FORM 3 TERM 3 NOTES

LAND PREPARATION

Refers to all activities carried out on land before planting any crop

TERMS USED

TILLAGE is any organized or planned disturbance of the soil

ARABLE land suitable for production of crop

RESIDUE remains of plants after harvesting

STUMPING removing the tree with its roots from the soil

VIRGIN LAND land that has never been ploughed before or land in its natural state

LAND CAPACITY is the inherent capacity of land to be productive under sustained use and specific
management methods

REASONS FOR LAND PREPARATION

Prepare a seedbed

Improve soil seed contact

Incorporate fertilizers, lime and agro-chemicals

Control or eradicate weeds

To break soil pans and caps

Increase water infiltration or improve drainage

Improve soil aeration

Improve root penetration, growth and development

To level the field

To destroy pests and diseases

LAND PREPARATION PROCEDURES

1MEASURING AND MARKING

The boundaries of the land should be measured marked out

2CLEARING

All objects likely to disturb farm machinery or crop growth during or after tillage should be removed.
Large stones, scrap metal, trees and stumps should be stumped
ADVANTAGES OF STUMPING

Reduces damage of farm machinery

It makes operations easier

No growth of trees

It reduces pests and diseases

It increases area under cultivation

It enable good layout of irrigation pipes

To increase plant population per unit area

To reduce competition between existing plants and crops

Tools used are mattocks, axes and shovels

METHODS OF STUMPING

1Manually using shovels, mattocks and axes

2Grounding stump using heavy duty machines

3Tree stump killer and chemicals stump removal you need a drill, a chain saw, potassium nitrate, an axe
and fuel oil

4Burst a tree stump

3CONSTRUCTION OF CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

After clearing land, storm drains and contour ridges should be pegged and constructed. For land which
needs terracing, terraces should be pegged and constructed

TILLAGE

PRIMARY TILLAGE

This is the first tillage operation done which leaves land in a rough state. On a small scale a hoe and a
spade can be used. On larger scale a plough is used. On virgin land ripping may need to be done first
using a ripper.ploughing should be done at the end of the rain season when the soil is moist and not too
dry or too wet. Soil structure is not destroyed, the work is easier

ADVANTAGES

Loosens and aerate soil

Mix crop residues, organic matter and nutrients evenly

Helps in water infiltration

Mechanically destroys weeds

DISADVANTAGES

Dries the soil before seeding

Soil loses a lot of nutrients

Results in more runoff and erosion

Reduces activities of microbes, earthworms and ants

Compaction of the soil

SECONDARY TILLAGE

This is meant to break down large soil clods or lumps to sizeable units to create a fine tilth for planting

Secondary tillage operations are:

DISCING large clods are broken down to smaller ones.it also breaks trash and partially level the soil. Disc
harrow is used

HARROWING a spike toothed or spine harrow is used to further break soil clods into a fine tilth

ROLLING a roller is used to pulverize soil where extremely fine tilth is required

RIDGING a ridge is used to raise soil into ridges. This maybe to improve drainage or planting of crops
which need ridging

CONSERVATION OR MINIMUM TILLAGE

It is any method of soil cultivation that leaves the previous year’s crop residues on the fields after
planting the next crop. The method leaves at least 30% of the crop residues

Common conservation/minimum tillage techniques

NO TILL/ZERO TILLAGE no tillage operations are performed between harvest of one crop and planting
the next. Planting is done directly into the residue on the seedbed

RIDGE TILL the soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting but crops are planted on ridges

TIED RIDGING ridges are also made and soil is used to tie or join the ridges to allow water to accumulate
and infiltrate into the soil

MULCH TILLAGE involves disturbing the soil between harvesting one crop and planting the next crop but
leaving more than a third of the soil covered with residues.chissel and cultivators are used

POT HOLLING crops are planted on flat land and holes are dug at intervals between rows of crops. Water
accumulates in the holes and infiltrates into the soil
ADVANTAGES OF CONSERVATION TILLAGE

Conserves soil moisture, improves infiltration and drainage, maintains a good soil structure, improves
the organic content of the soil, improves nutrient recycling resulting in increased soil fertility, controls
soil erosion, promotes soil biota both macro and micro organisms, regulates soil temperature, reduces
labour, higher yields are obtained, environmentally friendly, reduces compaction

DISADVANTAGES

May require application of herbicides in the case of heavy weed infestation, higher levels of surface
residues may result in higher plant diseases and pests, may restrict root penetration, manure and
fertilizer incorporation maybe difficult, weed control maybe a challenge

TILLAGE MACHINERY, IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS

PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

Disc plough, mouldboard plough, subsoilers, tillers, ridgers,rotavators

Tools hoe, spade, garden fork, rake

SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLIMENTS

Disc harrow, spike toothed harrow, tine harrow, ridger, roller, planter, cultivators

Advantages of mechanized farming

Has contributed to timely cultivation and this increased cropping intensity

Has resulted in reduced yield losses and wastage

It encourages large scale production and improved the quality of farm produce

Disadvantages

It displaces installed farm labour

It causes environmental pollution, deforestation and erosion

CEREAL PRODUCTION

Cereals are members of the grass family. The grains contain starch a carbohydrate that provide dietary
fibre

MAIZE (Zea mays)

Uses

Staple food ground into mealie meal,

Can be eaten as green maize, sweet corn roasted or boiled

Source of income for most farmers,

Oil expression
Fermented to make ethanol and alcohol

Stock feed production

Beer brewing (chibuku and clear beer)

Plant residues can be used as mulch

Can be used as a form of currency (butter trade)

SUITABLE CULTIVARS

CHOICE OF VARIETY

Amount of rainfall, intended use, disease resistance, drought resistance, maturity days, standability,
insect pest resistant, crop performance, yield potential

Region Suitable cultivar

1a and 2a Late maturity varieties eg sc709
2b Medium maturity varieties eg sc602
3 Early maturity varieties eg sc513
4 and 5 Very early maturity eg sc403

SOIL REQUIREMENTS

Maize grows on a wide range of soils as long as they are deep, well drained and fertile. Heavy textured
soils produce high yields. Optimum pH range is 5,0-6,0

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Rainfall ranges between 400-1000mm.rainfall should be well distributed throughout the growing
season. Moisture stress during flowering reduces yield to poor grain filling. Temperature range from 20-
30 degrees. Too low temperatures hinders growth. Temperatures exceeding40degrees damage pollen
and decrease fruit setting. Short warm days are preferable to long cool ones for quick maturity of the
crop. Strong winds may cause plant lodging

LAND/SEEDBED PREPARATION

Plough the land as soon after the end of the rain season when soil is still moist. Plough to a depth of
230-300mm.

FERTILIZERS

BASAL DRESSING

Organic fertilizers are best applied during land preparation for decomposition and mineralization.
Inorganic fertilizers should be applied following results of soil analysis.in general compound D is applied
at the rate of 300kg/ha.it is applied through banding during planting. Avoid fertilizer seed contact to
avoid burning of seed
TOP DRESSING

It is done at 3-6 weeks after emergence or at knee height.AN or UREA is applied at the rate of
250kg/ha.fertilizer should be covered to avoid volatilization especially urea.in light textured soils split
application should be practiced to reduce loss due to leaching.

SEED RATES

Seed rate depends on size, plant population or spacing. On average 25kg/ha

PLANTING

TIME

Plant early with the first reliable rainfall from late October to mid-November depending on region and
season

SPACING

Depends mainly on variety. Short season varieties 900x230mm (90x23cm).long season varieties
900x300mm (90x30cm)

PLANT POPULATION

Depends on spacing and is calculated as follows:

Plant population=area/spacing

Eg calculate plant population/ha for maize crop whose spacing is 90x30cm.

Plant population=area/spacing

=10000/0, 9x0,3

=37037 plants/ha

DEPTH

Vary from 50-75mm depending on soil. Correct planting is critical because it affects germination and
emergence

METHOD

Planting can be done by hand or planter.in hand planting holes can be made by a hoe or furrows are
drilled using any furrow opener eg a plough. Seed and fertilizer are then placed into the furrow or holes
and then covered by feet, hoes or harrow. The planter does all the operations at once that is opening
furrow, seed and fertilizer placement and covering. Farmers can plant their crop under three soil
conditions as follows:

DRY PLANTING it is done into dry soil before rains so that seed germinates with the first good rains.

WATER PLANTING done before rains with irrigation or watering

RAIN PLANTING is planting when soil has adequate moisture from rainfall
IRRIGATION

Necessary during long dry spells especially at flowering and at silking stage

MULCHING

Usually done to conserve soil moisture

CROP PROTECTION

WEED CONTROL

Should be done at the early stages as maize is a poor competitor against weeds

WEED CONTROL METHODS

MECHANICAL CONTROL involves use of hoes or cultivators

CHEMICAL CONTROL use of herbicides done at two main stages

a) Pre-emergence – applied before seed emerge eg atrazine, paraquart, glyphosate. These are non-
selective herbicides they kill all plants so they should be applied before the crop emerges

b) Post-emergence- applied after the crop has emerged. They are also called selective herbicides
because they only target the weeds and leave out the crop eg basagron

CULTURAL CONTROL use of certain practices eg crop rotation, correct fertilizer placement, early
planting, use of clean seeds, intercropping and mulching

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL use of living organism that eat weeds such as poultry. The agent should not
damage or eat the crop

INTERGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT a combination of control methods that is biological, cultural,

mechanical and chemical are used to manage weeds

PESTS CONTROL

COMMON PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Maize stalk borer Dipterex, Thiodan granules, crop rotation, roguing

Snout beetles Carbaryl, crop rotation
Army worm Carbaryl,malathion,dipterex
Termites Dusban,chlorpyrifos,ant kill
Aphids Carbaryl,malathion,dimethoate
Leafhopper Crop rotation,dimethoate,furadan granules in holes
Rodents Rat kill,
Maize weevil Spray with dusts eg super shumba
DISEASES

Disease Control
Grey leaf spot Grow resistant cultivars, crop rotation, spray fungicides, burn or
burry infected residues
Ear rots(diplodia, fusarium, Grow resistant cultivars, crop rotation, spray fungicides, burn and
giberella) burry crop residues
Maize streak virus Grow resistant varieties, spray dimethoate, crop rotation, create a
weed free zone, bury affected crop

HARVESTING

The correct moisture content at which harvesting should begin is 12,5-15%.harvesting involves cutting
the stalks, husking and shelling, winnowing

METHODS OF HARVESTING

HARVESTING BY HAND

Stooking- dry maize plants are cut and gathered into stocks and left to dry before husking.

Straight husking- the cobs are husked straight in the field without cutting and cobs are immediately
transported to the farm homestead

After husking the maize is temporarily stored in maize cribs before it is shelled by hand or Sheller. The
maize is winnowed. The grain is then treated, bagged or bulk storage in granaries.

COMBINE HARVESTING

A combine harvester complete all operations simultaneously, that is removing cobs from stalks, husking,
shelling and sometimes bagging. If not bagged the maize is is loaded into a trailer and transported for
treatment, bagging and storage

Advantages of combine harvesting- reduces labour, Stover is chopped making ploughing easy and
providing organic matter, it is easier, faster, it enables large tracts of land to be put under maize hence
high yields

Disadvantages-it does not pick up cobs from lodged plants, results in field losses if the machine is not
properly set, it cannot reject rotten cobs, weeds can cause blockages, the efficiency of the machine is
reduced by steep slopes

STORAGE AND STORAGE STRUCTUES

It should be stored under cool, dry, clean and pest free conditions

INSECT CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Sanitation- do not mix new grain with old grain

Natural resistance- crop varieties differ in their susceptibility to storage pests.traditional varieties are
usually more resistant than new varieties

Hermetic storage- in air tight conditions, reduced oxygen and increased carbon dioxide will arrest insects
and mould development

Chemical control- dusts, sprays or fumigants can be used

Characteristics of a good storage facility

Damp roof, free from rodents, low construction costs, durable, easy to clean, well ventilated, enough
space, easy to inspect, flexible, suited for the form of maize to be stored(cobs or shelled, bagged or bulk)

STORAGE STRUCTURES

MAIZE CRIB

It has slats in walls to allow air to circulate, both allowing it to dry helping it to stay

Advantages –store maize temporarily before shelling, good ventilation which prevents rotting, it acts as
a drier, cheap and easy to construct

Disadvantages- exposed to adverse weather conditions such as rain, dusty and wind which affect quality
of maize, the crop may be exposed to pests and thieves, the crib needs seasonal repairs

GRANERY

Is a storehouse or room often built above the ground for storing grain

Advantages- traditional granary cheap and easy to construct, low maintenance costs, well ventilated less
moulds growth

Disadvantages- untreated materials (poles) can promote weevils

GALVANISED METAL BINS

Storage containers made of metal sheets for bulk storage of grains

Advantages- maize not attacked by pests, reduced infestation by moulds

Disadvantages- high cost, offer limited storage capacity

SILOS

Large tanks used for bulk storage of grains. Made of steel or reinforced concrete

Advantages –large volumes of grain are stored, not vulnerable to pests and rodents, dump free and not
susceptible to moulds, durable, easy to repair

Disadvantage- high cost of construction, not easy to construct, cleaning the silos can be challenging, not
flexible, not easy to inspect

MARKETING
Major formal market is GMB.the government gazettes a producer price per tonne every year. The maize
is often sold in 50kg bags, bulk deliveries maybe accepted. Maize can also be sold to private buyers such
as ordinary individuals for food, livestock feed, grain millers and malt beer manufactures

LEGUME PRODUCTION

FIELD BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris)

There are two main types mainly dwarf/bush and runner/vine beans. Bush beans have an upright
growth habit while runner type have a spreading growth

USES

Cooked into a protein rich relish, expression of oil, processed into tinned beans, stock feed production
bean seed cake and hay, residues for mulching and compost making, included in rotations to improve
nitrogen, as green manure

CHOICE OF SUITABLE CULTIVAR

Straight pods, uniformity of seed colour, shape and size, low fibre content, disease and pests resistance,
high grain filling capacity of pods, short maturity period

BUSH VARIETIES

SC bounty- 50-60days, high yielder, good seed quality

Contender- 50-55days, good yielder, high quality pods

Top crop- 55days, high yielder, good quality pods

Seminate- 60-70days, high yielder, poor quality pods, purplish seeds

Slender white- 50-60days, low yielder, good quality seeds

Dragon tongue- 60days, high yielder, good purple striped pods

Bonus- 75-100days, white with purple speckles

RUNNER TYPES

They need support in form of staking or fence.

Kentucky wonder 65-70days, average yielder, oval curved pods

Witza- 80days, high yielder, good quality pods, susceptible to rust

SOIL REQUIREMENTS

Grow in a wide range of soils provided they are fertile, well drained, deep and not compacted.pH range
is 5,5-6,5

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Warm season crop and they are frost sensitive. Optimum temperature 24 degrees, 5degrees pod
formation and grain filling are retarded and flower and pod shedding occur above 35degrees.the crop
does not require much rainfall tolerating as low as 400mm.low humidity is best because bacterial and
fungal disease problems are lessened

SEEDBED PREPARATION

Plough soon after harvesting at the end of previous rain season

FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS

Well-rotted manure or compost should be applied during land preparation. General recommendations
are 400-600kg/ha compoundD and 100kg/haAN.top dressing should be done at the onset of flowering

SEED AND SEED RATE

80kg/ha bush bean and 40kg/ha runner bean.innoculation with rhizobia can help field bean to form
nodules and fix nitrogen

PLANTING

TIME

Areas prone to frost planting occurs from October to mid-January .frost free areas march and April

SPACING

Bush beans 45x5-10cm

Runner beans 90cmx10-15cm

DEPTH

2,5cm planting deeper in poor emergence and poor stand

IRRIGATION

The seedbed should be irrigated at planting thereafter plants should stages not be irrigation until plants
emerged .moisture sensitive growth stages are flowering and early pod set.

CROP PROTECTION

WEED CONTROL

MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL

Should begin during seedbed preparation and be repeated between rows when necessary up to
flowering

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL

Chemical weed control can be implemented at planting and or after emergence eg on herbicides dual
magnum, fusillade, classic, basagran
PESTS CONTROL

Pests Damage Control

Aphids Suck sap, transmit mosaic virus Spray dimethoate, carbaryl
Bean stem maggot Mine through the leaves to the stem base Spray diazinon, mix seed with
where they form a swelling, leaves turn dieldrin
yellow, plants fall over
Semi-loopers Larvae eat leaves and pods Spray carbaryl
CMR beetle Eat flowers Spray malathion
Cutworm Cut young stems above the ground Keep land weed free or free of
residues

DISEASE CONTROL

Disease Damage Control

Anthracnose(fungal) Dark to red black lessions of the whole Spray Dithane M45, use clean seed,
plant, sunken lessions on stems and pods practice crop rotation
Powdery White powdery moulds appear on the leaf Spray Dithane M45, copper
mildew(fungal) surfaces, leaves turn yellow and die oxychloride, mancozeb
Bacterial Water socked spots appear on the lower Spray Dithane M45, mancozeb
blight(bacteria) surface of leaves, small water
socked ,greasy spots on pods, yellow
lessions on seeds
Pre-emergence Seed rots before emergence Seed dressing with thiram
damping off
Rust(fungal) Brown pustules with a yellow surrounding Spray with Dithane M45
on the lower leaf surface
Mosaic virus(viral) A light green yellow and dark green mosaic Spray Dithane M45, control aphids,
pattern develops on the leaves curling and use clean or certified seeds
rolling of leaves, stunting of plants and
reduced flowering

HARVESTING

Ready for harvesting after about 80-140days from planting

SIGNS OF MATURITY

Leaves turn yellow and almost dry off, pods turn yellow, and seeds have moisture content of 15%

It can be harvested in three ways:

*the plants are pulled by hand, dried and threshed. The seeds are separated from chaff by winnowing
*on a small scale pods can also be handpicked, dried threshed and winnowed

*machine harvest by a combine which cut them, thresh and winnow them

STORAGE

Beans are treated and bagged before storage in similar storage structures for other grains

MARKETING

Sold to the fresh market for use as relish or industrial processing. Dry beans are sold in 50kg bags to the
GMB or private buyers

FARM IMPLEMENTS MAINTENANCE

Importance of farm machinery maintenance

-well serviced and maintained machinery results in timeous operations on the farm due to reduced
breakdowns

-efficient management and operation of farm machinery offers better opportunities for cost saving and
improved productivity

-farm machinery maintenance guarantees positive return on capital investment on machinery

THE PLOUGH

DAILY MAINTENANCE

Lubrication-before starting work greasing should be done

Cleaning-remove soil, grass or weeds after use, remove any remaining dirt

Routine checks-check wear on parts in constant contact with the soil during operation

Tightening-nuts and bolts should be checked for looseness and tightened

Seasonal maintenance

Including the above also:

-check all parts of the plough and repair worn or broken parts

-before storing the plough, protect the disc against rust by applying a rust inhibitor

-paint them before storing in a safe place

Plough storage

Store the cleaned, repaired plough in a protected dry place when field operations are complete

Plough setting

The correct depth for ploughing is obtained first by loosening the adjusting bolt or taking the pin out of
the depth clevis and then:

-raising the hitch for deeper ploughing

-lowering the hitch for a shallower ploughing

-a longer chain will cause the plough to go deeper and a shorter chain will cause the plough to go
shallow

The width of cut can be adjusted as follows:

-sliding the hitch to the left makes a narrower cut

-sliding the hitch to the right makes a wider cut

CULTIVATORS

MAINTENANCE

Placement of tines

-worn out tines should be replaced

-tines should be properly adjusted and tightened

-oiling and lubrication of movable parts should be done when necessary

-trash trapped on the implement must be removed

-store in a safe place

HARROW

Maintenance of disc harrow

-bearing must be greased at regular intervals

-all the nuts and bolts must be tightened

-sharpen blunt edges of the discs

-fully repair worn out parts

-paint or oil after use at the end of the season

Maintenance of tine harrow

-tighten the tines

-sharpen blunt edges

-replace damaged tines

-paint or oil when not in use

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY

Refers to technology that is designed with special considerations to the context of where the technology
will be used, including environmental, ethical, cultural, political and economic aspects of the
community.AT is the simplest level of technology that can effectively achieve the intended purpose,
solve certain production challenges using locally available materials modified to serve a particular
function of production

IRRIGATION PUMPS

TYPES OF PUMPS

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

The pump makes use of centrifugal forces (circular motion) to generate suction pressure to draw water
and discharge the water at high pressure.it consists of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft within a
volute-type casing. The impeller drives water in a circular motion as they rotate on the axes or shaft. The
rotational force of the impellers creates a circular movement of water in one direction in the casing. This
rotational movement creates low pressure (suction) at the centre of the spiral casing. Water enters at
the centre of the impeller and is forced to the outer edge at high velocity. Two basic types of centrifugal
pumps are horizontal and vertical.

Operating principles

The pump must be submerged in the source of water and connected through a water filled airtight pipe
to the water source.

SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS

Is suited to deep wells and booster service for irrigation, industrial, commercial and municipal water
systems. The pump utilizes a submersible motor coupled directly to the bowl assembly and is designed
to operate completely submerged in the fluid being pumped. Power is supplied to the motor by
waterproof electrical cables

Advantages

*in deep wells submersible pumps can be used efficiently

*in installations where flooding would damage standard above ground motors, the submersible pumps
become handy
*are best in applications such as booster pumps which require quiet operation because they use
electricity and operate silently

*design and shape of the SP occupies very small space

Operation principles

-the electric motor is connected to the electric cable which runs to the surface to the switch and supply

-the electric motor drives the pump which has impellers in the bowl assembly

-the water pressure is multiplied as it moves from one impeller to the next arranged in multistage in the
bowl assembly

-the pump unit sucks water and pushes it up at high pressure through a riser pipe to the surface

Parts and functions

Surface mounting plate- holds the weight of the suspended unit and incorporates an elbow to the
discharge piping

Riser pipe- connects the submersible pump to the surface plate. The pump discharges through this pipe

Electrical cable- extends from the top of the unit to the surface

Pump bowl assembly- meet exact system head requirements

Electric motor- the motor carries the thrust load of the pump

Suction barrel- for booster service, a suction barrel may be utilized

Check valve- used to check if pump is delivering water at a normal rate or not

Coupling- a threaded position on the piping where pipes can be connected

Pump maintenance

-check the packling gland for excessive leakages and repacking is needed

-if leakage is excessive tighten the packing gland

-when the packing cannot be tightened anymore it has to be removed and new packing installed

FENCING

TREATMENT OF FENCING MATERIALS

Wood poles

Should be treated so that they become resistant to termite attack, treating improves durability

Procedure to treat wood

*poles are cut and debarked and immersed in water to remove cell sap
*the poles are allowed to dry naturally

*they are immersed in creosote and boiled for several hours. This allows the creosote to soak into the
wood

*the treated poles are then allowed to cool and dry under shade for slow drying and to give more time
for the wooden plant cells to absorb more of the chemical

Grease and oil can also be used

Metal poles

Are treated by coating or painting to improve rust resistance. Coating of metal is usually done to metals
prone to rusting by applying a layer of rust resistant metal such as copper, aluminium and stainless steel.

Painting is done by first applying a layer of undercoat paint followed by applying a surface layer of paint.

Oil paint is used to prevent metal from rust

SPACING OF STANDARDS, DROPPERS AND WIRE STRANDS

Standards- used as upright posts in erecting farm fences. Standards can be spaced 1,8m up to 2m

Droppers- these are wood lengths of 50mm diameter suspended between upright posts stretching from
the highest to the lowest strand. Spacing is usually 2-3 droppers between 2 uprights. Their purpose is to
prevent sagging of wire

Wire anchors- these are meant to make the wire resist movement in the direction of strain

High gate post anchor- help to strengthen poles on gate openings

Double wire anchor- is used for strengthening corner posts which is pulled by two straining pulls that act
at right angles

Double box anchor- is used where the fence stretches over long distances. They are placed at regular
intervals along the fence

Stay anchor- usually used on wider gate openings that should follow heavy vehicles to pass through

FARM BUILDINGS

Purpose of farm buildings

They may be used for shelter for farm animals and poultry as well as to store produce. The structures
include water tanks, pig sties, water troughs, dairy palours, sheds, irrigation canals, silage bunkers,
tobacco barns, silos etc.

BUILDING MATERIALS

SAND

River sand-used for mixing concrete and outside plastering

Pit sand- used to plaster interior of buildings

Quarry stones or gravel- used for concrete making

Stones-used for their strength, durability and availability. Can be used for construction of buildings

Gravel- must be screened to remove fine aggregates and organic impurities

Cement- binds particles together to form a strong structure

Properties of cement

Cement make structures with high levels of strength .the structures can withstand a sizeable amount of
load and compressional forces. Can be used in wet conditions

Cement types

Ordinary Portland cement, rapid hardening cement, extra rapid hardening cement, white cement,
coloured cement, masonry cement, water repellent cement, Portland blast furnace cement

BRICKS

Type of bricks

Common bricks- general purpose bricks. They are porous and cheap

Face bricks-used on exposed faces where appearance is a factor

Engineering bricks- used as decorative bricks, hard and smooth in texture with a high load bearing
capacity. Used for constructing bridges, durable and moisture resistant structures

Fire bricks- are refractory to heat. They increase temperature resistance and are used in fire places

Insulation bricks- have heat insulating ability. Used in industry furnaces

Cement blocks- they double measure brick walls internally and externally. Cover work faster, as they are
light and bigger, have poor heat transfer and used in cavity walls

WOOD

Wood is versatile. It can easily be cut to size, it has limited strength under load, it is light therefore is
used to support roofing material. However wood is prone to termite attack, therefore needs treatment

METAL

Used as a reinforcement material in concrete and in framework construction. Metal sheets are used as a
roofing material. Metal has high tensile strength, it can withstand heavy loads and shearing forces.
Metal is resistant to fire and termite attack but susceptible to rusting therefore needs galvanizing,
coating or painting, it is durable, it lasts longer. Metal is relatively expensive

GRASS

Used for roofing as thatch or as fencing material. It is cheap. It is susceptible to fire and termite attack

FACTORS CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING BUILDING MATERIAL

Stability- should be able to support loads, lateral forces and expansions due to temperature and
moisture changes

Strength- should be able to support its own weight, wind loads and loads imposed by other materials
used in the structure

Exclusion of rain- the ability of material to exclude rain will depend on its exposure to wind and rain

Durability- is the ability of material to endure an exposure to harsh and trying conditions

Termite resistant- the ability of material to resist termite attack exposure

Fire resistance- material that can withstand fire attack and exposure for a prolonged period of exposure
before catching the fire

Thermal resistance- material used should have adequate thermal storage capacity

FARM ROADS

Characteristics of a good farm road

-safe and accessible all year round

-must be wide enough

-road shape must be cambered to facilitate drainage on road surface

-road must be easy to maintain

-road must be well drained to minimize damage by erosion

- Drainage features must be gentle to a gradient of 1:200

Road gradient

Farm road gradient should not exceed 1 in 20 for loaded vehicles. 1:2 for other roads

Features for farm road drainage

Should have side drains that collects water from the road crest. The side drains should have mitre
drains. The drains should be dish shaped or wide at bottom to minimize erosion. The drains can be
grassed to reduce erosion

Culvert

A culvert is made of a concrete pipe laid underneath across the road from an upper slope to the lower
side of the slope

Invert

This is a shallow depression across the road made of concrete or masonry base which allows water to
flow over it across the road without eroding soil
Bolsters

Gently sloping banks of gravel built across the road can also be used to divert water from one side of the
road to the other. Bolsters can be part of contour ridges in arable land

Farm road maintenance

-drainage structures need to be maintained by clearing weeds that may block water ways

-farm roads need to be graded to keep the surface smooth and to maintain the camber shape

-gravel need to be added from time to time to fill in potholes

AGRI-BUSINESS

OPPORTUNITY COST AND CHOICES

Factors influencing farmer’s choices in agricultural enterprises

Available land- refers to the size of land , type of soil, topography, fertility, drainage have a direct or
indirect effects on the choice of an enterprise a farmer can pursue

Climate- different crops and livestock are suitable for different climatic conditions

Availability of capital- farmers with limited capital have limited choices of enterprises they can engage
on

Availability of markets and market price- farmers feel more secure to engage in the production of a
commodity whose market is easily available than those with a scarce market. Farmers are attracted by
high market prices for their products

Availability of labour-

Government policy-has some bearing on the farmers choices

Farmer’s knowledge and preferences- farmers want to engage in enterprises they have knowledge in

OPPORTUNITY COST

This is the alternative has to be foregone or chances missed in making ones choice.it is the cost of losing
an opportunity and the chance missed in monetary value is what is called opportunity cost eg if one
decided to grow carrots leaving out tomatoes, the money missed by not growing tomatoes is the
opportunity cost .if a farmer chooses to grow marigold flowers instead of petunia flowers then the
opportunity cost is income he would have earned from growing petunia flowers. Opportunity cost is
important in that a farmer must make a decision with the least opportunity cost

PRINCIPLE OF DEMAND
Demand is the quantity of a commodity that customers are willing and able to buy at a particular price,
time and place

LAW OF DEMAND

Law of demand states that “the higher the price of a commodity, the lower the quantity demanded and
vice versa”. commodity price and quantity demanded are usually inversely related.

DEMAND CURVE

FACTORS INFLUENCING DEMAND

*income of consumers-when customers have higher income they tend to demand more

*price of substitutes-the demand of a commodity tend to increase if price of its substitute increases

*season-some commodities tend to vary with seasons

*customer’s religion-pork tend to have low demand in religion sects that do not consume pork

*quality of the commodity-customers tend to prefer high quality goods than of poor quality

*taste and preferences-customers tend to have different likes and dislikes in a society

*number of consumers in the market-as population increases demand also increases

*price of the product-the higher the price the lesser the quantity demanded and vice versa

*government policy-government can impose price controls

PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

It is the measure of the percentage change in quantity demanded which arises due to a certain
percentage change in price.it shows how quantity demanded respond to the price changes

ELASTIC DEMAND

It arises when the percentage change in the quantity demanded is more than the percentage change in
price. When the prices of luxury goods increases ,there will be a large decrease in the quantities bought
because customers can do without them

INELASTIC DEMAND
This occurs when the %age change in the quantity demanded is less than the %age change in price. The
quantities of basic goods bought will remain almost the same even if price has increased by a large
percentage because consumers cannot do without them

PRINCIPLE OF SUPPLY

Supply is the quantity of a commodity that producers are willing and able to offer for sale at a particular
price, time and place.

LAW OF SUPPLY

Law of supply states that the higher the price of a commodity on the market the more the quantity of
that commodity the producers are willing to sale

SUPPLY CURVE

FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY

*price of other goods-an increase in the price of other goods can tempt suppliers to shift to the
production of those commodities

*production cost-as the production cost increases, less of the commodity will be produced. Hence less
supply

*weather conditions-more is supplied during periods of favourable weather

*technology-an improvement in technology results in an increase in supply

*pests and diseases-supply of a commodity can be negatively affected by outbreak of pests and diseases

*price of the product-the higher the price the greater the quantities producers are willing to supply
*number of sellers-

*government policy-

DETERMINANTS OF MARKET PRICE

Interaction between demand and supply of a commodity

For a particular product, the demand and supply curve may be drawn together. The following is noted.
The curves meet at the equilibrium point.at this point the quantity supplied is equal to the quantity
demanded. The price at which supply equals to demand is called the equilibrium price.at this point
market is cleared, all products offered for sale are bought

Cost of production-the higher the cost of production the higher the price of a commodity. Factors of
production include land, labour, entrepreneurship, capital, research

Government policy-government may fix prices for certain commodities for the benefit of the majority

Perishability of a commodity-commodity are generally costly when they are still fresh unlike when they
deteriorated

Availability of substitutes-a commodity with no competitors is more expensive than one with several
substitutes

BUDGETING AND MARKETING

BUDGETING

Is the process of planning your future income and expenditure for a defined period.it involves
estimating. A budget is a plan for future income and expenditure

IMPORTANCE OF BUDGETING

*helps in determining the level of profit expected

*an important tool in monitoring and evaluation

*helps in decision making on choices that have to be made

*assist farmers to secure loans

*can help farmers to uncover expenses overlooked during production time

*helps to find out the farms financial requirements

INFORMATION REQUIRED DURING BUDGETING

Quantities of inputs required, cost of inputs required, expected yield level, price of products, area to be
put under production

SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR BUDGETING

Farmers own previous records, records from other farmers, farmer organisations Z.F.U, government
organisations AGRITEX, suppliers of inputs, markets
TYPES OF BUDGETS

1) GROSS MARGIN/ENTERPRISE BUDGET

It is prepared for a single unit of farm business eg maize crop budget only. Gross margin is the difference
between gross income and the variable costs

Gross margin=gross income-variable costs

The gross margin will show the expected income before deducting fixed costs

2) PARTIAL BUDGET

This is a budget that is prepared to show whether a small change on the farm is going to make profit or
loss.one can prepare a partial budget when:

-changing combination of enterprises

-substituting enterprise for an existing one

-changing size of an enterprise

-introducing supplementary enterprise

-changing production method

PARTIAL BUDGET

Gains Losses
New/additional income Q Income lost X
Costs saved W New costs Y
Total gain =Q+W Total loss =X+Y
Net gain = (Q+W)-(X+Y)

3) COMPLETE BUDGET/WFGM

This involves estimating the total gross margin for the sum total of all enterprises on the farm.it can also
be referred to as whole farm gross margin (WFGM)

WFGM = GM enterprise 1 + GM enterprise 2

After calculating WFGM, the net farm profit can be calculated as:

Net Farm Profit = WFGM-Fixed costs

AGRICULTURAL MARKETNG

FACTORS OF MARKETING

GRADING involves sorting of produce into grades or classes of similar characteristics. Grading is based
on size, presence or absence of diseases
PACKAGING deals with putting produce into different packages according to grades, weight and other
factors that can be used

WEIGHING is important for labelling for customers to know the quantity value

LABELLING/BRANDING a brand name is put on the commodity for identification

PRICING price of the commodity can be set by supplier or market forces (demand and supplier)

ADVERTISING it is the responsibility of the farmer and market to ensure that customers know of the
commodities on sale

STORAGE the market should have proper storage facilities for the produce

TRANSPORTATION goods must be moved from the different producers to the market places

FINACIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE MARKET some markets are now offering inputs to farmers to support
production eg GMB input scheme, command agriculture

RISK BEARING markets also take the risk by having produce with them before they are bought

INSURANCE goods can be insured while on the market to reduce the risk of loses

FACTORS AFFECTING MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

*supply and demand

*quality of produce

*transport facilities

*road infrastructure

*government policy and conditions

*availability of substitutes

*perishability

*seasonal nature of production

*some products are bulky