and follow various news in real time without geographical boundarieseither

through news sites or social media platforms like Twitter (Rauhfleisch, Vogler, &

Eisenegger, 2020). Social sites have quickened the distribution of news content because

stories are visible on one’s timeline (Kalsnes & Larson, 2017). This has also been powered

by algorithms which Thurman, Lewis, and Kunert (2019) note that they influence, every

facet of the journalism sphere, from the story ideation process to the distribution stage.
 30

News organisations are continuously invested in social media, and media

organisations are interested in diversification which is an important attribute in distribution

on social media (Cornia et al., 2018). According to Mustatea and Balaban (2018), news

distribution is an action that increases when the content for distribution resonates with the

values and interests of the audience and stirs feelings. This explains why particular content

is shared multiple times by multiple consumers. For example, the inaction of the

Homosexuality Bill of 2023 sparked conversations and misinformation on Twitter due to

the punishments and penalties. Considering that most African countries receive aid or

donations form the western world, media houses are careful with how the information or

sections in the bill are shared or portrayed. This kind of selective reporting portrays the

media as biased and subjective.

Bane (2017) noted that Twitter has the power to shape journalists’ mode of

distribution since the platform influences the types and nature of events covered. In order

to engage audiences, media outlets have created opinion sections that allow users to

customise the news content to fit their consumption needs. Since the customisation of the

news involves participatory journalism, it has given media organisations the ability to know

when to share or post adverts that most media houses rely on as revenue (Al-Rawi, 2016).

While Twitter may interfere with the gatekeeping role of journalism, the platform allows

users to exchange content through re-tweets. As content is re-tweeted, the audience

indirectly distributes the information within their circles (Rusell, 2017). Therefore, this

has positively aided the media organisation in distributing content to several audiences in

real-time.
 31

News sharing is often associated with the need to seek attention or discontent.

Audiences can be motivated to share or re-tweet news that is interesting or shows that the

nature of stories distributed will show or manifest specific boundaries created for the sake

of data and as well understand whether these boundaries contend with the kind of news

content shared by media organisations (Ackland, O’Neil & Park, 2018). Although content

on these platforms is free and can be easily accessed, media houses may miss out on the

revenue from paywalls, yet advertising sales have for the past decade dwindled and affected

the media due to shifts in the times and the ability to access news products (Goyanes,

Scheffauer & Zuniga, 2023).

Media organisations risk sharing or promoting news narratives that are politically

shaped or biased. In order to satisfy audience consumption habits, journalists and media

managers can be forced to consider social Analytics as a basis for news dissemination

(Dwyer & Martin, 2017). According to Zuniga, Diehl, and Ardevol-Abreuq (2016), biased

news reporting can lead to mistrust and detachment from news consumption. Social

Networking sites are engaging, and they greatly ease the distribution process. However,

integrating platforms like Twitter also increases a sense of participatory journalism, which

affects traditional news patterns by instantly being available with content. Content

producers are pushed to share snippets of news bulletins quite frequently to maintain

engagement. As a result, audiences prefer content readily available for consumption

(Chacon, Giasson & Brin, 2018). Although readily available content is relevant in a fast-

paced media environment, media and content producers risk publishing news that is ‘half-

baked news. Additionally, journalists risk losing on reporting substantial investigative

 32

reports that are more detailed. While the integration of Twitter is an important aspect in the

newsroom that has eased journalism work, there is a need to understand how the platform's

integration influences the news distribution process.

2.3.4 Twitter Usage in Uganda

According to Kanaabi (2020), Twitter has the highest number of users after

Facebook. Twitter was launched in October 2006. It is a free real-time short messaging

service that enables users to send and read messages (tweets) through the Twitter website,

short message service (SMS), mobile application, and various desktop applications (Lui,

Cheng &Lee, 2010). The social site was previously owned by founded by Jack Dorsey,

along with Noah Glass, Biz Stone, and Evan Williams, and mostly owned by large

institutional investors like The Vanguard Group (Massie, 2022).

In December 2022, Elon Musk acquired Twitter at $44 billion and since then, the

company has changed the popular 140 limit that includes links to blogs, web pages, images,

videos and all other material online has been changed to reinstating closed accounts,

Twitter blue, silver and gold verification marks that are identified in grey, yellow and blue.

The order in which tweets appear on individual timelines is determined by the algorithm

that identifies the nature of the content that the user is accessing. A month into Twitter

acquisition, local media organisations like NTV and NBS had acquired blue-ticks or marks,

a symbol that signifies that the account belongs to a media organisation and is credible.

Journalists attached to these media outlets as well had a unique symbol. However, some

rejected the decision when Musk asked prominent journalists to pay a specific fee. The
 33

platform shares information based on other aspects, like Artificial Intelligence, by

considering content accessed by the user. Different changes have been made to the

advantage of newsrooms and others that have affected the newsrooms. For instance, the

proprietor blocked headlines from showing on articles attached to posts, the platform only

allows images like PDFs (Robledo, 2023).

In 2020, before Uganda’s Presidential elections, Facebook was shut down after

several fake accounts belonging to the NRM party were closed down, by the tech giant

claiming that most users switched to Twitter and Instagram. Users as well had to use Virtual

Private Network Applications to access the platform. This forced most users to abandon

the platform, a factor that benefited Twitter. This shift increased engagement on the

platform. The Stats Counter (2023) established that Twitter has the highest number of

users, with 31.5% more than Facebook (9.45%), Pinterest (21.57%) and YouTube

(28.17%)

2.4 Summary

This chapter reviewed relevant literature on the use of social media, specifically

Twitter in newsrooms, the changing scope of traditional journalistic sourcing practices, the

influence of Twitter in story ideation, and how social media, particularly Twitter, has

affected the traditional distribution mechanisms in media outlets. It also highlighted and

discussed the new media theory which guided the study.

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This section discussed the methods the researcher proposed to use to establish the

impact of social media particularly Twitter re-branded to X on news sourcing, news

production and distribution. It explained the process to be used to collect and analyse the

data. The section also outlined the research approach and method, the target population,

the sample size and the techniques to be used. In addition, it discussed the data collection

tools and techniques to be used. Lastly, this section outlined the ethical issues that arose

during the study and how they were addressed.

3.2 Research Approach and Research Design

3.2.1 Research Approach

This study employed a qualitative approach to examine how Twitter impacted the

news production processes in Ugandan newsrooms. This, therefore, necessitated the

researcher to interact with staff at NMG to gather information on how the use of the

platform in their day-to-day work impacted how they undertook their newsroom processes.

According to Cropley (2021), a qualitative method involves understanding the

reasons and intentions as to why individuals or groups or organisations ascribe to a specific

issue. This means that the research involved further questions specifically collected from
 35

the respondents' perspectives. This nature of research is expressed to derive meaning from

a personal basis to understand or derive meaning from a complex position (J. Creswell &

D. Creswell, 2017). Considering that qualitative research comprises flexible and open

responses, it made it suitable for this kind of study because it enabled the researcher to

collect the information in text rather than numbers (Busetto, Wolfgang & Gumbinger

2020). It anchored the study on how Twitter and Twitter have impacted the news

production process. This approach was suitable for this study because the researcher

generated insights from journalists and editors who use Twitter to produce news.

3.2.2 Research Design

A research design is a detailed plan to clarify the methods and process for gathering

and analysing the required information for a study. Boru (2018) noted that a research design

is a general strategy for connecting the “conceptual research problems with the relevant”

and attainable “empirical research.” According to Flick (2009), a research design is a

strategy for collecting and analysing proof that will guide the researcher in attempting

proposed questions. The three scholars emphasised that a research design involved a

procedure a researcher used and followed to achieve research questions that are effectual

and verifiable in consideration of the economic aspect (Onywer, 2021).

This design was suitable for this study because it enabled the researcher to draw

concrete findings from the editors and journalists who have used the platform in their daily

routines. Additionally, this design gave an extensive exploration and understanding of the

implications of Twitter in news production in Ugandan newsrooms. This study adopted a

 36

case study design, which Yin (2003) described as a design used to express a situation's

“complexity, " including real-time changes. Zainal (2007) also added that case studies aid

the researcher in clearly examining the information in a particular context. The scholar

adds that case studies interpret and explore real-life situations through thoroughly

analysing events, conditions and situations.

3.3 Population

Population refers to the aggregate of persons or objects under investigation. In

statistical terms, a population refers to the aggregate of individuals or units from which a

sample is drawn and to which the analysis results apply. There are 5 media organisations

in Uganda: Vision Group, Uganda Broadcasting Cooperation (UBC), Next Media Services

and Nation Media Group. This study focused on Nation Media Group, a privately owned

media house that operates five media outlets.

3.4 Target Population

This is a group of individuals or units the research intends to focus on and draw

conclusions from. This study targets journalists and editors from Daily Monitor and NTV.

The two media outlets have a designated number of followers and engagement on the

platform. For instance, NTV, a subsidiary of NMG, has a followership of 2 million, while

Daily Monitor has 1.6 million followers.

 37

3.5 Study Site

The study area was Kampala because the media house has its headquarters in

Kampala. The respondents were social media managers and journalists who used Twitter

in their daily work. The researcher was flexible while carrying out the in-depth interviews,

bearing in mind the working schedules for both the managers and journalists.

3.6 Sample Size

The essential objective of sampling is picking “suitable populations for elements”

so that the focus of the study is accurately researched. Qualitative research s an effective

sample selection because inaccurate procedures may seriously affect the study results

(Lopez & Whitehead, 2013). Therefore, this study sampled Daily Monitor and NTV

because they are regarded as the most authoritative and have the highest number of

followers and engagement on the platform. Sampling is a procedure that involves the

selection of a sample from individuals or a large group of the population for a research

purpose (Bwardwaj, 2019). This study interviewed journalists with a high presence whose

work revolves around the platform for news production. The study also interviewed editors

and online editors whose responsibilities aligned with the digital platform until no new

information was achieved or shared. Moreover, the term used to mean this is saturation,

which Saunders et al. (2017) defined as a situation where no fresh additional data are found

as the researcher starts to hear the same responses repeatedly. For instance, since this study

applied themes, the extent to which pre-determined themes were adequately represented in

the data showed that saturation had been achieved.

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3.7 Sampling Procedures

The researcher purposively sampled Nation Media Group. Suri (2011) notes that

purposive sampling requires access to key informants in the field who can help identify

information. Dudovskiy (2022) noted that purposive sampling is effective when a limited

number of people can serve as primary data sources. This media house was selected

because it has the highest viewership and ratings compared to other media houses.

According to Otage (2023), NMG was ranked and recognised as having the highest

viewership in the news category. The study purposely focused on 22 journalists, from NTV

and Daily Monitor, who were sampled until saturation. Furthermore, the journalists with

more engagement and followership on the platform were considered for the interviews.

3.8 Research Method

This study adopted the case study method. According to Roseli, Takahanshi and

Araujo (2020) case studies usually focus on first scenarios that represent a phenomenon

selected based on what can be empirically observed. This study was applied to enable the

researcher to establish the impact, effect or implications of employing Twitter in news

gathering, production and distribution in Ugandan newsrooms by focusing on NMG-

UGANDA. According to Kumar (2011), a case study design requires a “thorough and in-

depth explanation” of a situation by providing a summary of a “unit of study.” Different

techniques are used in a case study: focus group discussions, observations, key informant

interviews and in-depth interviews. This study applied in-depth interviews because they
 39

involved repeated contact and extended time spent with a respondent for the desired results

or responses.

3.9 Data Generation Tools

All data was collected using an interview guide. The interviews were vital or

relevant for editors and journalists who, due to the nature of their work, were able to create

ample time to answer the questions. The interviews, in this case were applicable because

they provided an opportunity to explore the topic in depth and allowed the researcher to

experience the cognitive aspects of responses. An interview guide was generated for both

the journalists and editors. Observations to Twitter accounts were also applied in addition

to the interviews.

3.10 Data Collection Procedures

The researcher requested a letter of affiliation from the Aga Khan University

Graduate School of Media and Communications and wrote to the media house - NMG,

seeking permission to collect data from their editors and journalists. The interviews were

conducted at the media organisation’s premises, and the observations were done using a

smartphone to monitor the frequency of shared content.

The researcher, therefore, gave a brief explanation of the study and its purpose. The

researcher interviewed editors and journalists from Daily Monitor and NTV for their

knowledge on content on social media platforms, particularly Twitter and how they used
 40

the site in their daily work. The researcher conducted interviews until the information or

responses yielded no new insights.

3.11Pre-testing of Data Generation Tools

According to Hurst et al. (2015), pretesting is an effective tool recommended for

improving validity in gathering qualitative data procedures to explain the findings of a

study. The researcher randomly selected 5 journalists from a different media house to

participate before the interviews with journalists from NMG. The researcher particularly

sought consistency in the responses and as well inquired how they understood or perceived

the questions asked. This, therefore, eliminated instances of misinterpretation and giving

invalid responses.

3.12 Validity and Reliability of Research Tools

To ensure rationality, the researcher pretested the responses for validity, reliability

and objectivity. This was done by continuously asking the respondents how they

understood and what meanings they perceived from the questions. When the researcher

noticed they had misinterpreted the questions, the researcher immediately restructured

them to ensure objective responses for the study. Creswell and Poth (2013) noted that

findings in qualitative research are used to assess the quality of the results, as best described

by the researcher and the participants. The duo noted that validation is a method used to

assess a process as an alternative of confirmation made by an extended period spent in the

field, a critical description, and a close relationship between the researcher and the

participants. Pre-testing the research instrument, the researcher determined that the study
 41

was reliable and produced steady and accurate results by noting down misunderstood

questions and rephrasing them for the respondents. Additionally, the researcher as well

selected 5 journalists to establish whether and how they understood the questions. When

the respondents understood the questions and they responded rationally, this showed the

validity of the responses. To ensure that the responses were reliable, the researcher

analysed the responses to ensure that the respondents understood the questions.

3.13 Data Analysis and Presentation Plan

Unlike quantitative studies, data analysis started immediately when the first

participant shared information. This study, therefore, applied a thematic analysis to present

the data and according to Braun and Clarke (2018), thematic analysis is a systematic

procedure of identifying, organising and providing insight into patterns of meaning into a

specific data set. This form of analysing data allowed the researcher to listen to, see, and

make sense of the collected experiences from the respondents because it enabled the

researcher to single out what was common in regard to the topic discussed or written about.

Thematic analysis also helped produce responses to relevant questions for the particular

topic or research objective by listening to the transcriptions and picking out emergent

themes. The researcher as well added quotes narratively in accordance with the research

objectives.

3.14 Ethical Considerations

Since research is obliged to ensure the safety, privacy and dignity of the

respondents, it was important, for the researcher to seek consent from all the participants.
 42

According to Yip et al. (2016), an informed consent process is where a participant

voluntarily takes part in the research without coercion. The researcher, therefore, sought

clearance to conduct this study from the Graduate School of Media and Communications,

The Aga Khan University and a permit to conduct this research from the Uganda National

Council of Science and Technology. The researcher then sought permission from NMG,

particularly NTV and Daily Monitor, journalists or staff, by explaining to them the purpose

of researching to examine the implications of Twitter in their day-to-day news gathering,

news sourcing and distribution processes before carrying out the interviews. The researcher

also shared a consent form that the participants read and understood before participating in

the study. The findings were presented as a collective representation, and it was difficult to

trace the information to a specific individual respondent. In addition, the interview

recordings were only accessed by the researcher and the assistants and were only availed

to the research defense panel for confidentiality.

3.15 Summary

This chapter discussed the qualitative and case study research design. It highlighted

the target population and the purposive sampling method used for this study. It also

discussed how data was collected and analysed by focusing on the validity and reliability

of the research tools and the ethical considerations the researcher followed while

conducting the study.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

The Interviews were conducted with 22 journalists out of the 25 selected

purposively, thereby translating to an 88 percent rate. The age group was between 22 and

45 years and they had worked for the company for three and 20 years. They all had at least

a bachelor's degree either in journalism and communication. The study conducted in-depth

interviews to collect data from journalists at the Nation Media Group-Uganda (NMG),

particularly NTV which is located at Kampala Serena Conference Centre, Kintu Road

Kampala Uganda and Daily Monitor, which is located at, Eighth Street, Industrial Area,

Namuwongo, Kampala.

4.2 Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation

4.2.1 Response Rate

Of the 22 interviews, 15 were from print, and seven were from Television. Four of

the 15 were print sub-editors, and 11 were reporters. The research findings are reported

based on applied thematic analysis, as discussed below.

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4.2.2 Findings

4.2.2.1 News sourcing and quote attribution on news production

Credibility of news tips

The study sought to understand the process used by the media outlets in attributing

quotes and news sources, and it emerged that credibility or the source of news must be

credible and reliable. The study also found that these accounts must be verified with a

badge, which must be blue, yellow or grey, depending on what the account holder

subscribed for. It also emerged from the responses that information or quotes used are

picked from reputable account holders like the Head of State, The Speaker of Parliament,

corporate non-governmental organizations and other political leaders whose opinions are

widely respected and authoritative and have proven news value for the public and the

media. Some participants, both from TV and the newspaper, emphasized that the process

focuses on sourcing certified credible accounts that can be verified and traced to

authoritative newsmakers that share accurate, news worth and consistent content.

We do get quotes for news content via Twitter; especially key public
figures such as the President, Ministers and other leaders. But to do this,
we ensure that it is the right/authentic page/handle, otherwise it is easy
to fall prey to pseudo or catfish accounts (participant 19).

The main thing is that we choose accounts that are verified and thus their
accounts qualify for quoting. The parliament's speaker also uses the
platform to announce or make various communications rather than
reaching out to the press or calling them out to state what they have
already discussed during plenary sessions. We, therefore carry the quote
as an authority. (Participant 5)
 45

It emerged that Twitter was a convenient source of finding story ideas because of

the nature of audiences or people that use the social site. Several high-profile people use

the site to share important information and announcements. In the event that these

dignitaries are difficult to access, the platform provides an avenue for accessing this

information. It also emerged that the accounts used for picking story tips are considered

reliable and have been observed and regarded as accurate.

Twitter is amicably a good source of information and story ideas because

it provides convenient and accessible content sources. We as well get
quotes from Reputable figures like UN representatives to different
countries who may be hard to access however, because they have Twitter
accounts where they pass on communication, then it is easy for us to pick
their brains on issues because their accounts are verified. (participant 10)

We are very intentional on which accounts to consider credible or not.

Government Twitter accounts that share information considered to be
gospel truth are credible sources. Quotes become intentional after
making a series of observations on a particular Twitter account.
(Participant 18)

There are specific authoritative and relevant handles we consider. Most

are related to their position and power in governance or their institution.
Power plays a big role here. (Participant 9)

News worthiness and consistency

The data also showed that the newspaper and Television also considered

newsworthiness and consistency before attributing a new quote. Since the platform has

several users, the participants acknowledged that the three mentioned aspects are

considered before attributing any quote. Since most of these handles are owned by political

leaders and other dignitaries who discuss different topics, the subject of discussion must

relate to what the journalist or media house is seeking. Depending on what has been shared,
 46

journalists usually follow up with more research and phone calls or physical interviews

with the news sources.

When a reporter comes out or identifies a news tip or story idea via
Twitter, we ask them about the relevance of the information before they
interview relevant sources for the story. It just doesn’t end on a tweet or
comment in the replies section. We ask the reporter to follow up with
interviews because as NMG, we have to follow our policies of news
production. (Participant 22)

We follow the “so what” rule; how relevant is it and why should we (you)
care? For example, 99 percent of President Museveni’s tweets are
newsworthy because he is the Head of State. We usually follow up with
phone calls for clarity’s sake and more elaborative answers. (Participant
17)

When I look at the profile of the person, or the company that the person
works with or for, for instance, Kampala Capital City Authority Director
and she is tweeting about the road situation and I happen to have been
assigned a story in relation to roads, I will consider what she is saying
because it is relevant to my story. (Participant1)

I have to gauge how easy or hard it is to access the source. For instance,
if a Country Diplomat is inaccessible, and they tweet information
relevant to my topic, I do not have to look for them because that involves
a long and time-consuming process, yet I need to be fast and send in my
news story to the editor. (Participant 12)

The consistency and transparency of the account handlers matter. Not

organisations or people that easily mince words or communicate.
(Participant 9)

There’s no rule book on this. Precisely, their comments must be in

relationship to a newsworthy development. (Participant 15)

Accuracy

Most of the participants confessed that content from the social site undergoes a fact-

checking process. Since social networks are infiltrated with different news sources, it has
 47

emerged as that fact-checking for the right information before it is considered for

publication is a major activity in the news production process. Through fact-checking, the

producers or publishers are in a position to clarify the authenticity of information. So, fact-

checking is important in ruling out the potential misinformation or disinformation that

could be misleading for the audiences or consumers.

Credible sources are typically identified by their expertise, reliability,

and reputation. I also review their track record for accuracy before
reaching out and greatly consider fact-checking so, I corroborate the
information from multiple sources to ensure reliability. You don’t want
to rely on one source and then later discover that this particular source
gave you uncoordinated information. (Participant 5)

If whatever is trending is newsworthy and factual, it takes just a small tip

to come up with a big story. So, during the planning meetings, the team
will pitch and discuss the ideas they have gathered online. Those found
to be relevant will be considered for follow-up. (Participant 2)

Verifying sources on Twitter is mostly based on the fact-checking

process. Sometimes you are required to do a background check on the
history, and consistency of the people sharing the information.
(Participant 20)

4.2.2.2Influence of Audience Engagement and Feedback on the news production

process

This sought to analyse how audience engagement and feedback from Twitter

influenced the decision-making process during the news production procedure. It emerged

that audience feedback from Twitter has a great impact on greatly impacts the nature of

news produced or published for their consumers. The participants, therefore, stated that the

engagement with particular news content by liking, sharing and commenting on news

stories influenced the decisions made regarding news content for publication and
 48

viewership. It emerged that media houses produced content that audiences preferred

because content produced for the audiences is usually placed under a paywall, and

consumers can only pay subscription fees for what they consider worth and relevant.

Decision making

User engagement is important for the newsroom because it enables us as

news makers understand what our audiences prefer or like (Participant
14)

Audience engagement is like a compass. It directs what is new in

considering what we should produce, how, and who to produce it for.
And it also helps us to continuously learn from the nature of the work we
do and make changes as and when need arises. (Participant 6)

Leaving feedback has a way that triggers you to the next story idea and
sometimes the audience is telling you about their preferences. Some
videos get heavier traffic compared to others. (Participant 3)
The comment section will make you look at the section as where a story
can be derived from because it’s where the audiences share their
preferences (Participants 16)

Audience engagement and feedback are integral to the journalistic

practice because they contribute to accuracy, diversity, and transparency.
Feedback will give you valuable insights into what works and what
doesn't work for your target audience. (Participant 11)

We have an engagement specialist to enable us to monitor what our

audiences love most, who are the loyal ones, because their feedback is
crucial and at the end of the day, we are here to serve them, inform,
educate and entertain them at any cost. (Participant 21)

Comments provide valuable feedback into what works and what doesn’t,
because if we don’t give the audience what they want, we are likely to
lose them. However, not everything they say is taken in, you cannot
please everyone, but we consider relevant arguments that we discuss
amongst the team and then see how we can execute better. (Participant
17)
 49

Audience feedback is important because social platform feedback will

inform the decision-making in story idea generation. We have to tap into
the areas that are supposed to bring in money since you’re producing for
audiences and audiences will only pay for what they are interested in
(Participant 13)

Consumers play a key role in determining what the newsrooms are going
to produce. For instance, what would you do if all audiences are focused
on a particular story like the Busoga royal wedding? (Participant 20)

Feedback from audience can give you different angles because a

comment can sometimes lead you to another story. So sometimes, before
I read about a story on Twitter, I look through the comments because I
would like to know their perceptions, whether they are misinformed and
how they understood the story (Participant 15)

4.2.2.3 Integration in the News Distribution Process

This sought to describe and determine Twitter's influence on the newsroom

distribution process. Findings have shown that the platform has produced timely and

accessible news. However, it has also opened avenues for misleading information and pack

journalism. The participants stated that because of its convenience, journalists are often

laid back because the information they need is available on the platform. It emerged that

the distribution of content is more convenient because users can purchase copies of the

digital (E-paper) by clicking on links via the platform. Misinformation and pack journalism

emerged during the data analysis process.

Timely content

Twitter provides audiences with timely updates, especially in sharing

breaking news such that audiences receive important information about
an event. We saw this during the pandemic when the Ministry of Health
shared about a new variant and the President shared an announcement.
(Participant 18)
 50

The world has become a global village, and the community of

newsmakers and news consumers has moved to online platforms like
Twitter. As such, we have also opened up accounts on Twitter to share
timely news, with audiences, we are out there to locate our audiences
because this content is for them, and we have simplified the process of
accessing our news products conveniently. (Participant 4)

A responsive and engaged newsroom is more likely to retain and build

audience loyalty where the consumers will support the news outlet
through subscriptions because of the ease that comes with accessing the
content. (Participant 11).

Pack Journalism

The routinisation of Twitter in our newsroom production processes has

sucked life out of journalism, in my own opinion. It has played a part in
encouraging pack journalism. (Participant 4)

The same stories appearing on different TV stations are an indication

that journalists are not digging deeper to find different angles to a story
due to the following Twitter trends. (Participant 15)

A trending topic will cause all journalists to report on the same thing.
Even when you share with the news producer, about another possible
angle, they may not agree with you because you have to produce content
that the viewers want and it’s what will attract more viewers.
(Participant 5)

Social media applications like Twitter are pushing journalists into

looking at stories in a one-sided manner, yet journalism is about making
contrasts and avoiding being biased in the process of news reporting.
(Participant 8)
Twitter is opening doors for lazy journalism where journalists just find
‘so and so’ said this on their Twitter, and then go ahead to quote them
without thinking out loud. (Participant 6)

The participants also mentioned that misinformation is a vice associated with the

platform. As several users access and share content, the platform emerged as an avenue for

sharing wrong information. Due to misinformation, the wrong messages are quickly spread

as different consumers perceive and understand content differently.

 51

Misinformation

Because anyone with a smart mobile device can share information,

Twitter has become a bridge for sharing the wrong information.
(Participant 7)

Twitter is a great platform; however, the tendency of sharing distorted

information are high. Depending on who is sharing the information, it
can be misleading for a news reporter who might think they have landed
on a unique story idea. (Participant 9)

4.3 Summary of Key Findings

The key findings noted from the interviews found that media organisations consider

news souring and the attribution of quotes based on credible and verified accounts or

handles. The handles that are consistent with sharing valuable information that benefits

the journalists and media outlets are as well highly considered for news sourcing, and

quotes are attributed because journalists identify them through following trends and topics

of discussion. Accuracy and fact-checking processes ensure that the content is reliable and

accurate and that quotes are reliable for the news production are important aspects in the

newsroom. In addition to fact-checking, the newsmakers as well consider the aspects of

newsworthiness and relevance, which are used as determinants for the story tip

consideration.

The study also found that audience feedback influenced the decision-making

process in the newsrooms. By allowing audiences to share their feedback, the media outlets

can decide which stories are relevant for follow-up. It is also worth noting that the

engagement in the form of likes and comments, showed what the audience preferred for
 52

content. News content that received more engagement from the public or audience

indicates that the content shared relates to the users' needs.

Pack journalism and misinformation are derailing the newsroom because they

project elements of laziness as a result of over-relaying on the platform. Even though the

platform has made it easy to access information from sources, it has opened or created

instances of misleading or false information for the audience.

4.4 Summary

The responses gathered from the interviewees show that the major implications

suffered by newsrooms due to the integration of Twitter include, misinformation and pack

journalism. However, the study also established that Twitter has given or opened up better

means of generating story ideas, accessible news sources and easy distribution. This

chapter shares the response gathered from the implication of Twitter in the newsroom.
 53

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This study aimed to examine the implications of Twitter on news production. This

chapter, therefore, presents discussions on the key Findings on the process of news

sourcing on Twitter and attribution of quotes in news production in Ugandan newsrooms,

the influence of audience engagement and the feedback from Twitter on news and the

integration of Twitter and its influence on the distribution processes. This chapter also

presents conclusions from the study's findings, recommendations and possible areas of

future research.

5.2 Discussions of Key Findings

5.2.1 News Sourcing and Story Attribution

Credibility of News tips

During the early months of 2023, the blue mark or badge on an X account was never

significant. However, when Elon Musk bought off the platform, a move to combat the

spread of wrong information was initiated, which called for verification badges to prove

authenticity and verification (Edgerly & Vraga, 2019). Therefore, this study established

that news tips are considered relevant for news sourcing and the attribution of quotes when

picked from credible and verified handles. The common blue badge is the ordinary mark
 54

for all users, like journalists and citizens. Government institutions, non-governmental

organisations, civil society organisations, and other corporate entities like media houses

are free to subscribe to other colours like grey and yellow. Twitter accounts that are

consistent with sharing valuable information that benefits the public, journalists and media

outlets are highly considered for news sourcing and quotes because journalists identify

them through following trends and topics of discussion (Johnson, Sourcing Twitter A

multi-methodological study on the role of Twitter in economic journalism, 2019) For

instance,, most of the participants acknowledged that reputable or high profile individuals

that use the platform to share valuable information concerning production and discussion

are considered during the news production process. This nature of news sourcing is

powered by the ability to produce news content quickly, accurately and timely. A social

site like Twitter has encouraged an inclusive form of journalism, because news

consumption habits have shifted to a more unique cycle that involves ordinary people

(Bergstrom & Belfrage, 2018). Therefore, journalists need to be intentional about the

accounts they quote or attribute as news sources. Since a survey done by Robertson (2023)

under the Reuters Institute in October 2023 established that the platform has been

remarkably used for news in the past 10 years, it is important to consider it as a significant

platform for media organisations. It is relevant for journalists to maintain the standard of

producing quality news content, which necessitates newsmakers to dig out information that

could be a leading story of an ignored issue or challenge in society.

Accuracy
 55

The study identified that journalists have a fact-checking process that ensures that

the content or quotes are accurate for the news production process. The journalists decried

the use of catfish accounts masquerading as authentic Twitter accounts that infiltrate their

data and share misinformation. According to Alund (2022), catfishing is pretending to be

another person online with intentions of fraud or hacking into data systems. These are

usually created to interfere with systems and spread the wrong information because

controversy on a platform like Twitter attracts engagement (Medium 2019). Social sites

are free and easily accessed so they attract different users who may be interested in

tarnishing the reputation of a company or an individual. Fact-checking is therefore done to

eliminate tendencies of misinformation and sharing distorted information that could be

biased and misleading for the public. Media houses, therefore, assign specific individuals

to look through accounts and timelines to ensure that the content picked is authentic for

public consumption. Graves and Amazen (2019) note that fact-checking is a traditional

practice that can be applied to establish the factual accuracy of online content. According

to Makwowitz et al. (2023), fact-checking is a systematic assessment of information to

identify accuracy and the truth and share it to create an enlightened public about issues.

The authors further note that the activity promotes accountability to ensure that the people

or the public have access to credible information. With the assigned reporters' help, it is

also easy to identify story ideas, especially during planning meetings. The participants

stated that this process eliminates issues of fake news and distorted information, which

have been predominant that newsmakers have decried the activity for the past decades in

journalism.
 56

Newsworthiness and consistency

The study found that journalists must establish an aspect of worthiness and

relevance in attributing quotes and news sourcing. Considering that the sources discuss lots

of topics or subjects, specific quotes must be included only based on the relation to the

topic. The newsroom superiors consider quotes and newsworthy news sources, and (Heim,

2021) established that most reporters favour sources like government and business leaders,

especially on digital platforms like Twitter. The consistency with their work policies even

when the platform provides accessibility and convenience, is greatly considered. By

following the media organization’s work policies to ensure that they don’t breach their own

rules, when a reporter comes out or identifies a news tip or story idea, via Twitter, they

follow up by inquiring about what and whom they will be interviewing further as a news

source to back up the information picked up from Twitter in regard to the story (Johnson,

Paulussen, & Van Aelst, 2018). The news tip must be followed up with more information

to determine story relevance. For example, most of Uganda’s Head of State, President

Museveni, tweets are newsworthy because he uses the platform to communicate and make

announcements. The journalists are, therefore, obliged to follow up with phone calls for

clarity’s sake and seek answers. For instance, when a journalist looks at the profile of the

person, or the company that the source works with or for,the Kampala Capital City

Authority Executive Director and Dorothy Kisaka is tweeting about the road situation and

coincidentally, you’re writing about the same. The journalist will consider what she is

saying regarding the subject matter. The journalists also consider the accessibility and the

convenience of finding the news sources.

 57

5. 2.3 Audience Engagement and Feedback in News Production

Decision making

Audience engagement is an essential aspect in the newsroom. The study established

that media houses produce content due to how audiences react with specific news stories.

They have become acquainted with the available technologies that provide instant analytics

for numbers and response rates (Berkhead, 2018) These applications aid in the

identification of the most popular topics or content. Even though the media organization

assigns news reporters or specific individuals to comb through the platform, chatbots

complement the follow-up and aid in identifying which stories or topics are trending and

have a higher engagement. In other words, the chat bot helps track which story has more

re-tweets or comments than the rest because it indicates that the audience is interested in

that particular story. According to (Teneboim, 2022) user engagement is important for the

newsroom because it enables newsmakers to understand audience’s preferences or likes

and because of the audience’s comments, inaccurate information in a particular news story

can be corrected.

The study also established that audiences impact the nature of content that the

newsmakers consider for production. Since audience engagement is like a road map, it

directs what is trending and acts as a lead in considering news for production (Broersma,

2019). Additionally, it also allows newsmakers to learn about their audiences continuously.

When audiences leave feedback, it also helps generate the next story idea, which usually

reflects their preferences. News makers can track these when they identify stories with
 58

heavier traffic than others. Human interest and stories on accountability tend to get high

traffic in terms of comments, shares and likes, and during planning meetings, they are

considered. This implies that the common aspects of user comments call for consideration.

Audience interactions, particularly comments, influence the decision-making processes

and are integral to the journalistic practice because they contribute to accuracy, diversity

and transparency.

Furthermore, valuable insights into what works and what doesn't in terms of

storytelling can be identified as a result of feedback. Media organizations have invested in

systems by creating new positions like engagement specialists whose role involves

monitoring what audiences love most or are interested in, who the loyal viewers or readers.

The newsmakers acknowledged that at the end of the day, the media has to serve its

purposes of informing, educating and entertaining their audiences at any cost. If audiences

do not get what they need they will move on and find what they want. Media organizations,

therefore, have to tap into the areas that are supposed to bring in revenue because content

is produced for audiences. Furthermore, audiences will only pay for what they think is

worth their pay. If news consumers show interest in particular content, then the media has

to shift after all it has to fulfil its obligations.

5.2.4 Integration of Twitter in Newsrooms

Misinformation

The study found that the platform is an avenue for misinformation. The media has

battled with this vice for a while. The access to the internet has powered it, and the ever-
 59

changing technologies have enabled users to create, alter and publish false information,

which interferes with the integrity of journalism. For instance, when particular audiences

are interested in clout chasing, they can easily fabricate information that can cause

distraction and distraught to the role of journalism. The study established that Twitter is a

great platform however the trends of distorting information are high, and this depends on

who is sharing the information, for instance if the person is sharing information to destroy

a particular person’s reputation, it can lead to frustration and as well, it could mislead the

news reporters or journalists. That is why, it is always crucial to do follow-ups and ensure

the authenticity of the information. Ultimately, the consequences of publishing the wrong

information can easily destroy the media house’s reputation, credibility and brand. And the

journalists who are attached to the media house can have their careers destroyed if these

stories or issues are mishandled.

Pack journalism

This study also found that as a result of integrating Twitter, pack journalism is

creating its root into the newsroom. While the study identified that the platform has an easy

and convenient means of accessing news content, it has forced journalists into pack

reporting, where most journalists are found to report the same news content monotonously.

According to Stranford (2023) Pack journalism involves the act of different journalists

from different media houses covering the same news content uniformly. Dutton (2017)

notes that this kind of journalism has led to a more homogeneous nature of covering news

by encouraging a monotonous narrative of covering stories, damaging the agenda of

 60

journalism because it prohibits creativity and the need to create stories in different

perspectives. The idea of pack journalism is pushed by the need for news organizations to

make profits, as most media outlets are financially strained. Media organizations are

pushed to create content appealing to their audiences for more views and sales to make

revenue.

5.3 Conclusions and Implications for Practice

It is clearly evident from the above that the integration of Twitter in the newsroom

comes with a string of issues and key amongst these is misinformation, distortion of

information, the spread of fake news, pack journalism, audiences dictating and interfering

with decision-making, There is need for media houses to pay keen attention to investing in

other resources that draw in revenues so that they do not exceed their limits in production

of news content that appeases their audiences.

In regard to misinformation, media organizations need to familiarize themselves or

invest in paying for verification of accounts for their journalists to avoid instances of

hacking into their journalists' personal data, which could ruin their reputation and

credibility. While the use of the social site in the newsroom has eased news accessibility

and allowed newsmakers to share news content in a timely and convenient way, there is

still a need to familiarize themselves with new technological developments that are

evolving rapidly and changing the media ecosystem.

With the implications described above, media organization superiors improvised

by creating new positions like engagement specialists and using other digital applications
 61

like chatbots to identify stories with the highest engagement. The specialist’s role is to

ensure that news content is shared and placed on the platforms to benefit the newsroom

and the audience. These strategies are vital in helping media organisations be cognizant of

sustaining the newsroom and keeping up with the trends in an ever-evolving media

ecosystem.

Additionally, media companies have also taken advantage of the benefits of the

platform, which include but are not limited to reaching various audiences and finding them

where they are, easy distribution of news content, developing story ideas, improving their

news content through audience’s feedback which is a vital aspect for media organisations.

Without understanding audience preferences, newsmakers cannot provide content that will

attract consumption. Since the adoption of paywalls, media organisations must create

content that is worth buying since lately it is slightly one of the biggest contributors to

revenue in media companies.

It is significant to note that the key tenets of the New Media theory which include

digital platforms, are decentralised and allow an unlimited number of people to engage

with different platforms and information at ago, anchoring the theoretical aspects of this

study. As discussed earlier, when content is shared on the platform, audiences can share

the content to other social sites. The second tenet that holds communication as a two-way

aspect entails creating meaning and understanding information as the exchange of ideas

and interaction occurs. Here it is evident that as content is shared on the platform, audiences

share their opinions and likes, which enables the producers to understand the nature of

content they prefer. Therefore, the users and producers share a role in creating content, but
 62

the media ensures that the content is in favour of the audience. And lastly, the tenet on new

media as democratic is depicted when audiences are free to share what they feel in regard

to the news content. The media does not prohibit them from making or sharing what they

think should be improved.

5.4 Recommendations

It is observable that with the integration of Twitter, comes with audience

interference, misinformation and pack journalism which creates and misrepresents the the

entire core aspect of journalism. It is, therefore, important that media organisations

endeavour to train journalists in the audience and engagement field so that they can provide

the necessary support and insights in the production process. This would, therefore, enable

the company to work faster than expected because it would imply that it is more efficient.

Media organisations need to look at content in a uniquely relevant context to address pack

journalism. If a story has been published or reported monopolistic, news makers must

search out the information that is ignored which could be useful or help governments in

accounting for their actions. While this may be accompanied with resistance, especially

from authorities, it is still vital for the media to play their roles to benefit the public. In

order to protect the interests and the gate keeping role of journalism, there is a need to train

journalists on the use of digital applications that help them identify the wrong information

on the platform. Although Twitter as a platform has provided verification measures, this

may not be enough to protect and strengthen data systems to avoid hacking that could

potentially harm the users or the media organization.

 63

The prepositions set while considering the quotes and news sourcing should be

carefully and constantly monitored or updated by the superiors. Through this, the media

will avoid instances of audiences dictating what they should expect from the news

organisation. The means of considering newsworthy content like objectivity and

consistency, should be sustained because this is one of the ways of combating

disinformation and distortion of information or facts. Audience participation in the media

is a fundamental part of improving the quality of information. However, the media should

not use this as an excuse to make audiences think, create and set the agenda. Even though

citizen journalism is an integral component in the journalism sphere, there is a need to

ensure that journalists are still in charge of disseminating information.

The role of public engagement in the media plays a fundamental factor in aiding

the media in creating relevant and ideal content. Therefore, the media house superiors must

consider rewarding individuals engaged and involved with their content. This will

encourage more people to participate in the process of sharing the information, which will

increase the number of shares. Since the re-branding of the platform, high-engagement

accounts receive a fee. Media companies should, therefore, take advantage of this

opportunity as it allows them to make profits. With this, the media houses will not entirely

depend on copy sales and subscriptions, whose uptake is still lingering, considering that

there is laziness of accessing digital content.

Lastly, media houses should not be afraid of tapping into the platform's advantages.

These can be mitigated with the old mechanisms that have existed before in order to make

the most informed and transparent decisions for the benefit of the users or the public and
 64

the media organisation. As technology advances daily, it is also important that media

houses familiarise themselves with the ambiguity and purpose behind by taking advantage

of the benefits of newer or better forms of technology.

5.5 Areas for Further Research

There is a need for future research to consider analysing the cost of the implications

that come with integrating Twitter in the newsroom. This is because media organisations

need to understand that the platform can be used as a monetary tool for generating revenue.

The study can investigate the role of AI and how AI and analytics can be used for the

benefit of the newsroom or the media organisation. Since audiences greatly influence the

news content, it is significant that a study should be done to outline or highlight the need

for skills or human resources in specifically understand the cost of this integration.
 65

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APPENDICES

Appendix A: Interview Guide

I am Elizabeth Amongin, a student at the Graduate School of Media and Communications

at The Aga Khan University. I am studying Twitter's implications in the news production
process as a requirement to attain a master's in arts in Digital Journalism degree. You have
been purposively selected to be part of this interview that will take 10-15 minutes Kindly
note that the information you are about to share for this study is confidential and will only
be used for purposes of this study, share your honest opinion. These sessions will be
recorded using a smart phone recorder.

The interview

1. Does your newsroom source for quotes and attribute these quotes to news makers
and experts contacted or found on Twitter? Explain the process from the point of
contacting these sources to the point of attributing what they say in the news stories
to them.
2. What processes do you have in place for deciding authentic and credible sources to
contact on Twitter?
3. Do you have specific authoritative handles on Twitter that you consider when
choosing or finding news sources for story attribution? Tell us some of the aspects
of these handles that you consider authoritative and worth sources from and
attributing quotes to?
4. Kindly take me through the process of news sourcing on Twitter. How do you
ensure that a source is relevant for your story? And do you stick to what they post
or follow these sources outside Twitter for more engagement on stories that you
produce?
5. Under what circumstances do you consider audience engagement and feedback as
an important aspect in the newsroom?
6. What kind of feedback or comments on Twitter do you consider in your news
production processes? (That is either on your news stories or comments on what
other news makers do or say on Twitter?)
7. Explain to us how these comments either from news makers or just Twitter users
influence your news production process.
8. What nature of responses do you consider when analyzing audience responses
regarding news content?
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9. Briefly explain how audience engagement affects or influences your decisions in

the news production process.
10. Describe how the integration of Twitter in the news production process influences
news distribution.
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Appendix B: Description of Participants

ONLINE EDITORS:

These journalists are responsible for news content that appears on the digital platforms like
the website, social media sites like the Twitter handle of the media organisation. They edit,
and sometimes write relevant news content that is shared to the audiences.

SUBEDITORS:

Personnel assigned to edit the newspaper content for grammatical errors and ensuring that
the news content has coherent information. They are required to ensure that the reader
easily understands the news content by simplifying the text and identifying any content that
could be unethical for publication.

TV PRODUCERS:

Responsible for identifying content for production, they are also involved in the selection
of news anchors for particular days, and they ensure that the content aligned for viewership
is ethical and newsworthy. They are also involved in identifying possible story ideas and
assigning news reporters for specific assignment or duties.

REPORTERS:

Responsible for gathering, collecting and writing news stories. They are as well tasked with
sharing news content on their personal social media pages
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Appendix C: AKU Ethics Review Committee Approval Letter

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Appendix D: Introductory Letter from AKU

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Appendix E: UNCST Research License

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