Famine

Famines were once considered to be an inevitable of factors (e.g. wheat £70 per tonne in 2006, £180
occurrence but increasingly they can be seen to
result from human mismanagement of the envi-
ronment, or localised wars leading to the displace-
ment of people. The notion that famine means a
total food shortage (as implied in the introductory
quote to this chapter) has been challenged, as
recent studies suggest that it only affects certain
groups in society (the poorest, the least skilled and
the rural dwellers). Even during the worst times of
famine, some food still appears in local markets -
but at a price beyond the reach of most people. It is
now widely accepted that most famines result from
a combination of natural events and human mis-
management together with a decline in the access
to food, rather than a decline in the available food
supply (Places 74).
Rising food prices
The year 2008 saw an unprecedented rise in global
food prices which resulted from a combination
per tonne in 2008). These factors included:
• a change in diet, especially in India and
China where greater affluence has led to a
rising demand for meat products which in
turn means more grain is needed to feed the
extra number of reared animals
• more land and more cereal crops being used
to produce biofuels (e.g. one-third of the
USA's maize crop) in an attempt to provide
more renewable energy
• climate change causing more erratic rainfall
patterns, e.g. drought in the cereal growing
areas of Australia and northern India, floods
in the American mid-west
• growth in the world's population
• the reduction of subsidies to American and
ED farmers, meaning that less food is held in
storage
• encouragement of developing countries to
grow cash crops rather than cereal crops.

: Places 74 Niger: famine

In 2005, Niger was on the brink of a famine with beginning to rise, the real cause ofthe threatened
over 3 million of its inhabitants (one in every three) famine was a combination of environmental,
suffering from severe hunger. To many people living economic, social, cultural and political factors.
in remote rural areas - which is the majority of the
Niger had experienced two natural disasters in
population - the only food available until that year's
2004: drought (it is a Sahel country - Case Study 7
crop was ready was a watery-looking porridge look-
and page 280), and a locust infestation. These
alike. The often quoted causes offamine and food
were exacerbated by social causes that included
shortages are poverty and overpopulation, but this is
a growing population that needed to be fed and,
too simplistic an answer. While it was true that many
within that population, a considerable unevenness
people were, atthat time, unable to afford what food
in the distribution of wealth. The country's limited
was available from within the country, and Niger
development is shown by a lack oftechnology in
itself was too poor to buy much from other countries,
farming, in which most of the population is engaged.
especially at a time when global food prices were
Also, there is a limited amount of land suitable for
Figure 16.59 agriculture, and what there is lies on the fringes of
N
LIBYA
Niger the Sahara Desert and so is 'marginal' (zone 3 on

+ Figure 16.1, and Figure 16.59), with nutrient-deficient

soils and a lack of water (rain or irrigation).

The lack of development (notice its position at the

foot ofthe HOI table on page 607) is partly due to a
lack of resources (other than uranium), which means
that with little to export, Niger has a balance of trade
deficit (page 624) which places it on the wrong side
of the development gap (page 605). With limited
money for investment and a legacy of colonialism,
the country lacks a basic infrastructure. This includes

CHAD a poorly developed transport network, which makes

it difficult to distribute food internally at times of
shortage and limits links with the outside world (the
only long-haul flight is to Paris); it also has a poorly
developed banking system.

502 Farming and food supply

 Places 75 Sub-Saharan Africa: food shortages

Severe drought, civil strife and economic security trees for fuelwood, has accelerated soil erosion and
have displaced large numbers of people and desertification (Case Studies 7 and 10). The region
disrupted food production (Figure 16.60). Food has limited money for investment in agriculture
shortages at present affect 26 countries in sub- and when overseas aid has been given it has often
Saharan Africa (Figure 16.61). been channelled into unsuitable projects such as
promoting monoculture, growing crops for export
The population of this region is growing faster than
instead of domestic consumption, increasing
anywhere else in the world. With over 70 per cent of
the size of animal herds on marginal land and
its labour force in agriculture and 66 per cent living
ploughing fragile soils that would have been better
in rural areas, the income, nutrition and health of
left under a protective vegetation cover.
most Africans is closely tied to farming. In an area
where, due to limited capital and technology, the Financial aid from overseas can also increase the
use of new seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, machinery debt of the recipient country (page 632). People's
and irrigation is the lowest in the world, agriculture diet often lacks sufficient calories or protein and,
is almost totally reliant upon an environment that with many living in extreme poverty (page 609),
is not naturally favourable. The soils often have they cannot afford the inflated food prices at times
fertility constraints, a low water-holding capacity of shortage. Animals may be attacked by tsetse fly,
and limited nutrients, making them vulnerable to crops in the field by locusts, and crops in storage
erosion. High evapotranspiration rates harm crops by rats and fungi. To add to these difficulties,
while the unreliable rains which may cause flooding several countries are, or have been recently, torn
one year may then fail for several that follow. Periods by civil strife resulting in the problem of internally
of drought are getting longer and more frequent displaced persons and refugees. This, together with
with experts arguing as to whether this is part of a administrative corruption, interrupts farming and
natural climatic cycle, less moisture in the air due to the distribution of relief supplies. Last, but by no
deforestation, or the effects of global warming. means least, is the effect of the Hlv/AIDS pandemic
which, even when not fatal to individual farmers,
With increases in population, fallow periods have
considerably reduces their ability to work (Places
Figure 16.60 been reduced and the land has been overgrazed or
100, page 623).
Childrenawaiting overcropped which, together with destruction of
foodaid:Somalia Figure 16.61

Countrieswith exceptionalshortfallsinfood productionsupplies

Country Reasons
Burundi-Rwanda-Uganda Civilstrife,lOPs

CentralAfricanandCongoReps lOPs

Chad Civilstrife,refugees

CongoDemocraticRepublic Civilstrife,refugees,lOPs

Eritrea-Somalia Civilstrife,drought,lOPs

Ethiopia Drought,IDPs

Ghana Floodanddrought

Guinea Civilstrife,refugees

Kenya Civilstrife,drought,pests

Lesotho-Swaziland Drought,HIV/AIDs

Liberia-SierraLeone Civilstrife,refugees,lOPs

Malawi-Zambia Drought,HIV/AIDs

Mali-Niger-Burkina Faso Drought,locusts

Mauritania Drought,locusts

Mozambique Floods,drought,HIV/AIDs

Sudan Civilstrife,lOPs,drought

Zimbabwe Economiccrisis,HIV/AIDs

IDPs= internally displaced persons

Farming and food supply 503

 Type of change •• biochemical
, i
,J
. I
.---:~-!
I

Innovation
hybrid
seed fertilisers
herbicides
and
l
I
irrigation
by diesel
and
tractors
and farm
transport:
roads
facilities
to borrow
changes
in
I
1

selection
ii pesticides! electric
mechan- and reforms I
money
distributive
isation vehicles system
I ,
I
._,_____
~J ------..1! ___ , ___ ..,1 pumps
---- i.....-....-___.,.__j
-~-- J

I
! increased some farm farmers able
increased II quicker
weeds controlled arable land, consoli- to obtain
yields of : increased movement increased
Consequence
wheat, rice
and maize!
._---_._,
I yields
I _.
I
and pests!
controlled!
__ _l
water
supply
reduced
labour
force
to
markets
dation:
more
incentive,
better seeds
and
machinery
incentives

-----,__.......j ----- _" ----

Figure16.62 What might be done to improve food The most famous, the IR-8 variety, increased
The Green Revolution supplies in developing countries? yields sixfold at its first harvest. Another 'super
As most areas with an average or high agricul- rice' increased yields by a further 2S per cent
tural potential have already been used, future (1994). Further improvements have shortened
extension of cropland can only take place on the growing season required, allowing an extra
marginal land where the threats of soil erosion rice crop to be grown, and new strains have
and desertification are greatest. The solution is been developed that are tolerant of a less than
not, therefore, to extend the cultivated area but optimum climate.
to make better use of those areas already farmed. In 1964 many farmers in India were short of
Land reform can help to overcome some food, lacked a balanced diet and had an extrem-
inefficiencies in the use of land and labour. The ely low standard of living. The government,
redistribution of land has been tackled by such with limited resources, was faced with the choice
methods as the expropriation of large estates (Figure 16.62) of attempting a land reform pro-
and plantations and distributing the land to gramme (redistributing land to landless farmers)
individual farmers, landless labourers or or trying to improve farm technology. It opted for
communal groups; the consolidation of small, the latter. Some 18 000 tonnes of Mexican HYV
fragmented farms; increasing security of tenure; (high-yielding varieties) wheat seeds and large
attempting new land colonisation projects; and amounts of fertiliser were imported. Tractors were
state ownership. The success of these schemes introduced in the hope that they would replace
has been mixed. Not all have increased food water buffalo; communications were improved;
production, although many farms in China have and there was some land consolidation. The suc-
seen an increase in yields since the transference cesses and failures of the Green Revolution in
of farming decisions to individual farmers under India are summarised in Figure 16.63. In general,
the responsibility system (Places 63, page 468; it has improved food supplies in many parts of
Places 64, page 470). the country, but it has also created adverse social,
The Green Revolution refers to the applica- environmental and political conditions. The
tion of modern, Western-type farming tech- question now being asked in India is: 'How green
niques to developing countries. Its beginnings was the Green Revolution?' For the first time in
were in Mexico when, in the two decades after four decades, population growth is outstripping
the Second World War, new varieties or hybrids food production. This is due to high birth rates,
of wheat and maize were developed in an longer life expectancy, more land being devoted
attempt to solve the country's domestic food to commercial crops and a mass rural-urban
problem. The new strains of wheat produced migration caused by India's rapidly emerging
dwarf plants capable of withstanding strong economy. At the same time there are growing
winds, heavy rain and diseases (especially the health concerns with fertiliser and pesticides,
'rusts' which had attacked large areas). Yields leached into water supplies, blamed for a rapid
of wheat and maize tripled and doubled respec- increase in cancers, birth defects and other ill-
tively, and the new seeds were taken to the nesses. A small but growing number of farmers
Indian subcontinent. Later, new varieties of are turning away from a reliance on chemicals to
improved rice were developed in the Philippines. a more organic-type of farming.

504 Farming and food supply

 Successes Failures
Wheat and rice yields have doubled HYVseedsneed heavy application of fertiliser and pesticides, which has increasedcosts,
encouraged weed growth and polluted water supplies
Often an extra crop per year Extra irrigation is not always possible; it can causesalinisation and a falling water table
Rice,wheat and maize have varied the diet HYVsnot suited to waterlogged soils
Dwarf plants can withstand heavy rain and wind and photosynthesise more easily Farmersunable to afford tractors, seed and fertiliser have become relatively poorer
Farmersable to afford tractors, seedand fertiliser now havea higher standard of living Farmerswith lessthan 1 ha of land have usually become poorer
Farmerswith more than 1 ha ofland have usually become more wealthy Farmerswho haveto borrow are likely to get into debt
The need for fertiliser hasrreated new industries and local jobs Still only a few tractors, partly due to cost and shortage offuel
Someroad improvements Mechanisation hasincreased rural unemployment
Area under irrigation has increased Some HYVcropsare lesspalatable to eat
Someland consolidation Fertiliser and pesticides have contaminated water supplies causing health problems
Conclusions
A production and economic successwhich has lessenedbut not eliminated the threat of Social,environmental and political failure: bigger gap between rich and poor
food shortages

Figure 16.63
Appropriate technology (Case Study 18) is
An appraisaI ofthe
needed to replace the many, often well-inten-
GreenRevolution in
the India n sub- tioned schemes that involved importing capital
continent and technology from the more developed
countries. Appropriate technology, often funded
by non-governmental organisations such as
the British-based Practical Action (Places 90,
page 577), seeks to develop small-scale, sustain-
able projects which are appropriate to the local
climate and environment, and the wealth, skills
and needs of local people. This means:
• Not large dams and irrigation schemes, but
more wells so that people do not migrate to the
few existing ones, drip irrigation as this wastes
less water, stone lines (Figures 10.40 and 16.64)
and check-dams (Figure 10.43). For stone lines,
stones are laid down, following the contours,
even on gentle slopes in Burkina Faso, while
small dams built of loess are constructed across
gulleys in northern China. In both cases, surface
Figure 16.64
runoff is trapped givi ng water time to infiltrate
into the soil and allowing silt to be deposited
behind the barriers. These simple methods,
taking up only 5 per cent of farmland, have
increased crop yields by over 50 per cent.
• Not chemical fertiliser, but cheaper organic
fertiliser from local animals (which can also
provide meat and milk in the diet). Unfort-
unately, in many parts of Africa dung is needed
as fuel instead of being returned to the fields.
• Not tractors, but simple, reliable, agricultural
tools made, and maintained, locally.
• Not cash crops (often monoculture) on large
estates, but smallholdings where both cash
crops (income) and subsistence crops (food
supply) can be grown. Mixed farming and
crop rotation are less likely to cause soil
erosion and exhaustion. Intercropping can
protect crops and increase yields (smaller
plants protected by tree crops).

Stone lines in
Burkina Faso

N Figure 16.65
t
English Channel
Low coastal plain
alluvium and sandy soils
used for vegetables
which are sold through
co-operatives
""
..• ..•"" ••"" ..•
>04
"'"
..• li4
e li4
..•
•
.. QAt'S Michel
o 25 km
The Cotentin lies between the Vire estuary
and Mont St Michel Bay (Figure16.65).lt
is mainly an agricultural region, although
tourism is also important. The maritime
climate, with rain (760 mm per year) occur-
ring at all seasons and reaching a maximum
in the late winter and spring months, is
important for the farming. The maximum
occurs just as temperatures are rising and
the grass is starting to grow. This has been
the basis of the successful dairy farming
industry. Cattle are reared for their milk from
which Normandy butter is made in addi-
tion to many local cheeses and cream. Most
farms also produce fodder for their cattle,
either in the form of silage in the late spring
or as crops of corn in the late summer.
506 Farmingand food supply
A Farming in western Normandy
The Cotentin,
Normandy
strong
Climate:
maritime influence with
westerly winds
predominating; winter
tem peratures 5°(;
summer temperatures
16°(; rain all year;total
"" ••.rainfall 760 mm with
.•• maximum in late winter
and early spring
'" (important for dairy
farmers)
"" >II.
"'" .•• River Vire
Central Cotentin:
ancient igneous and
~===::;::::_metamorphic rocks form
rolling countryside;
100-120 m above sea-
level; small fields
Cattle: reared for milk
which is sent to co-
operative creameries for
manufacture into butter,
cream and local cheeses,
e.g.Coutances cheese
La Renondiere is a typical Cotentin dairy
farm (Figure 16.66). It lies at 71 m above
sea-level in a small valley whose stream
flows into the RiverVanne 0.75 km to the
north. The land slopes very gently; fields
are small and bounded by dense hedges;
and most of the farm can be ploughed
except for a small area in the valley bottom
which becomes very wet. The Normandy-
style farmhouse of grey stone covered in
creeper, with white shutters, faces south. It
is sheltered from the westerly winds, as are
most of the buildings grouped around it.
The farm is 44 ha in area. This is large
for Normandy, where the average size is
between 15 and 24 ha. Cattle are kept
on 4 ha close to the fa rm; the rest of the
land is used for producing fodder for the
animals. The present herd consists of 52
cattle - mainly Friesian, with some tradi-
tional Normandy cows. The black-and-
white Friesians have high milkyields, but
the Normandy cows have better-quality
milk with a high cream content. They are
kept outdoors all year round, with some
protection in the winter. The cattle in milk
are brought to the dairy twice a day and
they produce on average 116 litres per cow
per day (Figure 16.67).The small milking
parlour is similarto many in the region. It
holds eight cows at a time, and is simpler
than large dairies in the English Midlands
or on dairy farms close to Paris.The milk is
kept under refrigeration on the farm until
it is collected by the creamery lorry - each
day in summer, but every two days at other
times of the year (Figure 16.68).
The cows are artificially inseminated and
produce one calf a year.Bull calves are sold in
Gavray market for veal, and female calves are
sold or used to replenish the herd.They are
carefully checked for yield and as this drops off
they are replaced.They are kept as long as pos-
sible, asthe return from cull cows is not high.
The present farmer has been on the farm for
over 20 years,but it was farmed earlier by his
parents and grandparents. All the work is done
by the farmer, his wife (she is in charge ofthe
dairy) and his father. Neighbours help during
silage making. There isa strong tradition of
dairy farming in the region.
On the western side of the Cotentin,
there is a low-lying plain approximately
15-60 m above sea-level. It contains areas
of sandy soils which are important for
producing vegetables, including carrots,
leeks, sweet corn, lettuce and tomatoes.
These vegetables are marketed through co-
operatives in the larger towns of the region,
as well as in Paris and the UK.
The lowlands along the estuary of the
5ienne and the Vanne are used as grazing
land for themarais Iamb'; large flocks of
sheep are fattened on the marshes, pro-
viding yet another income for the farmers
of the region.
As income from farming declines, farmers
across the EU are having to diversify. In
 Farming Case StudY.I'16

addition to their regular enterprises, many

Normandy farmers breed and train trotting
ponies - making regular visits to the long
open sandy beaches to train them at low
tide. As in Britain, bed and breakfast accom-
modation during the short tourist season
from June to the end of August provides an
additional source of income.
A major issue facing farmers in this part
of France is the steady loss of people from
the land. Many small farmers are going out
of business, leaving houses empty. As in
other peripheral regions of Europe, young
people are moving to the cities. There is
evidence that one or two wealthier large
farmers are buying up vacant land. Some of
the villages contain summer homes, owned
by Parisians, with a number of British
residents both in holiday and permanent
homes. Prices for some houses without
land have been low, encouraging overseas
buyers. Villages still contain their bakery
and shop, often with a butcher, but chil-
dren are being forced to travel increasing
distances to school These features of rural
life are common to many remoter areas
within the EU.
The impact of EU regulations can be
seen. Milk quotas in line with EU rulings
have been set by the govern ment
(page 493). They are generally higher than
in the UK, perhaps due to the political
strength of the farmers, and are an estab-
lished part of the farm economy. However,
they are generally unpopular with local
farmers. Perhaps they will not be too disap-
pointed when milk quotas are phased out
by 2015 (page 493).
Subsidies for lamb encourage the pro-
ducer to maintain flocks. Demand for lamb
Figure 16.68 is high, as is shown by the high prices in
the supermarkets.
A co-operative creamery
in Normandy From 1988, EU farmers were paid
subsidies if they left parts of their land
uncropped. Payments for this set-aside land
ended in 2008 when the rise in global food
prices forced the EU to encourage farmers
to bring back into production former
crop-growing areas and to introduce new
policies by which farmers will only get
subsidies if they keep their land in good
condition - the so-called 'health check'
(page 493).

Farming and food supply 507

 Farming

....
......
......
N
......

Figure16.69

TheNafferton Ecological
....
FarmingGroup'splan ..
~".'I"""".'I"""I'.""·

-
conventional management
.. organic management
.... permanent pasture
_
winter oilseed rape
spring beans
.... perennial ryegrass ley
..

_ organic potatoes
_ vegetables
trial plots
Conventional management
Crops Cereal-dominatedrotation (typical of lowland
Northumberland) - almosta monoculture. An
8-year rotation would be 2 yearssilage,2 years
winter wheat, 1 yearbarley, 1 year industrial
rape, 1yearwi nter wheat, 1yearbarley
Canusefrom a rangeof 220 herbicides,186
pesticidesand 43 fungicides
Significant useof soluble fertiliser
Animals 90 dairy cowsfed on silage,grazing or
purchasedfeed (37% diet from grazing)
Youngstockand calvesrearedfor beef
Maximum efficiency and production
Animals often kept indoors
Figure16.70 Higherstock density
Howthe land Greatermedical protection
isfarmed
Seasonalwithdrawal period
-
red clove r ley
:
.... spring wheat B Organic farming in
winter wheat
: Northu mberland
....
.... spri ng barley
.. winter barley The Nafferton Ecological Farming Group at
.... Newcastle University is located at Nafferton
~ Organic management Farm adjacent to the A69 between
Newcastle and Carlisle. The farm, including
Rotation includeslegumesand prohibits
its buildings, covers 293 ha.ln 2000 it was
mowing. An 8-year rotation would be 3 years
red clover/grasscultivation, 1 yearspring wheat. divided into two equal 140 ha parts, with
1 yearpotatoes, 1 yearspring beans,1 year the land to the west to be farmed conven-
vegetables. 1 yearspring barley tionally and thatto the east organically
Nosynthetic herbicidesor pesticidesbut S,Si (Figure 16.69) As well as being the same
and Cucanbe usedas nutrients size. both sections were to have the same
NosolublefertilisersuchasNandCI (Figure10.13) number of animals and - the ideal for the
experimental comparison - exactly the
80 dairy cowsfed on home-grown cereals,
beansor forage (80% diet from grazing) same climate, soil and relief The differences
in crops and animal rearing between the
Youngstockrearing
conventionally managed and the organi-
Animal welfare/sustainability paramount
cally managed areas are shown in Figure
Accessto outside (including chickens) 16.70. The money for organic funding and
Lowerstockdensity for research comes from the EU, which sets
legally binding standards to which the UK
Noqrowth promoters
must adhere; the UK can add further regu-
Longerwithdrawal permitted lations but cannot delete any.

508 Farming and food supply

 Farming Case Study 16

th The Ecological Farming Group researches

e effects of soil r crop and I'ivestock
management
en ' on food quality and sarety,
<

. vironmental impact, soil health and

biological activity, biodiversity and the
nomic . bl ,eco-
via I rty of the two types of farmi n
system. It has confirmed that th e organic. g
management area:
• by using less fertiliser, produces less
C,02 and has a smaller ecological
footprint (page 379)
• by using less nitrogen, reduces
eutrophication (page 494)
• by using compost to bind th
'I
SOl together, reduces soil erosion
e
(page 495)
• has a greater biological activity (e g
earthworms) ..

• despite not adding fertiliser, which

Increases crop yields, has outputs
Similar to those of conventional
methods of the 1980s
• ,produces milk that is both b e tt er
In quality and healthier than that

Bein produced conventionally (Fiqure 16.71)

g a commercial venture, what the .
research centre actually grows can be
Influenced by market demand - so I
this d d f ong as
F eman ItS into the rotation system
· or example, if the market price for h '
Increase s. th en more wheat might bw eat

Pflanted that year. The centre does se~1some

o Its
, own produ ce but cereals are sent to a
grain merchant for processing before being
sent to shops and supermarkets,

Organic milk has more healthy benefits

A study of organic milk., conducted by Professor Carlo Leifert of Newcastle University,
bas shown that drinking organic roilk has greater health benefits than drinking normal
milk. The study showed that organic milk contained 67 per cent more antioxidants and
vitamins than ordinary milk and 60 per cent more of a healthy fatty acid called
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA9) which tests have shown can shrink tumour, Similar
levels of vaccenic acid, which has been shown to cut the risk of heart disease,e diabetes
a3
and obesity, were also found as was an extra 39 per cent of the fatty acid Om g - which
has also been shown to cut the risk of heart disease.
Gillian Butler, the livestock project manager, pointed out the health benefits even if
consumers did not switch completely to organic milk. She pointed out that organic milk
is more expensive to produce, as you get less milk per unit of land, and to buy, but
because it is higher in all these beneficial compounds you do not need to buy as much to

get health benefits. Figure 16.71

Findings on orqanirmilk
 Farming

C Banana cultivation in source of income, employment and export the amount it exports, In 1998, bananas
earnings for several major exporting countries, were at the centre of a major trade dispute
South and Central America
mainly in Latin America and the Caribbean as between the EU and the USA
Bananas are the main fruit in international well as in Asia and Africa, Bananas are cultivated under tropical
trade and the most edible in the world, In Over half the world's bananas are grown conditions where the temperatures are
terms of volume they are the first export fruit in just five countries (Figure 16.74a) and 98 high and rainfall exceeds 120 mm per
while in value they rank second after citrus per cent in developing countries, Despite month, In some tropical plantation condi-
fruits, The banana industry is a very important this, only one in five bananas enters the tions where evapotranspiration is high, irri-
export market and of these 70 per cent gation may be used, Drip irrigation is more
Countries % total
come from five countries (Figure 16.74b), effective and produces a better bunch
a Worldproducers Although they are the major export of weight of bananas than basin irrigation,
India 23 Ecuador and Costa Rica, the highest In order to meet the demands of the mar-
Brazil 9 levels of dependence can be found in the keting companies, the bunches (or hands)
Ecuador 9 Windward Islands of St Lucia (50 per cent of of bananas must be over 270 g in weight.
its exports), St Vincent and the Grenadines, Bananas grown for local consumption
China 8
Dominica and Grenada, are mainly cultivated on small landhold-
Philippines 8 World trade in bananas is dominated by ings, whilst those produced for export are
Restofworld 43 two groups of producers, the ACP (Africa, grown on large plantations (Figure 16.74a)_
Countries % total Caribbean and Pacific) producers and the In most Caribbean countries, bananas are
'dollar producers' of the Central American grown on small family-run plots, The crop
b Worldexporters
republics Colombia and Ecuador (con- requires a high labour input, which in the
Ecuador 29 trolled by large American transnationals), Caribbean islands is mainly provided by the
CostaRica 14 Over 80 per cent of bananas entering smallholder's family, Suckers taken from
Philippines 12 the EU come from the Caribbean where a mother plant are rooted and grow well
they are grown on small family-owned in the deep volcanic soils, Weeds growing
Colombia 10
farms by people who are almost totally between the plants need to be kept down
Guatemala 6 reliant on this single crop as a source of until the plant is tall enough to outgrow
Restofworld 29 income (Figure 16.75), Bananas are grown them, It is common to see plants being
Figure 16.74 on plantations in the Ivory Coast and supported by props so that the weight of
Cameroon which are also members of ACP, the bunch does not pull the plant over,
Worldproducersandexportersof bananas
Each country is given a quota based on Fruit has to be protected from bruising and
scarring, Each bunch may be covered by a
country Production Export % total Export(value large plastic bag until it is ready for harvest.
(tonnes) _ (tonnes) exported £'OOOs)
This takes place about 10 months after the
Belize 76000 64891 85 21353 plant is established, The fruit is cut when it
Colombia 1764501 1621746 92 464959 is still green and hard, and then it is taken to
CostaRica 1875000 1775519 95 483492 the processing plant. Here it is packed and
refrigerated before being sold or shipped
Dominica 16000 12732 80 6800
overseas (Figure 1674b),
DominicanRepublic 547433 163510 29 44640
On the Caribbean islands marketing
Ecuador 6118425 4764193 78 1068659 is done through transnationals such as
Grenada* 0 0 a 0 Fyffes, The small farmers rely on the banana
Guatemala 1150200 1129477 98 238100 industry to provide their basic needs of
food, shelter and education,
Honduras 887072 545527 61 134698
These small-scale farmers are also the
Jamaica 125000 11713 93 4693 ones who suffer most from hurricane
Mexico 2250041 70166 31 25342 damage as in 1998 when Hurricane Mitch
Nicaragua 49915 45532 91 11579 destroyed much of the plantation area
of Nicaragua and Honduras, and in 2005
Panama 439228 352480 80 96517
when Grenada's crop was devastated
5t Lucia 45000 30630 68 15542 (Figure 16.75)
5tVincent& Grenadines 50000 24470 55 12815
Figure 16.75
Trinidad& Tobago 7000 39 6 23
BananaproductionintheCaribbean
Worldtotal 69644923 15946146 23 5651321
andCentralAmerica,2005
*Grenada lost all its crop in 2005 through hurricane damage

510 Farming and food supply

 Farming Case StudYI16

The influence of the large transna- \\ \.\:'

~" __ "JQ
tional companies is strong in the Central
American countries where the bananas are
grown on the rich alluvial soils found on
.L~"~~.~~ :~":....{<.•
the coastal lowlands, providing high yields
- ~':~.(V-"'; - eewiird ' .•
••• . Dominican Islands sf',; ..
per hectare for large plantations
by transnationals.
owned
Labour is hired and
Mexico
J rnaica
a
btl
repu IC 1" 1 Dominica
51 Lucia
Windward " 'Barbados
often low-paid. Land is carefully cultivated Caribbean Sea Islands 51 Vincent
and more mechanisation is used than on Grenada' &,.Grenadines
smaller farms. There is intensive use offerti- •• " Tobago
Trinidad
liser and pesticides which is having cumula- , &,-Tebago
tive environmental effects. One of the most
Venezuela ffuriname~
serious of these is the damage to the coral
o~--- SOOkm
~"...-'h'\
reefs off the Costa Rican coast, where 90 per
7 ~ana
cent are now dead as a result of pesticide "
Colombia
( ,
runoff from banana plantations.
D 'dollar' producers \ :/ . \S.....
Bananas were to become one of the Dother Caribbean producers
.~-
/' ,-_/_ r»;

first products to be traded internationally

under the Fairtrade label (Figure 21.44)
Ecuador
and also, in places, to be grown organi- Figure 16.76
_/
cally. Under Fairtrade, farmers in South and ,/-
The banana
Central America are getting a fairer price for producers
their produce, enabling them to improve
their standard of living (Figures 16.77b
and 21.45).
Following years of expansion because of
increased demand for the fruit, there is now
a problem of oversupply. Economies such
as those ofStVincent and St Lucia depend
on the crop for survival. There is a need to
diversify into food crops and other cash
crops to reduce the dependency on one
major export.

Figure 16.77

The banana industry:

a Bananas on the tree
b Preparing Fairtrade
bananas for export
 Further reference
Barke, M. and O'Hare, G. (1991) The Third Sustainable development: UN FAO Statistics. Jand/agriculture:
World, Oliver & Boyd. www.defra .gov. uk/sustai nable/ (searchable by country or region)
Gee, N. (200S) 'Farm diversifica- government/ http://faosta t. fao.org/site/3 77/default.
tion', Geography Review VoJ 19 No.2 UK Department for Environment, Food aspx#ancor
(. ovember). and Rural Affairs (DEFRA): UN World Food Programme (WFP):
O'Riordan, T. (2007) 'Agriculture and the www.defra.gov.uk/ wwwwfp.org/engllsh/
environment', Geography Review Vol 21 Union of Concerned Scientists (UeS): US Department of Agriculture (USDA):
No 11 (September). www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/ www.usda.gov /
Timberlake,1. (1987) Onty Cne Eartn, UN Food and Agriculture Organisation World Resources Institute: Feeding the
Earthscan/BBC Books. (FAO): World:
www.tao.org/ www.igc.org/wri/wri/wri/wr-98-99/
~ CAP Policy:
UN FAO Compendium of Food and feeding.htm
www.sustainweb.org/news.php?id=93
Agriculture Indicators: (searchable by
Famine and food supply:
country)
www.ifpri.cgiar. org
vcwv«. fao. org/ES/ ess!
Farming in the UK: compendiul1l_2006/list.asp
wvvw.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics

Activities
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
-, -,
Study the map in Figure 16.78. It shows the general -,
-, -,
pattern of intensity offarming in Europe. N

',,
'_<,
....

t
a i Describe the location of the areas where

ii
average intensity offarming is 75 per cent of
the average, or lower.
Choose a named location within the area
described in iand explain why physical
(2 marks)
0 "
_periPhery
__ -~=- ••75,
"'- - __ _,~,_
geography makes farming difficult in that area. ., ••,.-100 _
(3 marks) J" .•',1'"

b Describe the location ofthe area with average

intensity 50 per cent or more above average. (2 marks) .
ii Explain how market forces have affected the
development of the area of intensive farming
..
you have described in i. (4 marks) "
c Name one area of intensive farming that is found
within the peripheral area of Europe.
Describe the type offarming. 75

ii Explain why this area of intensive farming has

developed there. (7 marks)
d Name one area of low-intensity farming found
within the farming core.
Describe the type offarming.
ii Explain why this area of low-intensity farming
has developed, despite the favourable market
conditions. (7 marks)

Figure 16.78

of agriculture
Intensity inEurope
(aftervanValkenburg andHeld.
1952)
100 ~ averageintensity

512 Farming and food supply o 1000 km

 c i What do the following terms mean:
2 Study Figure 16.79.
- extensive farming
a Complete a copy of the table below. (4 marks)
•capital-intensive farming
b Moorland and woodland both produce low returns
for farmers. -labour-intensive farming? (3 marks)

Using information from your table, suggest ii Name one area where capital-intensive farming
what is the main physical type of land in this has developed. Explain how market conditions in
sample that is left as: that area have encouraged the development of
•moorland this type offarming. (5 marks)

•woodland.
ii Suggest why each of these types of land is not used
for a type of farming that produces better returns.
(2 marks)
iii Name one area where labour-intensive farming
with low capital inputs has developed. Explain how
physical and social conditions have encouraged
the development ofthis type offarming. (5 marks)
(6 marks)

Altitude in metres Angle of slope in degrees

Arable 0-20 0-3
Improved pasture
Rough pasture
Woodland Figure16.79
Moorland Relationships between land use,
altitude and slope in south-east Arran

200 24

21
Vi'
OJ

150 ~
Ol 18
]: OJ
:g
~
s: <lJ
15
Q.
Ol
0
'w
.s: Vi
100 '0 12
~
Ol
c 9
"'
50 6

a
arable improved rough woodland moorland arable •improved rough woodland moorland
pasture pasture pasture pasture

land use land use

3 a Modern farming practices threaten the environment
in many ways. Describe one problem that can result
from each of the following practices:
increasing use of chemicals on the land
ii increasing the size offields
iii draining wetlands.
b Choose one ofthe problems that you described in a.
Explain how changes in the management ofthe land
can reduce this problem. (6 marks)
c 'I would like to manage my farm in a more eco-
friendly way, but I feel that I must farm as intensively
as modern scientific techniques will allow. Farmers
(4 marks) like me must produce maximum possible yields in
order to feed the starving millions in poor countries
(4 marks)
throughout the world.'
(4 marks)
Imagine that a farmer who ran a very intensive
farm in EastAnglia made the statement above. How
might you reply if you wanted to convince him that
he ought to consider a less intensive form of farming?
(7 marks)

Farming and food supply 513

Exam practice: basic structured questions
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,ft.D •••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••

4 a Physical controls have an important effect on the type
offarming in most agricultural areas. Choose two of
the following physical factors. For each of your chosen
factors, explain how it influences farming. Illustrate each
part of your answer with reference to a named area.
temperature
ii precipitatio n
iii soil.
b The use oftechnology can reduce the farmer's
dependence on physical factors. Explain how this has
happened in:
a named farming region in a more economically
developed country (5 marks)
ii a less economically developed country where
intermediate technology has been used. (5 marks)
c Explain what is meant by'organic farming' and explain why
it hasgrown in importance in recent years.Illustrate your
answer by reference to one or more casestudies. (7 marks)
5 a Name one region where commercial grain production
makes an important contribution to the world's food
supply and describe the main features of agricultural
production in that area. (7 marks)
b Name one region where farming mainly for
subsistence is still important. Outline the main
features ofthe farming system and explain why
subsistence farming is still important there. (8 marks)
c With reference to one or more crops, discuss the
strengths and weaknesses ofthe plantation system
of agriculture. (10 marks}
(8 marks) 6 a Name a less economically developed country (LEDC)
that has suffered / is suffering from famine. Explain the
causes ofthe famine. You should refer to both natural
and human causes. (10 marks)
b 'Famine and food shortage are likely to increase in
future: Give two reasons why this is likely. (5 marks)
c i With reference to one or more named case studies,
explain how land reform can improve total food
production in LEDCs. (5 marks)
ii With reference to one or more case studies,
explain how appropriate technology (intermediate
technology) can help increase agricultural yields
in LEDCs. (5 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

••• ,.. •••• 0 ••• ''' •.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

7 Two ofthe biggest causes of problems offood supply in less

economically developed countries (LEDCs)are:
•the need for land reform
•the need for accessto improved technology.
a Explain why each of these presents problems for farmers
in LEDCs.Refer to one or more examples that you have
studied. (9 marks)
b Describe a scheme to improve land tenure in a named
LEDC,and assesshow successful that scheme has been.
(8 marks}
c Describe a scheme to improve the level of technology
available to farmers in a named LEDC and assesshow
successful that scheme has been. (8 marks)

8 a i Outline three ofthe basic aims ofthe European

Union's (EU)Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Agriculture
inthe Li
(3 marks) Valley,
nearGuilin

ii Why did the CAP lead to overproduction and

surpluses in the 1980 and 1990s? (5 marks)
b Recent reforms of the CAP have led to the introduction of
a number of schemes that are designed to improve the
rural environment.
Describe the policy of'set-aside' and explain its role in
improving the environment. (5 marks)
ii Explain how improvements in the rural environment
in the UK can be brought about by either the
introduction of Environmentally Sensitive Areas
(ESAs)or Stewardship schemes. (12 marks)

9 Study the photographs in Figure 16.80.They were both

taken near Guilin in China.

514 Farming and food supply

 a i Describe evidence in photograph B which shows
that farming is intensive in this area. (4 marks) 180
ii Two crops per year can be taken from farmland in 160
photograph A. Suggest how the land is kept fertile,
even though the people cannot afford inputs of
140
artificial fertiliser. (4 marks) 120
S
~
iii Land in the background of photograph A is not c 100
OJ
farmed. Suggest why not. (4 marks)
'"
-;;; 80
b •Before the revolution in 1949, farming in this part of c
0
China was mostly subsistence farming. Farms were .~ 60
u
..Q
small and fragmented and tenants had to give up to 40
halftheir produce to absentee landlords.
20
•After the revolution, land was divided amongst the
peasants, but most plots were too small to support 0
the families who worked them.
0 20 40 60 80 100
distance from market (km)
•After several experiments the government created
'people's communes' in which around 15000 people
Figure16.81
pooled their land and labour to run the farm.
•Since 1979 individual farmers have been given more Netprofit curvefor marketgardening
responsibility, and now they are allowed to sell surplus aroundatown ona uniformplain
crops at local markets, and to keep the profits.
Suggest why yields are higher under the present 11 Study Figure 16.82.
system than they have been under any ofthe a Explain how the Common Agricultural Policy of
previous systems. (13 marks) the European Community (now the European Union)
led to the development of surpluses like those shown
10 a Ona copy of Figure 16.81 add:
in the table. (6 marks)
net profit curves for dairying and wheat when
b Explain how these surpluses were reduced during
locational rent for:
the period from 1986. (7 marks)
•dairying is £ 120 at the market and £0 at 60 km
c Increasing intensification offarming in the UK and
•wheat is £80 atthe market and £0 at 80 km. (6 morks) other parts of the European Union has damaged
ii labels to show: the environment in several ways.

•the margin of transference from market gardening Evaluate methods that have been introduced by
to dairying the EU and the UK government to encourage the
sustainable development offarming. (12 marks)
•the margin of transference from dairying to wheat
•the margin of cultivation for wheat. (3 marks)
January 1986 January 1992
b Explain why land use changes at the margins of
transference. (4 morks) Commodity (figures in thousand tonnes unlessotherwise stated)

c i Explain why von Thunen's model is difficult to apply Butter 1400 300
to agricultural patterns in the modern world.
Skimmedmild powder 800 a
ii In what ways is von Thunen's model still useful to an
understanding of modern agricultural geography?
Beef 500 800
(12 marks) Cereals 15000 7000

Wine/alcohol 4 000(hectolitres) 2500 (hectolitres)

Figure16.82
....
EU foodsurpluses
Exam practice: essays
••••• e.oe., •••••••••••• .,.••••••••••••••••.••• ., •• " ••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

12 'Modern agri-business is not a sustainable form of farming.' 14 'Since the 1950s increased food production has meant
Discuss this statement using the following headings: increased food security for most ofthe world's people,
but there are exceptions to this pattern. Moreover, food
•What is the nature of modern aqri-business?
production cannot go on increasing for ever.'
•Is modern agri-business sustainable?
Discuss this statement, with reference to countries at
· Can agri-business be made less damaging to the different stages of development. (25 marks)
environment? (25 marks)
15 Evaluate the outcomes ofthe Green Revolution and
13 'As farming becomes more modernised the influence of consider how the lessons from this should influence the
economic factors increases while the influence of physical introduction of modern developments such as GM crops.
factors decreases.' (25 marks)
Discuss this statement with reference to farming in regions
at varying levels of development. (25 marks)

Farming and food supply 515

 Rural land use
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'Not rural ~ishts alone, but rural sounds, cxliilcuute the
spirit. '
William Cowper
'l see the tutu! virtues leuvc lilt' land.'
Oliver Goldsmith
The term rural refers to those less densely
populated parts of a country which are recog-
nised by their visual 'countryside' components.
Areas defined by this perception will depend
upon whether attention is directed to economic
criteria (a high dependence upon agriculture for
income), social and demographic factors (the
'rural way of life' and low population density) or
spatial criteria (remoteness hom urban centres).
Usually it is impossible to give a single, clear
definition of rural areas as, in reality, they often
merge into urban centres (the rural-urban
fringe) and differ between countries. Although
generalisations may lead to over-simplifications
(Framework 11, page 347), itis useful to identify
three main types of rural area.
1 Where there is relatively little demand for
land, certain rural activities can be carried
Figure 17.1 out on an extensive scale, e.g. arable farming
in the Canadian Prairies and forestry on the
The urban-rural
continuum Canadian Shield.
a Gradient
rural elements (functional landscape)
increase with distance from the CBO
urban elements
(functional landscape) decrease with
distance from the CBO
A B C o
urban centre suburban urban peripheral
(absolute urbanity) shadow
516 Rural land use
2 In many areas, especially in economically
developing countries, there is considerable
pressure upon the land which results in its
intensive use. Where human competition for
land use becomes too great to sustain every-
one, the area is said to be overpopulated
(page 376). This often leads to rural depopula-
tion, e.g. the movement to urban centres in
Latin American countries (page 366).
3 In many economically developed countries,
competition for land is greater in urban than
in rural areas. The resultant high land values
and declining quality of life are leading to
a repopulation of the countryside (urban
depopulation), e.g. migration out of New
York and London (page 365).
The urban-rural continuum
It is now unusual to find a clear distinction
between where urban settlements and land use
end and rural settlements and land use begin.
Instead, there is usually a gradual gradation
showing a decrease in urban characteristics
with increasing distance from the city centre
Figure 17.1). This is known as the urban-rural
continuum (page 393).
b Modeland
distribution of
different types
of rural space
E t
highly remote
agricultural (absolute rurality)
 Figure 17.2

An index of rurality for England and Wales (after Cloke, 1977)

The urban-rural continuum includes the rate at Characteristics in
which rural settlements expand or decrease as Indices rural areas
people move out of or into nearby cities; changes
Population per ha Low
in the socio-economic base as services and other
% change in population Decrease
Figure 17.3 functions are transferred to the countryside; and
changes in land use resulting from increased pres- % total population: over 65 years High
Rurality in England
sure exerted on rural areas by nearby urban areas. % total population: male 15-45 years Low
and Wales
% total population: female 15-45 years Low
Oecupancy rate: % population at 1.5 per room low
Households per dwelling low

N
% households with exclusive use of (a) hot water High
(b) fixed bath (c) inside WC

t % in socia-economic groups: 13/14 farmers

% in socia-economic group: 15 farmworkers
% residents in employment working outside the
rural district
High
High
Low

% population resident < 5 years Low

% population moved out in last year Low
% in-lout -migrants low
Distance from nearest urban centre of 50 000 High
Distance from nearest urban centre of 100 000 High
Distance from nearest urban centre of 200 000 High

There are a number of measures of the inten-

D extreme rural
D intermediate rural
D intermediate non-rural
o lOOkm
D extreme non-rural
D urban districts
sity of change over distance, of which the best
known is Cloke's index of rurality (Figure 17.2).
The index is obtained by combining a range
of socio-economic measures or variables, with
absolute urbanity at one extreme and absolute
rurality at the other. Using his index of rurality,
Cloke then produced a map with a five-fold
classification to show rurality in England and
Wales (Figure 17.3).
Figure 17.4 shows some of the major compet-
itors for land in a rural area. In many parts of the
world, farming takes up the majority of the land
and, especially in developing countries, employs
most of the population.

RURAL LAND USE

major user extraction of raw materials

of rural land

....a
natural and many uses in competition airports. roads hamlets and
commercial with other land uses villages
Need for rural
management

Figure 17.4
Competition for rural land use Rural land use 517
and the need for management
of rural resources
 Forestry
In Britain
Neolithic farmers began the clearance of Britain's
primeval forests about 3000 years ago. Aided
by the development of axes, some clearances
may have been on a scale not dissimilar to that
in parts of the tropical rainforests of today. In
1919, with less than 4 per cent of the UK covered
in trees, the Forestry Commission was set up to
begin a controlled replanting scheme. Since then
the policy has been to look towards an economic
profit over the long term and to try to protect the
environment. By 2008, 11 per cent of the UK was
classified as woodland, but this still remained
one of the lowest proportions in the EU.
Deciduous trees are more suited to England
where the relief is lower and the location more
southerly, whereas conifers are better adapted to
Scotland with its higher relief and more northerly
latitude.
Coniferous Deciduous
England 32% 68%
Scotland 78% 22%
UK 58% 42%
Much of Britain's surviving, established woodland
is deciduous while most of the 20th-century
forest planted by the Forestry Commission was
coniferous. This is mainly because conifers, being
softwoods, have a much greater commercial
Figure17.5 Advantages
The case forand
Scde-economk
aqainstforesrry in
Britain (afterWarren, • Nationaltimber needs -the UK supplies only 13% of its • Earlyplantations were visuallyintrusivewith their rigid
Geography Review, own timber and has a large annual import billfor wood
March 1998) products.
• Providesemployment, especiallyas located inthose rural • Often a'blanket afforestation;usingjust one species of
areas where jobs are in short supply.
• Apositive method of using set-aside land.
Non-market/environmental
• Treesare a renewable resource ifcarefullymanaged
and, by planting in the UK, reduces pressures on tropical
forests (sustainable development).
• Treesreplace oxygen inthe atmosphere and so help
counterbalance the increase of carbon dioxide and its
effects on global warming.
• Forestsreduce water runoff(page 63).
• Forestscontribute to biodiversity,providing habitats for • Concernsover water quality as afforestation led to
a range offauna and flora,e.g. red deer and red squirrels. increased acidificationof lakesand rivers,and disrupted
• Forestsofferopportunities for recreation,and trees make
an aesthetic contribution to the countryside.
• Some people argue that forests are part of Britain's
................ traditional landscape.
518
value than deciduous trees. This is partly due to
their greater range of use, ranging from paper
to furniture, and partly because, regardless of
whether they are grown naturally or have been
replanted, as there are fewer species within a given
area than in a deciduous woodland, selection and
felling of trees is made easier.
Softwoods growing in the poor soils and harsh
climate of northern Britain take between 40 and
60 years to mature and so afforestation was always
looked upon as an investment for future gen-
erations. Most of the pre-1980 plantations were
neither attractive for human recreation nor as
a habitat for wildlife (Figure 17.5). Since then, a
strong conservation lobby has ensured that modern
plantations are carefully landscaped while a more
sustainable forest management aims to provide
social and environmental advantages, to main-
tain an economically viable forestry sector and to
protect woodlands for future generations. In the last
two or three decades, the previously all-important
economic factor has given way to a broader range of
objectives that include amenity landscaping, wild-
life management and recreation, while forest opera-
tions have moved towards smaller-scale practices
that are environmentally and aesthetically more
sensitive (Figure 17.6). Such has been the move-
ment away hom what had been virtually a mono-
culture, with perhaps only one, or two at the most,
species of conifer being planted over a large area,
that between 2004 and 2008, 84 per cent of newly
planted trees within the UK were deciduous.
Disadvantages
Landscape
geometric patterns, and with no regard for natural
features.
tree, created a monoculture with a uniformityof height
and colour,
• Theytransformed the landscape and obliterated views.
Concern over the speed and scaleof replanting.
Environmental
• Introduction of non-native species,such as the North
AmericanSitkaspruce and lodgepole pine, as they were
faster-growing than indigenous species.
• Destruction of valued environments such as the Flow
Countrywetlands of Caithnessand Sutherland, and
moorlands elsewhere in upland Britain.
• Adverse impacts on floraand fauna, e.g. moorland birds
and plants.
runoff.

.-+-~---'-.:....:~-;-~__:_-'-~_a variety
Figure'7.6 In developing countries
Managing an upland Commercial forestry is a relatively new venture
British forest (Kielder)
in the tropics. It is usually controlled by trans-
nationals based overseas which look for an imme-
diate economic profit and have little thought for
the long-term future or the environment. The
UN suggests that over half of the world's forests
were cleared during the last millennium and
that the present rate of clearance is 102000 km2
annually. Of this, 94000 km2 is in developing
countries located in the tropical areas of Africa,
Latin America and South-east Asia where rates of
replanting are often minimal.
The underlying causes of deforestation in devel-
oping countries are varied. Key issues, according
to the World Wide Fund for Nature, include
unsustainable levels of consumption; the effects
of national debt; pressure for increased trade and
development; poverty; patterns of land ownership;
and growing populations and social relationships.
It is also usual to blame forest destruction on the
poor farmers of these countries rather than on the
resource-consuming developed countries.
summ its left clear for heather moorlands
which provide a habitat for grouse and
golden eagles
mature woodland forms a habitat for
~ tawny owls and provides food for short-
eared owls
of species and a lower density of
trees replanted: helps to encourage more
bird life which feeds on insects and so
reduces the need for pesticide spraying
only small areas cleared at one
time to reduce 'scars'
~~ grassland provides a habitat for short-
eared owls and food for tawny owls
winding forest road
land beside roads/tracks cleared to a
width of 100 m and left as grass or
planted with attractive deciduous trees
ponds created
land next to river left clear for migrating
animals such as deer
During commercial operations the forest is
totally cleared by chainsaw, bulldozer and fire:
there is no selection of trees to be felled. The sec-
ondary succession (page 318) is of poorer-quality
trees, as little restocking is undertaken. Where
afforestation of hardwoods does take place, there
is often insufficient money for fertiliser and pes-
ticide. The hope for the future may lie in agro-
forestry, where trees and food crops are grown
alongside each other. Forest soils, normally rated
unsuitable for crops, can be improved by growing
leguminous tree species. Commercial forestry
is more difficult to operate in developing coun-
tries as they are distant from world markets, the
demand for hardwood is less than for softwood,
and although there are several hundred species in
a small area only a few are of economic value.
The threat of the destruction of the rainfor-
ests has become a major global concern. Some of
the consequences of deforestation are described
in Places 76 and Case Study 11.
Rural land use 519
 --
Ethiopia,Amazonia and Malaysia: forestry
Places 76
in developing countries

Ethiopia climatic repercussions - could the Amazon Basin

Early in the 20th century, 40 per cent of Ethiopia
was forested. Today the figure is 11 per cent. In
1901, a traveller described part of Ethiopia as being
'most fertile and in the heights of commercial
prosperity with the whole ofthe valleys and lower
slopes of the mountains one vast grain field. The
neighbouring mountains are still well-wooded. The
numerous springs and small rivers give ample water
for domestic and irrigation purposes, and the water
meadows produce an inexhaustible supply of good
grass the whole year: A century later, the same area
was described as'a vast barren plain with eddies of
spiralling dust that was once topsoil. The mountains
were bare of vegetation and the river courses dry:
As the trees and bushes were cleared, less rainfall
was intercepted and surface runoff increased,
resulting in less water for the soil, animals and
plants. There has been little attempt to treat the
forest as a sustainable resource.
Amazonia
The clearance of the rainforests means a loss of
habitat to many Indian tribes, birds, insects, reptiles
and animals. Over half of our drugs, including one
from a species of periwinkle which is used to treat
leukaemia in children, come from this region. It
is possible that we are clearing away a possible
cure for AIDS and other as yet incurable diseases.
(Despite the rainforests being the world's richest
repository of medical plants, only 2 per cent have so
Figure 17.7 far been studied for potential health properties.)
become another Ethiopia?There is a much greater
need for sustainable logging.
Malaysia: a model for the future?
Malaysia has several thousand species oftree,
mainly hardwoods, with timber and logs being
the country's third-largest export. However, the
government has imposed strict controls, and the
Forestry Department 'manages the nation's forest
areas to ensure sufficient supply of wood and other
forest produce and manages and implements forest
activities that would help to sustain and increase
the productivity of the forest' (Malaysia Official
Year Book, 2007). The Department insists that trees
reach a specific height, age and girth before they
can be felled (Figures 17.7 and 17.8). Logging
companies are given contracts only on agreement
that they will replant the same number oftrees
as they remove. Many newly planted hardwoods
are ready for harvesting within 20-25 years
due to the favourable local growing conditions.
Further experiments are being made with acacias
and rattan, both of which grow even faster.
Consequently, half of Malaysia is still forested and as
most of the remaining third is under tree crops such
as rubber, oil palm and coca (Places68, page 483)
stocks are being successfully maintained. Even so,
Malaysia's rapid industrialisation (Places91, page
578) is causing increased deforestation, especially
around the capital of Kuala Lumpur. Attempts have
been made to make logging sustainable.

Logging operations Withouttree cover, the fragile soils are rapidly

Figure 17.8
in Malaysia leached of their minerals, making them useless
for crops and vulnerable to erosion
(Figure 12.8).The Amazon forest
supplies one-third of the world's
oxygen and stores one-quarter
ofthe world's fresh water - both
would be lost if the region was
totally deforested. The burning
of the forest not only reduces the
amount of oxygen given off, but
increases the release of carbon
dioxide (a contributory cause of
global warming). It has also been
suggested that the decrease
in evapotranspiration, and
subsequently rainfall, caused by
deforestation could also have serious
 Places 77 South-east Asia: forest fires

From September 1997 to June 1998, much of South- by the EI Nino event (Case Study 9A), together with the
east Asia was blanketed by a thick smoke haze, in prevailing land use and land management conditions,
reality smog, caused by thousands of uncontrolled proved ideal conditions for the spread of forest fires
forest fires, mainly in Sumatra and Borneo (Figure on an unprecedented scale. The remoteness ofthe
17.9). At its peak the smoke haze covered an area fires and the lack of resources, organisation and
the size of western Europe and caused visibility to expertise combined to make fire-control impossible.
be reduced to 50 m. Its effects were various: Satellite imagery suggested that, although the blame
for most ofthe fires was apportioned to the many
• Human The Air Pollution Index on Sarawak
small farmers, 80 per cent of the fires were due to
reached 851 (300 is considered 'hazardous'
large companies. By the time the rains did come, in
for human life), children and high-risk groups
May 1998, 10 million ha offorest had been burnt.
already suffering from respiratory or cardio-
Lessons were not learned, however, and fires and the
vascular diseases (Places 99, page 621) were
resultant smoke haze kept returning each year until,
prone to major health problems, and schools on
in 2006, the consequences were almost as bad as
Sumatra were closed.
in 1997-98. As in 1997, the fires followed a summer
• Economic Airports throughout the region drought associated with an EI Nino event (Case
were closed (an airline crash in Sumatra and a Study 9A). Most ofthe out-of-control fires were, as in
ship collision in the Strait of Malacca were both previous years, on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra
attributed to the haze), logging operations were and Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). Government
suspended and farm crops destroyed. officials accused the many small farmers who clear
• Environmental An estimated 90 per cent of their land annually by fire, whereas environmentalists
canopy trees were lost in Sumatra and Borneo, claimed 80 per cent ofthe fires were begun by large
and the rate of secondary succession would companies clearing land on big plantations, timber
be slow; soils were seriously degraded; and estates and protected areas. By July over 100fires
wildlife habitats were lost (including those for were spotted by satellite, by which time many people
such endangered species as the orang-utan, were aIready experienci ng breath in g d ifficu Ities.
Sumatran rhinoceros and Sumatran tiger, and During the first week of October, visibility in Pontianak
an irreparable loss in biodiversity). (Kalimantan) was reduced to less than 50 m for several

Many Indonesians, accustomed to the humid climate days, and many flights from the town's airport were

and with little experience of dry weather, still adhere either delayed or cancelled. Air pollution was said to

to fire-using traditions. Fire has long been used as a be at a 'dangerous'level and people were advised to

quick and cheap method of land clearance by farmers, wear protective face masks if they went out of doors.
Figure 17.9
and by plantation and forestry-concession owners. Schools remained closed. A thick haze, blown by a
Maximum extent of
In 1997 the monsoon rains failed and the resultant strong wind from Sumatra, prompted Singapore to
smoke haze in 1997
and 2006 prolonged drought, believed to have been triggered warn people against vigorous outside activities, while
in adjacent Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur

.~
=
recorded 'u n healthy
air quality'. The event
po
BRUNEI • I' lasted several months.
A y

o j~.-
In 2007, the Indonesian
• Kuala umpur
. \Borneo government pledged
Sarawak
Kuching to reduce forest fires
N • Pekanbaru
_.
co\.
SINGAPORE
• B 0 r n e 0

Kutai. while admitting to

f
._1
• Pantianak its neighbours that it
Sumatra Kalimantan
might be incapable
Jambi e -, oftotallyeradicating
them. With Malaysian
co-operation,
\_ N DON E S A
personnel were
J a v a Sea
being trained in fire
prevention, fire control

;~J~,~", ~ :t
/ /) r/ .
Ian
o c e a n and public education.

area affected
ior .
SOOkm by the haze
~-----'
.~ "'-J Rural land use 521
 Mining and quarrying
Even since the Neolithic (when flint was exca-
vated from chalk pits), Bronze and Iron Ages,
quarrying and mining have been an integral
part of civilisation. It was through the extraction
and processing of minerals that many of today's
'developed' countries first became industrialised,
while to some 'developing' countries the export
of their mineral wealth provides the only hope
of raising their standard of living. The modern
world depends upon 80 major minerals, of which
18 are in relatively short supply, including lead,
sulphur, tin, tungsten and zinc.
Minerals are a finite, non-renewable resource
which means that, although no essential
mineral is expected to run out in the immediate
future, their reserves are continually in decline.
Resources are the total amount of a mineral in
the Earth's crust. The quantity and quality are
determined by geology. Reserves are the amount
of a mineral that can be economically recovered.
Although many items in our daily lives
originated as minerals extracted from the
ground, no mineral can be quarried or mined
without some cost to local communities and the
environment. Extractive industries provide local
jobs and create national wealth, but they also
cause inconvenience, landscape scars, waste tips,
loss of natural habitats, and various forms and
levels of pollution.
The most convenient methods of mining are
open-cast and quarrying. In open-cast mining,
all the vegetation and topsoil are removed, thus
destroying wildlife habitats and preventing
Figure 17.10
other types of economic activity such as farming
Opencast mining for (Places 79). Sand and gravel are extracted from
coal, West Virginia,
depressions which, although shallow, often
USA
reach down to the water table, as in the Lea
valley in north-east London. Coal and iron ore
are often obtained from deeper depressions
using drag-line excavators which are capable of
removing 1500 tonnes per hour (Figure 17.10).
Often, the worst scars (eyesores) result from
quarrying into hillsides to extract 'hard rocks'
such as limestone and slate (Figure 17.11 and
Places 78). There is usually greater economic and
political pressure for open-cast coalmining than
to quarry any other resource: it is the cheapest
method of obtaining a strategic energy resource,
but none generates greater social and environ-
mental opposition. The increased demand for
aggregates for road building and cement manu-
facture has led to the go-ahead being given for
superquarries to be opened up in many different
parts of the world, including that at Dehra Dun
in northern India (Case Study 8).
Mining involves the construction of either
horizontal ad it mines, where the mineral is
exposed on valley sides, or vertical shaft mines,
where seams or veins are deeper.
Deep mining still affects local communities
and the environment either by the piling up of
rock waste to form tips - of coal in South Wales
valleys (Aberfan, Case Study 2B) and china clay
in Cornwall, for example - or by causing surface
subsidence - as in some Cheshire saltworkings.
Waste can also be carried into rivers where it can
cause flooding by blocking channels and, when
it contains poisonous substances, can kill fish
and plants and contaminatse drinking water
supplies. This was highlighted in early 1992 when
floodwaters from Cornwall's last working tin
mine, Wheal]ane, flowed into fivers and to the
coast, carrying with them arsenic and cadmium.
Figure17.11
 Places 78 North Wales: slate quarrying
The Oakley slate quarries were first worked in 1818.
By the 1840s, the most easily obtained slate had
been won and mining began. The introduction of
steam power and the building of the Ffestiniog
railway led to the export of 52 million slates
from Porthmadog in 1873. At the quarry's peak
productivity, 2000 men and boys were employed
figure17.12 on seven different levels. Each level was steeply
inclined into the hillsides and was worked to a
Spoilheaps
above
BlaenauFfestiniog, depth of 500 m. Apart from farming, the slate
Gwynedd mines were the sole providers of employment,
Places 79 Malaysia: tin mining
Malaysia (2008) is the world's seventh major
producer of tin ore but whereas it was the world
leader until 1993 and in 1970 was producing 40 per
cent of the world's output, now its contribution is
only 1 per cent. Earlytin mining was typical of the
colonial trade period (page 624). British settlers
brought in the capital, machinery and technology;
supervised the mining; and organised the export
of tin for refining. Malaya, as it was then known,
received few advantages. Most tin was obtained by
opencast methods and the use of hydraulic jets.
After independence, when the mines were
nationalised and operated under the Malaysian
Figure17.13 government, tin played a major role in the country's
Disused
tin mine, economic development and its emergence as one of
Malaysia the'Asian tigers'(page 578). However, since then the
and Blaenau Ffestiniog's population peaked at
12000. Working in candlelight in damp and dusty
conditions for up to 12 hours a day, and with rock
falls common (pressure release, page 41) the life
expectancy of miners was short. By the turn of the
century, the manufacture of clay roof tiles heralded
the beginning of the industry's decline and in
1971 the mine at Blaenau closed. A decade later,
renamed Gloddfa Ganol, the underground galleries
were re-opened to tourists, some of whom arrive
via the narrow-gauge Ffestiniog railway.
As the mines closed, people became either
unemployed orwere forced to move to seek work
- the present population of Blaenau is under 500.
Today the slate mines are a tourist attraction and
have again become the town's largest employer.
Above the rows of the former miners' cottages tower
the large and unsiqhtly spoil heaps (Figure 17.12) as
for every tonne of usable slate, ten tonnes of waste
was created - though these spoil heaps seem more
stable than the coal tips which affected Aberfan
(CaseStudy 2B). Some of the old buildings have
been restored as tourist attractions and there is little
evidence of subsidence as in other mining areas.
total output and the number of workers have fallen
rapidly due to the depletion of reserves (especially
those ofthe highest-quality), the low market prices
and the rising costs of extraction. Many of the
former mines have been left as land either covered
in mining spoil (Figure 17.13) and polluted lakes or
with abandoned overhead 'railways; machinery and
buildings. There is talk ofre-opening some of the
mines in Perakin the north-west ofthe country due
to a resurgence in world prices.
One ofthe largest abandoned mines lies 15 km
south of Kuala Lumpur in an area of rapidly
growing housing and high-tech industry. It has
been converted into a theme park with the world's
longest aerial ropeway, together with water slides
and various water sports (Figure 17.14) .
 Standard error calculations
Having completed any sampling exercise If we wanted to be more accurate, or to reduce the
(Framework 6, page 159), it is important to range of error, then we would need to take a larger
remember that patterns exhibited may not sample. Had we taken 100 values in the above
necessarily reflect the parent population. In other example, we would have had:
words, the results may have been obtained purely
by chance. Having determined the mean ofthe 0.4 0.4 (to two
SE = = 0.04 decimal
sample size, it is possible to calculate the difference 100 10.00 places)
between it and the mean of the parent population by
which means we can now say with 68 per cent
assuming that the parent population will conform to
confidence that the mean diameter size will lie
the normal distribution curve (Figure 6.37). However,
between 2.7 cm ± 0.04 cm (i.e. 2.66 to 2.74 cm).
while the sample mean must be liable to some error
Of course, this also means there is a 32 per cent
as it was based on a sample, it is possible to estimate
chancethatthe mean of the parent population is
this error by using a formula which calculates the
standard error ofthe mean (SE).
not within these values. This is why most statistical
techniques in geography require answers at the
95 per cent confidence level.
SEx = ~
-rn This standard error formula is applicable only when

where: x = mean of the parent population sampling actual values (interval or measured data).

(J = standard deviation of parent population If we wish to make a count to discover the frequency
of occurrence where the data are binomial (i.e. they
-rn = square root of number of samples could be placed into one of two categories), we have

We can then state the reliability of the relationship to use the binomial standard error. For example,

between the sample mean and the parent mean we may wish to determine how much of an area of

within the three confidence levels of 68,95 sand dune is covered in vegetation and how much

and 99 per cent (Framework 6). Unfortunately, is not covered in vegetation. When using binary

when sampling, the standard deviation of the data, the sample population estimates are given as
percentages, not actual quantities - i.e. x per cent of
parent population is not available and so to get
the standard error we have to use the standard points on the sand dune were covered by vegetation;

deviation of the sample, i.e. using 5 rather than (J. x per cent ofpoints on the sand dune were not
Although this introduces a margin of error, it will covered by vegetation.

be small if n is large (n should be at least 30). The formula for calculating standard error using

For example: a sample of 50 pebbles was taken binomial data is:

from a spit offthe coast of eastern England. The

SE = ~ p~ q
mean pebble diameter was found to be 2.7 cm
and the standard deviation 0.4 cm. What would be where: p = the percentage of occurrence of points
the mean diameter ofthe total population (all the in one category
pebbles) at that point on the spit? q = the percentage of points not in
that category
SE = 0.4 = 0.4
0.06 (to two decimal places)
n = the number of points in the sample.
50 7.07
A random sample of 50 points was taken over an
This means we can say: area of sand dunes similar to those found at Marfa
Harlech (Figure 6.33). Ofthe 50 points, 32 lay on
1 with 68 per cent confidence, that the mean
vegetation and 18 on non-vegetation (sand) which,
diameter will lie between 2.7 cm ± 0.06 cm,
expressed as a percentage, was 64 per cent and
i.e. 2.64 to 2.76 cm
36 per cent respectively. How confident can we be
2 with 95 per cent confidence, that the mean about the accuracy ofthe sample?
diameter will lie between 2.7 cm ± 2 x SE
(2 x 0.06 = 0.12 ern). i.e. 2.58 to 2.82 cm
SE = x 36
~64 50 = .J46 .08 = 6 .79
3 with 99 per cent confidence, that the mean
diameter will lie between 2.7 cm ± 3 x SE
(3 x 0.06 = 0.18 ern), i.e. 2.52 to 2.88 cm.

524 Rural land use

 Asthe sample found 64 per cent ofthe sand dunes
to be covered in vegetation and knowing the
standard error to be ± 6.79, we can say:
with 68 per cent confidence, that the vegetated
area will lie between 64 per cent ± 6.79, i.e.
between 57.21 and 70.79 percent
2 with 95 per cent confidence, that it will lie
between 64 per cent ± 2 x Sf (2 x 6.79 = 13.58),
i.e. between 50.42 and 77.58 per cent will
be vegetated
3 with 99 per cent confidence, that it will lie
between 64 per cent ± 3 x Sf (3 x 6.79 = 20.37),
i.e. between 43.63 and 84.37 percent.
Minimum sample size
Itseems obvious that the largerthe sizeof the
sample, the greater isthe probabilitythat it accurately
reflectsthe distribution of the parent population.
Itisequally obvious thatthe largerthe sample,the
more costlyand time-consuming it is likelyto be to
obtain. There is,however,a method to determine the
minimum sample sizeneeded to get a satisfactory
degree of accuracyfora specifictask, e.g.to findthe
mean diameter of pebbles on a spit,orthe amount of
vegetation coveron sand dunes. Thisisachieved by
reversingthe two standard error calculations.
For measured data: Imagine you wish to know the
mean diameter of pebbles at a given point on a spit
to within ± 0.1 cm at the 99 per cent confidence level.
The 99 per cent confidence level is 3 x Sf.
3s
3Sf = -
~
i.e. 3s = o.l...jfi
35
The need for rural management
As was shown on Figure 17.4, there is often consid-
erable competition for land in most rural areas and,
therefore, there is a need, in most people's opinion,
for careful management. In Britain, this manage-
ment may be the task of national, local or volun-
tary organisations such as the Department of the
Environment, the various National Parks Plannlng
Boards (Places 92, page 592) and the Council for
the Protection of Rural England (CPRE). Pressures
on rural areas increase towards large urban areas
where there is a greater demand for housing, shop-
ping, business parks and recreational facilities
(Figure 14.20 and pages 433 and 567). Pressure on
i.e. - = -[,i
0.1
We determined earlier that 5 (standard deviation of
the sample) for the pebble size was 0.4, and so by
substitution we get:
1.2
=...In
0.1
i.e. 12 ~
n 122
n = 144
We would need, therefore, to measure the diameter
of 144 pebbles to get an estimate of the parent
population at the 99 per cent confidence level.
For binomial data: How many sample values are
needed to estimate the area of sand dunes which is
vegetated, with an accuracy which would be within
5 per cent of the actual area (i.e.at the 95 per cent
confidence level)?
n = pxq
(5E)2
Again by substitution we get:
64x 36
n =--
(5)2
n = 92.16
We would therefore have to take a sample of 93
values to achieve results within 5 per cent of the
parent population.
the land may be even greater in economically less
developed countries where the need to improve
people's basic standard of living is likely to take
preference over management schemes.
One attempted management scheme in a
developing country is described in Places 80. It
draws together several topics discussed in this
book, i.e. an island (Chapter 6) with interre-
lated ecosystems (Chapter 11) offering alterna-
tive, rural land use possibilities (Chapter 17),
where the population is increasing (Chapter 13)
and wishing to improve its standard of living
(Chapter 21), thus putting pressure on natural
resources (Chapter 17).
Rural land use 525
 Mafia Island, Tanzania: rural management
Over two-thirds of Tanzania's900 km long coastline
consists of three fragile ecosystems - a fringing
coral reef, separated from mangrove swamps on the
mainland by a lagoon. Mafia Island, where the coral
reaches above sea-level, is a national marine park.
An island management plan was put forward in the
1990s to try to maintain economic development,
to conserve resources for future generations and to
avoid conflict between different land uses and users.
Some of the various economic activities threatening
the fragile island ecosystems include the following:
• Coral mining The removal of live coral for the
tourist and curio trade. and offossilised coral
rock for building purposes (Places37, page 302).
For lime, the rock is burnt over fires made from
locally collected wood.
• Fisheries At all scales from subsistence to
commercial, taking fin-fish, octopus, crayfish
and edible shellfish.
• Dynamite fishing The illegal use of dynamite
to stun and kill fish. This destroys the physical
structure ofthe reef and kills virtually every
organism within 15m of the blast.
• Seaweed farming Important as a means
of diversifying income but suffers from the
problems associated with cash crops and could
lead to biodiversity loss through the creation
of monoculture (page 501).
• Salt production By evaporation: hyper-saline
seawater is boiled using local mangrove wood
for fuel, a crude process that can cause the
denudation of large areas of mature trees.
• Tourism A rapidly growing industry and
one that the government is keen to promote.
Coastal tourism includes game-fishing, 'sea-
safaris: diving, snorkelling and beach activities.
Tourists, per capita, are major consumers of
resources (drinking water, fuel and foods), can
damage the natural environment (new hotels,
destruction ofthe reef) and can cause cultural
conflicts (dress code in a Muslim country).
• Off-shore gas extraction From the small
Songo-Songo gasfield.
• Farming Pesticides entering the lagoon behind
the roof are killing coral.
A new management approach
This aims to satisfy economic, social and
environmental objectives in order to ensure:
• the maximum sustainable economic benefit
from the long-term use of natural resources
526 Rural land use
• the maintenance ofthe conditions and
productivity of the natural environment
• the allocation of resources between competing
uses and users.
These aims are often seen as contradictory,
and the main problem is how to cope with the
diverse requirements of the different user-groups,
especially those who utilise finite resources.
Developing a management model
To achieve an understanding of the nature
and conditions of the resources in a proposed
management area, the following considerations
should be explored:
• Political factors What is the scale and
structure of the area? Is it stable? Who will pay?
Can it provide finance or secure funding? Who
will advise? Are there powerful interest groups
either for or against?
• Physical factors What are the main physical
features? Are these stable? Are there any natural
hazards?
• Biological factors What biological
communities exist? In what condition are they?
Are there records of change or overuse over a
period of time? Are there species of endangered,
cultural or commercial importance?
• Socio-economic What are the current uses of
the area?Who uses it? Are they traditional or
local uses? Have they a commercial interest?
How are the resources exploited? Are these
practices sustainable or destructive?
Once an area has been chosen, four stages can lead
to a practical plan for its creation as a multi-user
management scheme:
The definition of management goals - normally
including conservation, sustainable resource
use and economic development (Framework 16,
page 499).
2 The establishment of an administrative authority-
the processof human representation.
3 The formulation of a management strategy and
objectives - an assessment of the physical and
human characteristics ofthe whole area and.
within it, sub-zones.
4 The development of legislation - to achieve the
objectives.
But remember - no plan should be considered as
final- it is simply an improvement on what was
done before.
 Figure 17.15

National Parks and Recreation

Areas in south-western USA

OREGON

o
Crater Lake NP
I D A H 0
Yellowstone NP

WYOMING
Grand Tetons NP
Redwood NP

o 200 km
o Lassen NP G"""""':'" 0

. 0 2 =t>:
'r~ ~
•
Reno
Salt Lake City ROC~y
<;I NEVADA
PACIFIC
'\..J

Lake Tahoe
o C E A N H
• <'
UTA
Jj
Q;
\'.C lorado
0 - Denver
San Francisco 8YOSemite NP Bryce Capitol Arclies •
Canyon Reef NP D;JNP COL 0 R ADO

Q
Arcs are 600 km radii NP Q
fro m San Fra n cisco, Canyonlands NP
~ ~ 0 O",hV,lIe,
Los Angeles and
Salt Lake City
Kings Canyon NP 5\ NP Las
\
N
tj 1"> .vega~vl

f Sequoia

~
NP

Los Angeles
1-

"
Lake
Mead
NRA
\
' ."'"

D
D
NP - National

NM - National
MEXICO

Park

Monument
S""Moo',,NRA '. 't cc
RIZONA o NRA - National Recreation Area
Phoenix.
D MVNTP - Monument Valley Navajo
Tribal Park

The scenery of the mountain states of with the National Park there are no perma-
western USA is spectacular and varied It nent residents within the parks. (This is a
includes some of the country's highest major difference from National Parks in the
peaks, as well as extensive desert and UK where farmers and other residents live
wild river scenery. Yellowstone was set up on the land throughout the year.) Lodges,
in 1872, and is arguably the world's best hotels, tourist villages and regulated
known National Park with its variety of camping grounds are provided, together
mountain and volcanic scenery, geysers, with well-made roads and tracks to the dif-
hot springs, canyons, lava flows and wild- ferent scenic attractions. This contributes to
life including bear, elk and buffalo (bison) visitor pressure on 'honeypot' sites such as
Tourists from all over the world now flock Old Faithful in Yellowstone where people
to the region to visit the large number of wait for the geyser to blow once every 85
desiqnated National Parks, Monuments and minutes (Figure 17.16). There are traffic Jams
Recreation Areas. Figure 17.15 Indicates the as cars stop to watch animals such as bison
accessibility of the most popular attractions grazing or herds of elk close to the road
for visitors from major cities and interna- (Figure 17.17). Roads are closed by rangers
tional airports. Over 30 million people live if pressure IS considered too great.
within 500 km of the major National Parks Visitor numbers to the Parks and
and Recreation Areas. Recreation Areas in the mountain states
The National Parks were set up to pre- have continued to increase. Many come in
serve and protect the environment for private cars, camper vans and buses. Park
future generations. Visitors are encouraged authorities are working to provide better
to stay, but apart from workers associated traffic management, which includes vehicle
 Rural conflicts in south-western USA

restriction. The most popularround tour'

of parks includes those located in Utah
, .
Figure 17.17
Yellowstone National Park: bison
and neighbouring Arizona. Of these, by far
grazing on the verge; the vegetation is
the most popular are the Grand Canyon
recovering from a brush fire
National Park with 4.4 million visitors in
2007 (Figure 7.19) and the Glen Canyon
National Recreation Area with 1.9 million
visitors (Figures 17.22 and 17.23). Both of
these areas stretch along the sides of the
Colorado River but their access and uses are
very different, a most visitors to the Grand
Canyon travel to the North or South Rim to
look down at the river flowing 1.6 km below
them, whereas at Glen Canyon people have
access to Lake Powell which was created by
damming the river.
At present most visitors to the Grand
Canyon go to the South Rim, mainly
because it has easier access, more facili-
ties and better panoramic vistas although
the North Rim, which is closed by snow in
winter, is becoming increasingly popular.
The Canyon itself continues to attract
rafting and canoeing enthusiasts but their
number is strictly limited to protect the
natural habitat along the river banks. At the
western (downriver) end of the National
Park is the Lake Mead National Recreation
Area which has taken advantage of the lake
created by the construction of the Hoover
Dam (Figure 17.1S).This dam, known as the
Boulder Dam when it was built in the 1930s,
has created a lake which has a shoreline of
over 1100 km and whose water is used for
irrigation, to provide hydro-electricity for
the local area and recreation opportunities
for lake cruising, boating and swimming.
The dam is only half an hour away from the
'bright-lights' of Las Vegas.
The numbers visiting Utah's five National
Parks of Arches (Figure 17.19), Bryce Canyon, lodges and small hotels have been built, been rapid in-migration to the region,
Canyonlands, Capitol Reef and Zion together with housing for'retirees'wishing particularly to the larger urban areas of Salt
doubled between 1982 and 2007. These to move away from large urban areas. Lake City, Phoenix and LasVegas. These, and
parks, together with smaller protected areas Rainfall is low in the Basin and Range other smaller towns, are growing as more
such as Goosenecks State Park (Figure 17.20) province lyin9 between the Sierra Nevada, people decide to move here partly for the
and, straddling the border with Arizona, which forms the border with California to climate and partly as they choose to work
MonumentValley Navajo Tribal Park the west, and the Rocky Mountains in the from home using computers and other
(Figure 7.25), offer some of the world's east Although the states in this region now electronic equipment.
most spectacular desert and river-eroded rely upon tourism as their major source Increasing amounts of expensive water
(canyon) scenery. Visitors using motor cara- of employment. the rural economy also are taken by canal and pipeline to fill the
vans, 4x4s or tourist buses can manage to depends on ranching, irrigation and mining. swimming pools of new houses and to
visit all of these attractions in a week, but for In an area that is naturally short of water, work the fountains of Las Vegas. This extra
those who are more energetic, twice that and where the problem has been accentu- water means there is less for agriculture, yet
time is preferable. At places like St George, ated by recent droughts, it is not surprising farming itself needs more as the extra fruit
near to Zion National Park, and Moab, close that there should be conflicts over its use. and vegetables demanded by both new
to Arches National Park, many holiday In the last three or four decades there has residents and tourists can only be grown

528 Rural land use

 Rural conflicts in south-western USA

Figure 17.20

V under irrigation. Irrigation is also necessary

close to cities where good-quality pasture
land is needed if dairy cows are to be reared
for their milk, butter and cheese, as well as in
more remote areas where it helps produce
the silage for beef cattle (Figure 17.21).
There are also water disputes between
individual states.
Traditionally, several of the south-western
states were important mineral producers,
especially of copper, silver and gold. Much of
the easily obtained and higher-quality ores
have already been used, while falling world
prices and rising extraction costs have forced
the closure of all but the most profitable of
mines, leaving scars on the landscape.

Glen Canyon National

Recreation Area
This Recreation Area is based on Lake
Powell (named after Major Powell who
led the first expedition down 1600 km of
rapids in the Colorado River), which is the
country's second largest artificial reservoir.
Despite a hard fight by conservationists,
the Glen Canyon Darn was begun in 1956,
completed in 1963 and the reservoir had
filled by 1972. When full the lake - which
accounts for only 13 per cent of the total
Recreation Area - is 300 krn long and has
a shoreline of 3000 km due to its zigzag-
ging through 96 major canyons. High
water, reached in the mid-1980s when the
lake was over 125 m deep, is marked by
a white ring etched into the red canyon
walls. Since then the onset of numerous
drought years has resulted in a drop in the
lake level, by 2005 of over 30 m, and its
volume has decreased by one-third. The
fall in level revealed petroglyphs (indian
carvings, compare Figure 7.7) and enabled
visitors to walk (rather than visiting by boat)
into some of the tributary canyons. It also
meant the exposure of huge areas of mud
at the head of the drawn-down reservoir
and the closure of marinas, as at Hite. Since
that ti me the wet wi nter of 2005 and record
snowfalls in 2008 have seen the levels of
Lake Powell rise by 15 m- equal to half its
previous fall.
The lake is ideal for water sports such as
canoeing, water boarding, water-skiing,
wind-surfing, scuba diving and fishing.
Most tourists hire houseboats whose

Rural land use 529

 Rural conflicts in south-western USA

lengths range from 15 to 25 m and which

can cost up to $14000 a week to hire. The
latest houseboats, which can sleep 8 to Glen Canyon National
Recreation Area: Bullfrog
12, come with a hot tub, a wet bar and a
Ferry, Lake Powell
120cm flat-screen TV. Around the shores of
Lake Powell are six marinas (Figures 17.22
and 17.23) with the names of Bullfrog,
Hite, Wahweap, Hall's Crossing, Dangling
Rope and (the latest) Antelope Point. On
land there are wilderness trails and back-
country roads which can only be used by
four-wheel-drive vehicles, but which give
access to isolated geological, historical and
archaeological sites, such as the Rainbow
Arch Monument Park. figure 17.23
Environmental damage is evident along
Glen Canyon National
the busiest stretches of shoreline. 'Adopt-a-
Recreation Area
Canyon'has become a slogan, encouraging
visitors to take out everything they take Salt Lake Ot'"
in. Water quality is constantly tested and
473 km ty \
water-skiiers are designated to specific areas.
Summers can be extremely hot - up to 43°C
- while winters, when fishing is almostthe
sole recreational activity, are very cold. Ranger station,
Marina,
A survey of visitors in 2007 showed that marina, stores,
hotel
48 per cent were aged in the 41-65 age
group; 78 per cent had
visited before; people
Back cou ntry Marina, campsites,
came from 48 states
and 21 countries; and
most came for either
o honeypot areas
camping and
hiking
trailer village
(camper and
ca ravan site)
the scenery or for
motorised boating.
Over 85 per cent found
-

-
state boundary

Main visitor centre,

the quality of services, marina,
lodge, shops,
facilities and recrea-
trailer vil~ge
tional opportunities as
'very good' or'qocd; Las Vegas '\.

~------~+ UTAH
ARIZONA
o 40 km

Pickering, K.T.and Owen, L.A. (1997) JEJ Council for the Protection of Rural ForestWorld:
An Introduction to Global Environmental England: http://forestworld.com/
Issues, Routledge. wv,w.cpre.org. uk Natural England:
Wilson,]. (1984) Statistics in Geography far Finnish Forest Association: www.naturalengland.org.uk
A Level Students, Schofield & Sims. www.metla.fi/forestfin/intro/eng.index. UN Food and Agriculture Organisation
htm Forestry:
Forestry Commission of Great Britain: www.fao.org/forestry/home/en/
www.forestry.gov.uk/

530 Rural land use

 Questions & Activities

Activity
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a 'Forestry is not usually economically viable in developed ii 'In the last decade ... forest operations have been
countries unless supported by the state with subsidies: transformed, with a shift towards smaller-scale
Explain the advantages of forestry in rural areas of the practices which are more environmentally and
United Kingdom, giving: aesthetically sensitive: Explain how the changes
in forest management referred to above have
two socio-economic advantages (4 marks)
improved the rural environment in parts of the
ii two environmental advantages. (4 marks) United Kingdom. (5 marks)
b Explain why some people think that commercial c With reference to a named tropical country, explain how
forestry plantations have caused environmental commercial forestry in the rainforest can be a form of
damage in some parts ofthe United Kingdom. (4 marks) sustainable development. (8 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured question

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Figure 17.24 2 Study Figure 17.24. It shows how conflicts may arise in a
rural area where recreation and tourism are important.
a Name a rural area in a more economically developed
country where recreation and tourism are important, and
where their development has caused conflicts with local
people and conservationists. Describe conflicts in that
area between:
tourists and the local community
ii tourists and conservation
iii the local community and conservation. (8 marks)
b Explain how management of the area is attempting
to reduce the conflicts described in a above. (7 marks)
c Can tourism ever lead to sustainable development
in rural areas in less economically developed
countries? Illustrate your answer with reference to
one or more case studies. (10 marks)

.....................................................................................
Exam practice: structured question
3 a 'In the last decade ...forest operations have been b How has commercial forestry caused environ-
transformed, with a shift towards smaller-scale practices mental damage in tropical regions? (7 marks)
which are more environmentally and aesthetically ii Suggest how commercial forestry in tropical
sensitive: regions can be managed so that it is a
With reference to a named area of forestry in the United sustainable form of development. (8 marks)
Kingdom, explain how the changes referred to above
have altered forest management practices. Explain how
this has benefited the environment. (7 a marks)

Exam practice: essay

....................•....................•........................................•..
4 Study Figure 17.24. Discuss this statement with reference to examples from
'The development of the tourist industry can bring both more economically developed and less economically
benefits and problems for communities and the environment developed countries. (25 marks)
of rural areas:

Rural land use 531

 Energy resources
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'If cacti Indian were to start consuming the amount of commer-
cial energy a Briton does, thut would mean the world finding
tile equivalent Of an extra 3190 million tonnes ofotl each year.
Imagine what consuming that would do to tlte greenhouse
em'el, not to mention its ettect on oil and other reserves.
Mark Tully, No FutlStops inlndia, 1991
What are resources?
Resources have been defined as commodities that
are useful to people although the value and impor-
tance of individual resources may differ between
cultures. Although the term is often taken to be
synonymous with natural resources, geographers
and others often broaden this definition to include
human resources (Figure 18.1). Natural resources
can include raw materials, climate and soils.
Human resources may be subdivided into people
and capital. A further distinction can be made
between non-renewable resources, which are
finite as their exploitation can lead to the exhaus-
tion of supplies (oil), and renewable resources,
which, being a 'flow' of nature, can be used over
and over again (solar energy). As in any classifica-
tion, there are 'grey' areas. For example, forests and
Figure 18.1 oils are, if left to nature, renewable; but, if used
carelessly by people, they can be destroyed (defor-
A classification
of resources estation, soil erosion).
resources
natural (physical) resources
non-renewable (finite) renewable if
carefully managed
(e.g. forests, soils)
non-recyclable recyclable
(e.g.fossil fuels) (e.g. metallic ores) (e.g.crops, water)
532 Energy resources
Reserves are known resources which are
considered exploitable under current economic
and technological conditions. For example,
North Sea oil and gas needed a new technology
and high global prices before they could be
I
brought ashore; in contrast, tidal power still lacks
the technology, and often the accessibility to
markets, that are needed to allow it to be devel-
oped on a widespread, commercial scale.
Energy resources
The sun is the primary source of the Earth's
energy. Without energy, nothing can live and
no work can be done. Coal, oil and natural
gas, which account for an estimated 88 per
cent of the global energy consumed in 2007
(Figure 18.2) compared with 85.5 per cent in
1996, are forms of stored solar energy produced,
over thousands of years, by photosynthesis in
green plants. As these three types of energy,
which are referred to as fossil fuels, take long
periods of time to form and to be replenished,
they are classified as non-renewable. As will be
seen later, these fuels have been relatively easy to
develop and cheap to use, but they have become
major polluters of the environment. uclear
energy is a fourth non-renewable source but, as it
uses uranium, it is not a fossil fuel.
human resources
.L-, renewable population
(e.g. numbers,
technology, politics)
capital
(e.g. buildings,
transport)
flow continuous
(e.g.wind power,
tides, waves)
 Region
Total world Note: wind, solar and geothermal
oil
Australasia) consumption: energy met only 1.5 per cent of
Figure 18.2 11099 mtoe natural gas global demand in 2007.
Worldenergy Africa
Dcoal
consumption: 6.4%
by region, Latin America D nuclear energy 5.6%
2007
Middle East
D hydro-electricity
mtoe = million tonnes
Former USSR/
Eastern Europe
of oil equivalent I 28.6%

Western Europe

North America

o 30 60 90 120 150 180210 240270 300330360 390 420

mtoe

Renewable sources of energy are mainly forces of
nature which can be used continually, are sustain-
able and cause minimal environmental pollu-
tion. They include running water, waves, tides,
wind, the sun, geothermal, biogas and biofuels.
At present, with the exception of running water
(hydro-electricity), the wind and biomass, there are
economic and technical problems in converting
their potential into forms which can be used.
World energy producers and
consumers
It has been estimated that, annually, the world
consumes an amount of fossil fuel that took
nature about 1 million years to produce, and that
Figure 18.3
the rate of consumption is constantly increasing.
World energy This consumption of energy is not evenly distrib-
consumption: by
uted over the globe (Figure 18.2). At present, the
type, 1982-2007
11000
:-
83 per cent of people living in the 'developing'
countries consume only 47 per cent of the total
energy supply.
Although recently the consumption of
energy in 'developed' countries has begun to
slow down, due partly to industrial decline and
environmental concerns, it has been increasing
more rapidly in 'developing' countries with
their rapid population growth and aspirations
to raise their standard of Iivi ng (China's energy
consumption doubled between 1997 and 2007).
This led to a conflict of interest between groups
of countries at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit con-
ference. The 'industrialised' countries, with only
17 per cent of the world's population yet con-
suming 53 per cent of the total energy, wished to
see resources conserved and, belatedly, the envi-
ronment protected. The 'developing' countries,
which blame the industria lised countries for
most of the world's pollution and depletion of
resources, considered that it was now their turn
to use energy resources, often regardless of the

10000
:-' environment, in order to develop economically
=r--' F and to improve their way of life.
9000 The world's reliance upon fossil fuels
8000
=cP4 (Figures 18.2 and 18.3) is likely to continue well
""'lr"""""''''''
into this century. However, while the economi-
r
7000 cally recoverable reserves of coal remain high
-
1:' -T'"
(Figure 18.4), the similar life expectancies of oil
~ 6000
':; and natural gas are much shorter (coal: about
g 5000
200-400 years; oil: about 50 years; natural gas:
'0
- 1-
~
<11
C
4000 ._ - •.. 1-'
1-- about 120 years). The distribution of recoverable
fossil fuels is spread very unevenly across the
B .... '- I•••••

•... •.... ....• .... '-

3000 globe, with the former USSR being well endowed
c
a
~ 2000 with coal and natural gas; North America and
E
parts of Asia with coal; and the Middle East with
1000 - oil and natural gas (Figure 18.5). As these pro-
a ducers are not always major consumers, there is
a considerable world movement of, and trade in,
fossil fuels (Figure 18.6).
D oil D nuc!earenergy D coal
D natural gas D hydro-electricity
---_-'
Energy resources 533
 World regions Countries

1 Africa 9 Abu Dhabi 17 Kuwait 25 Saudi Arabia

2Asia 10 Algeria 18 Malaysia 26 S.Africa
3 Australasia 11 Canada 19 Mexico 27 USA
4 Latin America 12 China 20 Netherlands 28 USSR
5 Middle East 13 Germany 21 Norway 29 former USSR
6N.America 141ndia 22 Nigeria 30 Venezuela
7former USSRand E.Europe 15 Iran 23 Poland
SW.Europe 16 Iraq 24 Qatar

a coal reserves b ga s reserves C 0 iI reserves

5
300 70

7 60
6
~ 250 '"<lJ
B
c

c
B C

50
c
.2 200
~ 40
E E
'"0
c
150
-g 30
<tJ
:;
0
'" 29
-5 ~ 20
-5
100 15
10

5
o 0

Figure18.4 Figure18.5
Coal % Natural gas % Oil %
World reserves of World prod ucers 41.1 Russian Fedn 20.6 Saudi Arabia 12.7
China
eoaI, natu ral gas of coal, natural gas
and oil. 2007 and oil, 2007 2 USA 18.7 USA 18.8 Russian Fedn 12.6
3 Australia 6.9 Canada 6.2 USA 8.0
4 India 5.8 Iran 3.8 Iran 5.4

5 South Africa 4.8 Norway 3.0 China 4.8

D oilfields 6 Russian Fedn 4.7 Algeria 2.8 Mexico 4.4

7 Indonesia 3.4 Saudi Arabia 2.6 Canada 4.1
oil movements
8 Poland 2.0 UK 2.5 UAE 3.5
D natural gas fields Figure 18.6 9 Germany 1.6 China 2.4 Venezuela 3.4

10 Kazakhstan 1.4 Indonesia 2.3 Kuwait 3.3

gas movements Location and
Others 9.6 Others 35.0 Others 37.8

-Vl;) V"

=
o 5000 km

more developed'
D countries
"
D less developed
countries
 Figure 18.7

:;jL~~J~~;_]~~;-t==---=~~
~.
J L $147/barrelJuly 2008 Crude oil prices,
1970-2008

UK energy consumption
The UK has always been fortunate in having
! • ! abundant energy sources. In the Middle Ages,
1~~_ ~=:-:--~_T---------r------_--_j_-_---- '._---- $100/barrel
January 2008 fast-flowing rivers were used to turn water-wheels
while, in the early 19th century, the use of steam,
from coal, enabled Britain to become the world's
first industrialised country. Just when the acces-
sible and cheapest supplies of coal began to run
short, natural gas (1965) and oil (1970) were dis-
covered in the North Sea, and improvements in
technology enabled the controversial production
of nuclear power. Looking ahead to a time when
O~~~~~==~---T--~--~~~T=~~ the UK's reserves of fossil fuels become less avail-
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 able and their use environmentally unacceptable,
year Britain's seas and weather have the potential to
provide renewable sources of energy using the
wind, waves and tides. Even so Britain is, for the
first time, having to rely on energy imports.
Recent global trends
The total energy consumption in the UK rose
Energy consumption rose by an average of nearly from 152.3 mtoe (million tonnes of oil equiva-
3 per cent per annum for the decade up to 2008 lent, a standard measure for comparing energy
(Figure 18.3). The Asia-Pacific region accounted consumption) in 1960 to 233.5 mtoe in 2004,
for two-thirds of this total growth, with China since when it has fallen back a little, to 226
averaging over 8 per cent (Places 82, page 544) mtoe in 2007. Ofthat, 97.5 per cent still came
and India recently exceeding 6 per cent. In from fossil fuels and nuclear energy and only
comparison, North America had only a slight 2_5per cent from renewables, including hydro-
rise, while Japan and the EU saw a decrease. Of electricity and waste, despite pledges to increase
the five main sources of primary energy, coal renew abies to 20 per cent by 2020 (Figure 18.8).
again, despite its contribution to climate change, Energy consumption by final user continues
saw the biggest growth. The year 2008 may be to see a decline by industry (34 per cent in 1980
Figure 18.8 remembered as the year when the price of oil to 21 per cent in 2007), with domestic (28 per
The UK's changing
doubled that of its previous peak (Figure 18.7) cent) and services (12 per cent) remaining fairly
sources of energy, before falling almost as rapidly with the onset of steady, and a rise by transport (25 per cent in
1950-2007 a global recession. 1980 to 39 per cent in 2007).
a 1950-2000

1950
D nuclear energy
D hydro-electricity
1960 D renewables
and waste

1970 b 2007 hydro-electricity 0.4%

nuclear energy 6.4% I I c renewables and waste 1.9%

1980

1990

2000

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
energy type used (%)

Energy resources 535

 Sources of energy
Decisions by countries as to which source, or
sources, of energy to use may depend upon
several factors. These include:
• Availability, quality, lifetime and sustainability
of the resource.
• Cost of harnessi ng, as well as transporting
(importing or within the country), the source
of energy: some types of energy, such as oil,
may be too expensive for less wealthy coun-
tries; while others, such as tides, may as yet
be uneconomical to use.
• Technology needed to harness a source of
energy: like costs, this may be beyond some
of the less developed countries (nuclear
energy), or may yet have to be developed
(wave energy).
• Demands of the final user: in less developed
countries, energy may be needed mainly for
domestic purpo .es: in more developed coun-
tries, it is needed for transport, agriculture
and industry.
• Size, as well as the affluence, of the local market.
• Accessibility of the local market to the source.
• Political decisions: for example, which type
of energy to utilise or to develop (nuclear),
or whether to deny its sale to rival countries
(embargoes).
• Competition from other forms of available
energy.
• Environment: this may be adversely affected
by the use of specific types of energy, such as
coal and nuclear; it may only be protected if
there are strongly organised local or interna-
tional conservation pressure groups such as
Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace. More
recently there has been growth in carbon
trading (page 639) and the concept of our
ecological footprint (page 379).
These factors will be considered in the next
section, which discusses the relative advantages
and disadvantages of each available or potential
source of energy.
Non-renewable energy
Coal
Coal provided the basis for the Industria I Revolu-
tion in Britain, Western Europe and the USA.
Despite its exploitation for almost two centu-
ries, it still has far more economically recover-
able reserves than any of the other fossil fuels
(Figure 18.4). Improved technology has increased
the output per worker (Figure 17.10), has allowed
536 Energy resources
deeper mining with fewer workers, and has made
conversion for use as electricity more efficient.
In Britain, both production and employment
reached a peak in the early 19505. Between then
and 2007, the number of deep mines decreased
from 901 to 6 (plus 25 opencast), the number
employed from 691 000 to 6000 (4000 in deep
mines) and production from 206 million tonnes
to 20 million tonnes (9.6 million from deep
mines). The social and economic consequences,
especially in former Single-industry coal-mining
villages, were devastating, although people
in these areas a generation or two later seem
to have little desire to return to those earlier
times (Figure 18.9a). Similar problems were
created in other old mining communities such
as in Belgium, the Ruhr (Germany) and the
Appalachians (USA).
There are many reasons for this decline. The
most easily accessible deposits have been used
up, and many of the remaining seams are dan-
gerous, due to faulting, and uneconomic to work.
Costs have risen due to expensive machinery
and increased wages. The demand for coal has
fallen for industrial use (the decline of such heavy
industries as steel), domestic use (oil- and gas-fired
central heating) and power stations (now prefer-
ring gas). British coal has had to face increased
competition from cheaper imports (USA and
Australia), alternative methods of generating
electricity (gas-fired) and cleaner forms of energy.
Political decisions have seen subsidies paid to the
nuclear power industry and a greater investment
in gas rather than coal-fired power stations (the
'dash for gas' policy - page 538). Green pressures
have also led to a decline in coal mining, which
creates dust and leaves spoil tips; and in the use
of coal to produce electricity, as this releases
sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide which are
blamed for acid rain and for global warming
(Case Study 9B). However, coal may still have an
important future (Figure 18.9b) as alternative
sources of energy run out - globally there are
an estimated 155 years of high-quality coal left
whereas oil and natural gas only have 45 and 65
years respectively. In the short term, coal is seen
by emerging countries, such as China and India
with their large reserves (Figure 18.5), as the
main source for their increased energy consump-
tion (Places 82, page 544); in the long term some
countries will be dependent on the development
of 'clean coal technologies' (as in Germany) and
coal will be in competition with renewables.
r=----~::~~:~t~~-~-l l~~~~~~--~~
\ Kingsnorth Coal-fired Power Station
t
~I,
t
(,
~
l Anger erupted after planners backed a new opencast pit in Northumber- ~ The Cabinet is split over whether or not to approve a controversial plan I.
\ land - 12 months after saying it should be rejected. Hundreds of people \ ( for a £1 bn coal-fired power station at Kingsnorth on the Thames estuary \
< have opposed UK Coal's bid to dig up 250 hectares of countryside on the t $
t
I,
edge of Ashington, in a six-year operation, only a year after the county
council recommended the scheme be thrown outas opencasting would
;;
,(
i ,!
in Kent. If the scheme went ahead it would be the first coal-fired station
to be built in Britain for many years. The issue is, on one hand, the need
to safeguard Britain's electricity supplies in the near future and, on the
1
$
r harm vital regeneration efforts' Ashington, once one of the largest t ~. other, a test of the government's green credentials and assurances to \
~ colliery towns in Britain, lies in an official 'constraint area'where county ~ \ reduce emissions.
~ council policy says 'there is a strong presumption against opencast I, E.ON UK, which has made the application, is hoping that the EU will
i mining close to towns: The planners appear to have changed their minds \ choose this power station as part of their carbon capture experiment
after the government gave permission for an opencast mine to be i \ under which carbon emissions would be'captured' and stored under the
)
{ developed a few kilometres away at Cramlington, which is also in a
'constraint area; and since fears were raised that Britain may not, in the ~ ~ ~~~~h~e~~~~r~~~:~~:lu~:t~:~~~~~~~:~~s~~tn~~::i~~~~e~r~~ ;~:e ~
1
">

r
~

t
near future, have sufficient energy to 'keep its lights on:

Abridged from the Ashington Journal, October 2008 f l 7

assurance that, even if not selected, emissions from the power station
would be lowerthan existing coal-fired stations. l' }

Abridged from the The ludependent, September 2008

v-, ...;./'-~~ :.r
"),,'\.. ,....•.
t -c,.,./',..... ••.•.•-~ .••- ~ ~~"'-. ~~ ~ ~~--r"r:J'->~.1.-."""~r.r-~'~\'" V"-"...-"!k.
.,.•.
~,# .•...••••
!"o-,o.._~•.,.;" ~.rV'-IY~~-.._~f;.I.r<.,.~.~'=
~."'''''''''''~''~ ~~~~
Figure 18,9
Oil New technology has had to be developed to
What is the future all is the world's largest business, with commer- tap less accessible reserves. Before oil could be
for coal) recovered from under the orth Sea, large con-
cial and political influence transcending national
boundaries. Indeed, several of the largest trans- crete platforms, capable of withstanding severe
national enterprises are oil companies, Oil, like winter storms, had to be designed and con-
other fossil fuels, is not even in its distribution structed. Each platform, supported by four towers,
(Figure 18.6), and is often found in areas that had to be large enough to accommodate a drilling
are either distant from world markets or have rig, process plant, power plant, helicopter landing-
a hostile environment, e.g. the Arctic (Alaska), pad and living and sleeping quarters for its crew.
tropical rainforests (Nigeria and Indonesia), The towers ITIayeither be used to store oil or may
deserts (Algeria and the Middle East) or under be filled with ballast to provide extra anchorage
stormy seas (North Sea), This means that oil and stability. Two 90 cm trunk pipelines were laid,
exploration and exploitation is expensive, as is by a specially designed pipe-laying barge, over an
the cost of its transport by pipeline or tanker to uneven sea-bed to Sullom Voe on Shetland. Since
world markets, Oil, with its fluctuating prices, then, production has spread northwards to even
has been a major drain on the financial reserves deeper and stormier waters west of Shetland. In
of many developed countries and has been 2007 the UK had 211 offshore oilfields although
beyond the reach of most developing countries. production from these had decreased by over 40
Countries where oil is at present exploited can per cent since 1997.
only expect a short 'economic boom' as, apart On a global scale, oil production and distribu-
from several states in the Middle East where pro- tion are affected by political and military deci-
Figure 18.10 duction may continue for a little longer, most sions. OPEC (Figure 21.34) is a major influence
Milford
Haven world reserves are predicted to become exhausted in fixing oil prices and determining production -
oi I refinery within 45 years. although even it is helpless in the face of interna-
tional conflicts such as Suez (1956), the Iran-Iraq
War (early 1980s) and the Gulf War (1991). Closer
to home, recent British and EU fuel policies have
favoured the gas and nuclear industries at the
expense of oil. Oil is used in power stations, by
industry, for central heating and by transport.
Although it is considered less harmful to the envi-
ronment than coal, it still poses many threats.
Oil tankers can run aground during bad weather
(Broer, 1993) releasing their contents which
pollute beaches and kill wildlife (Exxon Valdez,
1989) or be hijacked by pirates (Somalia, 2008),
while explosions can cause the loss of human
life (Alpha Piper rig, 1988). To try to reduce the
dangers of possible spillages and explosions, oil
refineries have often been built on low-value land
adjacent to deep, sheltered tidal estuaries, well

Energy resources 537

 away from large centres of population (Figures Nuclear energy uses uranium as its raw
lS.lO and lS.12). Oil production is becoming material. Compared with fossil fuels, uranium
increasingly concentrated in a few countries, all is only needed in relatively small amounts
of whose current levels of production have been (50 tonnes of uranium a year, compared with
affected by geopolitics, both internal and external 500 tonnes of coat per hour for coal-fired power
(Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Mexico, Nigeria, stations). Uranium has a much longer lifetime
Russia and Venezuela). than coal, oil or gas and can be moved more
easily and cheaply. However, the development
Natura/gas
of nuclear energy, with its new technology, spe-
atural gas has become the fastest-growing
cially designed power stations and essential safety
energy resource. It provides an alternative to
measures, has been very expensive. As a result, it
coal and oil and, in 2007, it comprised almost
has generally been adopted by the more wealthy
a quarter of the world's primary energy con-
countries, and even then only by those (Figure
sumption. Latest estimates suggest that global
18.11) lacking fossil fuels (Iapan) or with signifi-
reserves will last another 65 years. Gas is often
cant energy deficits (UK, USA and France). As a
found in close proximity to oilfields (Figure
source of electricity, it is fed into the National
lS.6) and therefore experiences similar prob-
Grid; but, as a source of energy, it cannot be
lems in terms of production and transport costs
used by transport or for heating. The decision to
and requirements for new technology. In 200S,
develop nuclear power has been, universally, a
Russia, fran and Qatar announced an OPEC-type
political decision.
cartel that will control 60 per cent of the world's
At its peak in the early 19905, nuclear energy
gas, a decision not welcomed by the EU which
provided the UK with 30 per cent of its energy
feared it could lead to a price rise and a means
needs from 22 power stations. Since then plans
of achieving political goals. The UK had, in the
for new stations have been dropped, and the plan
latter part of the last century, a surplus of gas
for a fast-breeder reactor has been abandoned. By
from its North Sea fields which resulted in the 50-
200S, only ten stations remained open (Figure
called 'dash for gas' by the electricity companies.
lS.12) and, by 2015, these will be reduced to four.
By 2007, North Sea gas production had halved
While their closure will please the anti-nuclear
in ten years and the UK is now a net importer,
lobby, it does not explain from where Britain is to
some via a pipeline from Norway (2006) and
get the replacement energy. This question has led
an increasing amount from Russia. At present
to the government having to review its nuclear
natural gas is considered to be the cheapest and
policy, especially when, with global warming and
cleanest of the fossil fuels.
climate change so high on the environmental
Nuclear energy agenda, the nuclear industry can claim that the
During the 1950s, nuclear energy, with its slogan energy it produces is 'clean' and that improve-
'atoms for peace', was seen by many to be a sus- ments in technology have made it 'safer and more
tainable, inexpensive and clean energy resource affordable' than in the past. In 2008, the govern-
and by others as a potentially dangerous military ment, partly also in an attempt to reduce Britain's
weapon and a threat to the environment. increasing reliance on imported energy, opened
the way for up to ten new stations to be built by
Figure 18.11
Amountused (mtoe) Proportionoftotal energy 2020, the first by 2017.
Major users of nuclear use(%) Although nuclear power stations produce
energy, 2007 fewer greenhouse gases than thermal (coal-, oil-
USA 192 France 76.8
France 100 lithuania 64.4 and gas-fired) power stations, they do present
potential risks in three main areas: routine
Japan 63 Slovakia 54.3
emissions of radioactivity, waste disposal, and
Russia 36 Belgium 54.0 radioactive contamination accidents. Routine
Germany 32 Ukraine 48.1 emissions have been linked - without proven
South Korea 32 Sweden 46.1 evidence - with clusters of increased leukaemia,
especially in children, around several power
Canada 22 Armenia 43.5
stations (notably Sellafield and Dounreay).
Ukraine 21 Slovenia 41.6
Radioactive waste has to be stored safely, either
Sweden 15 Switzerland 40.0 deep underground or at Sellafield. Every radio-
China 14 Hungary 36.8 active substance has a 'half-life', i.e. the time
UK 14 South Korea 35.3 it takes fOT half of its radioactivity to die away.

Spain 13 Bulgaria 32.1

538 Energy resources

 N • nuclear

+
• oil
• coal
~ dual Renewable energy
• combined With the depletion of oil and gas reserves during
cycle gas
the early years of the 21st century and the unfa-
turbine
vourable publicity given to all types of fossil fuels,
(CCGT)
especially regarding their contribution towards
(2014) closing
date
global warming, renewable energy resources are
likely to become increasingly more attractive.
They are likely to become more cost-competitive,
offer greater energy diversity, and allow for a
Hunterston B (2011)
cleaner environment. As shown in Figure 18.1,
there are two types of renewable energy:
• Continuous sources are recurrent and will
never run out. They include running water
Hartlepool (2014) (for hydro-electricity), wind, the sun (solar),
tides, waves and geothermal.
• Flow sources are sustainable providing that
() Heysham
•
1 (2014)

.:
they are carefully managed and maintained
3) (Framework 16, page 499). Biomass, including
the use of fuelwood, is sustainable in that it has
a maximum yield beyond which it will begin

• •
. .,,~
• •
••

•
:
t
• mercially produced renewable source of energy
• countries). Its availability depends on an assured
o and to erect pylons and cables for the transport
200 km
figure 18.12 Iodine, with a half-life of 8 days, becomes 'safe'
Powerstations in the relatively quickly. In contrast, plutonium 239,
UK with 50 MW or produced by nuclear reactors, has a half-life of
more capacity,2008
250 000 years and may still be dangerous after
500000 years. The two worst radioactive acci-
dents resulted from the melt-down of reactor
cores at Three Mile Island in the USA (1979) and
at Chernobyl in Ukraine (1986). Fortunately
there was no such leak when the world's largest
nuclear power plant was forced to close following
an earthquake in Japan in 2007. It was mainly for
economic and safety reasons that British nuclear
power stations (Figure 18.12) were built on coasts
and estuaries where there is water for cooling
and cheap, easily reclaimable land well away
from major centres of population. However, the
British government had to agree in 1998, fol-
lowing renewed calls from several ED countries,
to make a large reduction in discharges into the
Irish Sea from Sellafield.
to become depleted.
Hydro-electricity
Hydro-electricity is the most widely used com-
(fuelwood is used by more people and in more
supply of fast-flowing water which may be
obtained from rainfall spread evenly through-
out the year, or by building dams and storing
water in large reservoirs. The initial investment
costs and levels of technology needed to build
new dams and power stations, to install turbines
of the electricity to often-distant markets, are
high. However, once a scheme is operative, the
'natural, continual, renewable' flow of water
makes its electricity cheaper than that produced
by fossil fuels.
Although the production of hydro-electricity is
perceived as 'clean', it can still have very damaging
effects upon the environment. The creation of
reservoirs can mean large areas of vegetation being
cleared (Tucurui in Amazonia), wildlife habitats
(Kariba in Zimbabwe) and agricultural land (Volta
in Ghana) being lost, and people being forced to
move home (Aswan in Egypt and the Three Gorges
Dam in China - Places 82, page 544). Where new
reservoirs drown vegetation, the resultant lake is
likely to become acidic and anaerobic. Dams can
be a flood risk if they collapse or overflow (Case
Study 2B), have been linked to increasing the risk
of earthquake activity (Nurek Dam in Tajikistan)
and can trap silt previously spread over farmland
(Nile valley, Places 73, page 490). Despite these
negative aspects, many countries rely on large,
sometimes prestigious, schemes or, increasingly in

Energy resources 539

 less developed countries, on smaller projects using However, British environmentalists are now
more appropriate levels of technology less supportive of wind power than they originally
(Case Study 18). were. This is partly because many of the actual
and proposed wind farms are in areas of scenic
Wind
attraction, where they are visually intrusive, or
Wind is the most successful of the new renew-
too close to important wildlife habitats. In an
able technologies. Wind farms are best suited to
attempt to make them more efficient, turbines
places where winds are strong, steady and reli-
are becoming increasingly tall- over 50 m on
able and where the landscape is either high or,
onshore wind farms and even higher on those
as on coasts, exposed. Although expensive to
located offshore, where some could be taller than
build - wind farms cost more than gas or coal-
the Canary Wharf tower. Elsewhere, local resi-
fired power stations - they are cheap and safe to
dents complain of noise and impaired radio and
operate. Most of Britain's new wind farms are to
TV reception, while others claim that the rotating
be located offshore where, although more costly
blades are a danger to birds, the turbines can
to construct, winds are more reliable than on
affect airport radar systems, and that electricity
land. As wind farms are mainly pollution free,
costs are higher than for power from fossil fuels
they do not contribute to global warming or acid
and nuclear energy. As yet, electricity companies
rain and they should significantly contribute to
cannot store surplus power for times when wind
world commitments to reduce carbon dioxide
power cannot be produced, i.e. during calms or
emissions by 60 per cent by 2050. Winds, espe-
when the wind is less than about 15 km/hr which
cially in Western Europe and California, are
could be during very cold winter anticyclonic
strongest in winter when demand for electricity
conditions (page 234); or during gales when
is highest. Wind farms can provide extra income
winds are over 55 km/hr and wind farms must
for farmers who could earn more from them
shut down for safety reasons. Both eventualities
than they could from growing a crop on the
are times when demand is likely to be greatest.
same-sized plot. Wind farms also create extra
Although the first large-scale wind farms were
jobs for people living in rural areas and in the
located in California (Figure 18.13) and the USA
electricity generation supply chain. As fossil fuels
still has over one-quarter of the world's capacity,
become less available, countries will have to
the fastest growth is in the EU, notably in Spain
become increasingly dependent on renewables
and Germany, and the emerging countries of
such as wind.
China and India.

California and the UK: wind farms

California
Most wind farms in the USAhave been developed
by private companies. The developers, who use
either their own or leased land, sell electricity to
electric utilities.At present, 90 per cent ofthe USA's
capacity comes from California.California'swind
farms are in an ideal location mainly because peak
winds occur about the same time of year as does
peak demand for electricity in the large cities nearby.
Approximately 16000 turbines within the state
produce enough electricity to supply a citythe size
of San Francisco.The three largest wind farms are
at Altamont Pass (east of San Francisco),Tehachapi
(between the San Joaquin Valleyand the Mojave
Desert) and San Gorgonio (north of Palm Springs).
The Altamont Pass, with 7000 turbines, is one of
the largest wind farms in the world (Figure 18.13).
The average wind speed averages between 20 and
37 km/hr. The land is still used for cattle grazing as
there is only one turbine for every 1.5-2 ha.

Figure 18.13

Wind farm at Altamont Pass,

California

540 Energy resources

 TheUK
N Britain's first wind farm was opened

+
in 1991 near Camelford in Cornwall.
The farm, on moorland 250 m above
sea-level and where average wind
speeds are 27 krn/hr, generates
enough electricity for 3000 homes.
In 2008, Britain had 188 operational
wind farms, 7 of which were offshore,
but these in total provided less than
1 per cent ofthe country's energy
needs (Figure 18.14). With another
43 under construction (8 offshore)
and 130 projected (8 offshore), the
government hopes that, by 201 0,
10 per cent of Britain's energy will
come from renewables (60 per cent
from the wind); and, by 2020, 20 per
cent. To achieve this, another 4000
onshore turbines and 3000 offshore
wind farms (with 11 000 turbines)
will be required .

• terrestrial wind farm

• offshore wind farm Figure 18.14

a 200 km Wind farms in the

UK,200?

Solar energy In 2008, South Korea opened the world's

The sun, as stated earlier, is the primary source largest solar power plant. It covers the equivalent
of the Earth's energy. Estimates suggest that the of 93 football stadiums and provides electricity
annual energy received from the sun (insolation) for 100000 homes.
is IS 000 times greater than the current global
Wave power
energy supply. Solar energy is safe, pollution-free,
Waves are created by the transfer of energy from
efficient and of limitless supply. Unfortunately,
winds which blow over them (page 140). In
it is expensive to construct solar 'stations',
western Europe, winter storm waves from the
although many individual homes have had solar
Atlantic Ocean transfer large amounts of energy
panels added, especially in climates that are
towards the coast where it has the potential to
warmer and sunnier than in Britain. It is hoped,
generate the same amount of energy for the UK as
globally, that future improvements in tech-
wind does now. At present there are two experi-
nology will result in reduced production costs.
mental schemes off the Scottish coast, making it
This would enable many developing countries,
ten years behind wind power. The first, LIMPET,
especially those lying within the tropics, to rely
is a 500 kW shoreline oscillating water column
increasingly on this type of energy. Tn Britain,
in Islay; the second is the 750 kW Pelarnis sea
the solar energy option is less favourable partly
snake - a hinged contour device - in Orkney (the
due to the greater amount of cloud cover and
Portuguese are now using Pelamis commercially).
partly to the long hours of darkness in winter
when demand for energy is at its highest.

Energy resources 541

 across the Severn estuary, which has the world's
second highest tidal range, and other estuaries
such as the Mersey and Solway Firth. It took until
2008 for the first electricity from tides to be con-
/ Bridgend
nected to the National Grid (at Eday in Orkney
Swansea 8c1Y J
tidal energy
• and Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland).
lagoon 2 • Bristol
Two forms of technology, each of which
Russell tidal
Bristol Channel energy lagoon exploits the tidal range, are at present being
l.ynmoutf tidal
3
. A assessed for the Severn estuary (Figure 18.15):
tidal barrage and tidal lagoon. A tidal barrage is
when the incoming tide turns a turbine whose
focombe o~ 10km blades can be reversed to harness the outgoing
" tide. As it is in effect a dam across the estuary, it
FigurE!18.1 S Barrages lagoons restricts shipping access and inundates an exten-
A Severn barrage
sive area. A tidal lagoon involves a rock-walled
Cardiff-Weston Shoots Russell
or tidal lagoons ! impoundment, similar to a breakwater, enclosing
Cost £15 bn £ 1.5 bn est. £10 bn
an area of shallow water. Water is trapped at high
UK'senergy supply 5% 0.75% 7% tide in the lagoon and released as the tide recedes
Generation cost SpkW/hr 2-2.5p kW/hr through a bank of electricity-generating turbines
Impounded areas 480km2 very little 300 km2
within the impoundment walls. This method is
less extensive, less environmentally damaging,
Length of barragel 16km 4km 100km
does not obstruct shipping access and would
walls
provide both more and cheaper electricity. If
Environment low carbon; loss of low carbon; less loss low carbon; little
constructed/it would be the world's first such
feeding grounds for offeeding grounds loss offeeding
up to 50 000 birds grounds scheme (it is favoured by Friends of the Earth
Cymru (Walesr).

Tidal energy Geothermal energy

Of all the renewable resources, tidal energy is
the most reliable and predictable but to date
major schemes are limited to the Rance estuary
in north-west France (1960s), the Bay of Fundy
in eastern Canada, Kislaya in Russia and Iiangxia
in China. For over two decades Britain has talked
about (and is still debating) erecting a barrage
Figure 18.16
Wairakei geothermal power
station, New Zealand
Several countries, especially those located in
active volcanic areas, obtain energy from heated
rocks and molten magma at depth under the
Earth's surface, e.g. Iceland, New Zealand, Kenya,
and several countries in central America (Figure
18.16). It is also derived from hot springs and
by tapping aquifers which contain naturally
hot water. Cold water (Figure 18.17) is pumped
downwards, is heated naturally and is then
returned to the surface as steam which can gen-
erate electricity. Geothermal energy does pose

Figure 18.17
A geothermal electricity
generating station

cold hot water is

water is piped up

!
It takes 40 kg
pumped
ofwaterto
down
condense 1 kg
of steam
Circulating
water is heated
by contact
with hot rock hot mass 0
igneous rock

542 Energy resources

 environmental problems as carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide emissions may be high, the
water supply can become saline, and earth move-
ments can damage power stations.
Biomass
Biomass, also known as biofuels and bioenergy,
is the dominant form of energy for most of the
world's population who are living in extreme
poverty (page 609 and Figure 18_19) and who use
it for cooking and, when necessary and if suffi-
cient is available, for heating. It is obtained from
organic matter, i.e. crops, plants and animal waste,
of which the most important to those living in
the least developed countries, especially in Africa,
is fuel wood. Trees are a sustainable resource, pro-
viding that those cut down are replaced, which
costs money, or allowed to regenerate, which takes
time - but money and time are what these people
do not have. As nearby supplies are used up, col-
lecting fuelwood becomes an increasingly time-
consuming task; in extreme cases, it may take all
day (Figure 18.18 and Case Study 18). Many of
these countries have a rapid population growth,
which adds greater pressure to their often meagre
figure 18.18
resources, and lack the capital ane! technology
Collecting fuelwood,
to develop or buy alternative resources. In places
sub-Saharan Africa
population growth:
increased demand for
fuelwood
even small bushes and more trees cut
scrub used: no down:soil
vegetation left cycle of exposed
environmental
deprivation
people. have further fewer mature trees:soil
to walk for wood -eroslon increases;
possible desertification
figure 18.19
The cycleof environ-
mental deprivation
where the demand for fuelwood outstrips the
supply, and where there is neither the money to
replant nor the time for regeneration, the risk
of desertification and irreversible damage to the
environment increases - i.e. the cycle of environ-
mental deprivation (Figure 18.] 8).
The use of biomass is generally considered
to be a 'carbon neutral' process as the carbon
dioxide releasee! in the generation of energy
balances that absorbed by plants during their
growth. This is not, however, applicable to those
parts of Africa where animal dung is allowed
to ferment to produce methane gas. While the
methane, a greenhouse gas, provides a vital
domestic fuel, it means that the dung cannot be
spread as a fertiliser on the fields.
Biomass can also be used to produce biofuels
(bioenergy), the first being used in Brazil where
sugar cane was allowed to ferment to produce
bio-ethanol which was then usee! as a vehicle fuel
that was cheaper than petrol. More recently, and
more widely used, biodiesel comes from oil palm,
a use that has led to increased forest clearances
for that crop in Malaysia; in the EU oilseed rape,
and in the USA maize, are being grown for the
same purpose. Governments are viewing the use
of this renewable resource as a way of reducing
their carbon emissions without foreseeing that
their increased growth, at the expense of food
crops, will lead to food shortages and rising
global food prices.
It has become apparent that the sustainable
use of bioenergy requires a balancing of several
factors, including the competition between food
and energy security, the effects on rural devel-
opment and on agricultural markets and food
prices, as well as the effects on the environment.
In 2007, biomass accounted for 82 per cent of the
UK's renewable energy sources (wind 9 per cent,
and hydro-electricity 8 per cent), the majority of
which was derived from landfill gas and waste
combustion. It is also the fastest-growing renew-
able in the EU while its use in the USA is said to be
equal to the output of ten nuclear power stations.
Hydrogen
Hopes are high for the development of a fuel cell
in which a chemical reaction takes place that
generates electricity from hydrogen. The reaction
produces clean, efficient energy in a process that
releases nothing more damaging to the environ-
ment than water vapour. Although developed
countries see the petrol-free hydrogen car as a
major breakthrough in transport, fuel cells hold
potential for developing countries too as they are
equally economic on a small scale and require
little maintenance.
Energy resources 543
 Energy conservation through
greater efficiency
One of the UN's main objectives since the first
'Earth Summit' on the environment (Rio de Janeiro
1992) has been to try to get countries to agree to set
global limits and timescales in reducing harmful
emissions from vehicles, factories and power sta-
tions and to seek methods of greater energy effi-
ciency. Since then, progress has been limited partly
due to opposition from vested interests and, until
more recently, a lack of political will. However,
there have been some successes. Several indus-
tries, Including the steel industry, have improved
their techniques, reducing the amount of energy
needed; factories have made savings by reducing
to a single source of electricity needed for heating,
lighting and operating machinery; and the number
of coal- and oil-fired power stations has been
reduced in favour of gas (a cleaner greenhouse
gas). At home, heat loss has been reduced through
roof and wall insulation and double glazing, while
for lighting the EU is trying to enforce the use of
energy-saving bulbs.

China: changes in energy production and consumption

Figure 18.20 . In the early 19905,China's energy industry was
2000
Energy consumption dominated by coal (Figure 18.20), which was not
1800
in China, 1992-2007 surprising since the country was producing nearly
~ 1600
c
two-fifths ofthe world's total (Figure 18.5). Coal
Q)

g,; 1400 is mined in most parts ofthe country, although

·S production is lower to the south of the Yangtze
2"1200 .
River and least in the mountains to the west
~ 1000 (Figure 18.21).With industry, transport and homes
Q)
c
c all so reliant upon the burning of coal in one form
.9 800
c or another, many Chinese cities experienced severe
.2 600
atmospheric pollution (Figure 18.22), and China
·E 400
was blamed for releasing annually 10 per cent of
200 the world's greenhouse gases.The remainder of
China's energy budget was made up from oil, in
0
1992 1997 2002 2007 which it was self-sufficient, and hydro-electricity.
year
The fact that the country could provide sufficient
coal • natural gas hydro-electricity energy for its needs was because, despite having
.oil nuclear energy such a large population, the country's standard of
living and consumption of energy was low and it
had yet to embark on the rapid economic

~'''I coal D hydro-electricity

development seen in the late 1990s

o oil
1
2
Gezhouba
Three Gorges
and early 21st century. Even so, in 1995
China was ranked second in the world for
[~--·-Inatural gas D nuclear energy generated energy, mainly from its thermal
and hydro-electric power stations, and
generating capacity.

Since the turn of this century and as China

has become, economically, the world's
most rapidly emerging country, there has
been a huge increase in both its energy
production and consumption, especially
of coal, hydro-electricity and imported
oil (Figure 18.20).This emergence
(Chapter 21) has had a major effect on the
global economy.

Figure 18.21

o Energy resources
in China

544 Energy resources

 Coal still accounts for 70 per cent of China's energy
consumption (Figure 18.20), despite its known effect
on global warming and the pollution it causes in
Chinese cities. Production almost doubled between
2002 and 2007 to meet the growing demand, despite
a continually high rate of mining accidents and
resultant deaths (Figure 18.23a). As the country's
road and air transport systems develop, an increasing
amount of oil has to be imported, mainly from the
Middle East. This increase was partly to blame for
a world shortage of oil in 2008 that led to the
record high global price per barrel (Figure 18.7).

a b c d

China's dependence Oil coal
continues amid the incidence of
accidents ~ 16 miners were
killed and 46 injured in a mine
blast last week ~ and claims of
inefficient mining methods and
high levels of pollution. In the
last few years more than 18 000
small mines have either been
dosed, or merged with larger
ones, but 14 000 are still
operating. This number will be
reduced further to 10 000 by
2010. Two effects of the merging
of small mines have been a
doubling in coal production and
a drop j n fatalities. In 2007,
when 2900 died ~ 450 fewer
than in the previous year ~ for
every million tonnes of coal
produced, the death toll at small
mines was eight times that of the
larger slate-owned ones as the
latter are believed to pay more
attention to safety.
October 2008
China, now the world's second
biggest gas consumer, plans to
boost its own production by 50
per cent by 2010 by which time
gas will have increased its share
of the nation's total energy
consumption from 3.5 per cent
to 5.3 per cent. However, China
will still have to import a
significant amount which it will
do through a second west-east
pipeline at present being built to
connect the Central A ian
countries, notably Turkmeni-
stan, with the energy-thirsty
eastern and southern regions
that include Shanghai and
Guangdong.
November 2007
The fi rst nuclear power reactor
to be built in China (early
19905) was at Qinshan in
Zhejiang Province to the south
of Shanghai. Since then six
more reactors have been added
to the complex. A econd site is
at Daya Bay (2002) in
Guangdong Province where
two reactors now provide
energy for Shenzhen and
Guangzhou, while a third at
Lianyungang (2007) in Jiangsu
Province, equidistant between
Shanghai and Beijing, also has
two reactors. All these reactors
are second-generation, but
work has just begun near
Qinshan on a new third-
generation type reactor.
June 2008
The last generator of
China's Three Gorges
Dam went online
yesterday, meaning that
the world's largest
hydropower plant has
become fully operational
~ five years after the first
of the 26 turbines in the
project's original plan
began producing energy.
The Three Gorges is now,
in 2008, producing 58 per
cent of the country's total
hydro-electricity. The
original plan has since
been expanded to include
six more generators
which will be completed
by 2012.
October 2008
Figure 18.23
Changes in coal, natural
gas, nuclear power and
hydro-electric power,
ada pted from China Daily

In comparison, consumption of natural gas and

nuclear power is small but both show an increase
(Figure 18.23b and c). Ofthe renewable sources of
energy, hydro-electricity is by far the most important
and is expected to become even more so as fossil
fuels, as they run out, cannot go on satisfying China's
rising needs for energy and as the country looks for
cleaner options. Schemes such as the Three Gorges
(Figures 18.23d and 18.24) are predicted to account for
28 per cent of China's total power generation by 201 S.

Figure 18.24

The Three Gorges Dam on

the Yangtze River

Energy resources 545

 Development and energy Energy is the driving force behind most human
activities, so it is fundamental to development.
consumption
Energy allows people to make greater use of the
To many people, especially in developed coun- resources that they have. According to Practical
tries, economic development is linked to the Action (Case Study 18 and Places 90, page 577):
wealth of a country, with wealth being meas- 'reliable, accessible and affordable energy sup-
ured by GDP per capita (page 606). Of several plies can play an important role in improving
other variables that can be used to measure living conditions in the developing world.
development, one is energy consumption per They provide light and heat for homes, and
capita - i.e. how much energy, often given power workshops that create jobs and generate
in tonnes of coal or oil equivalent, that each wealth. Poor people in developing countries
person in a country uses per year. Consequently face particular problems in securing energy
a correlation between the wealth of a country for their daily needs. This is a pressing issue
and energy consumption might be expected in rural areas where most people live. More
(Framework 19, page 612). than half the world's population relies upon
The log-log graph in Figure 18.25 seems to biomass fuel (usually wood but also charcoal,
show that there is a good, positive correlation crop residues or animal dung). Poor peopJe
between the two variables, i.e. as the wealth of cannot afford alternative fuels such as gas or
a country increases, so too does its energy con- kerosene. National grids mainly serve urban
sumption. The huge gap in energy consumption areas, or large industrial operations; it is pro-
between the developed and the developing world hibitively expensive to extend them far into
is shown in Figure 18.26. Note also that those the countryside. In places where there are
countries above the line in Figure 18.25 tend to renewable energy resources such as the sun,
have more natural energy reserves (Russia - gas, wind and water, communities often lack the
Saudi Arabia - oil; Zambia - hydro-electricity) knowledge, expertise and capital needed to
than those below the line (Italy, Peru). install the most appropriate system.'

Figure 18.26
IC:,,-";'''~between GOP (USS) Energy consumption per capita in the
y consumption, 2008 developed and developing worlds

----~.---.-.- r------·--,···-- - --- 1

I
1---
8
,-
60.0 1 Tanzania !, I 'j I
I

. .0 2
3
Niger
Bangladesh , L .. i I
7 I

4 Kenya
i f
5 India
I I : i -,-
-
~
20.0
6
7
8
Zambia
China
Egypt
!
1 !
T---'--'"
I

I
I

COJ
6 -----_._

- 0.0
9 Peru
~.. .._.-. j- ro
8.0
10 Mexico
j. ...- 13 1-~" i, >
5 ~ --------_ ,.....,.
- 6.0
11 Brazil f
L__ -t---
_
~
.• -._."
__.~
••
• u _, .~l~l ·s (
..
12 Malaysia
-- Hi'·;
20
0'
OJ

T
13 Saudi Arabia .,-;::
4.0 14 Argentina _ ..... +_ .. • ;21 ro 4 _.
'~
-

0 r-
1 '" 12'-''''-. 1~" u
- 15 UK ! I
I

- 16 Australia i
I ! 17
0
-,-
if
I i
2.0 17 Italy .. -•._--f-_. \
1
~-··i -r+ '"
OJ 3 ... ii'
- 18 Russia c
-= ,i 7' c
19 USA • I 110,14 B
I

-:: 1.0
20
21
Germany
Japan
!
! -- I • 11 I r::
2
5
-
0.8 ·1--~6 -.5---: ~- !-- -- I

i
t..···
L ,iI loQ
0.6 t • ,-_.
~ i! +_....
i.. .41
! . . i-9
i
f ..... ,... __ .
f
0.4 I
I
..
;
-
0.2
j
!
....; ;
1 1
i
0 00 00 00
00 a- D
00 00
co a-
co
D
00 00
co a-
00
D
nn.-.
00
00
co
a-
co
D
1
00 00 00
00 a- 0
a- a- 0 a- a- 0 a- a- 0 01 01

0
N '" D
N '" N N
D
N

0 0 0 000 0 0 000 0 0 00
0
N
0
"It
000
'0000
0
0
N
0
0
"It
000
000
'0000
0
0
0
0
0
0
"It
00
00
00
D North America Dformer D developing countries
N '000
D Europe Soviet Union Dworld
GDP per capita (USS)

546 Energy resources

'An Appropriate Technology is exactly what it
says - a technology appropriate or suitable to the
situation in which it is used [page 576]_ If that
situation is a highly industrialised urban centre
the appropriate technology may well be "high
tech". If, however, the situation is a remote
Nepalese village "appropriateness" will be
measured in the following terms:
-Is it culturally acceptable?
-Is it what people really want?
-ts it affordable?
ols it cheaper or better than alternatives?
oCan it be made and repaired with local material,
by local people?
oDoes it create new jobs or protect existing ones?
oIs it environmentally sound?
for many decades "Aid" meant sending out the energy. However, despite continuing public
same large-scale, expensive, labour-saving outrage at the devastati ng impact of large
technologies tbat we use: huge hydro-electric hydro-electric schemes on people's livelihoods
schemes, coal-fired power stations, diesel-powered and the environment [page 539 and Places 82],
generators. In some cases, for example towns and vast sums of money continue to be pumped into
industrial areas, these have been appropriate. But big dams and other inappropriate power
such schemes do not reach the poorer generation plans. On the other band, the
communities in the rural areas. What was needed intermediate approach, through small-scale
was orne way of using local resources hydro. has no negative impact on the
appropriately, and best of all some way of using environment. offers positive benefits to the local
renewable resources to decrease the need for community. and uses local resources and skill .'
reliance on outside help. Wind, solar and biogas Practical Action
energy are possibilities, but another resource
widely available and already in use for thousands
of years is water. Water is attracting much
attention in the search for renewable sources of

Practical Action and micro-hydro in Nepal About 20 years ago, two local engineering
'The small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal ranks workshops began to build small, steel,
as one of the ten poorest countries in the world. hydro-power schemes for remote vi llages. These
Around 90 per cent of its 19 million people earn turbines have the advantage of producing more
their living from fanning, often at a subsistence power than the traditional mills, as well as being
level. The Himalaya mountains offer Nepal one able (0 run a range of agricultural processing
vast resource - the thousands of streams which machines [Figure 18_28]. Practical Action firsr
pour down from the mountains all year round. became involved in Nepal's micro-hydro sector
epali people have harnessed the power in these in the late 1970s when the local manufacturers
rivers for centuries, albeit on a small scale asked for help in using their micro-hydro schemes
[Figure 18_27J to generate electricity.
Cross-section of a traditional
Nepali water mill
In the mid- 19805, Practical Action ran two
training courses on micro-hydro power aimed at
improving the technical ability of the nine new
water turbine manufacturers that had been
established in Nepal. These courses were very
successful and prompted an agreement between
Practical Action and the Agricultural
Development Bank (the agency which funds
micro-hydro power in Nepal) to collaborate on
the development of small water turbines For
rural areas. This work not only improved and
extended the range and number of micro-hydro
schemes in lepal, but also established Practical
Action as a leader in the field. In 1990 Practical
Action was included in a govemmcnt task force
investigating (he whole area of rural
electrification; and in 1992 Practical Action was
asked by the government to help establish an
independent agency to promote all types of
appropriate energy in rural areas of the country.'
Practical Action

hopper
"igure 18,2
Cross-section of a modern
chute delivering the water to the Nepali water turbine
paddles of the wheel
grain hopper (basket)
device to keep the grain moving
4 metal piece to lock top of shaft in
upper millstone
grinding stones
metal shaft
thick wooden hub
wooden horizontal wheel, with
obliquely set paddles attached to hub
metal pin and bottom piece
10 lifting device to adjust gap between
millstones

Energy resources 547

 18 Case Stud Appropriate tech no Iogy·. micro-hydro
. in Nepal

Life before power

"yli ater power, harnessed \lSing ,vater
wheels or gilalfa~.haS be.en usell for
centuries for grinding coro- The e
m'!Cro-hydro systcrn in the vulag now
has unproved the efficiency of milling.
1
so that wh,lt used to take a won :1nfour
hours to grind by g/latto. can be done in
\'d\een minutes. The power can alSObe
used for dehusl<:ing.rice and extracting
ure
oil from sunflower seeds tFig 18.29\.
The )11echanical power produced by
Ghandruk's micro-hydro systenl is alSO
converled to elecu,',c power, wh',ch is
distrib to every house in the vinage.
uteU
Allar! (rom the obviouS benefit of
lighting, n1<lnyhousehOldS are starting to
use elecrr',c cooker" of bU"li dekc/li,S.
which worl<:likc sloW cookers [Figure

18.29'\. is
Won are turning to bijul.i. c/ekc/l
1en veb
becau. e they reduce S]11ol<:e le in the
kitchen, they save tiL11eby reducing the
anlollnt of fJrewood tlICfanlily needS to
coHecl, (\nd Ihey are l\lOre conven',ent
and cook faster than traditional ~toves.
ln a co ntry ravaged by dcforeswtion -
u rs
villagers spend up to 12 h(ltl on a
round trip to collect wood - fuel ~aving
is becoming more and more important.
Micro-hydJ'O scnen1es like the one in
Ghandruk work because the conlnll1nity
bas "ownership" of thc scheme by
llarticipating in its planning. installation
and maoagenlent; becauSc the machinery
needed can be made and maintained by
locall1laJ1L1facturer~ usiog local material~
available in the country: and beeau~e
productiOn and consumption are linked
within a C0I111\lUnity.
The lives of villagers a1l over Nepal arc
literally being lit up by nliero-hydro
schemes, and the couotry could serve as
a model for decentra!ised. sustainable
encrgy production. Alre,\dy, 700 s
n1echanical and 100 electrical schc,ne
have been installed.
Much of the impelLls [or the deVe\op-
\ne of hydro in Nepal in',Ually
stcm nt from the absence of fossi Ifuel
med
reserves to e~ploiL However. if the
Governo,cnt caO resist the teo,ptations of
big da,l1 schemes and the dollars being nal
thrOwn al them by the big. 'rnternatio
donor agencies. it could have the last
laug\) watching the rest of the world
,crabb le tor the last of fossi I fuel n
Practical /'I.ctio
reserves.~

Figure 18.29

Practical Action's
work in Nepal
En _ .
548 ergy resources

'.~
 Appropriate technology: micro-hydro in Nepal Case Study 18

p r rf

Grinding enough corn to feed a family for just

3 days takes 15 hours when it is done by hand.

By taking corn to the grinder in the mill-bouse

- usually a popular meeting place for villagers-
3 days' worth of corn can be ground in just 15
minutes.

For thousands of women, the supply of power

releases them from the many labour-intensive
and time-consuming tasks they previously had
to carry out by hand.

Villagers can now hull their rice mechanically

with this 3 kW mill, driven by a micro-hydro
turbine.Time is saved and quality and
productivity increased.

Cooking on an open fire burns up a great deal

of wood (which is becoming increasingly scarce)
and gives off a lot of thick smoke. As a result, the
villagers not only have to walk long distances to
collect their fuel, but many women and children
suffer from serious lung disorders.

Practical Action is helping to develop two low-wattage

electric cookers which have been specifically designed
to make use of 'off-peak' electricity. The bijuli
dekchi heats water during off-peak times for use
in cooking later on, while the heat storage cooker
stores the energy available during off-peak
periods and releases it at mealtimes for cooking.
Both save fuelwood and help to reduce
deforestation.

Kerosene lamps are costly to run, and those who

can afford them have to collect fuel in cans from
towns which are usually several days' walk away

With electric light, children and adults can

improve their education by learning to read and
write in the evenings. Electric light is also cheaper,
cleaner and brighter than kerosene.
 Blades, H. (2007) 'Canada's black gold', ~ BP Amoco Statistical Review of World Renewable energy:
Geography Review Vol 20 No 3 (lanuary). Energy: www.berr/gov.uk/energy/index.html
Clark, N.A. (2006) Tidal Barrages and Birds, www.bp.com/productlanding.do7 www.bbc.co.uk/climate/adaptation/
Ibis. ca tegoryTd=6929&contentld= 7044622 renewable_energy.sh tml
Middleton, N.]. (2008) The Global Casino: British Wind Energy Association: UK Energy policies and statistics:
An Introduction to Environmental Issues, www.bwea.corn www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/energy/
Hodder Arnold. Energy consumption: indcx.htrnl
Patterson, w. (2007) Keeping the Lights all: www.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchooIBus/ US Department of Energy's Efficiency
towards sustainable electricity, Earthscan. index.shtml and Renewable Energy Network:
Pickering, K.T. and Owen, L.A. (1997) www, wor ldenergy, 0 rg www.eere.energy.gov/
Anlntroduction to Global Environmental International Atomic Energy Agency US Energy Information Administration:
Issues, Routledge. (IAEA): www.eia.doe.gov/
Sinden, G. (2007) 'Wind power', www.iaea.org/ World Commission on Dams:
Geography Review Vol 21 No 1 International Energy Agency (lEA), www.dams.org/
(September). World Energy Outlook: World Energy Council:
wvvw. worldenergyoutlook.org/ www.worldenergy.org/

Activities
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a i What are 'natural resources'? (1 mark) b Study Figure 18.30.
ii What is the difference between renewable Describe the main trends shown by the graph. (4 marks)
and non-renewable resources? (2 marks) ii During the 1990s the use of energy resources
iii Name a renewable source of energy that is by the more economically developed countries
used commercially. State where it is produced did not increase, and may even have fallen. At the
and explain why conditions in that area are same time the amount used by less economically
suitable. (3 marks) developed countries increased.
iv Explain what will happen to the amount of Explain this situation. (4 marks)
reserves of a fuel such as natural gas if: c Describe the main features ofthe world trade in
Figure18.30 •the market price of gas goes up anyone fuel. (7 marks)
Rateof world •new technology is developed, allowinq deeper
2 a Fuelwood is an important source of power in many
energy usage in wells to be drilled. (4 marks)
remote regions in less economically developed
terawatts(TW)
countries (LEDCs). Name an example of a region
6
where fuelwood is widely used and:
explain why people in that region rely on
5 _
fuelwood. (3 marks)
oil ii describe some ofthe problems caused forthe
economy and the environment by the reliance
4 - on fuel wood. (5 marks)
b Large hydro-electric power schemes are seen as the
solution to the energy shortages of many LEDCs.
Suggest why some people see such schemes as
a welcome development for that country. (5 marks)
ii Suggest why other people see such schemes as
being unwelcome. (5 marks)
········--nUc!ear
._. c Recent conferences on global warming have concluded
that more economically developed countries should
o.~==;:::=~"'::::::~=::;:::=::::::;===~~'==::- share their technological knowledge with the LEDCs.
1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 How might such sharing help to reduce global warming
year
in future? (7 marks)

550 Energy resources

Exam practice: basic structured questions
••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

3 a In many less economically developed countries 4 a What is meant by the term 'fossil fuel'? (2 marks)
fuelwood is the main source of energy for heating b Choose one country that has important reserves
and cooking. Explain how this can cause: of coa!.
damage to the environment Describe the distribution of coal reserves in that
ii social problems. (10 marks} country. (4 marks)
b What does 'appropriate technology' mean? (2 marks) ii Explain the economic factors that are influencing
ii Appropriate technology can be used by poor decisions about whether those reserves should
people in remote areasto harnessenergy supplies. be exploited at the present time. (9 marks)
Describe one such scheme in a named region of iii Name one environmental problem caused by the
the world. (5 marks) use of coal asafuel. Describe the problem. Explain
iii Explainhow the scheme described in b ii brings how good management can reduce the problem.
socialand economic benefits to the people who (J 0 marks}
useit. (8 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

••••••••••.•• eo ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ., •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

5 Lack of a suitable power supply is holding back b Should the UK increase its use of nuclear energy
development in many remote areas of the world. overthe next 10 years?
For a named area: Justify your answer. (10 marks)
a explain how shortage of power has caused
economic and social problems. (12 marks) 7 Study the two graphs in Figure 18.31.
b explain how the problems are being reduced by a Describe the major changes in France'senergy
provision of an appropriate power supply. (13 marks) supply between 1971 and 2005. (6 marks)
b Compare France'senergy mix in 2005 with the
6 Study Figure 18.31a. energy mix ofthe UK. (4 marks)
a i Describe the major changes in the UK'senergy c Which of the two countries has the better mix in
mix between 1971 and 2005. (5 marks) terms of:
ii Account for the decline in the use of coal and •energy security
the increase in the use of natural gas over this
•minimising environmental damage?
period. (10 marks)
Justify your answer. (15 marks)

250
a UK

200
~
m
~
'5
0-
150
w
'0
w
c: 100 ~ 100
g 8
c
c:
~ 50 ~ 50
E E

~ •..
~ '""~ '" '" '"•.. ~ eo :;; co r-, co
r-;
o-
0;
~
r-, '"g; '"co
~ ~ '"~ ~ '"~ 8i'" 8i 8i 0
0
0
~ ~
'" '"
F;gure 18.31

Total energy supply in the coal oil gas nuclear hydro combined renewabtes & waste
UK and France, 1971-2005

Exam practice: essays

••••••••• O •••• Q ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

8 Evaluate the arguments for and against the development 10 Choose any two ofthe following sources of renewable
of new coal-fired power stations, such as the one that energy.
is proposed at Kingsnorth. (25 marks) -wind •solar

9 Discuss the benefits and problems that would be •waves •tidal power
involved in an increased reliance on biomass as a - geothermal
major source of energy supply. (25 marks) Discuss the economic, environmental and technological
issues that are involved in the development of each of your
chosen sources. (25 marks)

Energy resources 551

 Manufacturing industries
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'Science finds, industry applies, man confirms.'
Anon, Chicago World Fair 1933
'We need methods and equipment which are cheap enough
so that they are accessible to virtually everyone; suitable for
small-scale production; and compatible with man's need for
creativity. Out of these three characteristics is born non-
violence and a relationship of man to nature which guar-
antees permanence. Ifone of these three is neglected, things
are bound to go wrong.'
E. F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful, 1974
What is meant by industry? In its widest and
more traditional sense, the word industry is
used to cover all forms of economic activity:
primary (farming, fishing, mining and forestry);
secondary (manufacturing and construction);
tertiary (back-up services such as administration,
retailing and transport); and quaternary (high-
technology and information services/knowledge
economy). In this chapter, the use of the term
'industry' has been confined to its narrowest
24%
1800
1850
5% 2%
1950 2000
Figure 19.1
Towards a post-industrial
economy: employment
structure in the UK,
1800-2007
552 Manufacturing industries
definition, i.e. manufacturing. Manufacturing
industry includes the processing of raw materials
(iron ore, timber) and of semi-processed materials
(steel, pulp), together with - where necessary - the
assembling of these products (cars, computers).
It needs to be pointed out, however, that while
this definition may be convenient, it does create
several major problems. Not the least of these prob-
lems has been the unprecedented transformation of
the global economy in the last 20 or so years. This
change has included rapid deindustrialisation and a
growth of the service sector which has caused some
advanced economies to view 'manufacturing' as
almost peripheral compared with their increasing
reliance, until the shockwaves of 2008, on banking
and finance. At present, only some 27 per cent
of the UK's working population are employed in
manufacturing, a trend that is repeated across most
of the developed market economies. This shift
from an industrial to a post-industrial society is
shown in Figure 19.1. In reality, it is also unrealistic
to draw boundaries between 'manufacturing' and
'services'. Not only are the t1'1'0 integrated in reality
through linkages (page 568 and Figure 19.2), buyer-
supplier relations, etc., but many people who are
officially classified as working in the manufacturing
15%
sector also have occupations that are service based
(salespeople, administrators, accountants and
financial advisers as well as those in research and
development) within 'manufacturing' sector firms.
1900
It can be argued, with much justification, that it is
conceptually (and empirically) unrealistic to sever
2%
manufacturing from services. This distinction
becomes particularly problematic when discussing,
for example, high-tech developments along the M4
(Places 86, page 566) as, by thei.r nature, many firms
are 'information-intensive' and knowledge based
rather than production or materials based; or when
2007 describing the differences between the 'formal' and
'informal' sectors in less economically developed,
less industrialised countries (page 574). Finally, the
primary
world financial events of 2008 showed countries,
secondary
regardless of their level of economic development,
tertiary
just how interdependent the process of globalisa-
tion has made them (page 605).
 Primary industry Primary manufacturing
raw materials industry
a farming (dairying)
b
c
mining (iron ore)
forestry (timber)
~
first processing stage
(creamery, iron and steel,
d fishing II pulp mills)
. "
~ f"
Other factors affecting
manufacturing industry
power supplies, capital, ~ parts
markets, labour, transport,
government policies
figure 19.2
linkages between Traditional locations of industry
various sections and
types of industry The processes which contribute to determine
the location and distribution of industry are
more complex and dynamic than those affecting
agriculture. This means that the making of gen-
eralisations becomes less easy and the dangers
of stereotyping increase. Reasons for this com-
plexity include:
• Some locations were chosen before the
Industrial Revolution and many more during
it. Initial factors favouring a location may no
longer apply today. For example, the original
raw materials may now be exhausted (iron
ore and coal in South Wales - Places 87, page
570) Of replaced by new innovations (cotton
by synthetic fibres) and sources of energy
(water power by electricity).
• New locational factors which were not appli-
cable last century include cheaper and more
efficient transport systems, the movement
of energy in the form of electricity, automa-
tion and new technologies such as email, the
Internet and mobile phones.
• Some industries have developed from older
industries and are linked to these former pat-
terns of production even when the modern
product is different (in Japan the Mazda Car
Corporation began as a cork-making and
then a machine-tools firm).
• Before the 20th century, industry was usually
financed and organised by individual entre-
preneurs who initiated and organised, usually
for a profit, an enterprise or business; this
included risk-taking, deciding what goods
would be produced or services provided, the
scale of production, and marketing. Nowadays
Service industry
....
.. (transport to markets,
i.e. distribution; retailing,
i.e. selling; garages,
i.e. sales and maintenance;
administration)
Secondary manufacturing
industry
further processing and/or
assembly of component
(cheese manufacture, cars,
newspapers)
these decisions are often taken far away
from the site of a factory, originally by the
state, now usually by transnationals (multi-
nationals, page 573).
• Many factories now produce a single compo-
nent and therefore are a part of a much larger
organisation which they supply.
• The sites of some early factories were chosen
by individual preference or by chance, i.e. the
founder of a firm just happened to live at, or
to like, a particular location (Unilever at Port
Sunlight and Rowntree at York).
Factors affecting the location of
manufacturing industry
Raw materials
Industry in 19th-century Britain was often
located close to raw materials (ironworks near
iron ore), sources of power (coalfields) or ports
(to process imports), mainly due to the immob-
ility of the raw materials which were heavy
and costly to move when transport was then
expensive and inefficient. In contrast, today's
industries are rarely tied to the location of raw
materials and so are described as footloose (see
post-Pordism, page 561). There is now a greater
efficiency in the use of raw materials: power is
more mobile; transport of raw materials, finished
products and the workforce is more efficient
and relatively cheaper; components for many
modern, and especially high-tech, industries are
relatively small in size and light in weight; and
some firms may simply rely on assembling com-
ponent parts made elsewhere. A location close to
markets, labour supply or other linked firms has
become increasingly important.
Manufacturing industries 553
 Industries that still need to be located near
to raw materials are those using materials which
are heavy, bulky or perishable; which are low
in value in relation to their weight; or which
lose weight or bulk during the manufacturing
process. Alfred Weber, whose theory of indus-
trial location is referred to later, introduced the
term material index or MT.
total weight of raw materials
MI = total weight of finished product
There are three possible outcomes.
1 Jf the MI is greater than I, there must be
a weight loss in manufacture. In this case,
the raw material is said to be gross and the
industry should be located near to that raw
material, e.g. iron and steel:
MI = 6 tonnes raw material
1 tonne finished steel
2 If the MI is less than I, there must be a gain in
weight during manufacture. This time
the industry should be located near to the
market, e.g. brewing:
Ml = 1 tonne raw material
5 tonnes beer
3 Where the MI is exactly I, the raw material
must be pure as it does not lose or gain weight
during manufacture. This type of industry
could therefore be located at the raw material,
the market or any intermediate paint.
Industries that lose weight during manufacture
include food processing (butter has only one-fifth
the weight of milk, refined sugar is only one-eighth
the weight of the cane), smelting of ores (copper
are is less than 1 per cent pure copper, iron are has
a 30-60 per cent iron content; Places 84, page 563)
and forestry (paper has much less mass than trees;
Places 83, page 562). Industries that gain weight in
manufacture include those adding water (brewing
and cement), and those assembling component
parts (cars, Places 85, page 565; and electrical
goods, Places 86, page 566). In these cases, the end
product is more bulky and expensive to move than
its many smaller constituent parts.
Period Source of power Examples of location
early iron industry charcoal wooded areas (the Weald, the Forestof Dean)
later iron industry waterwheels fast-flowing rivers (River Don, Sheffield)
early steel industry coal coalfields (South Wales, north-east England)
present-day steel industry electricity coastal (PortTalbot)
Figure 19.3
Power supply and the location
of iron and steelworks
554 Manufacturing industries
Power supplies
Early industry tended to be located near to
sources of power, which in those days could not
be moved. However, as newer forms of power
were introduced and the means of transporting
it were made easier and cheaper, this locational
factor became less important (Figure 19.3).
During the medieval period, when water was
a prime source of power, mills hacl to be built
alongside fast-flowing rivers. When steam power
took over at the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution in Britain, factories had to be built
on or near to coalfields, as coal was bulky and
expensive to move. When canals and railways
were constructed to move coal, new industries
were located along transport routes. By the mid-
20th century, oil (relatively cheap before the
1973 Middle East War) was being increasingly
= 6.0
used as it could be transported easily by tanker
or pipeline. This began to free industry from
the coalfields and to offer it a wider choice of
location (except for such oil-based industries as
petrochemicals). Today, oil, coal, natural gas,
nuclear and hydro-electric power can all be used
to produce electricity to feed the National Grid.
= 0.2
Electricity, in addition to its cleanliness and
flexibility, has the advantage that it can be trans-
ferred economically over considerable distances
either to the long-established industrial areas,
where activity is maintained by geographical
inertia, or to new areas of growth.
Transport
Transport costs were once a major considera-
tion when locating an industry. Weber based
his industrial location theory on the premise
that transport costs were directly related to
distance (compare von Thiinen's assumptions,
page 471). Since then, new forms of transport
have been introduced, including lorries (for
door-to-door delivery), railways (preferable for
bulky goods) and air (where speed is essential).
Meanwhile, transport networks have improved,
with the building of motorways, and methods
of handling goods have become more efficient
through containertsation. For the average
British finn, transport costs are now only
2-3 per cent of their total expenditure. Con-
sequently, raw materials can be transported
further and finished goods sold in more distant
markets without any considerable increase in
costs. The increasing reliance, since the late
1990s, on emails, the Internet and mobile
phones (page 642) has speeded up the transfer
of data, including orders and payments, both
within and between firms - a major factor in the
process of globalisation (page 605).
 are fewer semi-skilled and more highly skilled
a Total UK employment b Part-timeffull-time employment
workers operating in small-scale 'light' industries
which increasingly rely upon machines, computers
and robots. The cost of labour, especially in EU
males females countries, can be high, accounting for 10-40 per
13.6 million' 13.6 million
cent of total production costs. Three consequences
(50~ of this have been the introduction of mechanisa-
11.3 million tion to recluce human inputs, the exploitation
(83%)
of female labour, and the use of 'cheap' labour in
developing countries.
males . Traditionally, labour has been relatively
immobile. Although there was a drift to the
c Earnings and hours of work
towns during the Ind ustrial Revolution,
males females since the First World War British people have
Average weekly earnings (f) 498 394 expected respective governments to bring jobs
Average working week (hours) 39 37 to them rather than they themselves having to
Hourly pay (£) 11.96 10.46 move for jobs. Certain industries often located
in a specific area or place to take advantage
females
of local skills (cutlery at Sheffield, electronics
around Cambridge) but as transport improve-
Figure 19.4 The functioning of the present world depends ments allowed greater mobility, firms were able
UK employment upon a range of space-shrinking technologies to locate, and their workforce to travel, more
data, 2007 that connect firms, workers, governments and freely. In emerging economies industries often
consumers (i.e. commodity chains, page 643). locate in large coastal cities where they can
Two important types of space-shrinking attract large numbers of unskilled workers from
technologies are transport systems, examples surrounding rural areas (in China, Places 41,
of which are commercial jet aircraft and con- page 363), while in more developed countries
tainerisation (page 636), and communication space-shrinking technologies have allowed a
systems, which include satellite and optic-fibre greater number of people, both employees and
technology, the Internet, mobile phones and the self-employed, to work from home.
electronic mass media (radio and TV). Similarly, the roles of women and trade unions
Today, the pull of a large market is more have both changed. At the turn of the 21st century,
important than the location of raw materials and half of Britain's workforce were women (Figure
power supplies; indeed, it has been suggested 19.4a), with an increasing number either seeking
that flexibility and rapid response to changing career jobs or prepared to work part-time (Figure
market signals are perhaps the most important 19.4b), even flexi-time, although many still have
determinants of location. to accept a lower salary than males (Figure 19.4c).
Industries will locate near to markets if: The role of trade unions has declined significantly
• the product becomes more bulky with manu- as their membership numbers have fallen with the
facture or there are many linkage industries decline of the large 'heavy' industries.
involved (the assembling of motor vehi.cles)
• the product becomes more perishable after Capital
processing (bread is more perishable than flour); Capital may be in three forms.
it is sensitive to changing fashion (clothes); or it 1 Working capital (money) which is acquired
has a short life-span (daily newspapers) from a firm's profits, shareholders or financi.al
• the market is very large (north-eastern states institutions such as banks. Money is mobile
of the USA, south-east England, or global) and can be used within and exchangecl
• the market is wealthy between countries. Location is rarely con-
• prestige is important (publishing). strained by working capital unless money is
to be borrowed from the government which
Labour supply might direct industry to certain areas (see
Labour varies spatially in its cost, avai lability and below). In Britain, capital is more readily
quality. available in the City of London, where most
In the 1.9th century, a huge force of semi- of the financial institutions are based.
skilled, mainly male, workers operated in large- 2 Physical or fixed capital refers to buildings
scale 'heavy' industries doing manual jobs in and equipment. This form of capital is not
steelworks, shipyards and textile mills. Today, there mobile, i.e. it was invested for a specific use.

Manufacturing industries 555

 3 Social capital and cultural amenities are • Article 87(3)(a) of the Treaty provides aid to
lin ked to the workforce's out -of-work needs promote economic development in areas
rather than to the factory or office itself. where the standard of living is abnormally
Houses, hospitals, schools, shops and recrea- low or where there is serious underem-
tional amenities are social capital which may ployment. These areas, according to the
attract a firm, particularly its management, to EU Commission, have a Gross Domestic
an area. Product per capita, measured in purchasing
power parity terms (page 607), of less than
Government policies
75 per cent of the Community average. This
Government policies attempt to even out dif-
includes Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, West
ferences in employment, income levels and
Wales and the Valleys and, until its status is
investment. In Britain, this was initially by the
reviewed in 2010, the Scottish Highlands and
British government; now it is through the EU.
Islands.
At present, areas can only receive financial aid if
• Article 87(3)(c) permits aid to certain regions
they conform to EU guidelines. Under the latest
providing that it does not affect the working
guidelines, which came into effect in 2007, the
of the single market. In this instance, member
proportion of the UK population covered by the
states can designate regions that they feel
Assisted Areas will be 23.9 per cent (Figure 19.5)
are disadvantaged within their own country,
compared with the previous 30.9 per cent. This
subject to a population ceiling set by the EU.
reduction in coverage reflects partly the EU's
orthern Ireland, together with smaller loca-
objective to reduce areas of state aid amongst
tions in England, Scotland and Wales, fit this
longer-standing members so as to help new,
category.
poorer member states, and partly due to the UK's
own sustained (unti12008) economic success. Land
As Figure 19.5 shows, the Assisted Areas in the In the 19th century, extensive areas of flat land
British Isles can be divided into two groups. were needed for the large factory units. Today,
although modem industry is usually smaller in
terms of land area occupied, it prefers cheaper
land, less congested and cramped sites and
improved accessibility, as are to be found on
greenfield sites on the edges of cities and in
smaller towns. Now, partly due to pressure from
environmental and influential local groups,
attempts are being made to attract new industry,
including service industries, to derelict and under-
used brownfield sites (page 441), or to former
industrial premises (page 439), where existing
infrastructures still exist.

Environment
The latter part of the 20th century saw an
increasing demand by both managers and
employees to live and work in an attractive envi-
ronment. This led to firms moving away from
large urban areas and relocating either in smaller
towns that have easy access to the country-
side, or on new science and business parks with
landscaped green areas and ornamental lakes
(Places 86, page 566).

87(3)(a)
87(3)(a) reviewed 2010
87(3)(c) Figure 19.5
For explanation, see text Assisted Areas in
the UK, 2007-13

.................................................................................................................... , .

556 Manufacturing industries

Changing approaches to
industrial geography
The term 'manufacturing industries' does not refer
to a discrete, bounded, measurable entity, but is
dynamic with profound cultural, social and polit-
ical dimensions. This can be illustrated through the
following brief evolution of industrial geography.
1 Location theory and the neoclassical
approach
The 1960s was the era of the 'quantitative revolu-
tion' when established deductive theories about
the world (mainly German) were tested to see if
they could be used to accurately predict spatial
patterns, e.g von Thunen's rural land use (put
forward in 1826 - page 471), Weber's industrial
location (in 1909 - below) and Christaller's central
place (in 1933 - page 407). This approach has
been classically illustrated by the study of Henry
Ford's car industry (hence the term 'Ford ism',
Figure 19.13) with its assembly-line organisation.
It has regained some credence since the late 1990s
('McDonaldisation').
2 Behaviouralism (late 1960s to early
1980s)
This examined the role of cognitive information
and personal choice in determining decision-
making and locational outcomes. While still
focusing on Jocational issues and spatial behav-
iour, it concentrated more on detailed surveys
and avoided the mathematical modelling that
dominated the neoclassical approach.
3 Political economy (mid-1970s)
Writers such as David Harvey focused less on
the idealised assumptions of rational economic
man and perfect knowledge and more on how
global political and economic forces (capitalism)
shaped the space economy. This saw a shift in
the main focus away from spatial patterns of
industrial location towards structures of social
relations. By 1990, this approach manifested
itself in the post-Fordism debate (Figure 19.13)
at a time when industry was showing greater
flexibility both in production techniques and
between institutions and industrial districts.
4 Cultural economic interpretations
(post mid-1990s)
An even more recent 'cultural turn' has focused
on hitherto neglected dimensions, such as gender
(Places 96, page 608), which has placed a greater
emphasis on the meanings of terms such as pro-
duction, industry and labour.
Space here only permits a study of one indus-
trial location model- Weber's - and a comparison
between Fordism and post-Fordism.
Theories of industriallocation
It has already been seen that 'models form an
integral and accepted part of present-day geo-
graphical thinking' (Framework 12, page 352).
Models, as in many branches of geography, have
been formulated in an attempt to try to explain,
in a generalised, Simplified way, some of the com-
plexities affecting industrial location. The most
commonly quoted is that by Weber (1909) who
based his model on the industrialist who seeks the
lowest-cost location (LCL). Before looking more
closely at this model, it must be remembered that
it is an abstract framework which may be difficult
to observe in the real world, but against which
reality can be tested. It should also be pointed
out that this model has a 'traditional' approach
to industrial location applicable to a particular
moment in time (history) and that there have,
on other occasions, been alternative theories.
Weber's model of industrial location
Alfred Weber was a German 'spatial economist'
who, in 1909, devised a model to try to explain
and predict the location of industry. Like von
Thurien before him and Christaller later, Weber
tried to find a sense of order in apparent chaos,
and made assumptions to simplify the real world
in order to produce his model. These assump-
tions were as follows:
• There was an isolated state with flat relief,
a uniform transport system in all directions,
a uniform climate, and a uniform cultural,
political and economic system.
• Most of the raw materials were not evenly dis-
tributed across the plain (this differs from von
Thunen). Those that were evenly distributed
(water, clay) he called ubiquitous materials.
As these did not have to be transported, firms
using them could locate as near to the market
as was possible. Those raw materials that were
not evenly distributed he called localised
materials. He divided these into two types:
gross and pure (page 554).
• The size and location of markets were fixed.
• Transport costs were a function of the mass
(weight) of the raw material and the distance
it had to be moved. This was ex.pressed in
tonnes per kilometre (t/km).
• Labour was found in several fixed locations
on the plain. At each point it was paid the
same rates, had equivalent skills, was immo-
bile and in large supply. Similarly, entrepre-
neurs had equal knowledge, related to their
industry, and motivation.
• Perfect competition existed over the plain (Le.
markets and raw materials were unlimited)
Manufacturing industries 557
 which meant that no single manufacturer
could influence prices (l.e. there was no
monopoly). As revenue would therefore be
similar across the plain, the best site would be
the one with the minimal production costs
(i.e. the least-cost location or LCl.).
Possible least-cost locations
Weber produced two types of locational diagram.
A straight line was sufficient to show examples
where only one of the raw materials was local-
ised (it could be pure or gross). However, when
two localised raw materials were involved, he
introduced the idea of the locational triangle.
Figure 19.6 summarises the nine possible varia-
tions based on the type of raw material involved.
1 One gross localised raw material. As there is
weight loss during manufacture (the mate-
rial index for a gross raw material is more
than 1) then it is cheaper to locate the
factory at the source of the raw material -
there is no point in paying transport costs
if some of the material will be left as waste
after production (Figure 19. 7a).
2 a One ubiquitous raw material or b one pure
localised raw material gaining weight on man-
ufacture (MT less than 1). If the raw material
is found all over the plain (ubiquitous) then
figure 19.6
Type(s) of raw material (RM)
Least-cost locations MI = material index
dependent on types
of raw material
one gross localised RM MI > 1
2 one RM gaining weight or one
ubiquitous RM MI < 1
3 one pure localised RM MI = 1
4 two ubiquitous RMs (pure or gross)
5 two RMs (one ubiquitous, one pure)
6 two RMs (one ubiquitous, one gross)
7 two RMs (both pure)
8 two RMs (one pure, one gross)
9 two RMs (both gross)
Figure19.7 a RM gross and localised: MI > ,
(case 1, Figure 19.6)
Least-cost locations
with one raw material
~
•------------------~u ---------------------. .-----------.-------
~ = raw material
558 Manufacturing industries
transport is unnecessary as it is already found
at the market. If a pure material gains mass
on manufacture then it is cheaper to move it
rather than the finished product and so again
the LCL will be at the market (Figure 19. 7b).
3 One pure localised raw material. If this
neither gains nor loses weight during manu-
facture (MT = 1), the LCL can be either at the
market, at the location of the raw material, or
at any intermediate point (Figure 19.7c).
4 Two ubiquitous (gross or pure) raw materials. As
these are found everywhere, they do not have to
be transported and so the LCL is at the market.
S Two raw materials: one ubiquitous and one
pure and localised. The LCL is at the market
because the ubiquitous material is already
there and so only the pure localised material
has to be transported (Figure 19.8a). It will be
cheaper to move one raw material than the
more cumbersome final product.
6 Two raw materials: one ubiquitous and the
other gross and localised. The ubiquitous
material is available at every location. As the
gross material loses weight, the LCL could
theoretically be at any intermediate point
between its source and the market. However,
if the mass of the product is greater than that
LCL at any intermediate
LCL at raw material point LCL at market
•
•
•
•
•
(could be any site, according
to amount of weight loss)
•
• (ifbig
weight loss)
• (if a small
weight loss)
•greatest (at RM with
weight loss)
• (equal
weight loss)
b RM either ubiquitous or gaining c RM pure and localised: MI = 1
weight in manufacture: MI < 1 (case 3, Figure19.61
(case 2, Figure 19.6)
~~
or or
~
.
~=market • = least-cost location
 of the localised raw material, the LeL is at the
market; if it is less, the LeL is at the location
of the raw material; and if it is the same, the
LeL is at the mid-point (Figure 19.5b).
7 Two raw materials: both localised and pure.
In the unlikely event of the two raw mater-
ials lying to the same side of and in line with
the market, the LeL will be at the market.
If the materials do not conform with this
arrangement but form a triangle with the
market (Figure 19.9), the LeL is at an interme-
diate point near to the market. This is because
the weight and therefore the transport costs
of the raw material are the same as, or less
than, those of the product.
8 Two localised raw materials: one pure and one
gross. In this case, the industry will locate at
an intermediate point (Figure 19.1Oa). The
Figure19.8 greater the loss of weight during production,
the nearer the LeL will be to the source of the
Least-cost locations with
two raw materials, one of gross material,
which is ubiquitous
Weber's industrial
a one ubiquitous + one pure RM
three pieces of string, t'ed at one end by a knot and having
(case 5, Figure 19.6)
.~------.
a weight to represent the weights of each of the raw
U materials and of the final product.
~ total transport co .ts, i.e. the sum of the costs of
~ u ~ 1 tonne of a pure
raw material
bone ubiqu ito us + one gross RM
(case6. Figure 19.6)
9 Two raw materials: both localised and gross.
If both raw materials have an equal loss of
weight, the LeL will be equidistant between
these two sources but closer to them than to
the market (Figure 19.1Ob1). However, if one
raw material loses more mass than the other,
the industry is more likely to be located closer
to it (Figure 19.10b2).
Weber claimed that four factors affected produc-
tion costs: the cost of raw materials and the cost
of transporting them and the finished product,
together with labour costs and agglomeration/
deglorneration economies (page 560).
Spatial distribution of transport costs
As transport costs lay at the heart of his model,
Weber had to devise a technique that could both
measure and map the spatial differences in these
costs in order to find the LeL. His solution was
to produce a map with two types of contour-type
lines which he called lsotims and isodapanes.
An isotim is a line joining all places with equal
transport costs for moving either the raw material
triangle: the concept is illustrated by
(Figure 9.11a) or the product (Figure 9.11b). An
isodapane is a line joining all places with equal
knot transporting the raw material and the product
(Figure 19.11c).
Figure 19.11a shows the costs of transporting

.,_

LRM
•._. or
U

u
__ or o
.
@I
1 tonne of a raw material (R) as concentric circles.
In this example, it will cost 5 t/km (tonne/kilo-
(gro$s pure raw materials are metres) to transport the material to the market.
manutactured into a
~;~~~~raw
1 tonne of product weighing Figure 19.11b shows, also by concentric circles,
2 tcnres. As the final
pure raw the cost of transporting 1 tonne of the finished
U = ~b~~~:~iUSraw material
product is heavier, it
drags the knot nearer product (P). The total cost of moving the product
~ = market to the market indicating
• _Ieast-cost the market to be the from the market to the source of the raw material
"Iocetion least-cost location.
is again 5 t/krn. By superimposing these two maps
it is possible to show the total transport costs
Figure 19.9
(Figure 19.11c).
least-cost locations with two localised pure raw
If a factory were to be built at X (Figure 19.11c),
materials, illustrating Weber's industrial triangle
(case7, Figure 19.6) its transport costs would be 7 t/km (i.e. 2 t/krn for
moving the raw material plus
a one pure RM + one gross
5 t/krn for the product). A factory
RM (caseS, Figure 19.6) built at Y would have lower trans-
port costs of 6 t/km (4 t/krn for the
raw material plus 2 t/krn for the
product). However, the LeL in this
case may be at the source of the
raw material, the market or any
intermediate point in a straight line
the source ofthe gross
material if there is a very (2) If one RM loses more weight than the other
between the two because all these
heavy weight loss LRM (gross) with points lie on the 5 t/krn isodapane.
bigger weight loss

~= localised raw material

Figure 19.10
[§] = market
• = least-cost location LRM' (gross) with Least-cost locations with two
smaller weight loss localised raw materials, illustrating
Weber's in dustria Itriangle

Manufacturing industries 559

 a b c

R4 ~

raw material

market
I
I
-- R1 --....isotims for RM (pure) I a isotims showing transport
localised (tonne/km)
costs of a raw material, pure and

__ P 1 --.... isotims for finished product b isotims showing transport costs of finished product (tonne/km)
__T6 --....isodapanes (total cost: raw material + product, in tonne/km) I c isodapanes showing total transport costs (RM + finished
product) (tonne/km)

Figure 19.11
lsotims and isodapanes The effects of labour costs and
agglomeration economies
It has been stated that Weber considered that
four factors affected production costs: we have
seen the effects of the costs of raw materials and
transport -Tet us now look at labour costs and
agglomeration economies.
• Labour costs Weber considered the question
of whether any savings made by moving to
an area of cheaper or more efficient labour
would offset the increase in transport costs
incurred by moving away from the LCL He
plotted isodapanes showing the increase
in transport costs resulting from such a
move. He then introduced the idea of the
critical isodapane as being the point at
which savings made by reduced labour costs
Figure 19.12 shows the critical isodapane for
three firms. It would become profitable for all the
firms to locate within the central area formed by
the overlapping of all three critical isodapanes. It
may be slightly more profitable for firms A and
B, but less profitable for firm C, to locate within
the purple area. However, it would not be addi-
tlonaHy profitable for any firm to move if none
of the isodapanes overlapped. Agglomeration
is now considered by many to be probably the
most important single factor in the location of a
firm or industry.
Critical isodapanes
for firms A, Band C
Figure 19.12
Critical isodapanes
and agglomeration
economies

equalled the losses brought about by extra

transport costs. If the cheaper labour lay
within the area of the critical isodapane, it
would be profitable to move away from the
LCL in order to use this labour.
• Agglomeration economies Agglomeration
is when several firms choose the same area
for their location in order to minimise their
costs. This can be achieved by linkages
between firms (where several join together to
buy in bulk or to train a specialist workforce),
within firms (individual car component
units) and between firms and supporting
services (banks and the utilities of gas, water
and electricity). Deglomeration, in contrast,
is when firms disperse from a site or area, pos-
sibly due to increased land prices or labour
costs or a declining market.
FirmC
Firms A and Bmight agglomerate here, but it
would not be worthwhile for firm C
(beyond its critical isodapane)
Intersection of 3 critical isodapanes
means it would be worth the 3
firms agglomerating in this area
Criticisms of Weber's model
The point has already been made with previous
examples and on page 557 that no model is
perfect and all have their critics. Criticisms of
Weber's industrial location model include:

560 Manufacturing industries

 Industrial location: changing sources of energy is more important than the
market and other economic factors (Places 83).
patterns 2 A secondary manufacturing industry ini-
Four different types of industry have been selected tially tied to raw materials and sources of
as exemplars to try to demonstrate how the impor- energy but in which economic and political
tance of different factors affecting the location of factors have become increasingly more
industry have changed through time. Their choice important (Places 84). This is an example of
may reinforce the generalisation, by no means true Fordism with its conveyor belt/assembly line
in every case, that the more important locational production.
factors in the 19th century were physical, while in 3 A secondary manufacturing industry where the
modem industry they tend to be human and eco- nearness of a market and labour supply is more
nomic. They also show that while Weber's theory important than the presence of raw materials
may have had some relevance in accounting for and sources of energy (Places 85). This illus-
the location of older industries (remembering trates flexible production (just-in-time).
that it was put forward in 1909), it has less when 4 Modern secondary (quaternary) manufac-
explaining the location of contemporary industry. turing industries where human and economic
The four industries are: factors are the most important (Places 86).
1 A primary manufacturing industry where, due This is an example of flexible specialisation
to weight loss, the presence of raw materials and (a footloose industry).

Sweden: wood pulp and paper

----------------~----~~~~-
There are three stages in this industry: the felling
oftrees, the processing of wood pulp (primary Figure 19.14

processing), and the manufacture of paper

(secondary processing). In Sweden, most pulp and
paper mills (Figure 19.14) are located at river mouths
on the Gulf of Bothnia (Figure 19_15).Timber is a
gross raw material which loses much of its weight
during processing; it is bulky to transport; and it
requires much water to turn it into pulp. Towns
such as Sundsvall and Kramfors are ideally situated
(Figure 19.15): the natural coniferous forests provide
the timber; the fast-flowing Rivers Ljungan, Indals
and Angerman which initially provided cheap water
transport for the logs are a source of the necessary and
cheap hydro-electricity;
Fall line: division between old resistant rocks of
and the Gulf of Bothnia
provides an easy export
route. Paper has a higher
tundra:'

" BalticS i. ------ Baltic Shield and younger rocks of coastal plain;
waterfalls provide hydro-electric power (HEP)

value than pulp and it is HEP '\...1 ~-\

convenient and cheaper to Glaciallakes prov~" ~-'1,.:9('>.... Coni~ero~orest mainly .
have integrated mills. natural reservoirs for \ v-, -Q consistmq of.spruce and pine
HEPand water for the \ \;' <,
Weber's agglomeration =~_ anufacture of pulp '? <,
an '"paper '" ~
economies, together with
Fordism's mass production
techiniques, seem to.
~*% ",':f
operate with the clustering
of so many mills. 1t1P",- I expo rt of wood
pulp, newsprint,
Figure 19.15 '~~~ cardboard

T
HEP ~ .L;1I/7 ~'
Location of wood pul p -~" \W • town
and paper factories in \~ ~ndsvall
pulp and/ or paper mill
central Sweden o 50km X-d)

562 Manufacturing industries

 Places 84 UK: iron and steel

Although the early iron and later steel industries of coal. The advantages possessed by South
were tied to raw materials, modern integrated iron Wales at that time are shown in Figure 19.17a.
and steelworks have adopted new locations as the Later, the industry extended into other British
sources of both ore and energy have changed. coalfields. When local ores became exhausted,
the industry continued in the same locations
• Before AD 1600 Iron-making was originally
because of geographical inertia, a pool of local
sited where there were surface outcrops of iron
skilled labour, a local market using iron as a raw
ore and abundant wood for use as charcoal
material, improved techniques reducing the
(the Weald, the Forest of Dean, Figure 19.16a)_
amount of coal needed (2 tonnes per 1 tonne of
Locations were at the source of these two raw
final product), improved and cheaper transport
materials as they had a high material index,
systems (rail and canal) which brought
were bulky and expensive to transport, had
distant mined iron ore, and the beginnings of
a limited market and could not be moved far
agglomeration economies.
owing to the poor transport system.
• After 1850 Until the 1880s,the low ore and
• Before AD 1700 Local ores in the Sheffield
high phosphorus content of deposits found
area were turned into iron by using fast-flowing
in the Jurassic limestone, extending from the
rivers to turn waterwheels as water provided a
Cleveland Hills to Oxfordshire, had not been
cheaper source of energy.
touched. After 1879, the Gilchrist-Thomas
• After AD 1700 In 1709, Abraham Derby process allowed this ore to be smelted
discovered that coke could be used to smelt economically. As iron ore now had a higher
iron ore efficiently. At this time, it took 8 tonnes material index than coal it was more expensive
Figure 19.16 of coal and 4 tonnes of ore to produce 1 tonne to move. As a result, new steelworks were
of iron, and so new furnaces were located on opened on Teesside, near to the Cleveland
Location of iron
coalfields. One ofthe first areas to develop Hills deposits, and at Scunthorpe and Corby,
and steelworks in
England, Scotland was South Wales where bands of iron ore on the ore fields. However, the major markets
and Wales (blackband ores) were found between seams remained on the coalfields.

a b
• iron ore terminals(13) • major are terminals (3)
.•.ironworks (6) integrated iron and
o steelworks(3)
to. smallsteelworks,not
fully integrated (7)
integrated iron and
/ 0 ~ 0 steelworks(24) o•
.II. -West 000 .,-- --.1

Hartlepool ~
D coalfields N
Sheffield

==--- .:,.~'"'"'-
,-=
Irltm

o
.•.
to.~o
to....

o to.
.•.
O2•
Appleby
Frodindha

o Corby
o
D iron are

tI
lS0km
I
to. to.
to.
Sheffield

A
EbbwVale Forestof
b. •

PortTalbot~ort
-_~q;,
~i s;;,

Manufacturing industries 563

 a Location of early 19th-century b Disadvantages ofthese early c Location of only remaining
iron foundries in South Wales locations by 1960 (e.g. Ebbw Vale) integrated steelworks in 2008
Period oftime (e.g. Ebbw Vale) (PortTalbot)
Physical RawmateriaIs Coal mined locallyin valleys older minesclosing little now needed;imported

Ironore found within the CoalMeasures hadto beimported: long wayfrom imported from NAfricaand N America
coast
Limestone found locally found locally found locally

Water for powerandeffluent: localrivers insufficientfor cooling for cooling:coastalsites

Energy/fuel charcoalfor earlysmelting, laterrivers electricityfrom NationalGrid electricity from NationalGridusing

to drivemachinery;then coal coal,oil, naturalgas,nuclearpower
Naturalroutes materialslocal;export routesvia the poor;restrictedby narrowvalleys coastalsites
valleys
Siteand land narrowvalleyfloor locations crampedsites;little flat land largeareasof former sanddunes

Human and Labour largequantities of semi-skilledlabour still largenumbersof semi-skilled still relativelylargenumbersbut with a
economic workers higher levelof skill; fewer dueto
high- tech/mechanisation
Capital localentrepreneurs no investment governmentand EUincentives

Markets local difficult to reachMidlandsand ports tin plate industry (Llanelli) and the
Midland carindustry
Transport little needed;somecanals;low costs poor;old-fashioned;isolated M4; purpose-builtport

Geographical not applicable not strongenough tradition of high-quality goods

inertia
Economiesof not applicable workedagainstthe inland sites onelargesteelworksmoreeconomical
scale than numeroussmall ironfoundries
Government not applicable EbbwValekept openby government havingthe capital, governments can
policy help determinelocationsand closuresand
provideheavyinvestment
Technology smallscale:mainly manual out of date high-technology:computers,lasers,
etc.
Figure 19.17
• After 1950 With iron are still the major raw became increasinqly reliant on imported ores.
Growth,declineand
changinglocationof material (less than 1 tonne of coal was now This meant that new integrated steelworks
iron andsteelworks needed to produce 1 tonne of steel), but with were located on coastal sites while those inland
in SouthWales deposits in the UK largely exhausted, Britain tended to close (Figure 19.16). Since the 1950s
three new elements, unforeseen by Weber,
Figure 19.18 {Iy-'""'} N became increasingly important in the location

Steelandfinishing
works,2008
>:'~
~,
I ~~ -£,.
?' ~
~
;j- r ;
t of new steelworks: government
improved technology
intervention,
and reduced transport
costs. It is a now a government/EU decision
p' o'"'7? ;
';J'
as to where any new steelworks (unlikely in
eJ~ A_! the present economic climate) will be located,

,.-.'1
....
"J-:.
Motherwell
and which existing works will either close or
remain open; improved technology has seen
jO' '"
~~ l a reduction in raw materials consumed and

47 rA"'j~r

-, r0'-vY('" .,~ ~sside

workers needed; while lower transport costs
have aided both imports of raw materials and

l,f~ ~ 0 "'1 " exports offinished goods.

1.'1 ~ l\ialifax. -l5cw\thorpe Even so, the industry still uses complex machines
~L
-t
~}
')
~~)~ii:fe.!'"'
•• '\
set out in a sequence and linked by a conveyer

+:
ilSheffieldl
w , Rothernani---""
belt system. At the PortTalbot works, raw materials
;:r f Birrninqb am area: enter one end ofthe factory, pass through several
r7 __.)lJ'-..3 ") processing stages, all highly computerised, to
~ . 1>'-
y d:lanelli
<'"...,J"!, •• .Newport
~
finally emerge, several kilometres away, as a
integrated plants P t T, Ib (It • ?" (
(combined steelmaking or a 0 Caidiff Sheemess standardised end product. The steelworks is also
r .., r-t
and rolling mills)
other rolling mills ,,;/ .s-e-:': part of a value added chain in a global industry.

: :;~i:~~::nts .r.-J
• tube mills ~ 0 200 km
 Places 85 Japan: car assembly

Japan's production of 8.6 million cars in 2006, which

~----------------------~
had to come from land reclaimed from the sea
was 20.8 per cent of the world's total, kept it as the (Figure 19.20). These new locations, despite the
world leader ahead of Germany (5.1 m) and the USA high costs of reclamation, make excellent sites
(5.0 rn). This has been achieved despite a lack of from which to export finished cars to all parts of
basic raw materials. the world. The large local labour force contains
both skilled and semi-skilled workers who, as well
Japan has very limited energy resources for,
as being educated and industrious, are very loyal
although it produces hydro-electricity and nuclear
to their firm. The car industry, which has received
energy, it has to import virtually all its coal, oil and
considerable government financial assistance, has
natural gas requirements. Similarly, most ofthe iron
an organisation which centres around teamworking,
ore and coking coal needed to manufacture steel
worker involvement, total-quality management,
also has to be imported. The result has been the
and 'just-in-time' production (this is when various
location ofthe major steelworks on tidal sites found
component parts arrive just as they are needed
around the country's many deep and sheltered
on the assembly line, thus avoiding the need to
natural harbours. As only 17 per cent of the country
store or to overproduce). The Japanese car industry
is flat enough for economic development (for
has a high level of automation and uses the most
homes, industry and agriculture), most ofthe
modern technology: it produces three times the
population also has to live in coastal areas and
number of cars per worker as does western Europe.
around the harbours. The five major conurbations,
The assembled cars are reliable and universally
linked by modern communications, provide both
acceptable in design which means, together with
the workforce and the large, affluent, local markets
the shift from mass production to lean, or flexible,
needed for such steel-based products as cars
production, that the Japanese have gained strong
(Figure 19.19). Within these conurbations are
footholds in world markets. To expand further
numerous firms engaged in making car component
into these markets, the Japanese have either built
parts. This agglomeration of firms limits transport
overseas assembly plants or have amalgamated
costs and conforms with Weber's concept that
with local companies so that more cars can be
industries gaining weightthrough processing
produced close to the large urban markets within
(car assembly) are best located at the market.
western Europe and the USA, e.g. Honda at Swindon,
As many of the smaller, older and original firms
Nissan at Sunderland, and Toyota at Burnaston and
Figure19.19 have amalgamated into large-scale companies,
Deeside in the UK.
Majorindustrial the extra space required for their factories has
areasin Japan

D five main industrial areas

I
major city Sap~ro

D other industrial areas S -. HOKl<AI06

HOKKAIOO four main islands

N
D mountains t\
5ea 0 f J a pan
S t
Hanshil
hl (Kobe-
e oue 10k)
(Hiroshima) sa a
Nliga;.a
L- / •
,_""
\
r'

Sendai
)

t
Kitakyushu
(Kitakyushu) .
I
Mazda

/'
\)
K (t
Y00
••
HONSHU (

/
'"
Pac i fie
0 cea n

" ) (- ~1 ;:r~" ./II,

,7\ •.• 0 200km
"~Mizushinia:" /J L-_--'
J ~S\ <, SHIKOftU '- / ".
Nag~~aki ( "-o Chukyo Keihin(Tokyo-
eKYUSHU (Nagoya) Kawasaki-Yokohama)
Toyota Nissan, Mitsubishi, Honda

Mazda'sHofucarplant,built on
landreclaimedfrom thesea

Manufacturing industries 565

 -;-Places 86 The M4 and M 11 corridors: high-tech industries

The term high-technology refers to industries (Sunrise Valley) from London to Reading, Newbury
that have developed within the last 3S years ('Video Valley'), Bristol (Aztec West) and into South
and whose processing techniques often involve Wales; and the Mll northwards to Cambridge
micro-electronics, but may include medical (Figure 19.21). Transport is convenient due to the
instruments, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals. proximity of several motorways and mainline
These industries, which collectively fit into the railways, together with the four main London
quaternary sector (page 552), usually demand airports. Transport costs are, in any case, relatively
high inputs of information, expertise and research insignificant as the raw materials (silicon chips) are
and development (R&D)_They are also said lightweight and the final products (computers) are
to be footloose (the modern term is flexible high in value and small in bulk. Even 50, it has been
specialisation) in that, not being tied to raw argued that two of the main reasons for high-tech
materials, they have a free choice of location (Figure development in this part of Britain were:
1g. 13). However, they do tend to occur in clusters in
the presence of government-sponsored
particular areas, forming what Weber would have
research establishments at Harwell and
called'agglomerated economies; such as along
Aldermaston and of government aerospace
the M4 and M1 1 corridors in England (also Silicon
contractors in the Bristol area
Glen in Scotland, Silicon Valley in California and
Grenoble and the Cote d'Azur in France). By locating 2 its attractive environment, e.g. the valley of the

close together, high-tech firms can exchange ideas Thames and the nearby upland areas of the

and information and share basic amenities such as Cotswolds, Chilterns and Marlborough Downs

connecting motorways. (Figure 19.21), and its proximity to cultural

centres, e.g. London, Oxford and Cardiff.
Two of the major concentrations of high-tech
industries in Britain are along the M4 westwards

u university railway
N
Bl research centre county boundary
o

t/i
20km
o office airport
Figure 19.21 H high-technology firm town
The M4and M11
Corridors
= motorway hills
_/
!
MSto
Blr.[plngha ) j r~
Bedfordshi re
Cambr

-
7
~) ~ Glo ce
i
e rsh ire cotS
~~\d5

-~Monmouthsh~~~---------_L~~~~----------------,
C"l ( Many high-tech Industries have located around u <:-"
L ~ Bristol,especially at Aztec West at the junction of Oxford e \ Hertfordshire
..., ~ i the M4 and MS,where expertise had already ,-"-
Severn r developed through such firrns as Rolls Royceand
British Aerospace

~ Ha m ps hire Farnborough Su rre; ,~~

Kent
Wiltshire
C-" The majority of new industries have tended \
\ to locate along the Berkshire section of the
M4 where the nearnessto Heathrow Airport

-,
\ has been a vital extra advantage

566 Manufacturing industries

 Most firms that have located here claim that the
major factor affecting their decision was the
availability of two types of labour:
• Highly skilled and inventive research scientists
and engineers, the majority of whom were
university graduates or qualified technicians.
These specialists, whose abilities were in short
supply, could often dictate areas where they
wanted to live and work, i.e.areas of high
environmental, social and cultural quality. The
proximity of several universities (Figure 19.21)
provided a pool of skilled labour and facilities for
R&D.
• Female workers who either tended to be
plentiful as an increasing number of career-
minded women were among those who had
recently moved out of London and into new
towns and suburbanised villages (page 398), or
were prepared to accept part-time/flexi-time
jobs (Figure 19.4).
Science parks are often joint ventures between
universities and local authorities. They are usually
Figure 19.22 located adjacent to universities on edge-of-town
The Cambridge greenfield sites where, because the land is of lower
Science Park
Cambridge Science Park
_j building
car parking
• trees
Figure 19.23
lake
Layout of the Cambridge
Science Park
value, there is plenty of space for car parking,
landscaping (ornamental gardens and lakes) and
possible future expansion.
The Cambridge Science Park (Figure 19.22) has
been developed in conjunction with Trinity
College, Cambridge. Opened in 1972,the success
of early firms soon attracted more (agglomeration
economies), so that by 2008 there were 109
companies employing about 5000 people. Existing
companies can be divided into those making
electronics, scientific instruments, drugs and
pharmaceuticals (biomedicinal), with a strong
emphasis on scientific R&D.Only selected firms,
using the high-quality, flexible buildings for specific
purposes, are allowed to locate in the business park.
Almost one-quarter of these firms are medium-sized,
each employing between 20 and 49 workers. Some
70 per cent of the park, which covers 62 ha, is left as
open space with trees, grass and ornamental gardens
with lakes (Figure 19.23).As this, and other business
and science parks in the Cambridge area,continue
to develop, new housing hasto be provided, e.g. at
Cambourne (CaseStudy 14A),and building pressure
increases on the surrounding transport system and
countryside (Figure 14.22).
Manufacturing industries 567
 Industrial linkages and the multiplier - the simple chain in Figure 19.24a. Industrial
linkages may result in:
When Weber introduced the term 'agglomeration
• energy savings
economies', he acknowledged that many firms
• reduced transport costs
made financial savings by locating close to, and
• waste products from one industry forming a
linking with, other industries. The success of one
raw material for another
firm may attract a range of associated or similar-
• energy given off by one process being used
type industries (cutlery in Sheffield), or several
elsewhere
small firms may combine to produce component
• economies of scale where several firms buy in
parts for a larger product (car manufacture in
bulk or share distribution costs
Coventry). Industrial linkages may be divided
• improved communications, services and
into backward linkages and forward linkages:
financial investment
backward forward • higher levels of skill and further research
linkages linkages • a stronger political bargaining position for
to firms pro- to firms further government aid (the securing of EU funding
viding raw f- FACTORY ~ processing now depends upon having a network of
materials or the product linked organisations).
component or using it as Louise Crewe has stressed the 'increasingly critical
parts a component importance of local linkages in ensuring com-
part petitive success, and the need to emphasise how
agglomeration is becoming an increasingly impor-
tant factor in explaining industrial location', In
A more detailed classification of industrial link-
the fashion quarter of ottingham's Lace Market,
ages is given in Figure 19.24. The more industri-
for example, 8S per cent of all firms are linked to
ally advanced a region or country, the greater is
others, e.g. supplier links, manufacturers, retailers,
the number of its linkages. Developing countries
local intelligence, and so on. Other examples of
have few linkages, partly because of their limited
linkages and industrial location include the Motor
number of industries and partly because few
Sport valley in Oxfordshire and car assembly in the
industries go beyond the first stage in processing
West Midlands, together with both the fashion and
Figure 19.24 jewellery agglomerations and the semiconductor
Typesof industriallinkage clusters in California and the UK (Places 86).

a Vertical (or simple chainJlinkages b Horizontal (or multi-origin) linkages

the raw material goes through several successive processes an industry relies on several other industries to provide its
co mponent parts

brakes ----------~
gearboxes ----------1
electrical equipment ------t---_+_ car assembly plant
tyres
radiators -l

c Diagonal (or multi-destination) linkages d Technological linkages

an industry makes a component which can be used subsequently in a product from one industry is used subsequently as a raw material by

---E
several industries other industries

...----+ watches and clocks

1----+ car industry steel
processed ~:::sws
washers, nuts -----I processed
and bolts domestic appliances into Into cable
1...- repair workshops/garages electrical
wiring

568 Manufacturing industries

 The multiplier effect and Myrdal's
model of cumulative causation
If a large firm, or a specialised type of industry,
is successful in an area, it may generate a multi-
plier effect. Its success will attract other forms
of economic development creating jobs, services
and wealth - a case of {successbreeds success'.
This circular and cumulative process was used by
Gunnar Myrdal, a Swedish economist writing in
the mid-1950s, to explain why inequalities were
likely to develop between regions and countries.
Figure 19.25 is a simplified version of his model.
Figure19.25
Asimplifiedversionof introduction of a new industry or
Myrdal'smodelto show the expansion of an existing firm
developmentof an
industrialregion
creates more jobs, especially in
construction and infrastructure,
and increases purchasing power
improved pool of
trained labour
increased population increased income from rates
(in-migration); greater and more people increases
local wealth the spending power available
capital, together with new ideas and technology.
Myrdal's multiplier model may be used to
explain a number of patterns.
1 The growth of 19th-century industrial regions
(South Wales and the Ruhr) and districts
(cutlery in Sheffield, guns and jewellery in
Birmingham and clothing in Nottingham).
2 The development of growth poles (page 617)
in developing countries (Sao Paulo in Brazil
and the Darnodar Valley in India), where
increased economic activity led, in turn, to
multiplier effects, agglomeration economies
and an upward spiral resulting in core regions
(Places 87 and Places 98, page 618). At the
same time, cumulative causation worked
against regions near the periphery where
Myrdal's backwash effects included a lack of
investment and job opportunities.
3 The creation of modern government regional
policies which encourage the siting of new,
large, key industries in either peripheral,
less developed (Trombetas and Carajas in
Amazonia) or high unemployment (Nissan
and Toyota in England) areas in the hope of
Myrdal suggested that a new or expanding
industry in an area would create more jobs and
so increase the spending power of the local
population. If, for example, a firm employed
a further 200 workers and each worker came
from a family of four, there would be 800 people
demanding housing, schools, shops and hospi-
tals. This would create more jobs in the service
and construction industries as well as attracting
more firms linked to the original industry. As
growth poles, or points, develop there will
be an influx of migrants, entrepreneurs and
new construction activity;
growth of tertiary sector;
expansion of public activities
stimulating economic growth. This policy is
more likely to succeed if the industries are
labour intensive.
Industrial regions
Much of Britain's early industrial success
stemmed from the presence of basic raw mater-
ials and sources of energy for the early iron,
and the later iron and steel, industries; the mass
production of materials using the processed
iron and steel; and the development of overseas
markets. During the 19th century it was the coal-
fields, especially those in South Wales, northern
England and central Scotland, which became the
core industrial regions. However, as the initial
advantages of raw materials (which became
exhausted), specialised skills and technology (no
longer needed as the traditional heavy industries
declined) and the ability to export manufactured
goods (in the face of growing overseas competi-
tion) were lost, these early industrial regions
have become more peripheral. Recent attempts
to revive their economic fortunes have met with
varying success (Places 87).
Manufacturing industries 569
 South Wales: industrial growth, decline and regeneration
Pre-1920: industrial growth creating a The rapid increase in coalmining and iron-working
core region
The growth of industry in South Wales was based
on readily obtainable supplies of raw materials
(Figure 19.17a).Coking coal and blackband iron
are were frequently found together, exposed as
horizontal seams outcropping on steep valley
sides.Their proximity to each other meant that the
area around MerthyrTydfil and Ebbw Vale (Figure
19.26) was ideally suited for industrial development
(Weber's least-cost location for two gross raw
materials, Figure 19.1Db).Added to this was the
presence of limestone only a few kilometres to the
north, and the expertise ofthe local population in
iron-making where waterwheels, driven by fast-
flowing rivers, had earlier been used to powerthe
blast furnace bellows. Bythe 1860s there were 35
iron foundries operating in the Welsh valleys. By
the time the more accessible coal had been used
up, mining techniques had improved sufficiently
to allow shafts to be sunk vertically into the valley
floors. When local supplies of iron ore became
exhausted, there were ports nearby through which
substitute ore could be imported.
'Thus began the spread of the well-known industrial
landscape of the Valleys.Pitscrammed themselves
into the narrow valley bottoms, vying for space
with canals, housing and, later, railways and roads.
Housing began to trail up the valley sides,line upon
line ofterraces pressed againstthe steep slopes
[Figure 19.27].The opening-up of the underground
coal seams resulted in massive immigration, much
of it from rural areas.Working conditions, living
conditions and wages were deplorable while health
and safety standards underground were poor.
Housing was overcrowded asthe provision of homes,
financed by the local entrepreneur ironmasters,
lagged far behind the supply of jobs:
Figure 19.26
Early
industrial
develop- o 20km Brecon Beacons
mentinSouthWales (source of limestone)
~~ .: ~.y
Llanelli /....,
%~ ~~
(:;:~' iQ ~ Neath RhOOd~"'~,? ')
f1\ ~~:d"di'V
importofmpp.'
(initially from Cornwall and export
Ireland, later from Chile),
tin, nickel and zinc
of coal '\...
~-~\'1
570
partly resulted from the growth of large overseas
markets as both products were mainly exported.
Transport to the Welsh ports first involved simply
allowing trucks to run downhill under gravity. Later,
canals and then railways were used to move the
bulky materials. While Barry, Cardiff and Newport
developed as exporting ports, Swansea and Neath
grew as'break of bulk' ports smelting the imported
ores of copper, nickel and zinc. Break of bulk is
when a transported product has to be transferred
from one form of transport to another - a process
that involves time and money. It was easier and
cheaper, therefore, to have had the smelting works
where the raw materials were unloaded, rather than
transporting them inland.
The inter-war and immediate post-war
years: depression and industrial decline
Just as the existence of raw materials and overseas
markets had led to the growth of local industry,
so did their loss hasten its decline. Iron are had
long since been exhausted and it increasingly
became the turn of coal, even though there were
still over 500 collieries employing 260 000 miners
in 1925.The steelworks which had replaced the
iron foundries had been built on the same inland,
cramped sites; as they became lesscompetitive
mainly due to rising transport costs, so they became
increaslnqly dependent on government support
(Figure 19.17b). Overseas markets were lost as
rival industrial regions with lower costs and more
up-to-date technology were developed overseas.
The difficulties of an economy reliant on a narrow
industrial base, dependent on an increasingly out-
of-date infrastructure, and unable to compete with
overseas competition, led to major economic, social
and environmental problems.
~ canal
_R. US,f- D coalfield
D major iron works
Ebbw Vale ••"--
• OJ
M:';h" tin plate
~ly,dfil \ OJ ©
1. Tt
copper smelting
~,'
0
~.;J~~.wport
/Y /
r~ -:
-P (
Barrl-- { I
export of coal; -
iron and tin plate
 political views). The Special Areas Act of 1934
saw the first government assistance which set up
industrial estates at Treforest, MerthyrTydfil and
Rhondda (Figure 19.28), while Cwmbran became
one of Britain's first new towns (1 949). Much of
the former coalfield remains an Assisted Area
(Figure 19.5). The last NCB colliery closed in 1994,
although the Tower Colliery, near MerthyrTydfil,
reopened privately between 1995 and 2008. At
present coal comes from seven opencast mines,
and a current planning application, if successful,
would make one ofthose - Ffos-y-Fran, also near
Merthyr Tydfil- the largest in Europe (there is
strong local opposition to the scheme).

Two local areas of exceptionally high unemploy-

ment, Swansea and Milford Haven Waterway, were
designated two of Britain's 27 Enterprise Zones
(page 439). The Swansea EZ included five parks
-the Enterprise (commerce and light industry),
Figure 19.27 Towards the present: industrial Leisure (recreation facilities), Riverside (heritage
Industry, communica- diversification in a peripheral area and environmental schemes), City (retailing) and
tions and terraced
Steel-making and non-ferrous metal smelting have Maritime (housing and cultural) Parks. The Ford Motor
housing strung along
the valley floor and been maintained, partly due to geographical inertia, Com pa ny took adva ntage of govern m ent incentives
lower valley sides: despite a significant fall in output and workers. As the to build two plants in the region, one of which, at
Rhondda Fawr, centre of gravity for steel-making moved to coastal Bridgend, has been expanded. It was government
looking towards sites, 50 too did the location of the two South Wales policy that built an integrated steelworks at Ebbw
Treorchy, mid-
integrated works, to Llanwern (closed 2001) and Port Vale in 1938, and which closed it in 1979. The future
Glamorgan
Talbot (Figures 19.1 7c and 19.28). Tin plate, using local ofPortTalbot is also in government hands. A policy
steel, is produced atTrostre near Llanelli (the Felindre to decentra lise som e g ove rnment depa rtm ents
works near Swansea closed in 1989), while the Mond has seen vehicle licensing moved to Swansea
nickel works near Swansea is the world's largest and the Royal Mintto Llantrisant (Figure 19.28).
(Figure 19.28). Improvements in communications have included
Figure 19.28
the M4, the Heads of Va lIeys Road, the InterCity rail
The major factor to have affected industry in the
Recentindustrial link, and Cardiff international airport - some of which
development in region in the last 50 years has been government
were financed by EU funds.
SouthWales intervention (or lack of it, depending on your

oil pipeline from

edge of fomer coalfield
Milford Haven to
Llandarcy Brecon Beacons (National Park)
to MSO and o large industrial estate
'-.:: Midland car
industries [illS) nickel-copper smelting

W tin plate

r
M4

Manufacturing industries 571

 The Welsh Development Agency (WDA) was set up
in 1976 'to attract high-quality investment, to help
the growth of Welsh businesses and to improve
the environment' (Figure 19.29). It saw as its main
advertising points:

• a workforce that was skilled (although it needed

retraining for the new-style high-tech industries)

• low labour costs, high productivity and good

labour relations

• a well-developed transport infrastructure with

modern road, rail and air links

• the availability of advanced factory sites with

quality buildings at competitive rates

• a local market, and access to a national and the

international market

figure 19.29
Swansea Enterprise
Park, west Glamorgan
Money has also been spenton landscaping old • low rates and rents for firms wishing to locate in
industrial areas which had been scarred either by either the Development or Intermediate Areas
metal-smelting industries (lower Swansea Valley) or (Figure 19.5)
by slag (EbbwVale) and colliery waste tips (Aberfan- • lower house prices and cost of living than
Case Study 2B).The EbbwVale Garden Festival (1992), south-east England
sited on part ofthe former steelworks, was part of a
• the University of Wales with its five separate
larger scheme aimed at creating new jobs, improving
colleges
housing, renovating old properties and improving
the local environment (page 439). Other schemes, • the Welsh countryside, including the

Figure 19.30
Sony's CTVEuropean
headq uarters at
Pencoed, Bridgend,
occupies a 25 ha site
some funded bytheWDA (see below), include tourist Pembrokeshire Coast and Brecon Beacons
National Parks and 500 km of Heritage Coastline
and cultural facilities such as the Welsh Industrial and
(including the Gower Peninsula), and the
Maritime Museum in Cardiff's newly created Marina
Pembrokeshire Coast footpath.
area and the international sports village in Cardiff Bay.
• the Welsh culture, including music, the
The Cardiff Bay project, environmentally
performing arts and sport.
controversial, was aimed at improving transport
At the beginning of the 21 st century, South Wales
and housing as well as providing jobs and retailing
had a more varied and broad economic base than
and leisure opportunities.
it had ever had before, with both manufacturing
and inward investment growing at a faster rate than
anywhere else in the UK. Of nearly 500 international
companies that had located here, 150 were from
North America (Ford and General Electric), 60 were
German (Bosch) and 50 were Japanese (Sony,
Figure 19.30; Aiwa, Matsushita and Hitachi). Other
companies have come from France, Italy, Singapore,
South Korea and Taiwan. The major types of new
industry include aerospace and defence (six ofthe
world's top ten companies including Airbus and
BAE systems), car assembly (Bridgend), chemicals,
electronics, medical devices, optical equipment,
pharmaceuticals and telecommunications. A recent
addition has been the Amazon (books) distribution
centre at Swansea, which is expected to employ 1200
full-time and 1500 seasonal staff.

572 Manufacturing industries


B formal sector D informal sector
i sector usually
ften witn }
loyment,O
f cturing emp tional firms
ii manu a transna
i employment in army, police and professions
time _ mineral wealth and new
Figure 19.31
Growth in the
Industry in economically less
informal sector developed countries
In cities in economically less developed countries,
the number of people seeking work far outweighs
the number of jobs available. As these cities con-
tinue to grow, either through natural increase
or in-migration, the job situation gets continu-
ally worse. The UN estimates that in developing
countries, on average, only about 40 per cent of
those people with jobs work in the formal sector
(Figure 19.31). These jobs, which are permanent
and relatively well paid, include those offered
by the state (police, army and civil service) or by
overseas-run transnational (multinational) cor-
porations, which are a major feature of globalisa-
tion (Chapter 21). The remaining 60 per cent - a
figure which the UN claims is rising - have to seek
work in the informal sector. The main differ-
ences between the formal and informal sectors are
listed in Figure 19.34.
Transnational (multinational)
corporations
A transnational, or multinational, corporation
is one that operates in many different countries
regardless of national boundaries. The head-
quarters and main factory are usually located
in an economically more developed country.
Although, at first, many branch factories were in
economically less developed countries, increas-
ingly there has been a global shift to the more
affluent markets of Europe, North America,
Japan and South Korea. Transnationals (TNCs)
are believed to directly employ nearly SO million
people worldwide and to indirectly influence
an even greater number. It is estimated that the
largest 300 TNCs control over 70 per cent of
Advantages to the country Disadvantages to the country
Brings work to the country and Numbers employed small in com-
useslocal labour parison with amount of investment
LocaI workforce receivesa Locallabourforce usually poorly
guaranteed income paid and have to work long hours
Improves the levels of education Very few local skilled workers
and technical skills of local people employed
Informal
employs over
Brings inward investment and
foreign currency to the country
Most of the profits go overseas
(outflow of wealth)
60 percent
(and is Companies provide expensive Mechanisation reducesthe size of
increasing) machinery and introduce the labourforce
modern technology
GNPgrows lessquickly than that of
Increased gross national product/ the parent company'sheadquarters,
personal income can lead to an widening the gap between devel-
Formal sector increased demand for consumer oped and developing countries
II
usua Y
employs less goods and the growth of new
Raw materials are usually exported
than 40 per industries and services
rather than manufactured locally,
cent
Leadsto the development of and energy costs may lead to a
national debt
energy resources
Money possibly better spent on
Improvements in roads, airports improving housing, diet and
and services sanitation
Prestige value (e.g. Volta Project) Big schemes can increase national
debt (e.g. Brazil)
Widens economic baseof country
Decisionsare made outside the
Some improvement in standards
country, and the firm could pull
of production, health control, and
out at any time
recently in environmental control
Insufficient attention to safety and
health factors and the protection of
the environment
figure 19.32
Advantages and disadvantages of transnational (multinational) corporations
world trade (compared with only 20 per cent
in 1960) and produce over half of its manufac-
tured goods. The largest TNCs have long been
car manufacturers and oil corporations but these
have, more recently, been joined by electronic
and high-tech firms, Several of the largest TNCs
have a higher turnover than all of Africa's G P
in totaL
Transnationals, with their capital and tech-
nology, have the 'power' to choose what they
consider to be the ideal locations for their
factories. This choice will be made at two levels:
the most suitable country, and the most suit-
able place within that country. The choice of
a country usually depends on political factors.
Most governments, regardless of the level of
economic development within their country, are
prepared to offer financial inducements to attract
transnationals which they see as providers of jobs
and a means of increasing exports. (Sony, Figure
19.30, was reputed to have been offered better
inducements to locate at Bridgend rather than in
Barcelona.) Many governments of economically
less developed countries, due to a greater eco-
nomic need, are prepared to impose fewer restric-
tions on transnationals because they often have
Manufacturing industries 573
 to rely on them to develop natural resources, inducements are greatest, land values are low,
to provide capital anel technology (machinery, transport is well developed, and levels of skill and
skills, transport), to create jobs and to gain access unemployment are high (lapanese companies in
to world markets (Places 38). Despite political South Wales, page 572). If the country is economi-
independence, many poorer countries remain cally less developed, the location is more likely to
economically dependent (neo-colonialism) on be in the primate city (page 405), especially if that
the large transnationals (together with inter- city is also the capital or the chief port. A capital
national banks and foreign aid). Some of the city location, with an international airport, allows
advantages and disadvantages of transnational quick access to the companies' overseas headquar-
corporations to developing countries are listed in ters; and a port location enables easier export of
Figure 19:32. manufactured goods. Should several transnational
Transnationals, having selected a country, companies locate in the same area, the multiplier
then have to decide where to locate within that effect (page 569) is likely to result in the develop-
country. If the country is economically devel- ment of a core region (Places 98, page 618).
oped, the location is likely to be where financial

. Places 88 Pune, India: a hub for transnationals

figure 19.33 that of Mumbai, being 650 m above sea-level, which
to N
Location of Pune makes it less humid, and, lying in the rain shadow

t
Delhi
inIndia to the east of the Western Ghats, it receives only
Nagpur
650 mm of rain a year compared with Mumbai's
MAHARASHTRA 2200 mm (Figure 9.57).

to Pune's universities produce large numbers of

Kolkata skilled graduates and Mercedes-Benz founded
an international school for professional people
frorn overseas. The state of Maharashtra is viewed
positively as a manufacturing and commercial
centre as it is less prone to industrial strikes and
corruption which affect other parts of India. Other
Bay or favourable factors that are important when trying
Indian Bengal to attractTNCs include its good health care service
Ocean and a reliable supply of water and electricity.

Bangalore Pune has also benefited from the setting up, in

Pune, a city of 5 million inhabitants, lies 150 km
south-east of Mumbai in the western coastal state of
Maharashtra.lt is known as the 'Oxford ofthe East; as
it has nine universities, and The Detroit of India' due
to the presence of numerous global car TNCs.lts rapid
industrial growth has partly been dueto congestion,
pollution, lack of space and exceptionally high
property prices in nearby Mumbai (population 18.2
million), as well as to its own advantages.
Pune has good transport links, especially with the
port and financial centre of Mumbai. It is also on
the'Golden Quadrilateral; a four-lane expressway
that links Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi and
Mumbai, as well as being on a main rail line and
having its own airport. Its climate is healthier than
1960, ofthe Maharashtra Industrial Development
Corporation (MIDC) which offers business
incentives that include exemptions from electricity
duty and stamp duty, refund on Octroi (a tax
applied to goods entering and leaving an area) and
special financial help, together with interest rate
subsidies for the textile industry - incentives that
are not available in Murnbai. Among the TNCs that
have located in and around Pune are automotive
corporations (Daimler-Chrysler, Fiat, General
Motors, Mercedes-Benz, Skoda, Tata Motors and
Volkswagen), electrical companies (Panasonic,
Philips, Siemens and Whirlpool), technology centres
(Barclays, H5BC and John Deere) and outsourcing
call centres (Next and British Gas).

The informal sector 'This sector covers a wide variety of activities

A large and growing number of people with meeting local demands for a wide range of goods
work in developing countries have found or and services. It contains sole proprietors, cottage
created their own jobs in the informal sector industries, self-employed artisans and even
(Figure 19.34). moonlighters. They are manufacturers, traders,

574 Manufacturing industries

 transporters, builders, tailors, shoemakers,
Formal Informal
mechanics, electricians, plumbers, flower-sellers
Description Employee of a large firm Self-employed
and many other activities. The [Kenyan] govern-
Often a transnational Small-scale/family enterprise ment have recognised the importance of these
small-scale jua kali enterprises [Places 89 J and a
Much capital involved Little capital involved
few commercial banks are beginning to extend
Capital-intensive with relatively few workers; Labour-intensive with the useof very few tools loans to these new entrepreneurs who are them-
mechanised selves forming co-operatives. There are many
Expensiveraw materials Using cheap or recycled waste materials advantages in developing these concerns. They
A guaranteed standard in the final product Often a low standard in quality of goods
use less capital per worker than larger firms; they
tend to use and recycle materials that would
Regular hours (often long) and wages Irregular hours and uncertain wages otherwise be waste; they provide low-cost, prac-
(often low)
tical on-the-job training which can be of great
Fixedprices Pricesrarely fixed and so negotiable (bartering) value later in more formal employment; and, as
Jobs done in factories Jobs often done in the home (cottage industry) they are flexible, they can react quickly to market
or on the streets changes. Their enterprising spirit is a very impor-
Government and transnational help No government assistance tant national human resource.'
Central Bank of Kenya
Legal Often outside the law (ilIegaI)
The governments of several developing coun-
Usually males Often children and females
tries now recognise the importance of such local
Type of job Manufacturing: both local and transnational Distributive (street peddlers and small stalls) ventures as Kenya's [ua kali which, apart from
companies creating employment, provide goods at afford-
Government -created jobs such asthe police, Services (shoe cleaners, selling clothes and able prices. India, for example, encourages the
army and civiI service fruit) growth of co-operatives to help family con-
Small-scale industry (food processing, dress- cerns, under the 'Small Industries Development
making and furniture repair) Organisation', by setting up district offices that
Advantages Usessome skilled and rnany low-skilled Employs many thousands of low-skilled offer technical and financial advice. Under its
workers workers Development Plans, the manufacture of 600
Provides permanent jobs and regular wages Jobs may provide some training and skills products will be exclusively reserved for small
which might lead to better jobs in the future firms and family enterprises.
Producesgoods for the more wealthy {food, Any profit will be usedwithin the city: the
Children, many of whom may be under the
cars) within their own country sothat profits products will be for local use by the lower-paid age of 10, form a significant proportion ofthe
may remain within the country people in formal-sector workers. Very few of them have
Waste materials provide raw materials for the Useslocal and waste materials schools to go to and, from an early age, they go
informa Isector onto the streets to try to supplement the often
Figure 19.34 meagre family income. They may try to earn
money by shining shoes or selling items such as
Diffe rencesbetween
sweets, flowers, fruit and vegetables.
'formal' and 'informal'
sectors
Nairobi, Kenya: jua kali workshops

Jua kali means 'under the hot sun: Although there are
many smaller JUG kali in Nairobi,the largest is near
to the bus station where, it is estimated, over 1000
workers create jobs for themselves (Figure 19.34).
The plot of land on which the metal workshops have
been built measures about 300 m by 100 m.The first
workshops were spontaneous and built illegallyas
their owners did not seek permission to use the land,
which did not belong to them. Asmore workshops
were set up and the site developed, the government
was faced with the option of either bulldozing the
temporary buildings, as governments had done to
shanty settlements in other developing countries,
or encouraging and supporting local initiative.
Realisingthat the informal workshops created jobs in
a city where work was hard to find, the government
opted to help. The Prime Minister himself became
personally involved by organising the erection of
huge metal sheds which protected the workers from
the hot sun and occasional heavy rain.
Groups of people are employed touring the city
collecting scrap. The scrap is melted down, in
charcoal stoves, and then hammered into various
shapes including metal boxes and drums, stoves
and other cooking utensils, locks and water barrels,
lamps and poultry water troughs (Figure 19.35).
Most ofthe workers are under 25 and have had
at least some primary education. The technology

Manufacturing industries 575

 they use is appropriate and sustainable, suited to
their skillsand the availability of raw materials and
capital. Most of the products are sold locally and at
affordable prices.

It isestimated that there are approximately 600 000

people engaged in 350 000 small-scalejua kali
enterprise units in Kenya.Thisfigure needs to be
compared with the 180000 recorded as employed in
large-scale manufacturing and the 2.2 milliontotal
in all areas of the non-agricultural economy.Jua kali
form, therefore, a most significant part of the total
employment picture.

Figure 19.35
Jua kali workshops
Intermediate (appropriate) technology makes people dependent, but the gift of know-
ledge makes them free - provided it is the right
Dr E.F.Schumacher developed the concept of
kind of knowledge, of course.'
intermediate technology as an alternative
To illustrate this he quoted an old proverb:
course for development for poor people in the
'Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day;
1960s. He founded the Intermediate Technology
teach him how to fish and he can feed himself
Development Group (!TDG) in 1966, now
for life.'
renamed Practical Action, and published his ideas
The first part of this might be seen as the tradi-
in a book, Small is Beautiful (1973). Schumacher
tional view of aid where 'giving' leads to depend-
himself wrote:
ency. The second part, 'teaching', is a move in
'If you want to go places, start from where
the direction of self-sufficiency and self-respect.
you are.
Schumacher added a further dimension to the
If you are pOOI, start with something cheap.
proverb by saying: 'teach him to make his own
If you are uneducated, start with something
fishing tackle and you have helped him to
relatively simple.
become not only self-supporting but also self-
If you live in a poor environment, and
reliant and independent'.
poverty makes markets small, start with some-
In most developing countries, not only are
thing small,
high-tech industries too expensive to develop,
If you are unemployed, start using labour
they are also usually inappropriate to the
power, because any productive use of it is
needs of local people and the environment in
better than letting it lie idle.
which they live. Examples of intermediate,
In other words, we must learn to recognise
or appropriate technology as it is now known
boundaries of poverty.
(Places 90), include:
A project that does not fit, educationally and
• labour-intensive projects; since, with so many
organisationally, into the environment, will be
people already being either unemployed or
an economic failure and a cause fOT disruption.'
underemployed, it is of little value to replace
In 1988 the ITDG stated that:
workers by machines
'Essentially, this alternative course for develop-
• projects encouraging technology that is sus-
ment is based on a local, small-scale rather than
tainable and the use of tools and techniq ues
the national, large-scale approach. It is based on
designed to take advantage of local resources
millions of low-cost workplaces where people
of knowledge and skills
live - in the rural areas - using technologies that
• the development of local, low-cost schemes
can be made and controJled by the people who
using technologies which local people can
use them and which enable those people to be
afford, manage and control rather than
more productive and earn money.'
expensive, imported techniques
These ideas Challenged the conventional views
• developing projects that are in harmony with
of the time on aid. Schumacher said:
the environment.
'The best aid to give is intellectual aid, a gift of
useful knowledge ... The gift of material goods

Manufacturing i~d~·~~~;~·~···············
........................ .
576
 Kenya: Practical Action projects
Practical Action (formerly known as ITDG-
see page 576) is a British charitable organisation
that works with people in developing countries,
especially those living in rural areas, by helping
them to acquire the tools and skills needed if
they are to raise themselves out of poverty and
meet the UN's Millennium Development Goals
(page 609). Practical Action helps people to meet
their basic needs of food, clothing, housing, energy
and jobs. It also uses,and adds to, local knowledge
by providing technical advice, training, equipment
and financial support so that people can become,
in Schumacher's words, 'more self-sufficient and
independent' (page 576). Although Practical Action
operates globally, the following examples are taken
from Kenya.They are all:
• suitable for the local environment (local raw
materials and climate)
• appropriate to the wealth, skills and needs of
the local people.
Improved building materials include roofing
tiles that are made from a mix of cement, sand
and water (and sometimes a pigment if a
different colour is required). They are left in their
moulds for a day to cure (but not to dry), placed
in a reservoir of water for a week and finally
covered with plastic, as a protection against
the hot sun, and allowed to dry slowly for three
weeks. They are cheaper than commercially
produced tiles, as they do not need firing, and
lighter (Figure 19.36).
2 In another scheme, lime and natural fibres are
added to soil to produce 'soil blocks'. Soil is
important because it can be obtained locally,
can easily be compressed and, once heated,
Figure19.36
Roofing tiles
Figure 19.37
New cooking
stoves
retains its heat. Soil blocks are replacing the
more expensive concrete blocks and industrially
produced bricks.
3 Other projects have helped to improve
ventilation and lighting in existing houses.
Traditionally, most Kenyan women cooked on
wooden stoves in houses that had no chimneys
and few windows. The result was a smoky and
unhealthy atmosphere. To reduce reliance on
wood and charcoal, which may be difficult and/
or expensive to obtain, and to improve living
conditions, Practical Action has helped to train
potters to produce two types of improved
cooking stoves (Figure 19.37):the monda/eo for
wood-burning stoves in rural areas, which are
made from ceramic; and thejiko for charcoal-
burning stoves in urban areas, which are made
from recycled scrap metal, often in juo kali
workshops (Places89), to which potters add
a ceramic lining. The new stoves, based on
traditional designs, reduce smoke, improve
women's health and pay for themselves within
a month. They also reduce the amount of time
rural families have to spend collecting firewood
(page 543) and the cost that urban families
have to pay for charcoal, and help to conserve a
rapidly declining natural resource.
4 PracticalAction hasalso helped the Maasai
improve their houses.This hasbeen done by
adding a thin layer of concrete reinforced with
chicken wire overt he old mud roof; adding a
gutter and down pipe which leadsto a water
barrel (saving a likely long trek to the nearest river,
Figure 21.11);and adding a small window and
chimney cowl to make the inside of the house
lighter and lesssmoky,which improves health.
Manufacturing industries 577
 Newly industrialised countries • encouraging the processing of primary prod-
ucts, as this added value to their exports
(NICs)
• investing in manufacturing industry, initially
Newly industrialised countries (NICs) is a term by developing heavy industries such as steel
applied to a select group of developing countries and shipbuilding, and later by concentrating
that, over the last three or four decades, have on high-tech products
sustained a high rate of economic growth (Figure • encouraging transnational firms to locate
19.38). They have out-performed all the more within their boundaries (many countries now
developed countries, mainly due to their competi- have their own TNCs)
figure 19.38 tive edge in manufacturing. Although Brazil and • grouping together to form ASEAN (Figure 21.34)
Mexico were among the first NICs, most are located to promote, among other aims, economic
Annualeconomicgrowth
growth
rate (%) - NICsineastern in eastern Asia. Encouraged by Japan's success, gov-
Asiaandthe emerging ernments in other countries in Asia's Pacific Rim set • having a dedicated workforce that was reli-
countries out to improve their standard of living by: able and, initially, prepared to work long
hours for relatively little pay
1981-90 1991-2000 2001-05 2007 • long-term industrial planning.
NICs HongKong 7.1 4.7 4.3 6.8 The term 'tiger economies' was first given to
Indonesia 6.3 4.3 4.7 Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan
5.6
because of their ferocious growth after 1970.
Japan 4.1 1.3 1.4 2.7
This growth continued during the 1980s at a
Malaysia 5.1 7.2 4.5 5.9 time when economic growth in the developed
Philippines l.1 3.0 4.7 5.4 world was slowing down. Since then, Malaysia
Singapore 7.0 7.7 4.0 7.9 (the most successful, Places 91), Thailand and,
to a lesser exten t, Indonesia and the Philippines,
SouthKorea 10.1 6.1 4.5 5.0
have also emerged as NICs. The latest, and
Taiwan 5.2 6.5 3.2 4.7
likely to be the largest if it maintains its present
Thailand 7.6 4.5 5.1 5.0 unprecedented rate of growth, is China (Case
Emerging countries China 9.5 10.5 9.5 10.7 Study 19). China and India together have
3.1 become known as the emerging countries.
India 4.5 5.1 5.0

Malaysia: a newly industrialised country

Until the 1980s, Malaysia's economy was based
on primary products such as rubber and
palm oil (Places 68, page 483), timber (Places 76,
page 520), tin (Places 79, page 523) and oil
(Figure 19.39a). The government at that time
proclaimed its vision of Malaysia becoming a
fully developed and industrialised nation by the
year 2020. Since then the country has emerged
as the leader of the second wave of Asian 'tiger
economies: averaging - between 1990 and
Figure 19.39
mid-1997 - an annual growth rate of 8 per cent.
This allowed the World Bank to classify Malaysia
as an 'upper middle income country: no longer a
developing country. This was achieved without
high inflation or unmanageable foreign aid.
Malaysia's economic development was based
on its pivotal position as a gateway to ASEAN
(Figure 21.34), it being a springboard to eastern
Asia, its affordable land and liberal investment rules,

Malaysia's
changingexports, rubber 1.2%
1970and2008
others 7.9%

textiles and
clothing 1.8%
petroleum_
manufactured and natural
goods 15.2% gas 12.5%

palm oil and

palm oil
products 7.5%
other
manufactured
goods 15.8%

578 Manufacturing industries

Figure 19.40
and its encouragement, through tax incentives,
Carassembly for transnationals to locate there. The country's
(Proton)
industrial strategy emphasised the development
of high-value goods for the domestic market and
export (e.g. cars) and the encouragement of high-
tech industries (e.g. electronics - Figure 19.39b).
In 1985, the government founded the Proton car
company, initially in conjunction with Mitsubishi
(Figure 19.40) and in 1995, the Perodua company, in
partnership with Daihatsu.
During the 1980sand 1990s,industry was confined
to specifically designed areassuch asthe new town
of ShahAlam. This policy was good environmentally
asonly certain tracts of primary forest or farmland
were used, but had the social disadvantage of
concentrating jobs and development within a few
core places (page 617 and Places98).Asfirms newly
locating in ShahAlam need not pay taxes for 10 years,
then many of the world's better-known transnationals,
together with Proton, located there.
The government had also, during the early 1990s,
invested less money in industries that required
large workforces and more in those where the
emphasis was on technology. Its Technology Action
Plan covered micro-electronics, biotechnology and
information technology (Figure 19.41).
The Second Industrial Plan,which operated between
1996 and 2005, focused on the manufacturing sector
and R&D (research and development), together
with the integration of support industries. The plan
concentrated on the production of electrical and
electronic goods (including IT and multimedia),
oleochemicals (from palm oil, timber and rubber),
chemicals (petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals),
transport equipment, machinery, and high-value
textiles and clothing.
Figure 19.44
Bythe mid-2000s, an extensive road system linked
Kuala Lumpur (the financial and commercial New high-
techindustry,
centre), Putrajaya (the new seat of government),
Shah Alam (the industrial new town), Port Klang Penang
(the chief port) and Westport (with its new
deepwater ocean terminal), Sepang (the new
international airport) and Subang (the old airport
now mainly used for domestic flights). The country
had also completed a series of expensive 'prestige'
projects including, in Kuala Lumpur, the twin
PetronasTowers (l 998), a three-line light rail transit
system (LRT)and a'linear city' (a 2 km long, 10
storey high structure comprising shopping malls,
hotels, restaurants, apartments and offices).
The Third Industrial Master Plan (IMP3) is to operate
between 2006 and 2020. Its main objective is
'to achieve long-term global competitiveness
through transformation and innovation of
the manufacturing and service sectors: The
government has targeted:
• six non-resource based manufacturing industries
- electrical and electronics, medical devices,
textiles and apparel, machinery and equipment,
metals and transport equipment
• six resource-based manufacturing industries-
petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, wood-based,
rubber-based, oil palm based and food processing
• eight services sub-sectors -logistics, business
and professional, ICT,distributive trade,
construction, education and training, healthcare
and tourism.
The plan was introduced with a predicted average
economic growth of 6.3 per cent per annum
(compare Figure 19.38) and, during that period, a
threefold increase in trade - but that was before the
global recession of 2008.
Manufacturing industries 579
Opening up to the
outside world
In 1979the Chinese government made
several monumental decisions including
replacing the commune system with the
responsibility system, initially in farming
(Places 63, page 468) and then in industry,
together with the implementation of both
the one-child policy (CaseStudy 13) and the
open-door'policy which allowed trade with
the outside world. The following year, China
established five Special Economic Zones
(SEZs) in Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shantou
in Guangdong Province, Xiamen in Fujian
Province and the whole ofHainan island
(Figure 19.42).According to the Chma Business
Handbook, the SEZs:'integrate science
and industry with trade, and benefit from
preferential policies and special economic
managerial systems intended to facilitate
exports. The SEZsalso offer preferential condi-
tions to foreign investors by granting them
more favourable rates than in inland areas,
and relaxing entry and exit procedures for
business people. SEZsaim to attract foreign
investment, to import advanced techniques,
keep up to date with trends and activity in
international markets, to expand export trade,
to stimulate foreign exchange earnings, to
facilitate participation in international eco-
nomic and technological co-operation, and
to provide a training ground for scientific and
technological personnel specialising in inter-
national economics and trade'.
In 1984, China opened 14coastal cities
to overseas investment. These open cities
(Figure 19.42),as they are known, were given
the dual roleaf being'windows'opening to
the outside world and 'radiators' spreading
economic development inland in an export-
oriented economy. The economic and tech-
nological development zones that were set
up within these open cities became such hot-
spots for overseas investment that in 1985 the
state decided to expand the SEZsand open
cities to form one continuous coastal belt.
Five years later, several additional open cities
were created along the Yangtze River,as far as
Chongqing (Figure 21.24).When the Pudong
New Zone was established in 1990 it meant
that, with Pudong acting asthe 'dragon's head'
(reflectlnq the shape of the river), a chain of
open cities extended up the Yangtze Valley.
Pudong
The development of Pudong, along with
Shenzhen, must rank as the world's fastest-
growing area, with huge commercial,
industrial and residential zones together
with a modern transport system (Case
Study 15B and Figure 19.44). Since Pudong's
development was first announced in 1990,
when it was little more than an area of padi
fields, it has been a New Open Economic
Development Zone. It has emerged, in
less than two decades, as China's financial
and commercial hub, being home to the
Shanghai World's Financial Centre and
the Shanghai Stock Exchange as well as
the LujiazuiTrade and Finance Zone, the
Waigaoqiao FreeTrade Zone, the Jinqiao
Export Processing Zone and the Zhangjiang
Hi-tech Park.Perhaps the most spectacular
feature of Pudong's growth, at least to
the visitor, be it for business or pleasure.
is the skyline viewed across the river from
Shanghai itself (Figure 19.43). In 1990 the
Chinese saw Pudong as the engine pulling
Shanghai into position as a major interna-
tional economic, financial and trade centre-
a vision that seems to have been fulfilled.

Official planning regions

o Western
o Central
D Eastern coast Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

.1 Xiamen
.2 Shantou
.3 Shenzhen
Beijing
•• .4
.5
Zhuhai
Hainan Island
South Korea Major economic growth regions

Xi'an e
.. "\ 1 South Coast
I
Nanjing \ ~ 2 Taiwan Straits
(Yangtze) .J... Shanghai
Japan
3 Liaoning
\\(}{\o,. .r 4__ •
4 Yangtze river valley
o.0~J Chongqing (late 19905)
,<J'
I , • open city (14)
\...-1 )

0) IT'i~"
«.
• main city
• 3 2 TO,
Figure19.42 4.\~· ~
see Figure 19.45
Recentindustrial • Hong Kong
developmentin China 5 •

580 Manufacturing industries

 Special Economic Zones and open coastal cities in China Case Study 19

Shenzhen
Before 1989, when it became a Special
Economic Zone, Shenzhen was a group of
small fishing villages surrounded by padi
fields (Figure 19.47). It had a population of
20000. By 1997, this population had risen
to 3.8 million and by 2006 it was given as
8.46 million, making it the world's 27th
largest city (Figure 19.48). The average age
is under 30. The workforce can be divided
into two polarised groups: those who have
had a high level of education (20 per cent
of China's PhDs are said to work here), and
the majority, many of whom are migrants
from surrounding rural provinces, with little
education. Added to this are over 7000 daily
commuters from Hong Kong.
Shenzhen was chosen as an SEZdue to
its coastal location for trade, its deep natural
harbours, its proximity to the financial and
commercial centre of Hong Kong (then
still a British colony and with which it has a
similar culture), its plentiful supply oflabour
(which is adaptable but cheaper than in
other Asian NICs) and its low land values
(rents are halfthose in Hong Kong). It has
benefited from financial incentives offered
by the Chinese government and from over
US$30 billion invested by overseas TNCs for
the building offactories and in forming joint
ventures. The SEZcomprises four ofthe seven
districts (397 km2) that make up Shenzhen
(Figure 19.45). Nanshan (164 km2), with its
Science and Technology Park, is the focus for
high-tech industries and foreign companies.
Futian (78 km2) isthe trading centre and
includes the Stock Exchange and the munic-
Shenzhen Special " .. '. ".' 11:-\ railway ipal government building. Luohu (79 km2)
Economic Zone to Shanghai and \. ,........ ". N is the financial and commercial centre with
Guangzhou t districts
the new People's Bank of China. Yantian (76
.. T... 2 Nanshan
1
Futian
km2) isthe centre for logistics as well as being

••
3 Luohu China's second biggest and the world's fourth
largest deepwater container terminal.
)' Since its inception, Shenzhen has focused

II 3
on selective industries which include com-
puter software, IT,microelectronics and
J1p components, video and audio products and
Pearl River
Estuary

SW;"\
Administrative
Region (
)
electro-mechanical integration. More recently,
new industries, such as pharmaceuticals,
medical equipment and biotechnology, have
grown rapidly. At present. electronics and tel-
ecoms equi pment is the largest ind ustry with,
~~o OHo~gi for example, over 100 million handsets for

r .. ~~o K~n.g o 10km

mobile phones being manufactured in 2007.
There are over 200 R&D

Manufacturing industries 581

19 Case Study Special Economic Zones and open coastal cities in China

organisations within the SEZ,many having

Figure 19.47
strong links with inland universities.TNCs
located here include Sanyo, Hitachi,
Matsushita (all Japanese), IBM (American),
Siemens (German) and GreatWal1 (China)
togetherwith,from the retail sector, over 5000
companies producing goods forWal-Mart
(Figure 19.46). Shenzhen has the largest man-
ufacturing base in the world as well as being
a powerhouse in the economy of China -and
all in less than 20 years! But success rarely
comes without its problems and Shenzhen
has these in the form of an unreliable elec-
tricity supply, insufficient clean water, difficult
d isposa I of waste and uneasy labour relations.

Figure 19.46
Wal-Mart'sShenzhen base
Wal-Mart is the world's largest
retailer by far, In 2004. the
company had 4900 stores
worldwide and its 1.6 million
sales assistants sold goods to
some l38 million customers.
But where do the products it
sells come from? For many of
the non-perishable consumer
goods on the store shelves,
such as toys, clothes and
electronics, the answer is
increasingly likely to be China.
In 2004, Wal-Man sourced
US '18 billion worth of goods
from China, representing 3 per
cent of that country's exports,
The huge sourcing operation is
run from Wal-Mart's overseas
procurement office located in
Shenzhen in the southern
Guangdong province. from
which the retailer has
established ongoing supply
Figure 19.48
relations with over 5000 local Today, Shenzhen isa
companies. Individual city of tower blocks
companies can do huge
amounts of business with
Wal-Mart. Guangdong's Yili
Electronics Group, for
example, started supplying
hi-fi systems in 1995, and now
supplies Wal-Mart with over
US$200 million worth of
goods each year, accounting
for half its sales.
Wal-Man sources iLSgoods
from China because labour
costs there rue just 4 per cent of
those in the USA. This means
that a product can be
manufactured in China,
packaged, shipped around the
world, sold to American or
European consumers and still
return a decent profit for both
manufacturer and then retailer
[page 6431·

Adapted from EconomicGeography (Blackwell, 2007)

Further reference
Barl<e,M. and O'Hare, G. (1991) The Third ~ASsisted
World, Oliver & Boyd.
Coe, N.M., Kelly P.P. and Yeung, H.W.C.
(2007) Economic Geography, Blackwell.
Malaysia Official Yearbook 2008.
Schumacher, E.F. (1993) Small is Beautiful,
Vintage.
Areas in the UK: Statistics Singapore:
www.berLgov.uk/whatwedo/regional! www.singstat.gov.sg/
assisted-areas/index.html UK labour market statistics,
CIA World Fact Book, employment manufacturing:
structures: w\o\'W.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/SearchRes.
www.odci.gov/cia/publications/ aspztermernanufacturtng
factbook/index.html UK Office for National Statistics
Practical Action: (NOMIS), official labour market
www.itdg.org statistics: (searchable)
Statistics Bureau and Statistics Centre www.nomisweb.co.uk/Default.asp
ofJapan: UK steel statistics:
www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm www.eef.org.uk/uksteel/publications/
steel/data/public/UK_Steel_Key _
Statistics_2008.htm
 Questions & Activities

Activities
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1 a i What is'manufacturing industry'? (1 mark) 3 a Study the diagram below. It shows some of the
ii 'With the shift from an industrial to a post- factors that influence the location of manufacturing
industrial society it is sometimes unrealistic to industry.
try to draw clear boundaries between
"manufacturing"and "services"'. Raw materials

Explain the problems that led to this statement.

(2 marks) Power supply ~
•
Factory ..- Labour
iii Explain why the proportion of the UK'spopulation
in secondary employment has fallen so sharply in
recent years.
b The number of people employed in manufacturing has
(6 marks)
•
Market

Give one example of an industry where the most

not fallen evenly across the country. important factor influencing its location is:
Name an area where a loss of manufacturing jobs raw materials
has caused a serious local unemployment problem. ii power supply
(1 mark)
iii labour supply
ii Explain what caused the loss of manufacturing iv accessto market.
jobs in that area. (3 marks)
For each example you have given, explain why that
iii Describe a strategy that has been used to create factor is so important. (12 marks)
new employment opportunities in that area.
Assessthe success of the strategy. (6 marks) b What is meant by:

c The gender structure of the workforce in the UK has • footloose industry?

changed rapidly since 1960. Describe and account • greenfield site?
for the changes. (6 marks) ii Name an example of a footloose manufacturing
industry that has located on a greenfield site.
2 a i What are 'high-tech industries'? (2 marks)
Suggest why that site was a suitable location
ii It has been noted that firms involved in high- for that industry. (5 marks)
tech industries often have two quite distinct c i What is'inward investment'? (7 mark)
parts to their operations. These are:
ii Choose an example of a factory that has been
•research and development
built by a foreign-based company investing in
•mass manufacturing. the UK. Suggest why that company chose to
Suggest why these two separate parts ofthe invest in the UK, and why that particular location
industry often locate in different places. (3 marks) was suitable for its investment. (7 marks)

b Name one area where a concentration of

research and development centres for high-
tech industry has developed. (1 mark)
ii Explain why the area you named in i is attractive
to this industry. (9 marks)
c i Name one area where mass production for the
high-tech industry has developed quite separately
from research and development. (1 mark)
ii Explain why the area you named in c i is attractive
to this industry. (9 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

••• ., •• e _ ••••• ., •••••••.•••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

4 a i Name a region in the UK that has suffered b The government has developed several policies
unemployment as a result of the decline of its to try to attract new industry into regions that have
traditional manufacturing industry. (1 mark) suffered the loss of their traditional industry.
ii Explain why the traditional industry developed Choose any such government initiative, and describe
in that area and then declined. (8 marks) how it hasaffected anyone area.Assesshow successful
iii Describe the other social and economic problems the initiative has been in attracting new industry. (10marks)
that are found in that area as a result ofthe
unemployment that followed the decline ofthe
traditional industry. (6 marks)

Manufacturing industries 583

 j ' Total transport
costs if the raw
Total transport costs if the raw
material is gross and loses 50% of
material is pure its weight during manufacture
. ~
r
.

Figure 19.49

d How useful is Weber's model to an understanding

of modern indu stria II ocation? Justify your answer. (6 marks)

6 a i Describe three differences between the formal

and the informal economic sectors in economically less
developed countries. (6 marks)
ii Explain why jua kali workshops are very
important in Kenya's economy. (6 marks)
iii 'If governments wish to encourage development
that will benefit the poorer sections of the population,
~ raw material one of the most important actions
they can take is to reduce the rules and regulations which
~ market
hinder the development ofthe informal economy:
-- R1 - isotims (for raw material) Suggest why this is seen to be important. (4 marks)
b Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for less
-- P1 - isotims (for product)
economically developed countries of investment by
transnational companies. You should make specific
references to one or more countries that you have studied.
(9 marks)

7 a In Myrdal's model of industrial location he referred to

5 a In the Weber model of industrial location, what is the'least
'cumulative causation'which is also sometimes called
cost location'? Explain why it is important. (3 marks)
'the multiplier effect: What does this term mean? (4 marks)
b Show, with the aid of diagrams, how the least cost location in
b With reference to the industrialisation of either South
Weber's locational triangle may be:
Wales in the late 19th and early 20th centuries or any other
near to the raw material region with which you are familiar, explain how cumulative
ii near to the market causation helped to cause the development of industry.
iii midway between the raw material and the a
(7 marks)
market. (6 marks) c Myrdal realised that as some areas industrialise this
c Study Figure 19.49, which shows an area with one raw may cause a 'backwash effect' on other regions in
material and one market. Assume two different situations: the country. He na med the areas that were affected
'the periphery: Explain:
X - the raw material is pure
the 'backwash effect' (3 marks)
Y - the raw material loses 50 percent of its weight
during manufacture. ii the'periphery' of a country or region. (3 marks)
Complete a copy ofthe table above to show the d Name an area which could be regarded as part of
total transport costs (in tonne km) for an industry the economic periphery in a country or region that
located at each ofthe sites A-D. (4 marks) you have studied.
ii For each situation, X and Y,describe the least Describe the features that make this area part of
cost location. the economic periphery. (5 marks)
Give reasons for your answer. (6 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
8 a Discuss the problems that have been caused by a 9 Study Figure 19.50.
high concentration of employment in a small number a Referring to Figure 19.50 and your own knowledge,
of industries in the UK. (J marks) a explain why India has become a major centre of
b Explain how one or more government initiatives automobile manufacture. (J a marks)
have been used to try to broaden the base of b Discuss the extent to which the recent growth of
employment. (15 marks) India's manufacturing and service economy have
depended on investment by transnational corporations
(TNCs). (75 marks)

584 Manufacturing industries

 The market for cars in India is growing so quickly that it
seems likely that it will overtake China's sales totals soon.
Sales of passenger car increased by 12.17% to 1.5 million in
the year to March 2008.
India's car industry is concentrated in the region around
Pune, Maharashtra. Plans are that the Pune region will employ
25,000 people in car making in two years.
Volkswagen, General Motors, Tata Motors,
Mercedes-Benz, Fiat and Peugeot already have plants there
and the local Development Corporation is in discussions with
four or five other major international companies seeking land
for new factories. The cost of building a factory here is Box cookers
cheaper than almost anywhere else in the world. Box cookers cook at moderate to high temperatures and
But huge savings are made on manpower - with manual often accommodate multiple pots. Worldwide, they are the
workers in India paid about £1.30 a day. As a result, major car most widespread. There are several hundred thousand in
makers are considering using their India plants for export, India alone.
both for finished cars and components. GM has said it wants
to make India an export hub for small and mid-sized cars
destined to be sold in other emerging markets and Hyundai
plans to make India the sole production centre for its new 120
model, even though it will not be sold domestically.

Figure 19.50

10 Study Figure 19.51. It shows details of solar cookers, an

example of appropriate technology.
a Describe the solar cookers shown here and explain
why they are good examples of appropriate technology Curved concentrator cookers
for use in developing countries of Africa and Asia. Curved concentrator cookers cook fast at high temperatures,
(10 marks)
but require frequent adjustment and supervision for safe
b With reference to one or more examples, explain how operation. Several hundred thousand exist, mainly in China.
appropriate technology can be used to improve the
quality of housing in developing countries. (15 marks)

11 a Describe the main features of Myrdal's theory of

cumulative causation. (10 marks)
b With reference to a named peripheral region in a
country outside the UK:
explain the problems that have been caused
by its peripheral position (5 marks)
ii describe one scheme that has been tried in an
attempt to overcome these problems, and evaluate
its success.
(10 marks)
Panel cookers
Panel cookers are simple and relatively inexpensive to buy
or produce. Solar Cookers International's 'CooKit' is the most
widely used combination cooker.

........................................................................................
Exam practice: essays
12 Changes in technology during the past 30 years have in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.You should refer
had a major effect on industrial location throughout the world. to their effect in both more and lesseconomically developed
Describe the major changes. Explain why they have countries. (25 marks)
taken place and how they have affected the location
14 Account for the developm ent of th e'tiger economies'
of industry. (25marks)
of South-east Asiaand discussthe extent to which they
13 Assessthe importance of transnational corporations can be seen asmodels forthe development of the economies of
in the development of the global pattern ofindustrialisation other developing countries. (25marks)

Manufacturing industries 585

 Tourism
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

'I11the Middle Ages people were tourists because of their
religion whereas now they are tourists because tourism
is their religion.'
Robert Runcie, former Archbishop of Canterbury
'Travel broadens the mind.'
Proverbs
Tourism is an example of a service industry and
as such falls into the tertiary sector, one of the
four major sectors into which economies of
all countries may, for convenience, be divided
(page 552). Individual services may be grouped
as follows:
1 Public services, e.g. electricity and water
companies.
2 Producer services help businesses carry out
their activities, e.g. banking, law and transport.
3 Consumer services are those that have direct
contact with the consumer, e.g. retailing
(Chapter 15) and leisure, recreation and
tourism.
Leisure, recreation and tourism
Figurel0.1
Typesandlocation Leisure is a broad term associated with 'time,
ofvariousleisure
free from employment, at one's own disposal'.
andtouristfacilities
In developed countries, with shorter working
weeks and earlier retirement, many people have
an increasing amount of 'free time' which allows
them to participate in recreational activities.
Recreation refers to activities, events and
pursuits that are undertaken though choice,
e.g. sport, gardening, fireworks displays, bird
watching, video games. An increase in leisure
time generates the demand for additional rec-
reational amenities such as golf courses, country
parks, swimming pools and night clubs. Tourism
involves travel away from home to visit friends
and relations or different places. The official
UK definition is 'a stay away from one's normal
place of residence which includes at least one
night but is less than a year'. The World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO), however, does not
stipulate the 'one night away' so its definition
includes day visitors as tourists, as well as 'busi-
ness tourism'.
The UK travel and tourist industry consists of
a wide variety of commercial and non-commer-
cial organisations that interact to supply prod-
ucts and services to tourists. This often makes
it difficult to differentiate leisure and tourism
from other forms of employment, e.g. a fish and

Rural areas near to urban areas lakes

Forests
nature trails,
orienteering,
forest rangers,
holiday cabins,
holiday villages
<~ Suburbs

Inner city
•• water sports, nature reserves,
ferry operators, hotels,
guest houses, time-share,
caravan and campsites,
souvenir shops, restaurants,
CBD
(Center Pares), hotels, restaurants, cinemas, theatres, cafes, fishing
natu re reserves museums, libraries, castle, cathedral,
urban guide trail, video shops

Mountains bingo halls,guest houses, professional football

walking, climbing,
mountain guides,
ski-instructors, cafes,
youth hostels,
guest houses,
¢:
campsites,
long-distance footpaths,
National Park wardens,
mountain rescue teams
g round, swim ming pools, Ieisure centres, Coasts
industrial museum, cafes, beaches, cliffs, holiday resorts,
neighbourhood parks, cycleways holiday camps, funfairs,
district parks, swimming pools, large playing fields,
nature reserves,
bird sanctuartes.cafes,
gardening, cycleways ~ restaurants, souvenir shops,
hotels, guest houses,
golf courses, country parks, nature trails, historic houses and gardens, caravan and campsites,
castles, theme parks, safari parks, farm holidays and activities, bridleways long-distance footpaths
,,'

586 Tourism
chip shop proprietor in Blackpool sells to both
tourists and residents, while fanners on a Greek
or West Indian island sell their produce to both
local people and hotels.
People with limited income, access to trans-
port or leisure time tend to seek recreational
amenities and activities that are near their
homes. As the majority of British people live in
towns and cities, then most amenities are located
within or near to urban areas (Figures 20.1 and
20.2). People with more leisure time tend to
travel further afield to scenic rural areas, espe-
cially those with added amenities (coasts, moun-
tains and National Parks), to large urban areas
(historical towns and cultural centres), and to
places outside the UK.
As in other areas of their subject, geogra-
phers have tried to classify aspects of tourism
(Framework 7, page 167). One suggested classifi-
cation is:
• by nature of attraction, e.g. coastal, moun-
tains, rivers and lakes, climate, woodland,
flora and fauna, historic heritage buildings
and sites, cruises, retailing, activity centres,
urban and rural
• by length of stay, e.g. weekend break, annual
two-week holiday
• by travel within or beyond national, borders,
e.g. domestic and international
• by type of transport, e.g. caravan, bicycle,
canal boat, cruise liner
• by type of accommodation, e.g. camping,
safari lodge, beach village.
The growth in tourism
The Romans must rank amongst the earliest tour-
ists, as many of their most wealthy families used
to move to their country villas during the hot,
dry summers. By the 18th and 19th centuries,
affluent British people were either visiting spa
towns within England or making the 'Grand
Tour' of Classical Europe, while the less well-off
were beginning to popularise local seaside resorts.
Today tourism has become part of everyday life
and a major source of employment in many
developed countries. Here, the rapid growth of
the tourist industry in the last half-century can be
linked to numerous factors such as greater afflu-
ence (wealth), increased mobility, improvements
in accessibility and transport, more leisure time,
paid holidays, product development and innova-
tions, improvements in technology, changes in
lifestyles and fashion, an increased awareness
of other places and, more recently, the need for
'green' (sustainable) tourism (page 597). These
factors are summarised in Figure 20.3.

consumer's available leisure time

-
~ Q 0
:J \.C
::::J '"
Il>
s it
~. \.C <
Il> ro 0
::;:
m -c ::;: ro ::::J
ro
3 '"
n
ro
ro ~
Q. '"
ro Q.
:;J"
0
Il> ~ ro
""
:J
Q. '"
'< §
~ o·
::::J
::::J
c, -;;;'"

tourism involving
overn ig ht stays
~ :
local
urban
zone

0.25

~
'"<
.. '''''. 0.75 :;
3'
to
5'
::r
o
., 1.5 e
~
'"

... " 3.0

Figure20.2

The recreation/tourism
spatial continuum

Tourism 587
 - People in employment earn high salaries and their disposable income is much greater than it was several decades ago.
Greater affluence
- People in full-time employment also receive holiday with pay, allowing them to take morethan one holiday a year and to travel further.
Greater mobility - The increase in car ownership has given people greater freedom to choose where and when they go for the day, or for a longer period. In
1951, only 1 UK family in 20 had a car. By 2008,75 per cent had at least one car.
- Chartered aircraft have reduced the costs of overseas travel; wide-bodied jets can carry more people and can travel further, bringing
economies of scale.
Improved accessibility and trans- -Improvements in roads, especially motorways and urban by-passes, have reduced driving times between places and encourage people to
port facilities travel more frequently and greater distances.
-Improved and enlarged international airports (although many are still congested at peak periods). Faster trains, e.g. Eurostar. Reduced air
fares. Package holidays.
More leisure time - Shorter working week (although the UK'sis still the longest in the EU)and longer paid holidays (on average 3 weeks a year, compared with
1 week in the USA).
- Flexi-time, more people working from home, and more firms (especially retailing) employing part-time workers.
- An ageing population, many of whom are still active.
Technological developments - Jet aircraft, computerised reservation systems, use of the Internet.

Product development and innova- - Holiday and beach villas, long-haul destinations, package tours.
tion
Changing lifestyles - People are retiring early and are able to take advantage oftheir greater fitness.
- People at work need longer/more frequent rest periods as pressure of work seems to increase.
- Changing fashions, e.g. health resorts, fitness holidays, winter sun.
Changing recreational activities - Slight decline in the'beach holiday' - partly due to the threat of skin cancer.
-Increase in active holidays (skiing, water sports) and in self-catering.
- Most rapid growth since mid-1990s has been in cruise holidays.
-Importance of theme parks, e.g. Alton Towers, Thorp Park, Center Parcs.
- Large number of city breaks.
Advertising and TVprogrammes - Holiday programmes, film and TV sets, magazines and brochures promote new and different places and activities.

'Green' or sustainable tourism - Need to benefit local economy, environment and people without spoilinq the attractiveness and amenities otthe places visited (ecotourism).

figure 20.3
Global tourism Arrivals (millions) %world total
Factors causing
growth in tourism In 2008, the travel and tourism industry France 81.9 9.1
accounted for 8.4 per cent (238 million) of the 2 Spain 59.2 6.6
world's total employment and contributed 9.9
per cent of its GDP. Of total tourist receipts, 3 USA 56.0 6.2
71 per cent was earned by countries in North 4 China 54.7 6.1
America and Europe (Figure 20.4), although
5 Italy 43.7 4.8
this only gave them a very small travel account
surplus. In contrast, the travel account balance 6 UK 30.7 3.4
for developing countries has shown a persist- World 903.0
ently high, and widening, surplus (unlike their
trade balance, page 624), mainly because they are Earners (US$ million) % world total
Figure 20.4
visited by wealthy tourists from developed coun- USA 96.7 11.3
Growth in
tries whereas few of their residents can afford
global tourism, 2 Spain 57.8 6.8
1960-2020 holidays in developed countries (Figure 20.5).
3 France 54.2 6.3
-------actual----:-----> <-forecast-·
4 Italy 42.7 5.0
1600
• MiddleEast 5 China 41.9 4.9
1400- Africa
AsiaandPacific 6 UK 37.6 4.4
1200
Americas
C 1000 World 856.0
Europe
~
'E 800 Spenders (US$ million) % world total
600 Germany 82.9 9.7
400·
2 USA 76.2 8.9
r-,
200 'f1
0
72.3 8.4
'"'" 0
N
3 UK
o-
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 4 France 36.7 4.3
year
5 China 29.8 3.4
................................................................................. Figure20.5 6 Italy 27.3 3.2
588 Tourism
Leading tourist
World 856.0
countries, 2007
 The travel and tourism industry is dynamic,
having to change continually to meet consumer tourist development and
demands and perceptions. Its key features at promotions (tourist boards, tourist
information, guiding services)
present include the following:
• It has a complex structure consisting of a
wide variety of interrelated commercial and STRUCTURE
tourist
non-commercial organisations (Figure 20.6). OFTHE
travel agents attractions
TOURIST
• It is predominantly private-sector led. (multiples, INDUSTRY
(natural, built)
• It is dominated by relatively few large, often independents)
transnational, firms, e.g. tour operators
(Kuoni, Going Places Leisure Travel, Thomas accommodation and catering
(serviced, self-catering)
Cook, Thomson), hotel chains (Marriot,
Sheridan, Holiday Inn), theme parks (Disney)
Figure 20.6
and air operators (BA, American Airlines).
Despite this, the majority of enterprises are Structure ofthe tourist industry
small and medium-sized, often catering for
the local market.
• There is an extensive use of new technologies • It has both a positive and a negative effect on
including data handling, advertising, advance host communities (economic, social and cul-
bookings and the Internet. tural) and local environments (Figure 20.8).
• There was an increase in the number and
range of destinations between 1950, when
UKtourism
the top 15 attracted 98 per cent of interna-
tional arrivals and were mainly based on 'sun, • Number of tourists. In 2007, Britain received
sand and sea', and 2007, when the top 15 des- 32.4 million visitors from overseas while
tinations only received 57 per cent of arrivals. at the same time 66.4 million UK residents
This reflects the emergence of new locations, took their holidays, or a break, outside the
especially in developing countries, and a country. Over one-third of British tourists
demand for a greater range of activities and still went to Spain (14.4 million) and France
experiences. At present, the fastest emerging (10.9 million) but this proportion continues
tourist areas are China and the Middle East. to decline as people look for different places
• It is vulnerable to external pressures such as to visit and activities to do. The same year
currency fluctuations, fuel charges, govern- saw Britain receiving it highest ever number
Figure20.7
ment legislation and international terrorism. of tourists and business visits. Nearly 80 per
Factors affecting the
cent of these came from the EU, although the
growth of the holiday
industry in the UK USA remained the largest single country of
origin of visitors. A record number also came
Factor Specificexamples Exampleofarea or resort from Poland - presumably friends and rela-
1 Transportand • Early resorts (stage-coach), spa towns Bath tives of migrant workers (Places 44, page 369).
accessibility • Watertransport (18th century) Margate • Consumer spending. Tn 2007, UK residents
• Railways Blackpool, Brighton spent £.72.3 million overseas (£7.3 million in
• Car and coach Cornwall, Scottish Highlands
1987) compared with overseas residents who
• Plane Channel Islands
spent £16.0 million in the UK (£.6.3million
2 Scenery • Sandy coasts Margate, Blackpool
• Coasts of outstanding beauty
in 1987) - a deficit on the travel account of
Pembroke, Antri m
• Mountains, lakes and rivers Lake District, Snowdonia £56.3 million (£.1.0million in 1987).
3 Weather • Hot, dry, sunny summers Margate
• Number employed and type of job. Official
• Snow Aviemore figures show that 1.45 million people were
4 Accommodation • Hotelsand boarding house resorts
directly employed in the tourist industry in
Margate, Blackpool
• Hoiiday Co m ps Minehead, Pwllheli Britain in 2007, with an estimated further
• Caravan parks and campsites National and forest parks half million engaged indirectly. The wide
5 Amenities • Culture and historic (castles. cathedrals, York, Edinburgh range of jobs included hotel and catering,
birthplaces) travel agents, coach operators, in entertai n-
• Active amenities (sailing, golf, water-skiing) Kielder, St Andrews ment and as tour guides. Approximately
• Passive amenities (shopping, cinemas) Most resorts 132 000 of these jobs were cJassified as self-
• Theme parks Alton Towers, Chessington
employed.
6 Ecotourism and • Wildlife conservation areas SSSls, natu re reserves
sustai nabi lity • Heritage sites York

Tourism 589
r-
 Positive effects/benefits
Increasesgross domestic product directly and indirectly via the multiplier
effect (see Myrdal, page 569).
Taxeson tourism increase government revenue.
Increased foreign exchange earnings.
Foreign investment.
Createsemployment, including in unskilled occupations; labour-intensive.
Helpsfund new infrastructure, i.e, roads, airports and facilities which local
people can also use.
Stimulates and diversifies economic activity in other sectors -local craft
revival, manufacturers, services and agriculture (the multiplier effect).
May act asaseedbedfor entrepreneurship, with spin-offs into other sectors.
Improves balance of payments through increased trade.
Cultural exchange stimulated with broadening of horizons and reduction of
prejudices amongst tourist visitors and host population.
May enhance role and status of women in society, as opportunity for goals in Increasesrift between 'rich' and 'poor'.
tourism is created and outlook widened.
Encourages education.
Encourages travel, mobility and social integration.
Improves services (electricity and health), transport (new roads, airports)
and widens range of shops and leisure amenities.
May saveaspects of indigenous culture due to tourist interest in them.
Contact with other cultures may enrich domestic culture through new ideas
and customs being introduced.
Encourages contact and harmonious relations between people of
different cultures.
Increasesinternational understanding.
Improved landscaping and architectural standards in resort areas, including
increased local funding for improvement of local housing, etc.
Promotes interest in monuments and historic buildings, and encourages
funding to conserve and maintain them.
May induce tighter environmental legislation to protect environment, i.e.
landscape, heritage sites, wildlife.
Establishment of nature reservesand National Parks;growing tourist interest
and awarenessprotects areasfrom economicand building encroachment
Poor building and infrastructure development - tourist complexes do not
integrate with local architecture.
Figure 20.8
Positive and negative effects of massglobal tourism
590 Tourism
Negative effects/problems
Economic
May divert govemment expenditure from other needy areasof the economy.
Requires government expenditure on tourism.
Over-dependence on outside agencies and some external control on
the economy.
Incomereducedby external leakagesor outflows, e.q.imported food for tourists.
Profits may go overseas.
Overstretches infrastructure.
Spread effects limited and may therefore increase regional inequalities
between tourist growth areas and less developed periphery (page 617).
Diverts labour and resourcesaway from non-tourist regions and may
(particularly) affect peripheral areas, leading to out-migration to tourist
resort opportunities (Places42, page 366).
Labour unskilled and seasonal.
Foreign personnel and firms dominate managerial and higher-paid posts,
reducing opportunities for local people.
Inflated prices for land, housing, food and clothes.
Social
May cause polarisation between population in advancing tourist regions and
lessdeveloped areas, creating a'dual SOCiety'.
Breakdown of traditional family values creates material aspirations.
Breakdown offamilies due to stressbetween younger generation, who are
affected by imported culture, and older members of household - called the
negative demonstration effect.
Social pathology, including an increase in prostitution, drugs and
petty crime.
Increaseshealth risk, e.g. AIDS.
Cultural
Impact of commercialisation may lead to pseudo-cultural activities to
entertain tourists and, at extreme, may causedisappearance or dilution of
indigenous culture _ known as'commodification'.
Masstourism may create antagonism from host population who are
. concerned for traditional values, e.g. dress, religion.
Westernisation of culture, food (McDonalds) and drink (Coca-Cola).
Destruction of natura I environment and wildlife habitat - marine, coastal
and inland.
Excessivepressure leads to air, land, noise, visual and water pollution, and
breakdown in water supplies, etc.
Traffic congestion and pollution.
Clearanceof natural vegetation, loss of ecosystems.
Adapted from a World Tourism Organization classification
 Tourism and the environment
As the demands for recreation and tourism
increase, so too will their impact on other socio-
economic structures in society, scenic areas and
wildlife habitats. Tourists will compete for space
and resources with:
• local people living and working in the area,
e.g. farmers, quarry workers, foresters, water
and river authority employees (Figure 17.4)
National Parks
Areas of Outstanding
D Natural Beauty (AONB)
(England. Wales and
Northern Ireland)
National Scenic
(Scotland)
Heritage Coasts
N (England and Wales)
• other visitors wishing to pursue different
recreational activities, e.g. water skiers, wind-
surfers, anglers and bird watchers all visiting
the same lake.
The development of recreation and tourist facili-
ties creates pressure on specific places and envir-
onments in both urban and rural areas. Places with
special interest or appeal that are very popular
with visitors and which tend to become over-
crowded at peak times are known as honeypots.
Honeypots may include, in urban areas, concert
halls (Albert Hall), museums (Madame Tussaud's),
and historic buildings (Tower of London); and,
in rural areas, places of attractive scenery (Lake
District), theme parks (Alton Towers), and places
of historic interest (Stonehenge). The problem of
Areas overcrowding within certain American National
Parks (Yellowstone), together with congestion on
access roads, has become so acute that permits are
needed for entry and quotas are imposed on areas

t D
--
Designated
Park

Long Distance
(Scotland)
National
(England
National

and
Trails.
and Wales)
Routes.
that are ecologically vulnerable (Case Study 17).
Sometimes planners encourage the develop-
ment of honeypots, especially in British National
Parks and African safari parks, to ensure that
such sites have adequate visitor amenities (car
parks, picnic areas, toilets, accommodation). It is
now widely accepted that leisure amenities and
tourist areas need to be carefully managed if the
maximum number of people are to obtain the
maximum amount of enjoyment and satisfac-
tion (Figure 20.9).
It is possible to identLfy three levels of recrea-
tion and tourism in rural areas.
1 High-intensity areas where recreation is the
major concern (theme parks such as Alton
Towers, honeypots such as at Bowness on
Windermere, and resorts such as Aviemore).
2 Average-intensity areas where there needs to
be a balance between tourism and other land
users, and between recreation and conserva-
tion (Peak District National Park, Places 92).
3 Low-intensity areas, usually of high scenic
value, where conservation of the landscape
and wildlife is given top priority (upland
parts of Snowdonia and the Cairngorms -
Places 94, page 595).
o 150 km Recently there has been a growth in ecotourism
(Places 95, page 598), which aims at safeguarding
Figure 20.9 12 National Parks + 1 designated in England and Wales, 2 in Scotland both natural and built environments, being sus-
Protected areas 36 AONBsin England, 9 in Northern Ireland, 4 in Wales, 1 in England and tainable (Framework 16, page 499), and enabling
inthe UK Wales local people to share in the economic and social
45 National Scenic Areas in Scotland benefits.

15 National Trails in England and Wales + 4 Long Distance Routes in

Scotland
32 Heritage Coastsin England and Wales

Tourism 591
 Places 92 The Peak District: a National Park
Following the passing ofThe National Parks and
Access to the Countryside Act in 1949, the Peak
District became the first National Park in 1951
(Figure 20.9). The Environment Act of 1995, which
set up a National Park Authority to administer the
affairs of each of the National Parks, defined the
purposes of National Parks as:
• conserving and enhancing the natural beauty,
wildlife and cultural heritage, and
• promoting opportunities for the understanding
and enjoyment oftheir special qualities.
National Parks must also foster the economic and
social well-being of local communities. They are
also required to pursue a policy of sustainable
development by which they must aim to improve
the quality of people's lives without destroying the
environment (Framework 16, page 499). Despite
their often spectacular scenery, National Parks
are not owned by the nation nor managed purely
Figure 20.10
for their landscapes and wildlife. They are, rather,
TheWhitePeak:
mainly farmed areas where many people live
LathkillDale
NatureReserve (38000 within the Peak District) and work.
592 Tourism
land use
There are some 800 farms in the Peak District
National Park (PDNP), most of them under
40 ha. Some are owned by the National Trust, water
companies and large landowners, with 70 per cent
run by farmers who need income from a second
job. The PDNP manages 4580 ha of woodland.
There are 55 reservoirs, which supply water to
large urban areas such as Manchester, Leeds and
Sheffield located on the Park's fringes, and 10
quarries, mainly for limestone and fluorspar.
Tourism
About 15.7 million people live within 100 km ofthe
PDNP and, with over 30 million day visits each year, it
is the world's second most visited National Park (after
Mount Fuji in Japan). The Park is divided, scenically,
into two - the attractive'White Peak'consisting of
Carboniferous limestone (page 196 and Figure 20.10)
and the Dark Peak, which is a Millstone Grit moorland
(page 201 and Figure 20.11). The result of an earlier
survey asking people why they visited the Peak District
and which were their favourite attractions, is given
in Figure 20.12. Estimates suggest that tourism here
directly provides 500 full-time, 350 part-time and 100
seasonal jobs, as well as many others indirectly (people
working in shops and other service industries).
Reason (%)
Scenery!landscape!sightseeing 61
Outdooractivities/walking 56
Enjoyedpreviousvisit 39
Peaceandquiet 31
Easyto getto 26
Newplaceto visit 17
Specificevent/attraction 16
Comeeveryyear 9
Ownsecondhome/caravan
inarea 6
Others 14
MostpopularareasofthePeakDistrictNationalParkare:
• Bakewell, with interestingbuildingsandabusymarket.
• Chatsworth, homeofthe Dukeof Devonshire.
• Dovedale, aspectacular limestonedale.
• Hartington village andEyam, theplaguevillage.
• Goyt Valley anditsreservoirs.
• Hope Valley andthevillageof Castleton.
• Upper Derwent andtheLadybower andDerwentReservoirs.
Figure 20.12
WhypeoplevisitthePeakDistrictNationalPark
 Conservation
National Parks were set up with the specific
purpose of protecting areas of natural beauty
in the countryside. Today, although facilities for
suitable types of recreation (walking, climbing and
fishing) are an important part ofthe National Parks,
the aims of conservation have to take priority. By
conservation, the National Parks mean 'keeping
and protecting a living and changing environment;
which, in the case ofthe Peak District, is:
• The Nearly Natural Landscapes which include the
gritstone moorland ofthe Dark Peak and the
limestone heaths and dales of the White Peak.
These areas include Sites of Special Scientific
Interest (55515), which cover 35 per cent of the
National Park, and National Nature Reserves
(NNRs), both managed by English Heritage, as
well as Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs)
which are supervised by DEFRA (Figure 16.54),
and farms engaged in the Environmental
Stewardship Scheme (ESS)(page 496).
• The Not So Natural Landscapes which have
resulted from farming and mineral extraction.
• TheBuilt Landscape which includes villages,
ha m lets, listed b ui Idi ngs and archaeolog icaI
sites. The PDNP Authority has control over the
erection of new properties, the range of building
figure 20.13 materials and the ability to create Conservation
EnhancementProject Areas in villages that include places of historic or
in EyamSquare architectural interest (Figure 20.13).
ThePDNPManagement
Plan,2006-11
The PDNP has identified four main land use conflicts
to which it has suggested ways forward:
• conservation and farming - farmers to manage
land in traditional ways and be given grants for
conservation work
• conservation, water supply and recreation
-limit fishing, sailing and other activities to
specific reservoirs
• conservation and tourism - more robust
footpaths and use offormer railway tracks; new
footpaths, cycle tracks and bridleways; siting of
car parks to spread visitors over a wider area
• conservation and mineral extraction-
screening and restoration to be part ofthe
mining process.
The latest PDNP Management Plan is for 2006-11.
Its vision is underpinned by two main principles:
• partnership working
• sustainable development.
The headings and sub-headings forthis plan, which
can be seen in full on the PDNP website, are listed in
Figure 20.14.
A Sodal drivers
a Theneed[0 bulld~0hesive
communitie.s
b Liste~ingto,involvingandengaging@mmunities
( ~heneeafor peopleto havedecentandaffordablehomes
d Beingpr@aaiveinprovidingoppo.rtunities
for recreation
e Theneedfor peopleto adopthealthi!!Jlifestyles
f lbl?needforslJstainable
improvementstoHavel
B Technologicaldrivers
a Mobilephoneoperatorsandconsumerdemand
C Environmental drivers
a UK andlocalBiodiversityPlans
Climatechange
c Thechanginghistoricalnatureofairpollution
d Mineralextraction
e Thechangingpatternsof landuseandownership
D Economicdrivers
Changes
tofarmpaymentssystem
b DeliveringtheoutcomesofthePeakDistrictRuralAction
Zone
c Changingnatureof sourcesoffunding
d Developingasustainabletourismeconomy
Ii Political drivers
-----__,
Localgovernmentandle~islativechan es
Tourism 593
 The tourist resort/area
life-cycle model
Despite some of the obvious disadvantages of
tourism, the nightmare scenario for any tourist-
dependent country, region or resort, is that people
will find somewhere else to visit and to spend
their money. New resorts develop; old resorts
may become run-down; fashions change; places
may receive a bad press; economic recessions
occur; currency rates alter and new activities
are designed. To survive, tourist places have to
keep re-inventing themselves by, fOTexample,
including new attractions or changing their ori-
entation to a wider or new client group. Places
that fail, such as some older British seaside resorts
and spa towns, begin to wither away. Places that
manage to adapt, such as Blackpool, continue
to be successful. On this basis, Butler produced a
useful life-cycle model (Framework 12, page 352)
for tourist resorts (Figure 20.15); this may also be
applied more widely to tourist regions (Places 93).

Figure 10.15 Exploration: small number of visitorsattracted by natural beautyor cultural

6 Rejuvenation
Tourist area/resort ~ characteristics- numbersare limited and few tourist facilitiesexist,e.g.Chile.
5 Stagnation <>r 2 Involvement: limited involvementby local residentsto providesomefacilitiesfor tourists-
life-cycle model
(after Butler) "\6 Decline recognisabletourist seasonand marketareasbeginto emerge,e.g.Guatemala.
3 Development: largenumbersof touristsarrive,control passesto externalorganisations,and there
is increasedtensionbetweenlocal peopleand tourists,e.g Florida.
4 Consolidation: tourism hasbecomea major part of the localeconomy,although ratesof visitor
growth havestartedto leveloff and someolder facilitiesareseenassecond-rate,e.g.earlier
3 Development
Mediterraneancoastalresorts.
5 Stagnation: peaknumbersof touristshavebeenreached.Theresortis no longer considered
fashionableand turnoverof businesspropertiestendsto be high, e.g.Costadel Sol (Places93).
6 Decline or rejuvenation attractivenesscontinuesto decline,visitorsarelost to other resorts,and
the resortbecomesmoredependenton dayvisitorsand weekendrecreationalistsfrom a limited
geographicalarea- long-term declinewill continueunlessaction istakento rejuvenatethe area
and moderniseasa tourist destination,e.g.Blackpool,Britishspatowns and older coastalresorts.

Places 93 The Spanish 'costas': the life-cycle of a tourist area

Figure 20.16
Life-cycle of a holiday
area: tourists from the
UK to the Costadel
Sol, 1960s- 2000s
In the 19505, Benidorm on the Costa Blanca was still had reached Butler's stage of consolidation, when the
a small fishing village (compare the Costa del Sol in carrying capacity was reached. By the early 1990s it
Figure 20.16). During the 19605, the introduction had begun to stagnate and to decline. Since then the
of cheap air travel began to attract visitors from Spanish government has tried to rejuvenate the area
northern Europe and enabled resorts to develop, with by encouraging the refurbishment of hotels, reducing
their sandy beaches, warm seas and hot, dry, sunny VAT in luxury hotels and ensuring that both beaches
summers. By the 1970s it had turned into a sprawling and the sea have become cleaner (Spain has the most
modern resort with high-rise hotels and all the 'Blue Flag'beaches in the EU).
amenities expected by mass tourism. By the 1980s it

1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s and 2000s

Tourists from UK to Spain 1960 = 0.4 million
State of, and changes in, very few tourists
tourism
Local employment mainly in farming and fishing
Holiday accommodation limited accommodation; very few
hotels and apartments; some
holiday cottages and campsites
Infrastructure (amenities and limited accessand few amenities;
activities) poor roads; limited streetlighting
and electricity
Landscape and environment clean, unspoilt beaches;warm sea farmland built upon;
with relatively little pollution;
pleasant villages; quiet with little beachesand sealessclean
visual pollution
1971 =3.0m
rapid increase in tourism;
government encouragement
construction workers; jobs in
hotels, cafes,shops; decline in
farming and fishing
large hotels built (using breeze
blocks and concrete); more
apartment blocks and villas
some road improvements but
congestion in towns; bars, discos,
restaurants and shops added
wildlife frightened away;
1984=6.2 m 1988 = 7.5 m
carrying capacity reached; tour-
ists outstrip resources,e.g.water
supply and sewerage
mainly tourism: up to 70 percent
in some places
more large hotels built, also apart- older hotels looking dirty and run
ments, time-share and luxury
villas
E340opened: 'the Highway of
Death'; more congestion in towns; by-pass and new air terminal
marinas and golf coursesbuilt
mountains hidden behind hotels;
litter on beaches;polluted seas
(sewage); crime (drugs,vandalism,
muggings); noise from traffic
and tourists
1990=7.0m 2000=7.3m
decline (world recession);prices
too high; cheaper upper-market
hotels elsewhere; government
intervention to rejuvenate tourism
unemployment increasesas
tourism declines (30 per cent);
farmers usewater for irrigation
down; fall in house prices; only
high-class hotels allowed to be
built; government overseesthe
refurbishment of hotels
bars/cafes closing; Malaga
opened; re-introduction of local
foods and customs
attempts to clean up beachesand
sea (EU Blue Flag beaches); new
public parks and gardens opened;
nature reserves
 At a conference on 'sustainable mountain devel-
opment', one speaker claimed: 'Mountains are
suffering an unprecedented environmental
crisis. Wherever you go in the world, you can
Places 94 The Cairngorms: a mountainous area under threat
The Cairngorm range, which includes four of
Britain's five highest mountains, became part of
the Cairngorms National Park in 2003. The arctic-
alpine plateau is a fragile ecosystem which includes
mosses. lichen and dwarf shrubs (page 333) and
which provides an irreplaceable habitat for rare
birds such as the golden eagle, ptarmigan, snow
bunting and dotterel (Figure 20.17). It includes
three SSSls (page 593) and a National Nature
Reserve. It also receives the heaviest, and longest
lying, snowfall in Britain, making it ideal for
downhill and cross-country skiing as well as other
winter sports. These advantages have led to conflict
between developers and environmentalists.
In the 1990s, the Cairngorm Chairlift Company, now
Cairngorm Mountain Ltd, having twice failed to get
planning permission to extend its skiing facilities
into nearby Lurcher's Gully, put forward a plan
which included a 2 km funicular railway that would
go to within 150 m ofthe summit. The plan also
included a new chairlift, three new ski tows and four
additional ski runs. At the top, the underground
terminus to the railway would give access to a
2S0-seater restaurant, an interpretative exhibition
and a retail outlet. The railway would get visitors
Figure 20.17
The Cairngormarctic/
alpineenvironment
find the same symptoms -landscapes wrecked
by roads; forests cleared for, and slopes shredded
by, skiing; vegetation worn away by walkers; and
litter left by tourists.
to the summit in three minutes, would be able to
operate, unlike the old chairlift, in high winds and
could increase the number of summer visitors
from 60000 to 225 000. It was this increase in the
prospect of the extra number of feet trampling the
fragile summit plateau during the short growing
and nesting season that caused most alarm to
conservationists. They feared plants would be
crushed, birds disturbed and the landscape eroded.
What swung the decision the developers'way was
their proposal to operate a 'closed system'which
would confine everyone to the visitor centre with
its indoor viewing area. This meant an end to the
50000 visitors who, until then, could trample
without restriction over the summit area. The
funicular railway began running at Christmas 2001
and the visitor centre was formally opened the
following May. At that opening, it was said that the
funicular project demonstrated how it is possible
to balance environmental concerns with projected
economic benefits.
Meanwhile skiers in the Cairngorms face a greater
threat - global warming is reducing both the
amount of snowfall and the period of snow cover.
Tourism 595
 Other types of tourism
Heritage
According to the World Heritage Convention
(WHC), created by UNESCO, 'Heritage is our legacy
from the past, what we live with today, and what
we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and
natural heritage are both irreplaceable sources of
life and inspiration.' Cultural heritage includes
monuments, groups of buildings and sites such as
the Pyramids, the Acropolis, the Taj Mahal (Figure
20.18a), Machu Picchu, Chichen Itza (Figure 20.23)
and The Great Wall of China. Natural heritage
includes landscape and wildlife sites such as the
Barrier Reef and Tanzania's Serengeti ational Park
(page 311). There are, at present, over 800 World
Heritage Sites.
Theme parks and purpose-built resorts
Theme parks and purpose-built resorts have
become centres of mass tourism in the last two
or three decades. They include Disney World
(Florida - Figure 20.18b), Disneyland (Paris),
Legoland (Denmark), Seaworld (Queensland)
and Alton Towers (England).
Wildlife
There has been a steady increase in the number of
people wishing to see wiJdlife in its natural envi-
ronment. The most popular is the African 'safari'
in which tourists are driven around, usually in
smaJl minibuses with adjustable roofs to allow for
easier viewing (Figure 20.18c). Kenya, South Africa,
figure 20.18
Tanzania and Zimbabwe are all able to capitalise
on their abundance of wildlife. Other tourists may
go whale-watching (New Zealand), visit marine
reserves (Places SO,page 526), view threatened
wildlife such as the giant panda and the mountain
gorilla, or go to places with a unique ecosystem
(Madagascar and the Galapagos Islands).
Wilderness holidays
These are popular in America: one or two people
set off into largely uninhabited areas such as Alaska
to 'live and compete with nature' (Figure 20.1Sd).
City breaks
Globally more people take city breaks - often
lasting just a few days - than any other type
of holiday. In Britain in 2007,87 per cent of
adults visited a city for at least one day, the vast
majority - over 11 million - travelling to London
to take advantage of its cultural amenities (the
National Gallery), theatres (Drury Lane), historic
buildings (St Paul's Cathedral), sporting venues
(Wembley Stadium), shops (Oxford Street)
and businesses (Canary Wharf). Eight of the
top ten most visited destinations in Britain are
cities (including over 2 million visits a year to
Manchester and Birmingham) while many other
tourists take city breal s in Europe and beyond.
Religious centres
Religious centres to which people make a pil-
grimage include Mecca, The Vatican, Jerusalem,
Salt Lake City and Varanasi (Benares).

Types
oftourism
a fleritage:
TajMahal
b Theme
parks:
Disney
World
( Wildlife
parks:
Botswana
d Wilderness:
MtMcKinley
inDynali
National
Park

596 Tourism
 Cruises
Cruising has been the fastest-growing section
of the world's tourist industry for two decades.
More, and larger, liners are being built each year
(Figure 20.19) while the number of passengers
has increased from under 4 million in 1990 to
almost 13 million in 2008. Cruise holidays are
often an excuse for people to relax and enjoy the
sun and the life aboard ship, as seen by over one-
third of all passengers opting for the Caribbean
(Figure 20.20). Other tourists may take a cruise
that follows a theme, such as visiting historical/
Figure 20.19
archaeological sites (Mediterranean), capital cities
Cruise liners in the (Baltic), scenic coasts ( orway, Figure 20.19) or
Gei ranger Fiord, whale-watching (Alaska). While the scores of
Norway
!/'
'~"~~
West coast
USA-
Mexico
7.2%
Hawaii-South
Pacific 5.4%
Figure 20.20
Cruise destinations,
Ecotourism
Ecotourisrn, sometimes known as 'green
tourism', is a sustainable form of tourism
(Framework 16, page 499) that is more appro-
priate to developing countries than the mass
tourism associated with Florida and certain
Mediterranean areas. Ecotourism includes:
• visiting places in order to appreciate the
natural environment, ecosystems (page 295),
scenery and wildlife, and to understand their
culture
• creating economic opportunities (jobs) in an
area while at the same time protecting natural
resources (scenery and wildlife) and the local
way of life.
Compared with mass tourists, ecotourists
usually travel in small groups (low-impact/low-
density tourism), share in specialist interests
(bird-watching, photography), are more likely
to behave responsibly and to merge and live
passengers create jobs for tour guides and shop
assistants and generate income for bus compa-
nies, taxi drivers, and local craft industries, they
rarely spend large amounts of money while on
land as they eat and sleep on board ship. Also,
their large numbers - up to 3600 on the latest
super cruise liners - may swamp local communi-
ties and disrupt their way of life.
Certain rivers are also popular for cruising
- with the added bonus of calm water! People
sail along the Nile (to see ancient temples), the
Mississippi (on paddle boats), the Yangtze (Three
Gorges), the Amazon, Rhine and Danube. Canal
holidays are a self-catering form of cruising,
Others (including rivers) 7.4%
Britain2.0% ~
South-east Asia-
~ Caribbean-Bahamas Far Eastl.2%
• • /Bermuda 38.6%
'"
"-0
World
Trans
1.2%
CJ
'2~~~.
1980: 150 liners - average 800 berths Ii' ./J].
2008: 280 liners - average 1250 berths
2007
with local communities, and to appreciate local
cultures (rather than to stop, take a photo, buy
a souvenir and then move on). They are likely
to visit National Parks and game reserves where
the landscape and wildlife which attracted them
there in the first place is protected and managed.
Places visited include Brazil (rainforests), the east
coast of Belize and Mexico (coral reefs - Places
95), Nepal (mountains), Burundi (mountain
gorillas) and the Arctic (polar bears).
Even so, ecotourists usually pay for most of
their holiday in advance (spending little in the
visited country), are not all environmentally
educated or concerned, can cause local prices to
rise, congregate at prime sites (honeypots), and
may still cause conflict with local people. There
is a real danger that tour operators, by adding
'eco' as a prefix, give certain holidays unwar-
ranted respectability.
Tourism 597
 Places 9S Xcaret, Mexico: ecotourism
The Xcaret Eco-archaeological Park(Figure 20.21)
in Mexico'sYucatan Peninsula won, back in 1999,
the Sunday Times Readers'Award for what they
considered to be the most successful project in
protecting, or improving, the quality of a local
environment. Xcaret is located (Figure 20.22) 70 km
south of the masstourist resort of Cancun (Mexico's
answerto Miami) and 270 km east of the former
Mayan settlement of Chichen Itza, now a World
Heritage Site (Figure 20.23).

In 1990, five families set up the Xcaret venture with

two aims: to support Mexican research programmes
into biodiversity and to encourage ecotourism,
the latter by allowing visitors to relax in beautiful
surroundings and to learn, almost by accident, Xcaret also has a wild-bird breeding centre that
the value of the ecosystem on show together with caters for endangered species, a butterfly pavilion,
the scientific work being carried out. Visitors are a botanical garden and a coral reef aquarium.

encouraged to travel by bus or taxi, not car, and,
on arrival, are asked to hand in any suntan lotion
(which pollutes seawater) and, in return, are given
a bottle of eco-friendly lotion (though less effective
as a sunblock). The inlet, with its warm, crystal-clear
water that is home to thousands of multicoloured
fish and contains a sea-turtle reserve, is ideal for
swimming and snorkelling. Two underground
However, the venture is not without its critics, some
of whom cite the fact that the underground rivers
were blasted and remodelled while others point
to the threat that snorkelling poses to the reef and
the presence of a mock Mayan village. Yet generally,
and by banning high-rise beach complexes, Xcaret
has shown that it is possible for people to enjoy
themselves without harming the environment.

rivers, lit by sunlight streaming through openings
in rock holes, allow tourist to explore underground
channels. First being warned that touching coral
can kill it (Places 80, page 526), people are taken to
offshore reefs where they can swim with bottlenose
Figure 20.22
dolphins. At night, a show in the open-air theatre
Mexico's
tourist
ends with a performance of a famed folkloric ballet.
sites
N
Ria Lagartos
Jane Dove, in Geography Review, describes two
more sustainable examples of ecotourism nearby.
Atthe SianKa'an Biosphere, visitors are taken on
walking tours to see lagoons, mangroves and tropical
rainforest. They sleep in tents, use composting toilets
and obtain water that is heated by solar and wind
power. The Mayan Village of PacChen limits accessto
80 tourists a day. Here they are served local food, are
shown a swallow hole in the limestone (page 196)

t Gulf of Mexico

Cancun
and visit a Mayan ruin (the Mayan civilisation was
between AD 990 and 1200). The income generated
has helped to build a local school and a clinic.
Ria Celestun
Chichen
Itza

••••

.••.Uxmal

Yucatan Pen nsula

Caribbean
Sea
.••. Mayansite

• tourist resort

• ecotourism centre

biosphere reserve o 100km

598 Tourism
 Personal investigative study
The personal investigative study, or enquiry, is an
important part ofthe examination assessmentfor
ASand A2 Geography. It provides an opportunity for
you to develop your individual interests in a particular
part of the specification, to make useoffieldwork and
to become an 'expert' on a small investigation.
Choosing your study
• Choose a topic in which you have personal
interest. This will make it easier to study.
• Check in local papers for current issues which
could prove a useful topic to investigate. Collect
as much background information as you can
before setting up your topic.
• Studies can involve combined fieldwork under-
taken at field centres. However, your conclusions
must be individual, even though the data
collection may have been done as a group.
• Choosing a topic covering a human!
environmental theme may allow work in
different sections or modules ofthe course to
be linked to an investigation.
• Avoid a topic that will mean travelling long
distancesto collect data and to do fieldwork. This
can be expensive in terms of both time and money,
and it will not be easyto make return visits.
• Careful planning is essential- particularly the
Schedule for your enquiry.
Collecting your data
• It is important to begin preliminary collection of
ideas and materials as early as possible.
• Primary data is the basis of a study, and
collecting the data has to be carefully planned,
involving surveys, questionnaires, interviews,
use of annotated photographs and map
construction. Make sure that you choose
appropriate dates and times for your fieldwork.
• Questionnaires need to be succinct and to the
point - you need to know the types of answers
that you require. You should make sure that
you have a large sample in order to have well-
founded results.
• Takeas many photographs as possible of the
study area. Carefully annotate and label them,
and make sure they are relevant to your enquiry.
Bear in mind that you will need to select only the
most relevant photographs in your final report.
• Ifyou are visiting an organisation or requesting
information it isalways useful to write a polite
letter beforehand, outl ining what you wish to
find out and giving time for an answer.People are
always busy,so be prepared to wait afew days
before telephoning to make an appointment.
• Secondary data collection will mean visits
to local libraries, researching newspapers
for background, and using the Internet (see
Framework 1, page 22). Old maps will show
conditions at previous times (page 396). Keep a
detailed record of all your sources.
Writing your report
• Plan the structure of your report before you
start writing. You may find the following outline
useful: Introduction - Aims - Data Collection-
Data Analysis - Evaluation - Conclusion.
• Data that you collect will have to be analysed
and displayed in maps and statistical form.
Although bar charts and pie charts are clear
and easy to display, try to use a variety offorms
of presentation. Most exam boards require
that you are able to use statistical methods
effectively in your studies. This helps you to
evaluate and then to explain the results of your
investigation. Some of the most useful methods
are Spearman's rank correlation and chi-squared
(see Framework 19, page 612).
• Careful detailed analysis of your statistics and
diagrams is vital- do not assume that the
examiner or moderator will automatically
understand what is set out.
• Thoughtful and detailed evaluation is a very
important part of your study. You may have
collected the opinions of a number of different
groups in your investigations and you must set
these out clearly and balance up the different
values which may be apparent. Do not forget to
include your own ideas.
• An extended conclusion will complete the
study, drawing together the different opinions
and values, weighing up the options and
probably putting forward any alternative
proposal you may consider to have value.
Remember •••
• Presentation is important. Make your report
look good - use ICTwhere possible.
• Diagrams may be computer-generated
but maps should be hand-drawn and not
photocopied.
• Check that all maps, diagrams and photographs
are labelled and annotated.
• Acknowledge any quotations and draw up a
clear bibliography of your references, including
any material sourced from the Internet.
• Number all the pages and where necessary
cross-reference diagrams and text.
Tourism 599
'Half way down India's west coast is the tiny
state of Goa. A unique blend of Indian and
Portuguese cultures with miles of long, sandy
beaches, emerald-green paddy fields and
gleaming, white-washed Portuguese-style
churches peering out over extensive palm
qroves.This is how the former tiny Portuguese
enclave of Goa, which became part of India
in 1962 and an independent state in 1987, is
described in a Kuoni travel brochure.
Goa has become a major tourist centre
for both domestic and international visitors.
As Figure 20.24 shows, domestic arrivals
increased by 35 per cent between 1986 and
2006 and international arrivals by 26 per cent
during that same period, with the number
of domestic visitors doubling since 2000 and
international visitors since 1998. Especially
since the increase in internal low-cost airlines,
Goa has be n popular with Indian tourists
from the large cities of Mumbai and Delhi ,
and, more recently, Bangalore. Whereas Goa
is 12 hours by road or rail from Mumbai with
its population of 16 million, it is only a one-
hour flig ht away (400 km).lViost international
arrivals arrive by air on charter flights, which
have increased from 25 in 1986 to 720 in
2006. Of these recent arrivals, 42 per cent
came from the UK,followed by 8.5 per cent
from Russiaand 6.2 per cent from Germany.
However, in the last decade and with the
increasing popularity of cruising (page 597),
more visitors have been arriving by sea-
18 cruise ships in 1996 and 72 in 2006.

figure 20.24 Figure 20.25

f!
N
Goa'sdomesticandinternationalarrivals,1986-2006 Goa'sbeaches
Beach
Do~esti(
arrivals
Int~rnational Total
arrivals
Arambol +
1986 736548 97533 834081 North Goa
to Mumbai
1996 888914 237216 1126130
400 km
2006 2098654 380414 2479068 and Delhi
15S0km

Goa's beaches
Goa's beach resorts can roughly be divided into
fourtypes from north to south (Figure 20.25).

The extreme north

The most northerly beaches at Keri and
Arambol are, by and large, undeveloped,
cruise liners
••
and tend to attract day visitors and those
wishing to find cheap accommodation,
food and drink.They are only reached along
narrow winding roads by infrequent local
buses and, until a year or so ago, Keri had no Indian Ocean
- Majorda to Bangalore
accommodation at all and only a few beach Figure 20.26
SOOkm
shacks that sold simple refreshments (Figure Arambol,one
20.26a). Arambol has become more accessible ofthe less-
Benaulim developed
since the opening of a road bridge over the South Goa
Colva resortson
river estuary to the south but has insufficient
o lOkm Goa'snorthern
accommodation to cater for those wishing to \ Mobor
beaches
stay for longer than a day (Figure 20.26b).

The northern beaches

Vagator and Anjuna, being nearer the state
capital of Panaji, are more popular. They have
small hotels as well as bars and restaurants,
many of which are still family owned. Most
of the shops fall into the informal sector
(page 574), some only open seasonally.

600 Tourism
 Tourism in Goa, India Case Study 20

The main northern beaches The southern beaches Benefits and problems
The long stretches of sand continue south- This is the area for the large five-star beach Tourism is concentrated mainly along a
wards to the beaches of Baga, Calangute resort complexes which have opened up at narrow coastal zone where it has had a
and Candolim. Being nearer both the airport Benaulim, Colva and Mobor (Figure 20.27). number of positive benefits including higher
and the mainline railway station, these are These are more likely to attract an older incomes, increased employment, improved
the places for those arriving from Mumbai group of overseas and package holiday- local transport and greater foreign exchange
and Delhi or by charter from Europe. Even maker and the better-off, professional earnings. However, tourism has also created
so, many of the older hotels, bars, restaurants Indian worker. The beach resorts are set socio-economic and environmental
and shops are relatively small and family in large grounds full of coconut palms, problems due to a largely uncontrolled,
owned (Figure 20.26c) Back from the beach tropical plants and shrubs, each with their unplanned development, much employ-
are the larger hotels, with more being built. own gardens, swimming pools, bars and ment being seasonal, drug dealing, the con-
This rapid development has already caused restaurants, sporting amenities and stretch centration and subsequent congestion of
considerable damage to the sand dune eco- of beach. people and attractions along a narrow strip,
system that runs behind the beaches. and the destruction of local ecosystems.

LEELA PALACE

Location: In south Goa some 90 minutes'

dn~e from the airport, this superb hotel is
set In 75 a:-res of coconut groves in grounds
full of tropical plants and shrubs, lagoons
and waterways leading down to the soft
GOA RENAISSANCE
sands of beautiful Mobor beach.
. dens on the southern coast is the Goa
Location: Set In 23 acres of ga~ tes' drive from the airport with gardens Faci'i~ies: A large swimming pool with
Renaissance. The hotel IS75 m InU t the wide expanse of Colva beach.
poolslde bar, children's pool, tennis courts
leading down over the san d d unes 0
9-hole golf course, gym, shops and health'
. _ Ian lobby with attractive lobby bar
Facilities: A spaCIoUS, open p loa main restaurant, an informal spa ..A uniquely decorated open lounge
Figure 20.27
overlookS the gardens; there~s ab~cue terrace with regular live bar IS~~pularfor pre- or Post-dinner drinks
coffee shop and an outdoor a~ freeform swimming pool with From a Kuoni and.dlnlng IS a gastronomic delight with a
travelbrochure choice of traditional Indian, international
entertainment. The ~otel haSn~r:~~h a sauna, jacuzzi, massage and.
and Italian cuisines. From its own
swim-up bar and a fitness ce h bach and there is table tennis.
beauty parlour. Wi~dsurfmg from,~ e ~-hoie pitch and putt course. waters?orts centre on the beach is sailin
chess, floodlit tenors courts as we as a parasailing and water skiing. g,

Accommodation: 202 rooms Accommodation: 137 rooms

Chapman, R. (2007) 'Sustainable Wyne, M. (2007) 'Modelling tourism', www.ecotourism.org

tourism', Geography Review Vol 20 No 3
(january).
Chapman, R. (2007) 'Ecotourism',
Geography Review Vol 20 No 4 (March).
Dove, J. (2004) Tourism and Recreation,
Hodder & Stoughton.
Dove,]. (2007) 'Tourism: impact on the
Yucatan Peninsula', Geography Review
Vol 20 No 5 (May).
Geography Review Vol 20 No 3 (january). www.geog.nau.edu!tg!
~ Kenya's Tourism and National Parks: UK National Parks:
www.tourism.go.ke/wildlife_lTIinistry. www.nationalparks.gov.uk
nsf/rntntstryparks
UN World Tourism Organization
Peak District National Park: (WTO), global tourism facts:
www.peakdistrict.org www.unwto.orglfacts/engfhighlights.htm
Sustainable tourism:
www.pcopleandplanet.net/doc/
php?id=11l0
Activities
•••••••••• O.O •• ~ ••.•••• liI:e •••• e ••••• e ••••• ., ••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••• 41 •••••••

a What is tourism? (1 mark) a

b Give four factors that have helped cause the
growth of world tourism since 1960. (4 marks)
ii For each of your answers in i, explain why this
factor led to a growth oftourism. (4 marks)
c With reference to a named resort or tourist area
that you have studied, explain how the growth of
tourism has brought both:
benefits and
ii problems to the people who live in the area. (10 marks)
d Iftourism starts to decline in an area it can cause
serious economic problems. Name a tourist area
where the industry has started to decline. Describe
how the area has adapted to try to stop the decline.
(6 marks)

2 Study Figure 20.28.

a For each photograph:
Describe the attractions ofthe area that make
it a suitable tourist destination. (6 marks)
ii Suggest which sector ofthe holidays market
this area will particularly appeal to. (3 marks)
iii Suggest how tourism has brought advantages
and disadvantages to the people of the area. (6 marks)
b In many tourist areas the natural environment is
a major attraction for tourists. Unfortunately the
pressure oftourism threatens to destroy the natural
environment.
For a named tourist area, explain how management
strategies have been, are being, or could be developed
to allow tourism to continue without destroying the
environment. (10 marks)

3 a What is'ecotourism'? (1 mark)

ii Name an example of a place in a less economically
developed country where ecotourism has been
developed. (1 mark)
iii Describe the attractions for ecotourists of the
area that you named in ii, (4 marks)
iv Explain how ecotourism has brought specific
benefits to the people and the environment in the
area. (6 marks)
b With reference to the Cairngorms or another
mountainous area in the UKthat is being damaged
by increased tourist pressure:
explain why the number oftourists has increased
in recent years (4 marks)
ii explain how the tourist pressure is damaging
the environment (4 marks)
iii describe one management strategy that aims
Figure 20.28
to reduce the damage being done, and explain
how the strategy is intended to work. (5 marks) a Spain,b Nepal,C Greece

................................ ', .
602 Tourism
Exam practice: basic structured questions
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
4 Study Figure 20.28. Caribbean & Latin America 2%
a Describe the tourist attractions of each of the
areas shown in the photographs. (6 marks) I Australia & New Zealand 1%
b Butler's model of the life cycle of a tourist resort
shows the following stages:
North America 6% A
•exploration Other Europe 15% ~
•involvement Spain 28%

•development
Belgium/
•consolidation
Luxembourg 2%--
•stagnation
France 18%
•rejuvenation or decline.
Suggest, with reasons, which stage has been
reached by each of the tourist areas shown in the
photographs. (12 marks)
c Name a tourist resort that has reached the later
stages of the model, and explain what is being
done to rejuvenate the tourist industry there. (7 marks)
Figure20.29
5 a Refer to Figure 20.29. Name the most popular destinations
for tourists from the UK in: Foreignholidaystaken
Europe byUKresidents
ii regions outside Europe. (2 marks)
b With reference only to holidays taken in Europe Region of origin Millions % change 2005/06
by residents of the UK, describe and account for Africa 24.5 12.1
the distribution ofthe main holiday destinations.
(5 marks) Americas 142.2 3.7
ii The number of UK residents taking holidays in 7.7
Asia& Pacific 166.5
Europe in February is fairly small. Suggest, with reasons,
how the distribution of holiday destinations is likely to be Europe 473.7 4.7
different from that shown on Figure 20.29. (6 marks) Figure20.30

c Study Figure 20.30. Describe and explain the patterns shown MiddleEast 24.8 8.9 International
by the data of tourism from the different world regions. 5.4 arrivalsto UK,
World 846.0
(12marks) 2005106

Exam practice: structured questions

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
6 The Peak Park Authority issued a revised Management Plan for the Peak Park could help to manage and reduce
Plan for 2006-11. land use conflict.
The two main principles underpinning that plan are: You must make reference to specific conflicts
•partnership working in named places. (18marks)

•sustainable development.
7 Study the table below Figure 20.90n page 591.
Referring to the Peak District National Park or to any
a There has recently been an increase in the number
other tourist area that you have studied: of protected areas in the UK. Explain why. (70 marks)
a Describe how conflicts can arise between different groups b With reference to one or more such areas, explain
and individuals who use the land in the Park. (7 marks)
how the development of protected areas is affecting
b Discuss how the aims and principles of the Management tourism. (15 marks)

Exam practice: essays

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
8 Explain how tourism can bring both advantages Discuss this with reference to examples that you
and disadvantages to the people and environment have studied. (25 marks)
in areas where it develops. Make reference to countries
at different stages of development. (25 marks) 10 Accountforthe recent rapid growth oftourism in Goa
(or in any other tourist resort in a less developed country
9 Can the development of tourism lead to sustainable that you have studied). (25 marks)
development in poor, remote areas ofthe world?

Tourism 603
 Development and
globalisation
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'One world, one dream.' Definition of terms
Beijing Olympics, 2008
Terms such as 'developed' and 'developing' have
'Development is more than mere economics.' been used for several decades to indicate the
MarkTully, No Full Stops in Indio, 1991 economic conditions of a group of people or a
country. By the 1980s, the term 'developing' had
The concept of economic come to be regarded as a stigma and was replaced
development by the concept of the 'South' (Brandt Report, 1980)
and, with increasing popularity, the 'Third World'
Frequent references have been made in earlier
(Figure 21.1). By the 1990s, with the growing reali-
chapters to the inequalities in world development
sation and appreciation that poverty is relative, not
and prosperity. Gilbert, in his bookAn Unequal
absolute, the terms more economically developed
World, began by stating that:
countries (MEDCs) or 'advanced economies', and
'Few can deny that the world's wealth is highly
less economically developed countries (LEDCs)
concentrated. The populations of North America
or 'developing economies' became increasingly
and Western Europe eat well, consume most
acceptable. Even more recently the nations that
of the world's fuel, drive most of the cars, live
had, a decade or two earlier, been grouped together
in generally well serviced homes and usually
as belonging to the 'developing economies' had
survive their full three score years and ten. By
now shown among themselves a widening spread
contrast, many people in Africa, Asia and Latin
of wealth and living standards, for example the
America are less fortunate. In most parts of these
growing gap between the NICs (newly industrial-
continents a majority of the population lack bal-
ised counties, page 578) and, today, the emerging
anced diets, reliable drinking water, decent serv-
countries (BRIC- Brazil, RUSSia,India and China)
Figure21.1
ices and adequate incomes. Many cannot read or
with those of sub-Saharan Africa.
write, many are sick and malnourished, and too
Termsused in relation All these definitions (summarised in
many children die before the age of five.'
to world development Figure 21.1) were based on, and overemphasised,
economic growth. To those living in a Western,
development
industrialised society, economic development
+
(often former co 1'1
orua
, +.
(often former colonies
) tends to be synonymous with wealth, Le. a coun-
powers) try's material standard of living. This is measured
t
'economically developed' +
'economically developing'
as the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita
and is obtained by dividing the monetary value of
(developed countries- (developing countries-
advanced economies) developing economies) all the goods and services produced in a country

•t
mainly based upon
t economic wealth
(GDPand GNP)
by its total population. When trade figures for
the North
, the South 'invislbles' (mostly financial services and deals)
+ are included, the term gross national product
capital ist or
market
economies
*
centrally planned
or socialist
economies
the 'Third World' (GNP) is used. It is possible to use either term-
GDP is preferred by the EU, and GNP by the UN
until 1990 (our usual source of data) and the USA - as both
+
more developed newly lessdeveloped
based upon
economic wealth
aim to measure the wealth of a country and to
show the differences in wealth between coun-
countries (MDCs) industrialised (NICs) countries (LDCs) and social well-
}
•• and emergi.g countries being tries. GDP and GNP figures need to be treated
cautiously due to problems with exchange rates,
high HDI and rapidly increasing ••
lowHDland based upon social differences between countries in their methods of
human rights PQU and HDI human rights well-being
}
indices indices indices calculation, and difficulties in evaluating services.
Note: For consistency, the terms 'economically more developed' or 'developed', and 'economically less
developed' or 'developing' are mainly used in this book.

604 Development and globalisation

 Recently, an increasing number of definitions,
often involving cultural development, social well-
being and political rights, have been suggested as
alternatives to those previously based solely upon
economic criteria - i.e. they emphasise 'quality
of life' in contrast to 'standard of living'. In the
early 1990s, the UN introduced the term Human
Development Index (HDI) - see page 606.
Development is not just the difference between
the developed, rich and powerful countries and
those that are less developed, poor and subordinate.
Each country has areas of prosperity and poverty;
contains people with different standards of living
based on variations in job opportunities (Shanghai
and Sichuan in China), race or tribe (Hutu and Tutsi
in Rwanda), religion (Sunnis and Shi'ites in Iraq),
language (Dutch-speaking Flemings and French-
speaking Walloons in Belgium), or social class (caste
in India). Taken a step further, it is also possible to
identify differences in development within cities
(Places 52 and 58) and inequality between genders.
The difference in wealth and standard of living
between the world's richest and poorest countries is
referred to as the development gap. Despite some
attempts to the contrary (aid - page 632), this gap
continues to widen (debt - page 608), particularly as
globalisation puts increasing power into the hands
of the most wealthy countries and organisations.
What is meant by globalisation?
Globalisation is a relatively new term. It has a wide
range of meanings but generally refers to proc-
esses that extend globally to affect or integrate
people across the entire world. From a geographer's
point of view, it includes any process of change
Figure21.2
trade - global market
References to (21)
9lobalisation
food supplies
(16)
.:
TNCs/NICs/emerging
countries (19 and 21)
development gap
(21)
cultural!
ethnicity
(13) social
population growth
(13)
migration
(13)
health - HIV/AIDS
(21)
music and sport (Premier
League football teams, resources
Olympic Games) (18)
that occurs at a world scale and which has world-
wide effects. These processes may be considered
to be physical (e.g. rising sea-level), human and
economic (e.g. trade) or a combination of both
(e.g. global warming) but they are considered to
be essentially geographical in that they affect the
Earth's environment and its people.
The links created by globalisation are
increasing both in range and scale, and are devel-
oping at an ever increasing pace. These links,
which may be considered to be environmental,
economic, technological, cultural, sociological
or political, can have - often depending on your
own viewpoint - either beneficial or detrimental
effects. Some would argue that globalisatlon
spreads wealth, knowledge and personal contacts
across the world; others that it is creating an unfair
world in which rich countries and large organisa-
tions exploit the world's poorest peoples which
increases, rather than reduces, the 'development
gap'. Figure 21.2 is one of several possible sche-
matic diagrams showings topics related to glo-
balisation that appear within this text, e.g. trade,
transport, tourism, migration, aid, health, finance
and technology.
Development v. globalisation
It is not straightforward to try to link devel-
opment and globalisation. Development has
conventionally been understood as something
that happens, or fails to happen, to countries.
Globalisation is increasingly being regarded as a
process that disintegrates national economies and
constitutes new spatial patterns, e.g. trading blocs,
innovative regions, international banking.
transport - quicker times, technology - emails/lnternet,
shorter distances (21) mobile phones (21)
fashion
(21) energy supplies
(18)
~ UN organisations
(UNESCO,UNICEF,
WTO,WHO)
GLOBALISATION political (21)
finance and international
banking - World Bank
(21)
environmental
aid
global warming (21)
(9) tourism
(20)
carbon credits (21) and
ecological footprints (13) rising sea-level
(4 and 6)
I (12) = chapter number in this text I
 Comparison of GDP requires the use of a
Criteria for measuring the single currency, generally US dollars, but cur-
Idevelopment gap' rency exchange rates fluctuate. The size and
1 Economic wealth growth of GDP may prove to be poor long-term
economic indicators and fail to take into consid-
To many people living in developed countries,
eration human and natural resources. GDP per
economic development has been associated with
capita is a crude average and hides extremes and
a growth in wealth based on GDP (or GNP). This
uneven distribution of income between regions
implies that the GDP (or GNP) of a country has
and across socio-economic groups, especially
to increase if its standard of living and quality of
in less developed countries where there may be
life are to improve. An economic growth rate of
very few extremely wealthy people and a large
8 to 10 per cent, which is the highest, has been
majority living at subsistence leveL Despite these
achieved in China and Ireland in recent years, and
limitations, GDP and GNP are still regarded
by several South-east Asian countries over the past
as relatively good indicators of development
decade or two (Figure 19.38). A rate of 1 per cent is
and good measures for comparing differences
considered disappointing.
between countries (Figure 21.3). Notice that it
Although GDP/GNP figures are easier to
is the advanced economies and several of the
measure and to obtain than other development
oil-producing states that have the highest GDP
indicators such as social well-being, there are limi-
per capita and the developing economies that
tations to their use and validity. They are more
have the lowest, although the fastest-growing
accurate in countries that have many economic
are China and several others in South-east Asia.
transactions and where goods, services and labour
The World Bank now produces figures for income
can be measured as they pass through a market
inequality within some countries, e.g. Brazil.
place - hence the term (market economies'. Where
markets are less well developed, and trading is
2 Social, cultural and welfare criteria
done informally or through bartering, and where
much production takes place in the home for per- Human development has changed the purpose
sonal subsistence, GDP figures are less reliable. In of development to that of meeting human needs,
the former centrally planned, socialist economies, and away from the old style of economic develop-
Figurell.3 with their relatively small role in international ment based on changes in a country's economy
trade and with few services, GDP figures were and wealth. The U Development Programme's
WorldGDP
difficult to calculate and interpret. Human Development Index (HDI) gives every
Source: The U( Atlas
of Global Inequality

,_.

GDP per capita

D less than $2 a day
D 730-5000
CJ 5000-10 000
D 10000-20000
20 000-50 000
D nodata
 country a score between 0 and I, based on its A major criticism of the HDI is that it con-
citizens' longevity, education and income. The tains no measure of human rights or freedom.
three factors are given equal weight. Longevity is Although the UNDP did produce a separate
measured by average life expectancy at birth - the Human Freedom Index (HFI) in 1991, it has not
most straightforward measure of health and safety. done so since, arguing that 'freedom is difficult
Education is derived from the adult literacy rate to measure and is too volatile, given military
and the average number of years of schooling. coups and the whims of dictators'. The issue of
Income is based on GOP per capita converted personal and political rights has become increas-
to 'purchasing power parity dollars' (PPP) and ingly important since then.
is adjusted according to the law of diminishing Perhaps the main point about HDI is that it
returns, i.e. what an actual income will buy in a enables you to spot anomalies, e.g. countries that
country. The HDl value for a country shows the have a better (Canada, Sri Lanka and Tanzania)
distance that it has already travelled towards the or worse (Saudi Arabia and other oil-producing
maximum possible value of 1, and also allows countries) level of well-being than might be
comparisons with other countries (Figure 21.4). expected from their GNP. HDI can serve a
The difference between the value achieved by a purpose if it identifies where poverty is greatest
country and the maximum possible value shows (between countries, within a country or between
the country's shortfall, i.e. how far the country groups of people in a country) or if it stimulates
has to go. Finding ways of reducing this shortfall debate and action as to where aid, trade and debt
is a major challenge for each country. alleviation needs to be focused.
As the table on the right shows, it is countries
in Scandinavia that now top the HDI list and Year Top two Bottom two
countries in the Sahel of sub-Saharan Africa that
1990 Canada 0.93 Niger 0.28
tend to be at its foot - an interesting latitude effect.
Countries with a score of over 0.9 correspond Japan 0.92 Mali 0030
closely with the economically more developed 1995 Norway 0.94 Niger 0030
countries while those with less than 0.5 equate
Canada 0.94 Mali 0.32
closely with the least economically developed
countries (compare Figures 21.3 and 21.4). 2000 Norway 0.96 Sierra Leone 0.31
Figure 21.4 Yet should the similarities between GDP and
Sweden 0.95 Niger 0.32
The UN Human HDI really be that surprising? Longevity, a good
Development education and a high purchasing power all depend 2005 Iceland 0.97 Sierra Leone 0.34
Index (2005) World
fairly directly on a country's wealth. 0037
development Norway 0.97 Burkina Faso

~_-:'a'"

.....
" _-

-Tropic of
...•Cancer 23~oN

-Equator 0 0
•

- Tropic of Capricorn 23~oS .. - - - - - - -- -.rJ_ ----.-----------

high (0.8 and over)
[:.::J medium (high) (0.715-0.799)
CJ medium (low) (0.5-0.714)
CJ low (under 0.5)
CJ nodata
 3 Other criteria for measuring the
"development gap'
Further criteria have also been used to measure the
quality of life as an indicator of levels of, or stages
in, development. Several are linked to popula-
tion as, in developing countries, birth rates are
generally high, the natural increase is rapid, life
expectancy is shorter and a high percentage of the
population is aged under 15 (Figures 13.15 and
13.21). Higher death and infant mortality rates
reflect the inadequacy of nutrition, health and
medical care. In many developing countries, the
prevalence of disease may result from an unbal-
anced diet, a lack of clean water and poor sanita-
tion - a situation often aggravated by the limited
numbers of doctors and hospital beds per person.
The major-ity of people live in rural areas and are
dependent upon farming, while in the country as
a whole only a small percentage of the population
is likely to find employment in manufacturing or
service industries. Many jobs are at a subsistence
level, in the informal sector (page 574) and the
amount of energy consumed within the country
is low (Figure 18.25). Economically less developed
countries often import manufactured goods,
energy supplies and sometimes even foodstuffs,
especially grain. In return, they may export raw
materials for processing in the developed world
(Figure 21.36), accumulate a trade deficit and get
increasingly into debt (page 624). High rates of
Places 96 Kenya: women and development
Marietta liveson a small shamba (farm)just outside
Tsavo National Parkin south-east Kenya(Figure
21.5). With her husband working 250 km away in
Mombasa, and her nearest neighbour living3 km
away, Marietta is left alone to look after the farm and
her seven children. Herday begins by sharpening
the machete needed to collectthe daily supply of
dead wood (livingtrees are left for animal grazing),
as this is her only source of energy (page 543),and
by preparing a meal for the family.The eldest girls,
before walking to school, collect water from the river
1 km away. Much of Marietta's day is spent collecting
firewood and looking after her crops (maize, beans
and sorghum). Although owning a few chickens
and goats, Marietta's'wealth'is her two cows which
provide milkand are used to plough the hard
ground. It isessential that these cows remain healthy
for even ifthe vet, livingover 50 km away, did call,
Marietta would not be ableto afford the bill.Helped
by Practical Action (Places90, page 577), Marietta
has become a wasaidizi and has been given basic
training in animal health care. Eachweek, she spends
608 Development and globalisation
illiteracy reflect a shortage of schools and trained
teachers. The density of communication networks,
circulation of newspapers and numbers of cars,
telephones and television sets per household or
per capita have also been used as indicators of
development.
Social and economic development
An often neglected factor in social and economic
development is gender, and in particular the role of
women. Places 96 describes the lifestyle of a Kenyan
woman who, like many other women across the
world, is the principal support of her family and
local community. It is women like these who form
the mainstay of the family, of women's groups, the
community and, indeed, of a nation's develop-
ment. Yet their role as providers and generators of
wealth is not matched in most societies by their
status or int1uence. Women (and not just in deveJ-
oping countries) are often:
• denied ownership of property (including
land), access to wealth, education and family
planning (page 357) and equality in justice
and employment
• kept subordinate by being granted lowly posi-
tions or given menial tasks which are often
poorly paid or even unpaid (farming) or are
heavy, tedious and time-consuming (col-
lecting firewood and water)
• subject to violence, both physical and mental
• denied political influence.
two mornings in her'surgery'in the local village (a
four-hour round walk along a track where, just prior
to the author's visit,a lion had killeda villager)and
other days visiting localfarms. She earns a small
commission from the sale of vaccines and medicine,
but does not receive a salary.
JF=--=-:::::::::=~:--~::=-~_
Figure21.S
Marietta at
her'su rgery'
 poor families
Living in extreme poverty each with several

/'
At the beginning of the 21st century, the UN children
claimed that nearly 1 billion people lived
in extreme (or absolute) poverty, which
meant that 1 person in every 6 of the
children become i earn very
world's population was struggling for sur- even poorer than little or no
vival. Poor countries were finding them- their parents money
selves falling further and further behind
the richer countries and the 'development
gap' was continuing to grow. As this gap
widened, people in the poorest countries
became caught up in the so-called 'cycle get worst-paid
jobs or find no
t 1
children get
little or no
of poverty' (Figure 21.6), which leaves suc-
work at all education
cessive generations in a 'poverty trap' from

which there appears little hope of escape.
At the Millennium Summit of 2000, world
leaders committed their nations to a new global
partnership aimed at reducing extreme poverty.
They set out a series of targets which have become
known as the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) and which they hoped would be achieved
by 2015 (Figure 21.7). Within five years significant
progress had been made in many parts of the world.
The number in extreme poverty had declined by an
estimated 130 million, average overall incomes had
increased by 21 per cent, infant mortality had fallen
from 103 per 1000 live births to 88, life expectancy
had risen from 63 years to 65, and an extra 8 per
cent of the developing world's people had access to
clean water and 15 per cent to improved sanitation.
A report by the UN Millennium Project secre-
tariat team in 2006 concluded, however, that this
progress had not been uniform and that there were
still huge disparities not only between countries
but especially between rural areas, where extreme
poverty is often still increasing, and urban areas.
The team said that sub-Saharan Africa was at the
Figure 21.7
Millennium Development Goals(MDGs)
and basic human rights
/
" ,h;Id,," m,y be
illiterate and develop
limited skills
Figure 21.6
The cycle of poverty
centre of the Crisis,with continuing food insecurity
(page S03), extremely high child and maternal mor-
tality, large numbers living in sub-standard accom-
modation and a widespread shortfall for most of
the MDGs. According to the Human Poverty Index
(HPI), the world's six poorest countries were, in
descending order, Sierra Leone, Niger, Ethiopia,
Burkina Paso, Mali and, at the foot, Chad. Asia was
the region with the fastest progress, but even there
thousands of people remained in extreme poverty
and even the fastest improving countries still failed
to meet non-income goals.

MDGsneed to add ress: MDGs should between 1990 and 2015:

•income poverty
-Iark of adequate shelter
-Iack of clean water
MDGs need to promote:
•gender equality
•environmental sustainability
MDGs should ensure the basic rights of:
•health
•education
•hunger •reduce by two-thirds the under-5s
morta lity rate
•disease
•have halted and begun to reversethe
•exclusion spread of HIVand AIDS
•reduce by three-quarters the maternal
•education mortality rate
•aim to halve the number of people suffering
from hunger, living on under$l per day,without
accessto safe drinking water and without access
to basic sanitation
•shelter
•eliminate gender disparity in education
•education
 Millennium Development Goals on
water
As shown in Figure 21. 7, a lack of clean water
is one of six features that characterises living in
extreme poverty, and two of the MDGs were to
reduce by half by 2015 the number who in 1990
lived without access to safe water and without
access to basic sanitation. An earlier attempt by
the UN to provide water and sanitation for all
by 1990 was the International Drinking Water
Supply and Sanitation Decade launched in 1980.
This ambitious target was never reached. The year
2008 was designated the International Year of
Sanitation. Will this attempt be more successful?
It was also in 2008 that the UN claimed a
.0-40% .'
41-60%
61-80%
81-100%
D no data
Figure21.9
Percentage ofthe population
with access to safe water
number of facts:
• It would take an extra US$lO billion per
annum to achieve the MDGs by 2015.
• 1.1 billion people -1 in 6 of the world's
population - did not have access to safe water
(Figure 21.9).
• 2.6 billion people - more than 2 in 6 of the
world's population - did not have adequate
sanitation.
• If all the Earth's water was poured into a
bucket then, as 97.5 per cent of it is saltwater,
the fresh water available for drinking (the
remaining 2.5 per cent) would be the equiva-
lent of one teaspoonful (and that assumes it is
not polluted).
• At any given time, almost half the total popu-
lation of the developing countries is suffering
from one or more of the main diseases such
as diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and bilharzia
(Figure 21.27) that result from the inadequate
610 Development and globalisation
provision of safe water and sanitation, and
half of the hospital beds in the developing
world are occupied by people with water-
related illnesses.
• Water-related disease is the second major
cause of death for children, with a total of
almost 2 million dying across the world each
year and 5000 a day in developing countries.
• In semi-arid areas, obtaining water is time
consuming at the best - Figure 21.11 shows
women carrying water, which could weigh
20 kg, on their heads and taking several hours
to collect from a source several kilometres
away. Such unreliable sources become life
threatening during times of drought (Figure
16.5).
• Whereas an average person living in Europe
uses 200 litres of water a day - half that of
someone living in the USA- a person living
in a developing country may only have 10
Iitres for washing, cooking and drinking.
• The demand for water in the 20th century
increased by more than twice the rate of pop-
ulation growth and this demand is expected
to rise by another 40 per cent by 2030.
• Although safe water and adequate sanitation
may be difficult to find in shanty settlements
of cities in developing countries (pages 443
and 445), urban areas are usually much better
off than more remote rural areas (Figure
21.10).
• Increasing attention needs to be paid to
virtual water. This is water that appears in
food products or is needed to manufacture
goods. Agriculture accounts for over 70 per
cent of water consumption as it can take 1000
litres to produce 1 kg of potatoes, 1450 litres
for 1 kg of wheat and 3450 litres for 1 kg of
rice. A country consumes even more water if
it imports fresh fruit and vegetables.
0/0
Access to safe
100
water supply
90
80 urban
60
rural
50
40-
30
20
10
0
Figure 21.10
Safe water and sanitation: world total
 Figure21.11

Women carrying water

In earlv 2008 the Secretary-General of the UN
expres~ed co~cern over the increasing number of
global conflicts resulting from water shortages.
As consumption increases and resources dwindle,
conflicts over water are becoming more heated as
people downriver find themselves at the mercy ~
of those upriver, with irrigation and dam con-
struction the major flashpoints. While water dis-
putes may not be a single cause for warfare, they
can inflame existing tensions.

Places 97 Malawi and Ethiopia: WaterAid

In 2006, WaterAid celebrated its twenty-fifth year and Malawi

was credited to be Britain's most admired charity. To Malawi is one of the world's poorest countries with
date, Water Aid has helped over 12 million people in 65 per cent living below the poverty line and a life
developing countries to gain access to safe, clean
expectancy of less than 40 years. Only 73 per cent of
water and to improved sanitation. Its aims are to help the 11.2 million inhabitants have access to safe water
people in some of the poorest countries: and only 61 per cent to sanitation. WaterAid'began to

• to set up, operate and maintain their own safe work here in 1999 and now has four ongoing projects

domestic water and sanitation facilities in rural areas and one in the capital of Lilongwe.
Two schemes in rural areas include digging over 200
• to learn about safe hygiene practices so that
wells in the Salima District to reach clean supplies
they gain maximum health benefits.
of underground water and then using modern
It achieves these aims by helping local organisations pumps to raise this water to the surface where it is
to set up low-cost, sustainable projects that use providing safe water for 26 000 people (Figure 21.12),
appropriate technology and which can be managed and rehabilitating existing piped water systems in
by the community itself. WaterAid, which relies on
Machinga District to provide 15000 people with
donations, can provide safe water, sanitation and safe water. One innovative approach encourages
hygiene education for just £15 per person - basic
villagers to construct composting latrines in which
services that are essential ifvulnerable communities human waste is mixed with soil and ash to form a rich
are to have any hope of escaping from the compost. This could be significant in a country where
Figure21.12
stranglehold of disease and poverty. It also lobbies most people depend on farming fortheir livelihood
governments and decision-makers to prioritise water
and where the soil is often infertile and fertiliser is
and sanitation in their poverty reduction plans. both scarce and expensive. In low-income areas of
Lilongwe, sustainable systems for managing water
kiosks are being developed.

Ethiopia
The villages of Deyata Dodota and Dewaro in central
Ethiopia are just 8 km from each other in distance
but seem poles apart in their ways of life. Thanks to
Water Aid, Deyata Dodota now has water piped to it,
allowing villagers to grow vegetables in their front
gardens. In Dewaro, villagers rely on crude, earth-
banked dams that hold water for just six months a year,
water which they not only use for drinking, washing
and disposi ng of sewage, but which they share with
their animals. For half the year they have a long trek
for water. Deyata Dodota is essentially self-sufficient;
Dewaro needs food aid and lives in the hope that
£3000 will be found to extend the pipeline to them.

Development and globalisation 611

 ;f:~~~~~~=~T~
~~':~~'-~
~;~- Correlation and development: scattergraphs,
5}Framework
.....;:
-- - - 3 -- - :;: ~
19
- . S earman's rank correlation, and chi-squared

Scattergraphs The data are plotted against the scales of both

axes. The degree of correlation is estimated by the
It was suggested on pages 606-608 that there was
closeness of these points to a best-fit line. This line
a correlation between certain criteria and the level
is usually drawn by eye and shows any trend in the
of development. 'Correlation' inth is sense is used to
pattern indicated by the location of the various
describe the degree of association between two sets
points. One or two points, or residuals, may lie well
of data. This relationship may be shown graphically
beyond the best-fit line and, being anomalous, may
by means of a scattergraph. This involves the
be ignored at this stage. (Later it may be relevant to
drawing of two axes: the horizontal or xaxis and the
try to account for these anomalies or exceptions.)
vertical or y axis. Usually one variable to be plotted is
dependent upon the second variable. It is conven- The best-fit line may be drawn as a straight line (on an
tional to plot the independent variable on the x axis arithmetic scale) or as a smooth curve (on log or semi-
and the dependent variable on the y axis. log scales). If all the points fit the best-fit line exactly,
there is a perfect correlation between the two
Figure 21.13 shows two relationships, one from
variables. However, most points at best will lie close
physical geography and one from human qeo-
to and on either side of the drawn line. A positive
graphy.ln the physical example, rainfall is the
correlation is where both variables increase - i.e. the
independent variable, with runoff being depend-
best-fit line rises from the bottom left towards the top
ent upon it. The human example shows GOP as the
right (Figure 21 .14a and b). A negative correlation
independent variable and energy consumption
occurs where the independent variable increases as
per capita to be dependent upon this measure of
the dependent variable decreases - i.e. the best-fit
a country's wealth.
line falls from the top left to the bottom right
Figure 21.13 (Figure 21.1 4d and e). In some instances, the
Plottingthe arrangement of the points makes it impossible to
dependentand yaxis
draw in a line, in which case the inference is that there
(dependent
independent is no correlation between the two sets of data chosen
variable)
variables
(Figu re 21 .14c). In the event of one, or both, of the
examples:
runoff; variables having a wide range of values r it may be
energy advisable to use a logarithmic scale (Figures 3.22
consumption
and 18.25).
per capita

If the scattergraph shows the possibility of a

xaxis correlation between the two variables, then an
(independent variable)
appropriate statistical test should be used to see
examples: rainfall (mm); if there is indeed a correlation, and to quantify the
GDP per ca pita relationship.

a perfect positive b good positive c no correlation d fairly good negative e perfect negative
correlation (arithmetic correlation (log or correlation correlation (log or
scale) semi-log scale) (arithmetic scale) semi-log scale)
xanomaly x x
x x
orr x x
x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x x x x
x
x
= + 1.00 about + 0.80 0.00 about-0.60 =-1.00

Figure21.14

Typesof correlation
andtheir associated
Spearman's rank
coefficients

612 Development and globalisation

 GOPper capita Energy consumption per capita Birth rate
US$ Rank kg oil-equivalent Rank d d2 per 1000 Rank d d2
Norway 53000 5284 12

USA 45800 2 8051 -1 14

Switzerland 41100 3622 6 9 10

UK 35100 4 3992 13

Germany 34200 4267 3 -2 4 8

Japan 33600 6 4058 4 -2 4 9

Argentina 14300 1653 8 19

Malaysia 13300 8 1950 7 -1 21

Brazil 9700 9 1012 9 o 0 20

Colombia 6700 10 799 11 20

Egypt 5500 11 638 12 27

China 5300 12 902 10 -2 4 12

India 2700 13 476 13 o 0 24

Figure 21.15
Kenya 1700 14 466 14 o 0 40
Rankeddatafor GDp,
energyconsumptionand SierraLeone 700 15 230 15 o 0 48
birth ratesfor selected
Id2 = 28 Id2 =
countries,2007

Spearman's rank correlation coefficient where: d2 is the sum ofthe squares of the differ-
ences in rank ofthe variables, and n is the number
This is a statistical measure to show the strength of
in the sample.
a relationship between two variables. Figure 21.15
lists the GDP per capita for 15 selected countries. In our example it follows that:
Fifteen is the minimum number needed in a sample
6x28
for the Spearman's rank test to be valid. r ==
1 - 3375 -15
The first stage is to see if there is any correlation 168
between the GDP and the energy consumption per 1 - 3360
capita. This can be done using the following steps:
== 1 - 0.05 (then do not forget the final
1 Rank both sets of data. This has already been subtraction)
done in Figure 21.15. Notice thatthe highest
== 0.95 (it is usual to give the answer correct to
value is ranked first. Had there been two or two decimal places).
three countries with the same value, they would
have been given equal ranking, e.g. rank order: In this example, there is a strong positive correlation
1,2,3.5,3.5 (3.5 is the mean of 3 and 4), (remember, a perfect positive correlation is 1.00)
5,7,7,7 (7 is the mean of 6,7 and 8), 9, 10. between GDP and energy consumption per capita.

2 Calculate the difference, or d, between the two Although the closer r is to + 1 or -1 the stronger the
rankings. Note that it is possible to get negative likely correlation, there is a danger in jumping to
answers. quick conclusions. It is possible that the relationship
3 Calculate d2, to eliminate the negative values. described may have occurred by chance. The

4 Add up (2:) the d2 values (in this example, the second stage is therefore to test the significance

answer is 28). ofthe relationship. This is done by using the graph

shown in Figure 21.16. Note that the correlation
5 You are now in a position to calculate the
coefficient r is plotted on the y axis and the degrees
correlation coefficient, or r. by using the
offreedom (df) on the x axis. Degrees of freedom
formula:
are the number of pairs in the sample minus two.
6Id2
r = 1---
n3-n

.......................................................................................................................................................................

Development and globalisation 613

 and 6 in area C. Had chance been the only factor
1.0 affecting this distribution, then it might reasonably
C
<11
0.9 likelihood of the
'u 0.8 be expected that as area A covers 50 per cent of the
tE<11 0.7 correlation
total area, then halfthe villages would be located
0 0.6 occurring by
u there. Similarly, areas Band C. each covering 20
c 0.5 chance
0
.~ per cent of the area, should both have 10 villages,
~'"
0.4 '"
<0' leaving area D, with only 10 per cent ofthe area,
(; :::J
:;;
u 0.3 0.1% ri' with the remaining 5 Villages. This means, as
-'c" 0.>
:::J shown in Figure 21.18a, that we have two sets of
~ 1% hl
'" data showing the observed (0) number and the
C 0.2 f
'E" 5% ~ expected (E) number of villages. In reality, however,
OJ
<11
Q. Unable to accept Figure 21.17 shows that areas Band D have more
VI
} hypothesis at villages than might be expected and A and C fewer
0.1 ...L---.--,-...,-,---,--.--r--r-r- significance levels
than expected. It is tempting, therefore, to suggest
2 4 6 8 10 20 50 6080 greater than 5%;
that there could be a relationship between the
degrees of freedom (dt) hence 5% level of
significance is known observed and expected distributions and that this
(number of pairs of items in sample minus 2)
as the rejection level. relationship is dependent upon the height ofthe
land, whereas the difference may in fact be due
Figure21.16 entirely to chance factors. Chi-squared is used to
Using the correlation coefficient ofGDP per capita
Thesignificanceofthe and energy consumption per capita, which we have estimate the probability that the differences are
Spearman's rank worked out to be 0.95, we can read off 0.95 on the due to chance.
correlationcoefficients
vertical scale and 13 (l.e, 15 in the sample minus 2)
anddegreesoffreedom It is often bestto begin with a null hypothesis,
on the horizontal. We can see that the reading lies
which in this case might be'There is no significant
above the 0.1 per cent significance level curve. This
relationship between the distribution of Villages
means that we can say with 99.9 per cent confidence
and the height ofthe land/We can now use the
that the correlation has not occurred by chance. The
formula for chi-squared, which is:
graph also shows that if the correlation falls below
the 5 per cent significance level curve then we can
only say with less than 95 per cent confidence that
the correlation has not occurred by chance. Below
this point, the correlation or hypothesis is rejected
in terms of statistical significance - i.e. there is too
great a likelihood that the correlation has occurred
AREA B
by chance for it to be meaningful. Even if there is a
significant correlation, the result does not prove that 20% of area
'"<11
there is necessarily a causal relationship between 01
12 villages ~
variables. It cannot be assumed that a change in 's
A causes a change in B. Further investigation is ~
N

AREAA
ro
necessary to establish this. ~
50% of total area '"
••...
0

Chi-squared ~
20 of total villages ~
0

Whereas Spearman's rank seeks associations 0

AREAC «
between x and y values, chi-squared looks for UJ
cr:
differences between groups (or areas). The symbol «
20% of area
for chi-squared (chi is a Greek letter pronounced
'ky') is x,. Figure 21.17 shows the hypothetical 6 villages

distribution of villages over an area of land

consisting of four contrasting categories of height,
i.e. frequencies of 0-50 m, 51-100 m, 101 -150 m
and over 150 m (it could have been different types Figure21.17
of soil, or rock type, etc.). Of the 50 villages located Chi-squared:
observed
here, 20 are in area A, 12 in each of areas Band D, andexpectedvillages

614 Development and globalisation

 Figure 21.18b shows how to use the formula and,
in this example, how we obtain a calculated value
of chi-squared of 12.8. We can now, by using Figure
21.19, test for the significance ofthis value and
determine the probability that the distribution
was due to chance. Notice that, as in Spearman's
rank (Figure 21.16), the horizontal axis is labelled
'degrees offreedom' (df). We read the degrees of
freedom by subtracting 1 from the total number
Figure21.18 of distributions (areas), in this case 4 - 1 = 3. Using
A worked chi- our two coordinates (X 2 = 12.8 and df = 3) we can
squared example obtain a location on the graph which is just above
the 1 chance in 100 curve, l.e. our distribution is
only likely to occur by chance once in every 100
situations. We can assume, therefore, that there is
a possible connection between the distribution
of villages and height ofthe land and so we can
start looking for causes (had the location on the
graph been below the 5 chances in 100 curve,
then we could assume that there
Figure21.19
was no connection between village
distribution and height ofthe land The significance
of chi-squared
and therefore we need not spend
and degrees
time seeking reasons). offreedom

a Area A B C 0 Total
200 T --r- ' 'r:: ' i,
o (Observed) 20 12 6 12 50 i! : !l! i
100 t i l..i.-+-~...
E (Expected) 25 10 10 5 50 _---t-.
L

T
,_

: ir t
J.,

-"-:):":!:
50- -l- ,
40
x 30
Using chi-squared '0 25
<lJ
:::l
20
b (i) (0-8 -5 +2 -4 +7 ro
>
ro 10
(ii) (0 - 82 25 4 16 49 .~
'5 5
0.4 1.6
(iii)
(O~Er 1.0 9.8 4
3
.j.
I

(iv) ~ (0-~2 1.0 + 0.4 + 1.6 + 9.8 = 12.8 2

I'

(sum of) E , I, I'

, I

2 3 45 10 20 304050 100
:. X2 = 12.8 degrees of freedom (df)

Figure21.20
Rostow's model of
economic growth
Stages in economic growth and cultural differences. One of the first models
to account for economic growth, and probably
The Rostow model still the Simplest, was that put forward by
Various models, with a wide range of criteria, W.W. Rostow in 1960. Following a study of 15
have been suggested when trying to account for countries, mainly in Europe, he suggested that
differences in world development. These include all countries had the potential to break the cycle
those based on capitalist and Marxist systems as of poverty and to develop through five linear
well as those more concerned with wealth, social stages (Figure 21.20).

Approximate date of reaching a new stage of development

level of
development 2 3 4 5
~ ry

UK 1750 1820 1850 1940

USA 1800 1850 1920 1930

Japan 1880 1900 1930 1950

Venezuela 1920 1950 1970 -

India 1950 1980 - -

Ethiopia - - - -

time

Development and globalisation 615

Figure 21.21
1 Primary 2 Secondary 3 Tertiary (services)
Changesin employment
structure basedon Stage 1 vast majority very few very few
Bestows model Stage 2 vast majority few very few
Stage 3 declining rapid growth few
Stage 4 few stable growing rapidly
Stage 5 very few declining growing rapidly
Stage 1: Traditional society A subsistence
economy based mainly on farming with very
limited technology or capital to process raw
materials or develop industries and services
(Figure 21.21).
Stage 2: Preconditions for take-off A country
often needs an injection of external help to move
into this stage. Extractive industries develop.
Agriculture is more commercialised and becomes
mechanised. There are some technological
improvements and a growth of infrastructure. The
development of a transport system encourages
trade. A single industry (often textiles) begins to
dominate. Investment is about 5 per cent of GDP.
Stage 3: Take-off Manufacturing industries grow
rapidly. Airports, roads and railways are built.
Political and social adjustments are necessary to
adapt to the new way of life. Growth is usually
limited to one or two parts of the country (growth
poles - page 569) and to one or two industries
(magnets). Numbers in agriculture decline.
Investment increases to 10-15 per cent of GDP,
or capital is borrowed from wealthier nations.
Stage 4: The drive to maturity By now, growth
should be self-sustaining. Economic growth
spreads to all parts of the country and leads to an
increase in the number and types of industry (the
multiplier effect, page 569). More complex trans-
port systems develop and manufacturing expands
as technology improves. Some early industries
may decline. There is rapid urbanisation.
Stage 5: The age of high mass consumption
Rapid expansion of tertiary industries and
welfare facilities. Employment in service indus-
tries grows but declines in manufacturing.
Industry shifts to the production of durable
consumer goods.
Criticisms of Rostow's model
Rostow's model, put forward in 1960, suffers the
same criticisms as several other models, of being
both outdated and oversimplified (Framework 12,
page 352), although, as one critic concedes, 'the
alternatives are just too difficult to explain and
to apply'. You should be aware, however, of such
valid criticisms:
• The model assumes, incorrectly, that all
countries start off at the same level.
616 Development and globalisation
• While capital was needed to advance a
country from its traditional SOCiety,often
the injection of aid has been dwarfed by debt
repayments which delayed, and has even pre-
vented some countries (especially in Africa),
from reaching the 'take-off' stage.
• The model underestimates the extent to
which the development of some countries
in the past was at the expense of others, e.g.
through colonialism and imperialism.
• It predicts too short a timescale between the
beginning of growth and the time when a
country becomes self-sustaining. It over-
emphasises the effect of the learning curve,
i.e. the time taken for a country to develop
diminishes as countries learn from others
that are already developed. While the emer-
gence ofthe NICs (page 578) in the late 20th
century and of RUSSia,India and China in the
early 2000s seem to support Rostow's claim,
he was, like most people, to underestimate
the effects of globalisation.
• The model has not seen a universal sequence
and is, according to Barke and O'Hare among
others, too Eurocentric.
Barke and O'Hare's model for West
Africa
Barke and O'Hare (The Third World, 1984) claimed
that although developed industrial countries
may have moved through Rostow's five stages, it
seems increasingly unlikely that countries that
have yet to develop economically will follow the
same pattern. This may be because capital alone
is insufficient to promote take-off. Perhaps what
is needed is a fundamental structural change in
society which encourages peopJe to save and
invest and to develop an entrepreneurial, business
class, as was the case in Hong Kong. Possibly the
process which allows transition from traditional
agriculture to advanced industry is a relict one,
being applicable only to the early industrialised
countries which had unlimited use of the world's
resources and markets. Barke and O'Hare have
suggested a four-stage model for industrial growth
in developing countries, pointing out that ele-
ments from different stages often exist Side by
side, providing a 'dual economy'.
Stage 1: Traditional craft industries These were
in existence before European colonisation, e.g.
cloth weaving, iron working, wood carving and
leather goods in northern igeria (Kana).
Stage 2: Colonialism and the processing of
primary products Raw materials were initially
exported in an unprocessed form (cocoa and
palm oil) while the chief imports (textiles and
machinery) came from the colonial power and,
being cheaper, destroyed many local craft indus-
tries. Later, some processing took place, usually
in ports or the primate city (page 405), if it
reduced the weight for export (vegetable oils and
sugar), if it was too bulky to import (cement),
or if there was a large local market (textiles). To
help obtain raw materials from their colonies,
the European powers built ports (Accra and
:' capital city, chief port, major
Lagos), but railways were only constructed if I industries and urban areas most
there were sufficient local resources to make , services and investme'nt
them profitable. Education, along with the
development of industrial and manazernent
o
skills, was neglected.
-e11t . e'>'
Stage 3: Import substitution During the Second er jobs and sel'iIC
World War and, later, following their independ- p less investment
ence, countries had to replace the import of textiles, E R , P H E ~ 'I Figure 21.22

furniture, hardware and simple machinery with The core-

their own manufactured goods. Production was in
small units with limited capital and technology.
Stage 4: Manufacture of capital, goods and
consumer durables As standards of living rose
in several countries (notably in the NICs in
Latin America and South-east Asia), there was
an increased demand for heavier industry and
'Western'-style durable consumer goods. These
industries, often because of the investment
and skills needed, were developed by transna-
tional companies wishing to take advantage
of cheap labour, tax concessions and entry to
a large local market (page 573). The American
Valco company, for example, in the mid-1950s
constructed a dam on Ghana's River Volta, a
hydro-electric power station at Akosombo, and
an aluminium smelter at Tema, in return for duty
and tax exemptions on the import of bauxite
and the export of aluminium, and the purchase
of cheap electricity. Projects developed by trans-
nationals are usually prestigious, of limited
value to the country, and may be withdrawn
(Volkswagen have stopped operating in Nigeria)
should world sales drop. In other cases, where
private capital was not forthcoming or where
the dominance of transnational corporations
was felt to be undesirable, as in China and India
large-scale industrial development was promoted
through five-year national plans for economic
development (Case Study 19).
Core-periphery model
Economic growth and development are rarely
even. We have already seen how Myrdal (page
569) identified 'growth poles' which, he claimed,
developed into core regions; how in the 19th
century it was the coalfields that formed Britain's
major industrial areas; and, since 1980, how
peri phery model
the artificially created Special Economic Zones
became growth centres in China (Case Study 19).
Economic activity, including the level of indus-
trialisation and intensity of farming, decreases
rapidly with distance from the core regions and
towards the periphery - as shown in the core-
periphery model (Figure 21.22).
The core forms the most prosperous and
developed part of a country, or region. It is likely
to contain the capital city (with its administra-
tion and financial functions), the chief port (if the
country has a coastline) and the major urbanised
and industrial areas. Usually, levels of wealth,
economic activity and development decrease with
distance from the core so that places towards the
periphery become increasingly poorer.
As a country develops economically, one of
two processes is likely to occur:
1 Economic activity in the core continues to
grow as it attracts new industries and services
(banking, insurance, government offices). As
levels of capital and technology increase, the
region will be able to afford schools, hospitals,
shopping centres, good housing and a modern
transport system. These 'pull' factors encour-
age rural in-migration (page 366). Meanwhile,
in the periphery jobs will be relatively few,
low-paid, unskilled and mainly in the primary
sector, while services and government invest-
ment will be limited. These 'push' factors (page
366) force people to migrate towards the core.
This process still seems to operate in the NICs
and in many of the economically less developed
countries (Kenya, Peru). Barke and O'Hare have
suggested that 'just as it is possible to conceive
of cores (MDCs) and peripheries (LDCs) on a

Development and globalisation 617

 a all economic
b c
core grows in original core
development
size and wealth begins to lose
occurs withi n
its dominance
the core

the core is
dominant in the
country/island/
secondary core several secondary cores develop;
region
begins to develop wealth is more evenly spread
0 capital city

0 important city
global scale, it can be acknowledged that colo- (Figure 21.23). This can result in the decline in

~
• main port

primary core
nialism inspired cores (enclave economies) and
peripheries (rural subsistence sector) within
the dominance of the original core. Even so,
there will still be peripheral areas that are less
Third World countries themselves'. well off. This process has occurred in many of
2 Industry and wealth begin to spread out more the economically more developed countries,
~ secondary cores
evenly. Initially, a second core region will e.g. USA and Japan (figure 19.20) and, more

~ periphery develop followed by several secondary regions recently, the emerging China (Places 98).

migration
of people
China: core-periphery
Economic development has, until very recently, along the entire coastline with the aim of encouraging
Figure21.23
been severely restricted in China partly due to the overseas trade (Figure 21.24b). Even so, apart from the
The hoped-for
country's vast size and partly due to physical barriers heavy industrial region between Shenyang and Harbin
economic growth
such as mountains and deserts. In the early 20th in the north-east and around Chongqing far up the
in a country
century most of China's limited commercial activity Yangtze River, economic development did not spread
was concentrated around three core regions (Figure far into the huge periphery.
21.24a).Thesewere Beijing, the capital, in the north;
Yet within the last two orthree decades, China has
Shanghai, the only international port and city, near
developed to such an extentthat it is expected, in the
to the mouth of the Yangtze River in the centre; and
next few years, to become the world's third largest
Canton (modern Guangzhou) and the Pearl River
economy and its increasing wealth, albeit from a low
estuary in the south (adjacent Hong Kong was then a
base, is beginning to spread to even remote villages
British colony). In the 1950s Mao Zedong attempted
(Case Study 14B) and provinces (Figure 21.24c). Even
to industrialise China but his efforts only further
so, most development has been, and still is, in the
impoverished an already economically poor country
coastal provinces and the Yangtze Basin where 94 per
that had virtually isolated itself from the rest of world.
cent of the population now live. The Yangtze Basin,
Real progress only took place after his death in where the Three Gorges Dam (page 545) provides
1976 when Chi na slowly began to open its doors to electricity for new high-tech industries and the lake

Figure21.24 outsiders. In 1980 five Special Economic Zones (Figure behind it has improved river navigation as far as
19.42) were established, creating a new industrial core Chongqing (Figure 21.24c), is the only large core region
Core and periphery in
China (see Figure 21.23 along parts ofthe south-east coast. Aboutthat time to have developed far inland.
for key) 14 'open cities; or ports, were designated at intervals

a 1920 b 1980 c 2010

'~~ l\ ~
~.~ oOJl
Beijing· Beijing
only 6% of 0 •
population ~

ChOngqingG)
Yangtze Basin ~ 0
Shanghai

Canton
o 00
94% of
population

618 Development and globalisation


Figure 21.25
The complex inter-
relationship between
health and development
Health and development to the World Health Organization (WHO), is 'a
state of complete physical, mental and social
Health, according to the UN Millennium well-being and not merely the absence of disease
Development Goals, is one of four basic human and infirmity' - a statement that implies complex
rights (Figure 21. 7). This particular basic right interactions between humans and their various
is most likely to be denied to people living in environments (Figure 21.25).
extreme poverty, especially those in the least eco- Bearing in mind Phillips' warning in Figure
nomically developed countries where there may 21.25 concerning difficulties in trying to cor-
be disease, hunger and a lack of safe water and relate health with economic development, there
adequate sanitation. Health is closely linked with do appear to be marked differences in the types
economic development, and indeed several meas- of illness (Figure 21.27) and in health care (Figure
ures of development named on page 608 were 21.26) between the more and the less economically
birth and death rates, infant mortality, life expect- developed countries. It has been suggested that, as a
ancy, a balanced diet and the number of people country develops, it is likely to pass through several
per doctor or hospital bed. Good health, according stages of epidemiological or health transition.

'It has long been acknowledged that the health hygiene and reproductive health. Socio-
expectancy, falling infant, child and maternal
status of the population of any place or country economic development. particularly if equitably
influences development. It can be a limiting mortality and enhanced access to services. By
spread through the population - although this is
factor, as generally poor individual health can contrast. there are examples in which economic
rarely the case - also enables housing and related
lower work capacity and productivity; in development, infrastructure expansion and
services to improve. The classical cycle of poverty
aggregate in a population, this can severely agricultural intensification do not always coincide
can be broken by development.
restrict the growth of econom ies. On the other with improved human well-being. There is, in fact,
However, it is notoriously difficultto provide a growing realisation that macroeconomic
hand, economic development can make it
generalisations about the relationship between changes may not always filter down to benefit all
possible to finance good environmental health,
economic development and a population's health of the population. and many perhaps soundly
sanitation and public health campaigns-
status. We can cite examples in which correlations based policies in economic terms can have
education, immunisation, screening and health
between GNP and life expectancy are not devastating human effects in lncreasinq poverty
promotion - and to provide broader-based social
straightforward. There are many examples to and maldistribution of resources:
care for needy groups. General social
show how economic development has
development, particularly education and literacy,
contributed to improving quality of life and David Phillips and Vola Verhasselt
has almost invariably been associated with
health status, via indicators such as increased life
improved health status via improved nutrition,

Figure 21.26
Differences in health care
a Cataract camp, Kolkata
b Intensive care unit,
S! Bartholomew's,
London

Figure 21.27
Differences in types of
disease between less
and more developed
countries

less developed ccuntrtes more developed countries

heart disease and stroke

water-borne parasites poor hygiene poor diet
(circulatory)
neoplasms (cancers)
bilharzia mosquito guinea blackfly typhoid cholera, trachoma hepatitis lack of lack of mental disorders
snail worm dysentery protein vitamins
arthritis
Alzheimer's disease
malaria yellow river
kwashiorkor marasmus rickets beri-beri respiratory problems
fever blindness

Development and globalisation 619

 The epidemiological (health) transition in most countries from that which previously
existed in a 'traditional' state or developing country
The demographic transition model (Figure 13.10)
(Figure 21.28). Figure 21.29 has been adapted from
suggests that fertility (birth rate) declines appreci-
Orman's epidemiological transition. Initially, three
ably, probably irreversibly, when traditional, mainly
stages of the transition were envisaged:
agrarian societies are transformed by modernisa-
1 the age of pestilence and famine which gradu-
tion, industrialisation and bureaucratic urban-
ally merges into ...
oriented societies. This rather straightforward and
2 the age of receding pandemics (worldwide
simplistic demographic transition assumes that, for
diseases), giving way to ...
example, a simple industrial-economic modernisa-
3 the age of degenerative and human-induced
tion will occur in societies accompanied by changes
diseases.
in lifestyles, living conditions and health levels. Of
More recent studies have suggested the emer-
greater interest to epidemiologists, health planners
gence of ...
and medical geographers is that with 'modernisa-
Figure21.28
4 the age of delayed degenerative diseases and,
tion' and increasing affluence and life expectancy
associated with a lengthening of life, poorer
A view on health comes a very different disease or ailment profile
health.
transition
Omran suggested that there were three variations in
the basic model:
It has long been recognised that societies pas' through various
1 The classical or 'Western' model, which took
patterns of morbidity (illness and disease) and mortality (causes of
death) during the development process, even if not all the stages and place over a prolonged period (100 to 200
sequences are identical in every case. In general, health improves, years).
morbidity and mortality fall and come from different causes, and 2 The 'accelerated' model, which occurred in
life expectancy increases; this comprises the 'epidemiological Japan after the Second World War, and more
transition' [after Omran, 1971]. More receutly the term 'health recently in Hong Kong (Places 99), Singapore
transition' is being used, as it has a broader concept than and other NICs in South-east Asia. This showed
epidemiological, i.e. it focuses on health rather than just on rapid declines in mortality and fertility.
morbidity. These changes generally come with 'modernisation' and 3 The 'delayed' model, which is common to
are indeed part and parcel of the process. They seem to occur at a
many of today's less developed countries. It con-
different pace in varying countries and, in recent years, they are
tains elements of morbidity and mortality from
related to the application of modern medical techniques and
both degenerative and infectious diseases but,
technology as well as to changing tandard of living, nutrition,
housing and sanitation. at the same time, lacks the marked reduction in
fertility experienced in the 'Western' model.
David Phillips,
The Epidemiological Transition in Hong Kong, 1988

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

high levels

Figure21.29

The epidemiological model

low levels

Pestilence and famine Receding pandemics Degenerative and human- Delayed degenerative
Age of
induced diseases diseases

reduced due to vaccines, increased wealth, unhealthy

mainly respiratory and
Causes
infectious diseases.
measles, smallpox, malaria,
typhoid and cholera,
Types
tubercu losis,enteritis and
diarrhoea, pneumonia
immunisation schemes,
diets and overweight, lack of longevity
improved housing and exercise, smoking, stress
sanitation
neoplasms (cancers),
circulatory (heart attacks and
strokes), respiratory (linked to Alzheimer's, pneumonia (plus
air pollution), cerebrovascular neoplasms and circulatory)
(nervous disorders)

620 Development and globalisation

 Places 99 Hong Kong: the epidemiological transition
Figure 21.30 shows the epidemiological changes 3 A rapid increase in deaths from'Western'diseases,
for Hong Kong between 1951 and 2001. The graph especially malignant neoplasms (cancers) and heart
illustrates three trends that closely match Oman's disease (due to overweight and an increase in stress).
accelerated model: Singapore shares these three characteristics with Hong

A rapid decline in infective/parasitic diseases (due Kong, probably because it too has a fairly homogenous

to improved standards of living, better housing ethnic mix living mainly in urban areas. Similar patterns

conditions and improved medical care including showing changes in the cause of death can also be seen

immunisation) and digestive complaints (the result in other existing and emerging NICs in South-east Asia

ofimproved health careand a better diet). such as Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan and, presumably
Figure 21.30 in time, China. Where dissimilarities do appear, they may
2 An initial drop in respiratory illnesses and
Epidemiological be credited to differences in wealth, social status, ethnic
pneumonia which has since been reversed
change in Hong Kong, mix, religion and level of urbanisation, both within and
1951-2001 (partly as a result of increased traffic emissions).
between countries.

D 1951 D 1981
35
D 1961 D 1991
35

D 1971 .2001 30 r-
30
r-

16 25 ._ r+'
25
-
14 I
r- _I

~ 12
\ r-f-r- -
20

o \death rate -
f-- ._ - 15
~ 10 r-r-
u
\
-.
r-r-
c
'" 8 10 .- --- ~ ~r-- 10
:3o - -
-

r ·r
£

r
6
Q;
0. 4
2
~
5

0 II
infective/
parasitic
ret
digestive
system
respiratory
system and
malignant
neoplasms
heart disease cerebro-vascular
l- 5

'- o
o
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 pneumonia (cancers)

The value ofthe epidemiological (health) and for governments trying to decide where best to
transition allocate funds.
Perhaps the most important role the epidemiological Finally, by identifying a fourth stage, that of the

~ transition can play is to provide a formal framework age of delayed degenerative diseases, the epide-
within which to set health and health-care strate- miological transition draws attention to the world's

I
gies over the medium to long term. As such, it could ageing population (pages 359-360). This stage,
provide a major stimulus to future health-care needs although at present confined to the more devel-
both within countries when directed by governments, oped and wealthy 'Western' countries (Japan, the
or globally through international health agencies. It UK), suggests a lengthy old-age potentially dogged
could help health planners in places where change is with chronic, but non-fatal, ailments. Old age, faced
very rapid (NICs), is varied between social groups (rich by an ever-increasing proportion ofthe popula-
and poor communities in developing countries) and tion and whose health and social needs are often
ethnic groups (South Africa), and where health care greater than those in younger age groups, may not
is expensive and finance is limited (the UK). It could be attractive unless public and family support are
~,. also point out the growing needs for care from causes forthcoming. Although developing countries are
like mental illness, especially in developing countries, further from this stage, nevertheless many are expe-
and Alzheimer's disease, in more developed countries, riencing a rapid increase in lonqevlty, resulting in
which are both considerably underestimated in much more people needing care as they live longer. Due
I
:.
I
health sector planning. to the increasing numbers of the elderly in many
The epidemiological transition is relevant for developing countries (China, Case Study 13; India),
manufacturers and suppliers of medicines and health and due to the absolute totals, it is necessary to start
equipment, for researchers looking for new vaccines, planning now fortheirfuture health and social care.

Development and globalisation 621

 HIV/AIDS become increasingly infectious in Indonesia and
Vietnam, followed by Eastern Europe and Central
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome),
Asia (Figure 21.31).
first described in medical literature in 1981, had
The 2007 report claimed that:
become pandemic (an epidemic that spreads
• although all countries across the world were
over a wide geographical area) by the 1990s and
affected, HIV/AIDS was most prevalent in
remains one of the greatest threats to global public
countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 21.31
health. The three main means of transmitting
and Places 100) where 22.5 million people were
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) are by
affected, followed by South and South-east Asia
the exchange of body fluids during sexual inter-
with 4 million
course (with greater efficiency from male to female
• the percentage of people living with HIV world-
than vice versa), through infected blood (shar-
wide, many of whom had been born with it
ing needles/syringes and by contaminated blood
had declined from a peak of 38 million in 2003
transfusions) and parentally from mother to child
to 33.2 million (although this in part may have
during pregnancy or birth. The dominant forms of
been due to the improved method of data col-
transmission, and the way the virus spreads, vary
lection mentioned above)
worldwide (Figure 21.31).
• there was a decrease in the number of reported
UNAIDS and WHO announced in 2007 that
new infections, down from just over 3 million
'HIV/AIDS continues to be a major development,
a year in the late 19905 and 5 million in 2003
global health and security challenge, especially in
to an estimated 2.5 million in 2007. Even so,
southern Africa. [t reverses life expectancy gains,
worldwide that was an average of 6800 new
erodes productivity, decimates the workforce, con-
infections per day
sumes savings, and dilutes poverty efforts threaten-
• in 2007, 2.1 million people died of AIDS- an
ing the realisation of the Millennium Development
average of 5700 each day
Goals' (page 609). They also pointed out that this
• life expectancy, especially in the worst-affected
report reflected improved epidemiological data col-
countries of sub-Saharan Africa, was continuing
lection and analysis which resulted in substantial
to fall although there were encouraging signs
revisions of all previous estimates. This latest data
that, since 2005, antiretroviral therapy was
Figurel1.31 suggested that the number of new HIV infections
beginning to prolong life even if, as yet, there
Estimated global
had begun to level off and the number of deaths at-
was no known cure.
distributionof HIV tributable to AIDS had begun to fall. The pandemic,
infections,2007 still dominant in sub-Saharan Africa, had also

population in millions

global total about

33.2 million

[J Pattern 1 countries
Extensive spread occurred
here in the late 1970s,
predominantly among the
homosexual, bisexual and
intravenous drug-using
community. Heterosexual
spread is slowly increasing.
Pattern 2 countries
Spread here also occurred
in the late 1970s but
predominantly by
heterosexual transmission.
Vertical transmission from
mother to child and
transmission via
contaminated blood and
( blood products are also
important routes.

[J Pattern 3 countries
Here HIV infection was
introduced later, probably
in the 1980s by travellers
and also by imported
infected blood and blood
Source: UNAIDS 2008 products.
 Sub-Saharan Africa: HIV/AIDS

Sub-Saharan Africa remains the global epicentre of this region _ now being only42.5 years (Figure 21.32).
the epidemic. In 2007 there were an estimated 22.5 Latest predictions for these countries is that by 2015 it
million infected people living in this region who had is likely to be under42 years _ more than 20 years less
HIV, i.e, 68 percent ofthose affected globally and 35 than the63 years it might have been had HIV/AIDS
per cent of this region's total population. The region n ever occurred. In the worst-affected cou ntries, suc has
also contained 43 per cent of all children aged under Botswana, the pandemic is creating a 'chimney-shaped'
15, and 52 per cent of all women above the age of population structure (Figure 21.33), which leaves
15, who were affected across the world by the virus. fewer people in the economically active age group
Eight countries in southern Africa (Botswana, Lesotho, (page 354). It has also left an estimated 11.4 million
Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia children in the region as orphans _ just over 1 in every 4
and Zimbabwe) accounted for almost one-third of children. More recently, and resulting from the reduced
all the new HIV infections and AIDS deaths across effectiveness of people's immune system, the risk of
the world (Figure 21.32). Although the 1.7 million tuberculosis (TB) has increased by 50 per cent and
new infections in sub-Saharan Africa in 2007 was a deaths from TB by 25 per cent. Of the 14 million people
significant reduction on previous years, it was still globally co-infected with TB and HIV, 10 million live in
nearly 70 per cent of the world's total, while the 1.6 sub-Saharan Africa where treatment is both harderto
million deaths due to AIDS in this region was 76 per get and less effective. As more people are weakened
cent of the world's total. by HIV, there are fewer doctors and nurses to treat
patients, fewer teachers to educate children about
One ofthe worst effects ofHIV/AIDS has been a
the causes and effects of the illness, and fewer healthy
reduction in life expectancy. By 2005, in southern
farmers to produce sufficientfood (page 503).
Africa it had, on average, fallen by 10 years since the
pandemic was first recorded. In
2007 it still appeared to be falling, N
Figure 21.33
with th e average ag e for the 1a

"
1 a with AIDS
Projected population
structu re for Botswana
in 2020
countries in the world with the
lowest life expectancy _ all in
+
age (years)
so males females

4S
--------------------
40
35
30
25
20
15
i
~:=~=:=e~E:=:-=":~"--E
__:_:_-_~~:_:::~T"
=
--------- _b ' _ _2_'_
J " " __ __;__~L~ __ ._.

1~t=~140 120
==-"-~-- ~~~.~.-"
100 SO 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
.. ~"-=:-~:.~~-_="~~
80 100 120 140

population (thousands) Figure 21.32

b without AIDS Life expectancies for 10

age (year,)
countries in the world
80 males females wi th the lowest expect-
75 ancy and 8 countries
70
65
with 32% of new HIV
60 infectionsand 33% of
55 AIDS deaths
45
40
35
30
25 ~ countries with 32% of
20 ~ new HIV infections and
15 33% of AIDS deaths
10
cou ntries with the world's
lowest Iife expectancies
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

population (thousands)
o 1000 km

International trade
Development of world trade
Trading results from the uneven distribution of
raw materials over the Earth's surface, It plays
a major role in the economy of all countries as
none has an adequate supply of the full range
of minerals, fuels and foods; of manufactured
goods; or of services to make it self-sufficient.
Countries that trade with other countries are said
to be interdependent. During colonial times,
several European countries began to use raw
materials found in their colonies to develop their
own domestic manufacturing industries. This
saw the beginning of modern international trade
between those countries that provided many of
the relatively cheap raw materials and those that
made a much greater profit by manufacturing
or processing those raw materials. Later, in the
20th century, the more economically developed
countries came to specialise in particular aspects
of manufacturing, as this created greater benefits
Figure 21.34 than in trying to compete with other countries
Major global trading
that had equal, or better, opportunities. Even
blocs, including more recently, international trade has come to be
associ ate mem bers dominated not just by a few wealthy countries
but by an increasing number of large transna-
tional corporations (page 573 and Places 101,
page 630).
Balance oftrade and balance of
payments
The raw materials, goods and services bought by
a country are called imports and those sold by a
country are exports. The balance of trade for a
country is the difference between the income it
receives from its visible exports and the cost it
incurs in paying for its visible imports. The bal-
ance of payments includes the balance of trade
together with any invisible earnings or costs
such as from banking and insurance, tourism,
remittances from migrant workers abroad, pro-
fessional advice and air/sea transport. Countries
that earn more from their exports than they pay
for their imports are said to have a trade surplus
enabling them to become richer. Those countries
that spend more on imports than they earn from
their exports have a trade deficit and so become
increasingly less well-off. It is this difference
between the trade of countries that has largely
been responsible for the creation, and widening,
of the development gap (page 605).

EU ASEAN (AFTA)
European Union: Austria, Belgium, Asian Free Trade Area: Brunei,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, ...---NAFTA
Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, North American Free Trade Agreement:
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, OPEC Canada, Mexico, USA
Sweden, UK
Organisation of Petroleum
Exporting Countries: Algeria,
Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, CARICOM
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Caribbean Community:
EFTA--~ Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, 20 countries
European Un ited Arab Emi rates,
ANDEAN COMMUNITY
Free Trade
Association: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Iceland, Peru

Liechtenstein,
Norway,
Sweden,
Switzerland
D major trade groups

smaller trade group

UEMOA
of developed
West African
APEC countries
Economic and
Asia-Pacific Economic Co-
Monetary Union: SADC smaller trade groups
operation: Australia, Brunei,
Benin, Burkina of developing
V Canada, Chile, China, Hong
Faso.Cote SAARC countries
Kong, Indonesia, Japan,
d'ivoire, Mali, South Asian
Malaysia, Mexico, New loose-knit trade
Niger, Senegal,
Togo
Association for
Regional Co-
Zealand, Papua New Guinea, D groups
Peru, Philippines, Russia,
operation: MERCOSUR • OPEC countries
Singapore, South Korea,
Bangladesh,
Taiwan, Thailand, USA, Argentina, Bolivia,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Bhutan, India,
Vietnam Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Zambia, Zimbabwe Maldives, Nepal,
Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay
Pakistan, Sri Lan ka

624 Development and globalisation

 Trading blocs which, in turn, will reduce the price of products
During the latter part of the 20th century an sold between them. Although this made the EU,
increasing number of countries grouped together for example, more competitive against non-
for the purpose of trying to increase the volume member countries or rival trading blocs such as
and value of their trade. Two of the earliest and Japan or NAFTA, it also created restrictions (trade
largest trading blocs were the EU and NAFTA barriers) between goods made in the EU and
(Figure 21.34), each of which now has an in- those of developing countries. This has meant
ternal market of around 500 million people, By that the LEDCs have found it increasingly dif-
creating trading blocs, countries can eliminate ficult to sell their products to MEDCs , lncreasinz b
custom duties (tariffs) between member states further the trade and development gap.

Figure 21.35

Selected inter-
regional and
intra-regional
'~t;i~~:'":;>;
I'
>' rC~:',-rl? I $3651 billion $388 billion $80'billiori
07 " ,

\t,
$905 /..~ 31.4% 3.3%
trade flows,

I~"''?~/
. ' .•/'

2006 billion i(~>"

{ 7.8('~ '}
I
Norths~;·~~~~~urope \.
Asia/North America
' 61%
51022 billion
Central and South Amencal . , I"'~" -
8.8%
North America ~ J AfrICa/Europe $1638 billion
$242 billion ) $268 billion
$33 billion \.. .
21%
.)
, 2.3%
0.3% .( j Europe/Asia
$970 billion

$l11-billiQ11 f 8.3%

-+ inter-regional trade
1.09f?/
,
.../

intra-regional trade "J

. ~t_I

The direction of world trade Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and
Taiwan, page 578) and in Latin America (Brazil
Figure 21.35 shows the pattern of world trade, by
and Mexico). Even more recently there has
value and including finance, that has taken place
been, in terms of scale and speed, an unprec-
over the last few decades,
edented emergence of a new trading nation-
• Most of a nation's international trade is with
China (Case Study 21).
one or more neighbouring countries, e.g.
• Today world trade is dominated not by coun-
Canada with the USA, South Korea wtth Iapan,
tries but by large and powerful transnational
the UK with countries in Western Europe.
corporations (T Cs, pages 573 and 630).
• Most of the world's trade is between the
advanced market economies of NAITA, the EU
Trade links
and]apan, although their share fell from 72 per
cent in 1990 to 68 per cent in 1998 and 58 per Figure 21.36 gives an indication of the importance
cent in 2007. of trade for 12 selected countries that belong to dif-
• The advanced market economies have had rela- ferent levels of economic activity. It also shows the
tively little trade with the developing countries. three main groupings of agricultural products, fuels
Where they have - as was seen when accounting and minerals, and manufactured products, into
for the development gap (page 605) - they which most items of world trade are manageably
have generally exported high-value goods and placed together with, as a measure of their develop-
imported low-value goods in return. ment, the trade per capita. The advanced econo-
• There has been relatively little trade between the mies, the NICs and TNCs, and now the emerging
developing countries themselves. This is partly markets, have manufactured goods accounting
because many of them have had low rates of for a high proportion of their total exports. This
economic growth and partly because they have has enabled them to accumulate the capital and
tended to produce similar, and limited, types of technology needed to buy and process requisite raw
goods, i.e. the same one or two materials. materials such as fuels and minerals. In contrast,
• Since the 1970s the advanced economies have although most developing countries have some
faced increasing competition from the so- manufacturing, it is usually often only primary
called newly industrialised countries (NICs) in processing or is operated by TNCs taking advantage
of their cheap labour (page 573).

Development and globalisation 625

 Advancedeconomies NICs

USA UK Japan Singapore Malaysia

World rank - exports 2 4 14 19

World rank - imports

Exports
8 (Mmri~~ 9
4 15 23

~~v0u
- agricultural 7
fuels and minerals
manufactured
aType 80
others

b Value US$ 1038278 448291 649931 271772 160676

(% world's exports 8.59 3.71 5.38 2.25 1.33

C) G)33 G)3
Imports

0
_ agricultural 11 7
1 21 13
fuels and minerals 3

manufactured 51 35 73 77
a Type
o
others

bValue US$ 1919420 619385 579574 238652 131152

c % world's imports 15.46 4.99 4.67 1.92 1.06

Trade per capita US$ 10864 21389 10112 124769 11603

Figure 21.36
Selected exports, The world market in fuels, usually oil and natu-
imports and trade ral gas, is dominated by the OPEC countries and,
per capita of selected recently, Russia. Most is exported to fuel-short
countries advanced economies in the EU and Japan, although
the rapid increase in demand since about 2005 has
come from China. The price of these fuels tends
to be beyond the reach of developing countries,
retarding their economic development even more.
The pattern of mineral exports is less obvious,
with both developed (Australia and Canada) and
developing (lamaica and Zambia) countries being
major exporters. Again, however, it is the advanced
economies, NICs and, most recently, China, that
are the chief importers.
Agricultural products often account for over
half of a developing country's exports, although
an increasing number of African countries are now
having to import cereals as their food production
decreases (pages 503 and 629). While many of the
more industrialised countries rely on imports of
foodstuffs, some that have extensive (USA, Canada
and Australia, page 486) or intensive (Netherlands,
Denmark, page 487) farming systems, are net
exporters.
For many years developing countries have
made demands for a fairer trading system. One
request is for higher or fixed prices for their
primary products so as to limit the widening
of the development gap; a second request is for
better access to markets within the more well-off
countries. There is still the tendency for some
MEDCs to try to impose quotas, to add tariffs, to
try to limit the quantity, or to raise the price, of
goods imported from the LEDCs. Other demands
have included changes in the international
monetary system so as to eliminate fluctuations
in currency exchange rates; encouraging MEDCs
to share their technology; dissuading MEDCs
from 'dumping' their unwanted, and sometimes
untested, products cheaply; lowering interest
rates; and an increase in aid free of economic
and political strings (page 632).
The VVTOreport of 2008 confirmed that the
growth of world trade had declined from 8.5 per
cent in 2006 and 5.5 per cent in 2007 to a forecast
of 4.5 per cent for 2008. This decline began with
a slowdown in the North American economy
which later spread to the EU and Japan, giving
them average forecast growth of only 1.1 per cent
in 2008. Figure 21.37 shows that, partly due to
an increase in the price of raw materials, espe-
cially metals and fuels, and having to rely less on
the advanced economies for trade, the emerging
markets and developing countries had not, so far,
been affected as much by this decline; this gave
them a predicted growth of 5 per cent in 2008.

626 Development and globalisation

 NICs OPEC Emerging markets Developing economies

'Brazil UAE Nigeria China India Kenya Sierra Leone

24 23 43 28 107 170

28 27 60 17 87 180
1

137 470 139 353 52000 968936

68

120254
GBED 3437 216

1.14 1.15 0.43 8.00 1.00 0.03 0.00

2 1 1

~~r13>s\~rT:\fr:\r:N
\::_) '<:> ~o_) ~ 0 8 ~
95886 97754 21809 791461 174845 7311 389

0.77 0.79 0.18 6.37 1.41 0.06 0.00

1234 39288 447 1207 307 275 127

World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade and Tariffs) which had been
A basic aim of the WTO is to bring together set up in 1948 to try to reduce tariffs (import
countries that belong to various customs unions, duties) and to provide a forum for discussing
allowing them the opportunity to take deci- problems of international trade. Although over
sions on multilateral trade agreements. It was 150 countries are members of the WTO, effec-
established in 1995, replacing GATT (the General tively most decisions are made by only eight
Figure 21.37
- the so-called G8 of Canada, France, Germany,
Italy, Japan, Russia, the UK and the USA - which,
Recent changes in world
with the exception of Russia, also form the in-
trade, 1999-2008
ner circle of the Organisation for Economic
1 a . -- -. .----.- .. -. Co-operation and Development (OECD). In
developing, Asia including China
contrast, the many developing countries, with
9- -.
their limited wealth, products and technology,
(lJ
Ol 8 have least say and find it difficult to obtain a fair
C
rn
s:
share of the world's trade.
v 7
c?- The first of many summit trade talks took
'" 6 place in 1986 when 65 developing countries
~
c and lICs met to discuss tariffs, subsidies and
ro 5
~
Q.
trade reform. Subsequent meetings, known as
~
0
4 the Uruguay Round, followed. By 1995, some
u tariffs had been removed but generally only on
"§ 3
3; industrial products that benefited the NICs. In
contrast, mainly due to strong farming lobbies in
the USA and the EU, there was little reform on
agricultural products, much to the detriment of
the developing countries.
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
year

Development and globalisation 627

 The Doha round of talks, named after the capital
of Qatar where the first summit took place in 2001,
initially had 101 developing countries attending.
Tn 2002 the World Bank estimated that freeing
international trade boundaries and subsidies could
lift 320 million people above the $2 a day poverty
line by 2015. However, after only little progress
was made at Cancun (Mexico) in 2003, at the talks
in Hong Kong in 2005 the MEDCs agreed to grant
duty-free and quota-free market access for at least
97 per cent of tariff lines on products originating in
the least developed countries. This decision, which
addressed Millennium Development Goal 8: Aid,
Trade, Growth and Global Partnership (page 609),
still had the potential to lift millions of people out
of poverty, but at the reduced figure of 75 million,
not the previously hoped-for 95 million (and this
assumed all tariffs, quotas and other obstades to
free trade would be removed - an assumption that
in 2008 was seen to have been a fanciful scenario).
With agriculture dominating the poorest
economies in Africa, Latin America and parts of
Asia, much of the negotiations between 2001 and
2008 centred on proposals for lowering barriers to
trade in farm products, and curtailing subsidies that
richer nations pay their farmers to grow cotton,
corn and other crops. Such subsidies can lead to
gluts that depress world prices and put farmers in
developing countries at a disadvantage. But not
all developing countries have the same interests.
While sweepi ng reforms of global farm policies
could benefit places like Argentina and Brazil, they
would make life even more difficult for the poor-
est countries that have to import food, especially
when, in 2008, the price of cereals shot up.
The 2008 talks, attended by 153 nations, were
held in Geneva but soon ran into difficulties
(Figure 21.38). The talks were extended, allow-
ing further discussions between the top trading
nations of the EU, the USA, China, Japan, India,
Brazil and Australia - leaving, as usual, the poorer
nations to watch and wait. After nine days the
Figure 21.38
Hopes
The hopes and problems • Farmtariffs could be reduced to 30 per cent.
at Geneva, 2008 • A reduction in money for subsidies on farm products by 60 per
cent or even 70 per cent.
• A resultant benefit in trade (auld increase income for developed
and developing countries.
• Reduced pricesfor consumers in the advanced economies and
fairer prices for farmers in emerging economies.
• Millionsof people could be pulled out of poverty.
Problems
• The USA, EU and Japan insisted thatthe larger trading nations of
the emerging economies - Brazil,Chinaand India - open their
markets to Western manufactured goods.
• The emerging nations insisted on large cuts in farm subsidies and
tariffs paid to farmers in the USA and the EU.
628 Development and globalisation
Doha Trade Talks Collapse
July 2008
THE Doha round of world trade talks has collapsed
in what one former trade chief called the biggest
blow to globalisarion since the end of the Cold War.
Negotiators warned that there was now little or no
chance of salvaging the talks, which promised to bring
down trade tariffs, pull millions out of poverty and
keep food and goods prices under control. It is the first
time a major set of world trade talks has collapsed
entirely, and insiders warned that the consequences
would be weaker economic growth and a less
globalised world.
Officials warned that there was now 'little or no
appetite' to return to the round. Insiders said the talks
had stumbled after the USA, China and India failed to
compromise on the size of their agricultural tariffs. At
the centre of the dispute were so-called 'safeguard
clauses' which allowed developing nations to slap
emergency tariffs on imports if they leaped [Q
unmanageable levels. US negotiators apparently
balked at Indian and Chinese proposals to trigger these
safeguards on their cotton exports.
A WTO spokesperson said: 'We have missed the
chance to seal the first global pact of a reshaped world
order. We would all have been winners. Years of
negotiation which were and are important for
globalisation have been sacrificed by this failure.'
Figure 21.39
Collapseof the Doha
trade talks
talks collapsed (Figure 21.39), with neutrals blam-
ing the USA, China and India. It will be interest-
ing to see what the situation will be in, say, 2010
or even 201 5.
Food shortages: a global issue
In mid-2008, the UN called for action to tackle
hunger and malnutrition in a world of rising
food prices, claiming that 'they have become the
forgotten Millennium Development Goal [page
609]. This goal has received less attention, but
increased food prices and their threat, not only
to people but to political stability, have made it a
matter of urgency to give it the attention it needs
[Figure 21.41l'
While headline news about high food prices
is a relatively new phenomenon, they have been
rising since 2001 after half a century of being
depressed (Figure 21.40a). Imagine a low-income
family in a developing country earning less than
$1 a day who might have paid 20 cents for a
kilogramme of wheat one year and had to pay 30
cents the next. For people in poverty spending
over half their income on food in order to
survive, price rises of staples can be devastating.
 The root causes of these unprecedented rises have these, 21 were in Africa, 10 in Asia and 5 in Latin
been the large increases in energy (especially oil America. In many of these places, food shortages
which is needed for machinery and transport) and have been worsened by internal conflicts and ex-
fertiliser costs, the demand for food GOpS in biofuel treme weather - both floods and drought (Places
production, and a record low level in cereal stocks. 75, page 503).
The price of oil appears likely to remain high and Responding to this crisis, the UN Secretary-
the demand for biofuels to increase further. In General listed, at a G8 meeting prior to the Doha
2007, one-quarter of the US maize crop (11 per round of trade talks in 2008 (page 628), the
cent of the global total) went into biofuel produc- following needs which he said could only be met
tion when, previously, the USA had supplied over with global co-operation:
60 per cent of the world's exports. Other factors • Ensure vulnerable populations are given
include: a higher demand for grain to feed live- urgent help by scaling up food assistance,
stock in China, where increasing affluence means giving financial support for food aid and
more people are eating meat (50 kg per capita in exempting relief food from export restrictions
2007 compared with 20 kg in 1990)i a four-year and taxes.
drought in Australia which, instead of being a ma- • Boost agricultural production by giving seeds
jor exporter (page 485), has had to import wheat and fertiliser to up to 450 million of the
itself water shortages in general when, as seen on world's small-scale farmers and for the G8
page 610, over 70 per cent of water supply goes leaders to give more development assistance
to agriculture: and a global reduction in the area to agriculture.
under cereals from a peak in 1980 (Figure 21.40b). • Improve fair trade by reducing agricultural
This includes the Commonwealth of Independent subsides in G8 countries (page 631).
States (CIS) where, according to a Moscow bank, • Increase significantly Investment in farming,
only 43 per cent of arable land in the world's larg- agricultural research and rural development.
est cereal grower is still under cultivation, and the • Strengthen global food commodity markets
EU with, until 2008, its set-a-side land policy. and provide an aid package on trade for
According to the FAa, in 2008 there were LEDCs.
36 countries in crisis as a result of higher food • The G8 countries and their partners to reassess
prices, and in need of external assistance (aid). Of subsidies and tariffs on biofuel production.

Figure21.41

Predicted impact of
Figure 21.40
food price rises on
World cereal prices and production trade balances
Sources: World Bank, FAO Source: World Bank
a wheat prices (2002-08)
400· --

OJ 350 --.---
§ 300 --- .---- .. ---
o
- 250· .... -.. -----
u
"S200-
(J)

E
<,
150

~ 100
:::l SO__ .. _._. .

o+--~~-~--~--~--~-~
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 200B
year

b global area under cereal production

740 .- -.--.----.---

V> 720
~
J'l
~ 700- --- .
s:
_ large losers (trade balance worsening> 1% 2005 GDP)
moderate losers (trade balance worsening < 1% 2005 GDP)
_ moderate gainers (trade balance improving < 1% 2005 GDP)
_ large gainers (trade balance improving> 1% 2005 GDP)
no data
640 .. __ ._ .. .. Note: Rising prices will improve the trade balance of major food
1960 1965 1970 1975 19BO 19Bs 1990 1995 2000 2005 exporters but major importers are likely to experience a greater deficit.
year

Development and globalisation 629

 TNCs and world trade NICs -located most of their factories in developing
countries as these could provide both raw materiaIs
It is argued that globalisation is similar to the
and the cheap labour needed to produce goods that
colonial period except that it is large transnational
were to be sold in developed countries. Yet, given
corporations, not countries, that are increasing
the chance, many developing countries welcomed
their wealth and dominating world trade. Cer-
the presence of TNCs, seeing them as an opportuni-
tainly in the last century, TNCs - usually with their
ty to obtain investment and to create employment.
headquarters in the advanced economies or in the

Places 101 South Korea: Samsung - a TNC

Figure21.42
..
,

Samsungwelcomes
. (ian'ctt Nagle, Da"id 'Vaugb, Nigel Yates visitors

South Korea's tenth president, elected in 2007, had with a workforce of 36 employees. Today, the site of
always been involved with giant corporations, in his that factory covers an area the size of over 200 football
case Hyundai. Hyundai isone of many similar family- pitches (Figure 21.43) and employs 22 000 workers,
run businesses that have become TNCs,and which are nearly all in Research and Development (one in eight
collectively known as chaebols. The growth ofthese has either an MAor a PhD).The corporation now has
chaebols, unique to South Korea, in the 19705-19805 124 offices in 56 countries, 16 overseas production
made them leading worldTNCs in shipbuilding, steel, factories of which 13 are in China and the others
cars, construction, computers and electronics, and elsewhere in South-east Asia, and a global workforce
made South Korea one of Asia'sfour'tiger economies' of 154 000. Samsung is composed of numerous
(page 578). The largestTNC is Samsung (Figure 21.43). businesses, the three largest being Samsung
Electronics, the world's biggest electronics company,
The organisation
Samsung Heavy industries, one ofthe world's
was set up as a
biggest shipbuilders, and Samsung Construction and
family trading
Engineering. The three businesses reflect the meaning
company in
of the Korean word samsung, meaning'three stars'
1938andwas
With over 20 per cent of the nation's exports, Samsung
to benefit after
has a powerfu Iinf uence on the cou ntry's econom ic
the Korean War
development, politics, media and culture and has
by supplying
become a role-model for national pride.
UNforces. In
1969 it opened it is the world's leader in LCD and flat-screen TVs,is
a factory in second (to Nokia) in the production of mobile phones,
conjunction and is a major producer of laptops, cameras and
with the printers as well as air conditioners, fridges, washing
Japanese firm machines, microwaves and vacuum cleaners. It also
TheSamsungfactory Sanyo, to make sponsors an English Premier League football team-
atSuwon,southof
black-and-white another example of globalisation.
Seoul
televisions and

Fairtrade
For many years developing countries have made
demands for a fairer trading system (page 626).
Fairtrade in the UI< was established in the early
1990s as a strategy for poverty allevation and
sustainable development aimed at small-scale,
disadvantaged farmers in some of the world's
poorest countries. Fairtrade guarantees a fair price
to farmers for their produce, and providing decent
working conditions and improvements in local
Figure21.44
community amenities such as schools and health
The Fairtrade centres (Figure 21.44).
Mark

630 Development and globalisation

 300
total sales £290 million

120
250 More than 4000 Fai rtrade products have been
licensed for sale in the UK. Shoppers can choose
110 '" 200
,gc::: estimate for 2011 wine, cotton products, flowers and sports balls as
100 £547 million well as food and soft drinks carrying the Fairtrade
E 150
90· 4-1 Mark. In 2006 alone, sales of Fairtrade products
coffee
100 increased by 46 per cent (Figure 21.45), providing
80
further evidence of the growth of ethical con-
70· 50
sumerism. This is when an increasing number of
'"c:::
.2
'E
4J
60·

50·

40 /
j:
bllulru"
shoppers are prepared to pay more for products if
they feel it will help provide jobs and lift people
out of extreme poverty. Large TNCs such as Nestle
,r (coffee in E1 Salvador) and Tate & Lyle (sugar cane
30 _.
in Belize), together with superstores such as Asda,

--
20···· Sainsbury's, Tesco and Marks and Spencer, are be-
10·
".- ing encouraged by shoppers to stock and support
----"-
Fairtrade products.
Figure 21.45 0
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Fairtrade sales,
year

--
1998-2006

Places 102 Ghana: Fairtrade

In 1993, a group of cocoa farmers in Ghana, together as receiving the Fairtrade minimum price and the
with Twin Trading (a UKtrading association), set up Fairtrade social premium, the co-operative also shares
their own Kuapa Kokoo co-operative on Fairtrade the profits and has a real say in how its products are
terms. Their aim was to create an organisation with produced and marketed. In 2007, Divine Chocolate
farmers'welfare at its heart and with a reputation for Inc, also co-owned by Kuapa Kokoo, was established
quality and efficiency. Once the co-operative members in the USAand with all debts paid off Divine Chocolate
had harvested the cocoa pods, split them open with delivered the first dividend to Kuapa Kokoo.
a machete and dried the beans found inside (Figure
Fairtrade has transformed the lives of many villagers in
21.46), they were able to sell their produce to the
Ghana, delivering fundamental improvements in living
co-operative and enjoy the benefits of selling to the
and working conditions, and enabling participation
Fairtrade market: prompt payment, a regular bonus,
in an organisation that values women, education and
democratic rights and community improvements
the needs of the farmer. As one teenager whose family
funded by Fairtrade income. Kuapa Kokoo, which
wasa member of Kuapa Kokoo said:'We sell cocoa
Figure 21.46 means'good cocoa farmers; then weighed the bags
forthe Divine bar getting a fairer price for our beans.
and sold the cocoa to the government cocoa board,
Splitting open the My family now earn enough for meto stay at school
which then sold it on all overthe world. In 2008 - and
«xoa pods and to buy for ourselves better machinery while the
still the only farmer-owned company in Ghana
profits and end-of-year bonus have enabled the village
- the co-o perative had 45 000 members (28
to construct a well, which now gives us a clean water
per cent of whom were women) in 1200 small
supply (Places 97), a new school and a mobile health
villages which produced 5 per cent ofthe
centre: It has also enhanced the status of women.
cou ntry's cocoa (Ghana isthe world's second
largest cocoa grower).

In 1997 the members of Kuapa Kokoo voted

to set up their own chocolate company, and
with the help ofTwin Trading, the Body Shop,
Christian Aid and Comic Relief,and with a loan
guaranteed by DFID(the UK'sDepartment
for International Development), Divine
Chocolate was born (Figure 21 047). Today
Divine Chocolate is the leading Fairtrade
Figure
chocolate company in the UK,and after the 21.47
Body Shop kindly donated its shares to Kuapa
The Divine
Kokoo, the co-operative now owns 45 per
chocolate
cent of the business. This means that as well bar

Development and globalisation 631

 Overseas aid and development Donors and recipients
Although it is the advanced economies that are the
Overseas aid is the transfer of resources at non-
largest donors in terms of US dollars, the amount
commercial rates by one country (the donor) or
that each country gives as a proportion of its own
an organisation, to another country (the recip-
GDP is small - certainly well below the 0.7 per cent
ient). The resource may be in the form of:
recommended by the UN. Indeed it is often only
1 money, as grants or loans, which has to be
the Scandinavian countries which, while giving
repaid, even at low interest rates
less in total amounts, achieve the UN figure. As for
2 goods, food, machinery and technology
the recipients, while the two-thirds of the world's
3 know-how and people (teachers, nurses).
lowest-income countries located in sub-Saharan
The basic aim in giving aid is to help poorer
Africa do receive most of the overseas aid, there is
countries develop their economies and to
no simple correlation between the level of poverty
improve services in order to raise their standard
and the amount of aid received. Donor countries
of living and quality of life. In reality, the giving
are just as likely to give aid to those countries that
of aid is far more complex and controversial as it
have supported them in times of war or provide
does not always benefit the recipient.
land for military bases, possess a valuable raw mate-
rial or have strong historic ties as to countries that
Types of aid
are the least well-off. Some organisations such as
Basically, there are two main types of aid: official the International Monetary Fund (IMF) also aim to
Figure 21.48 and voluntary. The differences in their purposes help the poorest countries while others, such as the
Official and voluntary and aims are summarised in Figure 21.48. World Bank, lend capital for specific projects.
aid

Official aid Paid for by taxpayers in donor countries Voluntary aid Money raised by independent
and administered by governments in those countries. • ••••••••••• r:::i. organisations and private donations.

.•
Official an';; voluntary
-- I

Directly Indirectly
•
Bilateral aid Generally government- Multilateral aid Richer
t
Immediate and short-
t
Lonqer-term Organisations such as
to-government (e.g. Britain's Department countries give money to term disaster relieffor development Oxfam, Save the Children,
for International Development: DFID). international organisations natural disasters programmes Christian Aid, WaterAid and
This aid is often 'tied', i.e, there are such as the World Bank, the (earthquakes, floods, involving Practical Action raise money
'strings attached' so that the recipient International Monetary droughts) or human- work with through private donations,
country may, for example, have to give Fund (lMF), the United induced disasters local fund-raising events, sales
building contracts to, or buy goods from, Nations (FAO, WHO, (refugees from civil communities. at charity shops, etc.
the donor country. Developing countries UNESCO) and EU,who then wars, ethnic cleanSing), Money is given, without
consider this to be a form of 'economic redistribute it to poorer ---- ties, to specific projects
colonialism'. Many recipients fall further countries. Theoretica lIy in poorer countries.
into debt when attempting to make there should be 'no ties' Projects are often small
repayments. Aid has, recently, been but in reality these and sustainable

J
withheld from countries which the organisations have also and use appropriate
donors regard as undemocratic, as withheld aid from technology.
aggressors or as having a poor human countries with non-
rights record. democratically elected
governments.

r
V
=
Total aid given in 2007 only 0.22% of Variable amounts (dependent on Total aid given in 2007 =
GNP of developed countries and is
equivalent to US$19 a year for each
public reaction to an event).
J equivalent to US$1.6
a year for each
I
I
person living in a developing country.
person living in a '
developing country.

632 Development and globalisation

Figure 21.49
For
Argumentsfor
andagainstthe • Response to emergencies,both naturalandhuman-induced.
givingofaid • Helpsin the developmentof rawmaterialsandenergysupplies.
• Encourages, andhelpsto implement,appropriatetechnologyschemes.
• Providesworkin newfactoriesandreducesthe needto import certain
goods.
• Helpsto increaseyieldsof localcrops(greenrevolution)to feedrapidly
growinglocalpopulations.
• Providesprimaryhealthcare,e.g.vaccines,immunisationschemes,nurses.
• Helpsto educatepeopleabout,andto implement,familyplanning
schemes.
• Grantsto studentsto studyin overseascountries.
• Canimprovehumanrights.
Is aid good or bad?
While few people would argue against emergen-
cy aid, except to say that it is often 'too little and
too late', other forms of aid are more contro-
versial. Some consider that no non-emergency
aid should be granted, especially as it is usually
given in the political, industrial or commercial
interests of the donor without concern for the
Places 103 Sri Lanka: aid after the 2004 tsunami
One major effect of globalisation is the speed at which
news is flashed around the world. In some cases, like
the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 (Places 4) orthe
Chinese earthquake in 2008 (Places 2), people across
the globe feel as if they themselves are involved in
the event and consequently are anxious to help in
whatever way, however small, they can.
In Sri Lanka, a place known by overseas tourists, the
tsunami left almost 40 000 dead, 575000 homeless
and 16000 seriously injured. Hospitals, schools,
homes, hotels, roads and the mainline railway
between Colombo and Gale were destroyed. Aid
came from three main sources:
• Emergency aid came from voluntary international
relief organisations who are used to responding
rapidly to any global disaster - although they
admitted never one so great as this. Initially they
help to locate possible survivors and treatthe
injured. They then seek to satisfy the urgent needs
of the su rvivo rs wh ich, th ese organisation s clai rn,
is always for shelter, clothing, food, toilets, clean
water and medical supplies.
• Short-term aid is provided partly by the
voluntary relief organisations and partly
by ordinary people. After the tsunami and
following appeals in British newspapers
(Figure 21.50) and on television, people began
phoning, using the Internet or sending cheques
to organisations such as Oxfam, Christian Aid
and CAFOD. Within a few days over £1 00 million
Against
• Aidisa conscience-salverforthe richandformercolonialpowers.
• Betterto usemoneyonthe poorlivingin thedonorcountries.
• Anexploitationof physicalandhumanresources.
• Usedto exertpoliticalandeconomicpressureon poorer
countries.
• Increasesthe recipientcountry'sexternaldebt.
• Oftenonlygoesto the richandthe urbandwellersin recipientcountries,
ratherthanto the realpoor.
• Encourages corruptionamongofficialsin donorandrecipientcountries.
• Undermineslocalactivities,e.g.farming.
• Doesnotencourageself-relianceof recipientcountries.
• Oftennot givenappropriatetechnology.
environment or the long-term improvement in
the quality of life of the recipient. Too often, aid
tends to address the symptoms of poverty rather
than its causes. Others feel that aid can make im-
portant contributions to the economy of many
of the least well-off countries and to the welfare
of some of their poorest communities. Some of
the arguments of the pro-aid and anti-aid groups
are listed in Figure 21.49.
had been donated and when the Disaster
Appeal closed after two months, £300 million
had been raised. People in many other countries
did the same.
• Long-term aid is provided by governments
which, in this case, pledged £3700 million-
easily a world record. This money was used to
rebuild communications, hospitals, schools,
houses and in trying to recreate jobs.
Two years later, the Sri Lankan Reconstruction and
Development Agency (RADA) announced that nearly
90 per cent of the pledged money had been received
- a remarkably high figure as often governments,
agencies and people fail to meet their promises
as their memory of an event fades - and that 1020
projects had been either completed or started.
Figure 11.50
TSUNAMI Tsunamiappeal
advert
EARTHQUAKE
Hundreds and thousands of people across a dozen
countries have been affected by the major disaster
and devastation caused by the earthquake in the
Indian Ocean and the Tsunamis that followed.
Aid agencies are working to provide emergency relief and need
your support. DEC members are ActionAid. British Red Cross,
CAFOD, Care International UK, Christian Aid, Concern. Help the
Aged, Merlin, Oxfam, Save the Children, Tearfund. World Vision.
Give now to the Disasters Emergency Committee.
0870 60 60 900
or www.dec.org.uk
Or by cheque to PO Box 999, london EC3A 3AA,
payable to DECTsunami Earthquake Appeal
Development and globalisation 633
 World transport • Improvements in transport resulting from
space-shrinking technologies include con-
Transport is referred to several times in this book: tainerisation, Airbus A380 and the Internet.
• It can be viewed as an indicator of wealth and These increase speed and ease, and all con-
economic development, e.g. as measured by tribute to globaltsation.
the number of cars per 1000 people. While the
more developed countries have less than one- Characteristics of modern transport
fifth of the world's population, they have over systems
three-quarters of its cars and lorries.
A comparison of the characteristics of the major
• It is essential in linking people, resources and
forms of present-day transport - canal, ocean
activities; in increasing personal mobility; and
shipping, rail, road, air and pipeline - is given in
for the exchange of goods (trade) and ideas
Figure 21.53, with each type having its advantages
(information).
and disadvantages over rival forms of transport.
• It was considered a major factor in industrial
Figure 21.53 also refers to terminal and haul-
location (Weber, page 557) and in determining
age costs. Terminal costs are fixed regardless of
agricultural (von Thunen, page 471) and urban
the length of time of journey and are highest for
(page 425) land use. The relative decrease in
ocean shipping and lowest for road transport.
transport costs since the 1950s has made this a
Haulage costs, which increase with distance but
less significant location factor.
decrease with the number of passengers carried or
• In early economic/geographical theory, costs
the amount of cargo handled, are lowest for water
were thought to be proportional to distance
transport and highest for air (Figure 21.51). It is
(von Thunen's central market and Christaller's
now accepted that, as transport costs comprise
central place), especially on a flat plain where
terminal costs plus haulage costs, then the cost
transport costs were equally easy and cheap in
per tonne/krn declines with distance. Figure 21.52
all directions. Later, costs were regarded to be
shows the changes in passenger and freight traffic
Figure 21.51 a function of a raw material's weight and the
in the UK in the last 50 years.
Transport costs distance it had to be moved (Weber).

a distances covered by various types of transport in comparison with 1 km travelled by air

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 distance (km)

pipeline
I
water
I
rail I
B
U air High terminal
water and low
b most economical form of transport over different distances (bulk, low value) haulage costs

road over short distances rail over medium distances

o low terminal costs, average terminal High terminal
high haulage costs and haulage costs and high
haulage costs

Figure 21.52 billion vehicle km billion tonnes/km/yr

800 270
a passengers bfreight
Changes in total total
700· I 240 I
passenger and

-. -.
pipeline
freight traffic air 210
600
"'"
in the UK,

"T'
rail 180
1966-2006 500 water

Source: UK 400
150
coastal .<'.0'
Department of 120
300 car
Transport 90
200
60
cycle road
rail

/
100 30
bus
.,. a; co 0 ,;.
" co~ ~
'~ co

"
~ ~ ~ co
N
e-,
~
:li -c co g
0 N
co
'"~ '"~ '" '"~ 8
eo co ;g 8
N N
0 '"~ -oco~ R~ ~ ~ ~ ~ co~
-c
N
r-, r-,
0

- ~ ' " '" '" ' " '" ~ ~

year
' " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ '" '"
year

634 Development and globalisation

 Ocean transport and
Canals and rivers deep-sea ports Rail Road Air Pipelines
PhYSical Weather Canals can freeze in Storms, fog. Icebergs in Very cold (frozen Fogand ice both can Fog,icing and snow: Not greatly affected.
winter. Droughtlheavy North Atlantic. points). Heavy snow causeaccidents/ lesssince planes have
rains make rivers (blocks line). Heavy pile-ups. Cross-winds had automatic pilots.
unnavigable. rain can cause for big lorries; snow Airports better if
landslides, heat can blocks routes; sun can sheltered from wind
buckle lines. dazzle. and away from hills
and areasof low cloud.
Relief Width of channels. Harbours need to be Cannot negotiate steep Avoids/takes detours Large areasofflat land Difficultto lay, then
Need flat land or gentle deep, wide and gradients so have to around high land. for runways, terminal relief is not a problem.
gradients. Soft sheltered. Tidal avoid hills. Estuaries can Valleys may flood. May buildings and
rock/soil for digging, problems. be obstacles. Flooding in go around estuaries if no warehousing. Firm
problems with deltas. valleys. bridges. foundations. Ideally,
Rivers must be cheap farmland or land
Slow-flowing, have a needing reclamation.
constant discharge and Relief not a barrier.
have no rapids.
Economic Speed/time Slowest form of Slow form of transport, Fastover Fastover short distances Fastestover long Very fast as continuous
transport. Long detours yet most economical. medium-length and on motorways. distances, not over short flow.
and possible delays at distances. Urban delays. ones due to delays
locks. getting to and passing
airport security.
Running or haulage Often family barge. Expense (oil used as Relatively cheap over Cheapestover shorter Very expensive, yet Cheapestas no labour is
costs (wages and fuel): Limited fuel use means fuel) increases with medium-length distances. Haulage costs speed makes it involved (provided
increase with distance the cheapest form of distance. journeys. Fuel costs and increasewith distance. competitive over very diameter is large).
transport over lengthy wages rising. Recent rise in cost of long distances.
journeys. petrol.
Terminal costs (loading Canals expensive to Portsexpensive- Building and Expensivebuilding and Very expensive to build Very expensive to build.
and unloading costs and build and to maintain, harbour dues/taxes. mai ntenance of maintenance costs, and maintain airports. Need surveillance.
dues): no change with unless natural Expensive to build track/stations/ especially motorways. High airport dues.
distance waterways used. specialised ships. Less signalling/rolling stock Cartax instead of dues, Planes expensive to
since containers. are very expensive. but roads built from purchase and maintain.
Cheapest over long taxation therefore lower
distances. overheads. Congestion
charges.
Number of routes Relatively few. Relatively few ports, Not very flexible. Recent Many and at different Often only a few Limited to key routes.
Inflexible. inflexible due to increase in urban rail and grades. Greatflexibility, internal and Inflexible and one-way
increased specialisation new high-speed intercity most in urban and international flows.
of ships. Links to routes. industrial areas. airports/routes. Not
hinterland. Coastal very flexible because
shipping. of safety.
Goods and/or Heavy, bulky, Heavy, bulky, Intercity passengers. Many passengers. Mainly passengers. Bulk liquid (oil, gas,
passengers carried non-perishable, non-perishable Heavy, bulky (chemicals, Perishable, smaller Freight is light (mail), slurry, Iiquid cement,
low-value goods. low-value goods. Cruise coal) and rapid (mail) loads by lorry. Relatively perishable (fruit) or water}.
Present-day tourists. passengers. Goods goods. Cancarry several few people carried by high-value (watches).
carried in containers. hundred passengers. one bus or car.
Dependable and safe.
Congestion Very little except at Increasing delay and Considerable congestion Congestion heavy in Heavy at large airports None.
locks. congestion in many on intercity and urban areas,at peak times and at peak holiday times.
deep-sea ports. commuter routes. and in holiday periods.
Convenience and Neither very conven lent, Not very convenient. Commuter routes Door-to-door (except for Country to country. Jet Raw material or port to
comfort unless for leisure/ Cruise liners very uncomfortable. Some some city centre lag if more than three industry.
relaxation, nor very comfortable. intercity routes better. destinations): most time zones crossed.
comfortable. convenient and flexible. Cramped, dehydrating
Safety is questionable; and tiring over longer
strain for drivers, but journeys.
independent.
Environmental Environmental Some oil discharged, but Tankers discharging oil. Noiseand visual A major causeof noise High noise levels. Some Few are buried
problems relatively few problems. Much land needed for pollution limited to and air pollution. Effect air pollution. Usesup underground.
ports, hard-standing narrow belts. Noise on ozone layer,acid rain, much land for airports. Eyesoreon surface.
and warehousing. decreaseswith welded and global warming
rails, increaseswith (greenhouse effect).
Figure 21.53 high-speed trains. Usesup land, especially
Comparable characteristics Electric trains causeless farmland. Structural
of transport systems pollution. damage caused by
vibrations.
 Ocean shipping A ship berthed at a quayside is not only not
earning money, it is having to payout harbour
Many ports in Western Europe developed either
dues. Two innovations have enabled the turn-
by trading with their former colonies or across the
round time (the time it takes to unload and load
Atlantic to the Americas. In turn, large ports were
cargo) to be shortened:
created within the colonies to export raw materials
1 The development of roll on/roll off (Ro-Ro)
or acting first as entrepot ports and now as free-
methods whereby lorries can drive straight
ports. A freeport is an area of land exempt from
on to ships, reducing the need for cranes and,
taxes paid by the rest of the country in which it is
indeed, dock workers.
located. As such, it can attract imports that can be
2 The introduction of containerisation in
manufactured into goods that are then exported
which goods are packed into containers of
without having to pay duties or tax, e.g. Singapore
a specific size at, for example, a factory and
with, amongst other industries, its oil-refining
taken by train or lorry to the container port
(Places 104). Just as ocean shipping continues to
where they are easily and quickly loaded onto
grow in quantity, so too have ships increased both
ships using specialised equipment (Places 104).
in size and in specialisation, e.g. oil tankers and
Containerisation is considered to have been
bulk iron ore carriers. This in tum has meant that
one of the major driving forces in the process
it is the wider, deeper estuaries that have seen the
of globalisation.
most concentrated growth in the world trade by
The Emma Maersk is the world's largest container
sea, a trade that has been increasing steadily for
vessel (capable of carrying over 11 000 contain-
several decades and which has, since 2000, grown
ers) and longest ship (at 397 m). Its regular run is
enormously since China began exporting its wide
between China and Western Europe.
range of cheaply manufactured goods. Most of the
world's trade is moved by water.

Places 104 Singapore: an ocean port

On founding the port of Singapore in 1819, Sir In 2007 Singapore was voted - forthe twentieth time
Stamford Raffles decreed that it was open to all since 1987 - the best port for its cost competitiveness,
maritime nations. Today over 400 shipping lines with container shipping-friendly regime, adequacy of
links to more than 600 ports worldwide have taken investment in port infrastructure, and visionary
adva ntage of that decree and sinee 1986 Singa pore developments. Singapore is a freeport, still open to
Figure21.54 has been the world's busiest port in terms of shipping all countries, with seven free trade zones ofwhich
tonnage, and its main bunkering port (l.e, fuel six are for seaborne cargo and one is at nearby
Vessel arrivals in
container), At any given time, over 800 Changi international airport. Goods can be made or
Singapore, 2007
ships are likelyto be in port, with a assembled in these zones without payment of import
others
7% new one arriving or weighing or export duties and profits can be sent back to the
anchor every seven minutes parent company without being taxed. Many high-tech
(128568 vessels in 2007 TNCs assemble their goods here before selling them
regional ferries compared with at competitive prices. However, the port's largest
28% 81 OOOin1992l.To money-earner is oil, a resource that the country does
bulk carriers
8%
save time, harbour not possess. This is because Singapore imports crude
pilots are flown out oil from the Middle East, Indonesia and Malaysia,
by helicopter to meet refines it in the freeport and then exports a range of
tankers
incoming vessels. oil products, making it the world's third largest oil-
15% With its modern refining centre.
barges and tugs
handling equipment,
18% it takes less than a
Figure 21.55
second to move 1 tonne
containers
16% ofcargo. Warehouses
are also automated and
computerised. Vessels vary from
modern supertankers, bulk carriers and
container ships to the more traditional bumboats
and barges (Figure 21.54l.ln 2007 the port also
handled 27.9 million containers making it, along
with Shanghai, the world's busiest container port
(Figure 21.55l.

636
 Airtransport to build another 97 airports by 2020, bringing the
Air transport has the highest terminal charges, high country's total by then to 239. National passengers
haulage costs (aviation fuel) and affects large have grown from 7 million in the mid-1980s to
numbers of people living on flightpaths near to 185 million by 2007, in response to China's rapid
airports. Its advantages (Figure 21.53) include speed economic growth.
over long distances both for passengers such as This, and other world airport planned develop-
tourist and business people, and for freight especial- ment, was before the surge in oil prices in 2008,
ly if it is of high value (watches, diamonds), light which left airlines in a state of uncertainty, not
in weight (mobile phones) or perishable (fruit). knowing whether fuel costs will remain high, go
Apart from employing large numbers of people higher or even fall, and air travel was included in
at airports, air transport is important to countries carbon-credit trading.
that are of considerable size (Brazil), where ground
terrain is difficult (Sahara Desert, the Alps), when
crossing stretches of sea (London to Belfast), Of
when relief aid is essential following a human
(Rwanda) or natural (earthquake) disaster or inter-
national conflict (Afghanistan).
Since deregulation in the EU in 1993, there has
been increased competition between existing air-
lines, a wider availability of routes and the advent
of low-budget airlines with their reduced fares. This
led to an increase in the number of flights, pas-
sengers and freight, with congestion at airports and
competition for airspace. This increase in demand,
especially during holiday periods and at 'hub'
locations, has resulted in the building of more and
larger airports.
Beijing's third terminal, opened in time for the
2008 Olympics, is 2.9 km from end to end and is
larger than all five Heathrow terminals put together
(Figure 21.56). It will increase Beijing's passenger Figure21.56
capacity from 3S million to 85 million. China plans Beijing's new Terminal 3

Places 105 London Heathrow and Dubai: 'hub' international airports

Figure21.57 Heathrow
Numbers of people Heathrow isthe leading European 'hub' airport for
passing through international flights and is said to be Britain'smain
Heathrow gateway to the global economy. A'hub'is when,
instead of small planes flying relativelyshort journeys
between many cities, large planes flybetween the
biggest cities with feeder flights (Figure 21.57). Part
of Heathrow's importance stems from the fact that
21 per cent of passengers arriving at the airport are
'in transit; just stopping long enough to change
flights.Thiscauses congestion in the airport and little
income forthe UKbut isessential for fillingseats on
BritishAirwaysflights and maintaining the airport in
pole position. However,to maintain this position it
is argued that a third runway willbe needed by 2015
0+,------4-------~------------~ and the two existing ones need to be used more.
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
year Events leading to the final decision willprovoke a
major economic, social and environmental debate,
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the
proposed expansion are summarised in Figure 21.58.

Development and globalisation 637

 Figure21.58
I·
For expansion
Arguments for The prestige of being Europe's major'hub' airport and
and against the world's busiest.
expansion
• Heathrow is vital to the British economy with
170 000 jobs dependent on it.
• If Heathrow does not expand, flights and jobs will go
to rival airports in Paris, Frankfurt and Amsterdam.
• In 1991, 16 per cent ofthe total arrivals were passing
through 'in transit"; by 2006 this was 21 per cent and
by 201 a it is predicted to be 31 per cent (Figure 21.57).
These are essential forfilling, and maintaining, BA
flights (40 per cent of Heathrow's total).
I. The environmental damage is exaggerated - aircraft
I only contribute 6 per cent of Britain's total carbon
I emissions, far less than cars and coal-fired power
~tlon5.
Dubai
Dubai has made itself the new 'hub'for air transport
in the Middle Eastand beyond. It is a time-zone
bridge between the Far East and Europe on the
east-west axis and between the CISand Africa on
the north-south axis. A third terminal was opened
in 2008 to relieve pressure created by the 34 million
passengers and 260 000 flights that used the airport
in 2007. It has been constructed to take the new
Airbus A380 which has 525 seats. Dubai's success
as a 'hub' has been its linking together of seemingly
unlikely pairs of cities, e.g. Nagoya and Sao Paulo,
Moscow and Cape Town, Guangzhou and Dar es Sa-
laam (Figure 21.59). Emirates airline also uses Dubai
airport to link smaller cities with major world cen-
tres, for example passengers from Newcastle can fly
Transport, carbon trading and
international agreements
After power stations and industry, transport is
the major cause of carbon release into the atmos-
phere. The effect of cars and other road vehicles
emitting carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, on
global warming, have been known for some
time. It is only more recently that the increase
in air traffic has been seen as a further factor
in climatic change. What is still to be broadly
accepted is the effect of ocean transport which
handles most of the world's trade, and of an
increasing number of cruise liners. The UK gov-
ernment, as just one example, claims that it has
reduced carbon emissions in the last decade but,
as environmentalists point out, it has ignored
both ocean and air transport in its calculations.
If these emissions were included, it would mean
that Britain had an overall increase in carbon
emissions.
638 Development and globalisation
Against expansion
• Aviation is the fastest-growing source of avoidable
carbon emissions, and must be curtailed.
• Residents in the south-east will experience an increase
in noise, congestion and pollution; some 700 existing
homes will have to be demolished, and a further
150 000 people will be under the new flightpaths.
• The new runway is expected to cater more for
short-haul flights for which there are less damaging
alternatives.
• The vast number ofthe present 18 million 'in transit'
passengers spend virtually no money as they pass
through the airport, contributing little to Britain's
balance of trade.
• The airport already has a reputation for congestion,
long delays and lost luggage.
Newcastle, UK ~OSCOWI Russia
•~ N~goya.Japan
DU'7.?=-O,~",,","~,".
/lJessalaam.
Sao Paulo,Brazil- / Da~~nzania
CapeTown,
South Africa Auckland.
New
Zealand
Figure 21.59
Dubai as an air transport 'hub'
to Dubai and have a night's rest before travelling on
to places in Japan, China and Oceania.
Under the Kyoto Protocol- which was drawn
up in 1992, adopted in 1997, came into force in
2005 and is due to expire in 2012 - industrialised
countries were meant to cut greenhouse gas emis-
sions by an average of 5.2 per cent. Since Kyoto,
total global emissions have in fact soared; the
economies of China and India have boomed at a
rate that was not predicted and the world's popu-
lation has grown by about 1 billion. At present it
is the industrialised countries that emit most
carbon (Figure 21.60) while the poorest nations
often emit so little that any cutbacks by them
would have minimal effect on a global scale
(Figure 21.60). As with development, there is a
wide gap between the high-emitting rich coun-
tries and the low-emitting poor countries. One
suggested solution is carbon trading. The EU
already has an emissions trading mechanism
in operation, together with voluntary offset
schemes.
 ~ ....

The world would look very different if each

country's landmass were in proportion to its
carbon emissions, as this World mapper
cartogram reveals. A cartogram is part-map,
part pie-chart. It attempts to keep areas (such
as countries) in roughly the same place, while
changing their size to reflect the value af a
r
•!

variable - in this instance carbon emissions.

A population cartogram would depict China
and India as larger than their actual size, while
Australia would be smaller. For more
information visit www.worldmapper.org

Figure 21.60
Carbon trading is when each country is given a
Cartoqram to show quota for its emissions, Those countries that emit
contribution to
carbon emissions by most would be able to buy from countries that do
different parts of the not use their full quota, allowing those that emit
world less than their quota to earn money by selling their
Source: e 2006 SASI surplus. While this may be a way for the poorest
Group (University of countries to earn extra income, it hardly solves
Sheffield) and Mark
Newman (University the global problem as rich countries will presum-
of Michigan) ably buy extra credits rather than reduce their own
emissions, Problems relating to international trade
and transport would remain. Take two examples:
1 A country in the EU buys bananas, even
through Fairtrade, from a country in the
Caribbean. Which country is liable for the
carbon transport emissions - the exporter or
the importer?
2 Another country in the EO, or a TNC based
there, orders goods to be made in China where
are being built, claims that it needs this
energy to create jobs, while India says it needs
the extra energy just to improve, or even to
maintain, the standard of living of its rapidly
growing population.
• Developing countries do not see why they
should help solve a problem that was not of
their making, and to do so would mean their
being given money and technology by the
developed countries.
USA
24%
rest of the world
40%

they can be produced more cheaply. Is it the

country/TNC that orders and sells the goods China
16%
that is responsible for the transport emissions,
or China where the goods were manufactured?
Europe
Carbon trading can only work through interna- Russia 12%
tional co-operation but getting 200 countries with 6% Figure 21.61
UK20/0
a wide divergence of interests to agree is a different World's leading
matter. These interests include the following: carbon contributors
• The USA fears that a reduction in its emissions Integrated transport systems
would mean job losses and a possible fall in
Although most long-distance transport is either by
the country's standard of living. It agreed, for
ship (freight), plane (passengers) or pipeline (oil
the first time in 2008, to talk about emissions
and natural gas), both road and rail can be used
at the 2009 Copenhagen conference.
to cross continents such as North America, or to
• The EU countries argue for a 30 per cent reduc-
travel from Western Europe to the former Eastern
tion but are finding it hard to achieve.
bloc countries. In an ideal world, there would be a
• Emissions of emerging countries, such as stronger llnk between these various types, whereas
China and India, are surging and these coun-
in fact integrated systems tend to be limited to re-
tries are under no pressure to cut back. China,
gions and large urban areas (Places 106) than being
where numerous new coal-powered stations
on a global scale.

Development and globalisation 639

 Places 106 Hong Kong: an integrated traffic system
Hong Kong originally grew as a result of its strategic used at the beginning ofthe 20th century are still
trade route location and its large, deep, sheltered in operation today (Figure 21.62). The Star Ferry
harbour, and continued to develop partly as a result transfers large numbers of people daily from Hong
of later industrialisation. Hong Kong became one of Kong Island to Kowloon on the mainland; trams link
South-east Asia's four'little tigers' (page 578), and the northern part of Hong Kong Island (although
trade with China in particular and the Pacific Rim in land reclamation means their routes are no longer
general expanded rapidly. adjacent to the sea); and the Peak Tram funicular
railway carries wealthy commuters and tourists to
Early transport was mainly restricted to water due
and from Victoria Peak (Figure 21.63). A fourth form
to the limited amount offlat land. As building on
oftransport, the Kowloon Railway, linked the colony
the steep hillsides proved difficult and hazardous
with the New Territories and the Chinese cities of
(Case Study 2B), especially on Hong Kong Island,
Guangzhou and Shenzhen (page 581).
land was reclaimed from the sea for industry,
housing and transport. Three forms of transport

Figure 21.62

HongKong'sStar
Ferry,funicular
railwayandtram

Figure 21.63

Thedevelopmentof
transportin Hong
Kongbefore1992

Tsuen Wan NewTown (1979) date of

- - - - Star Ferry tram route China

- - - road tunnels - electrified railway opening

Kwai Chung:world's
largest container ~ MTR(Mass CD typhoon shelter
terminal (1976) -==-=- Transit Railway D built-up area Chek Lep
Kok
~SI
Kowloo

~ \] ~ngKong
Kowloon-Canton
single-track railway
I\..~"'~"~
< "'f .8,,~iJ"
opened 1910; made ~ ~, f5, IT
double track and
electrified in early
19805
Kai Tak Airport: runway extended
""'. in 1974; buildings refurbished in
ferries to ,(, early 1990s
numerous
islands

Victoria Harbour extension

~
o 1 km

MTR- 3 lines

KennedyTown first trams in 1904; 13 km

Victoria Peak 552 m .•••••••••• Central and Wanchai oftrack; all trams new
since 1991
PeakTram: funicular
railway (1888); 1.4 km;
climbs 373 m Hong Kong Island
ChaiWan

640 Development and globalisation

 Figu re 21.64

The Tsing Ma bridge

Transport since 1997

In 1997, the British handed Hong Kong back to
China and the former colony became a Special
Administrative Region. By 2008, the following
additions and changes had been made to the
transport system.

The largest development was the construction of

a new international airport at Chek Lap Kok (Figure
21.65). The decision to re-locate the airport here
was made in 1989 as part of a comprehensive plan
to incorporate air, road, rail and port developments.
The airport itself was opened in 1998 with a
second terminal nine years later. By that time it was
handling 47 million passengers a year. The airport
opened a new west coast route (2003) between
is connected to Tung Chung (a new town on Lantau
northern Kowloon and the new town ofTuen Mun
Island), Kowloon and Hong Kong Island by a
(Figure 21.65). These two routes will themselves be
27 km expressway that includes two bridges (Figure
linked in 2009. The east coast route ofthe KCR now
21.64) connecting islands west of Kowloon, and
provides a hiqh-speed direct link with Shanghai
a new tunnel under Victoria Harbour. Adjacent to
and Beijing. The port of Hong Kong received 39 000
the expressway is the Airport Express (AEL) whose
vessels in 2006 while the twin container terminal of
trains cover the 35.3 km to Hong Kong Island in 24
Kwai Chung and Tsing Vi remains one of Asia's largest
minutes. Of two new MTR lines, one connects with
although it has now been overtaken by Singapore
Disneyland on Lantau Island and the other was built
(Places 104) and Shanghai (Case Study 15B).
between eastern Hong Kong Island and eastern
Kowloon using yet another new under-harbour Each day, about 1 1 million passenger journeys are
Figure 21.65 tunnel. At present the MTR tracks cover 91 km and made including over 4 million by bus, 3.8 million by

Transport developments have 53 stations. The Kowloon-Canton Railway MTR, 1.4 million by rail, 240 000 by tram, 155 000 by
since 1997 (KCR) has extended its east coast line (2004), and ferry and 28 000 by AEL.
r
N •• ,+-H++ff ""'" to Guangzhou and Shenzhen
west coast railway from / . ,
North Kowloon to Yuen '\ "-J

+ Tuen Mun

j
+
I
J~
I
.;t-
Long '.I;.

\.~
\
'.I;.

\
~.
New Territories

west coast
ral'1 way * ;-4WU aiSh

-r-
• Tuen Mun
.\
~
1 . east coast line
'So, Shat extended to
""", Wu Kai Sha
'~
~\ I east coast
new airport at Chek Lap Kok- airport railway: 34 km 'l;
existing island was levelled and and 23 minutes to / railway
land reclaimed from the sea Hong Kong Island
"I
Terminals 1 (1998) and 2 (2007)

"""'\ f Kowloon

\)
Lantau Island
airport railway: 34km and
23 minutes to Hong Kong Island Hong Kong Island

New Expressway in five sections:

North Lantau Expressway 12.5 km
Lantau Fixed Crossing (2 bridges) l.4km
Fixed Crossing to West Kowloon 8.0km o 5km
West Kowloon Expressway 4.2 km
Western Harbour Crossing (tunnel) 2.0km
total length 28.1 km
 Information and communications
technology (leT)
Since the mid-1990s, the telecommunications/
ICT sector has undergone major changes. Indeed
when a previous edition of this book was being
written in 1998 and when the latest figures avail-
able would have been for 1996, only 12.9 per
60
20
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
year
Fixed telephone lines (landlines)
Fixed lines were easily the most available of the
three forms of ICT in the 1990s with a frequency
ten times greater in developed than in develop-
ing countries. Although the number of landlines
in developed countries peaked at 56.S per cent
in 2000 - a time of rapid growth of both mobile
phones and the Internet - it has slowly contin-
ued to increase in developing countries although
in Africa there are, on average, only 3 fixed lines
per 100 people.
Mobile cellular telephones
Latest data suggest that the global number of
mobile telephones surpassed 3 billion in 2007
and that by 200S over half of the total popula-
tion would own their own mobile and could
collectively be sending up to 300 000 texts each
minute. By 2007, the number of subscribers in
developed countries exceeded 90 per cent whereas
the number for developed countries was still in
the mid-30s. Even so, despite this large difference,
mobile phones have been critical in enhancing
access to telecommunications in many develop-
ing countries, and especially in rural areas where
fixed lines remain limited or are non-existent. The
13 per cent of the world's population that live in
the GS countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy,
Japan, Russia, the UK and the USA) account for 30
per cent of mobile ownership.
642 Development and globalisation
cent of the world's population possessed a fixed
or landline telephone; only 2.5 per cent owned
a mobile cellular telephone; and only 1.4 per
cent had access to the Internet (Figure 21.66).
Consequently this section did not appear in that
book. Within a decade these space-shrinking
technologies have become a major reason for
the growth and spread of globalisation.
ICT Developed countries % Developing countries %
1994 2006 1994 2006
Fixed 51.5 4.4
48.8 13.9
lines
Mobiles 5.2 90.9 0.2 32.4
Internet
2.2 58.6 0.03 10.2
users
Figure 21.66
Fixed telephone lines, mobile cellular
phones and Internet users per 100
inhabitants, 1994-2006
Internet
Although access to the Internet has also been
growing rapidly, the number of users in develop-
ing countries again remains limited with only just
over 10 per cent compared with almost 60 per
cent in developed countries. There are also major
discrepancies in international Internet bandwidth
- the critical infrastructure that dictates the speed
at which websites in other countries can be ac-
cessed. Other constraints for developing countries
include the high cost of international bandwidth
(they often have to pay the full cost of a link to a
hub in a developed country), literacy and a lack
of electricity, At present over 40 per cent of the
world's Internet users live in the GS countries
whereas in as many as 30 developing countries,
Internet users number less than 1 per cent of the
total population.
The leT 'revolution' has seen the speeding
up of the globaltsation process and is contribut-
ing to the disintegration of national economies
(page 605). It is, arguably, the resultant flow of
data, finance and migrant remittances that forms
the most indicative feature of globalisation. rCT
has also allowed industries and services, from
large-scale TNCs and international banks down
to self-employed individuals, a freer choice of
location for their site or place of work (post-
Fordism, page 561).
 designs for the product drawn is in the USA
The global value chain
with its available finance.
The value chain, a later development of the • Research and development (R&D) into
commodity chain, is a connected group of improved methods of processing is carried
activities that are required to see a product out in the UK with its skilled technical labour
through a series of stages from concept-design force.
to marketing-distribution (Gereffi 1994). The • Processing/manufacturing of parts is done
process of globahsation has promoted two types in China where labour is plentiful and cheap
of chain: (Case Study 21), although the final assembly
1 The producer-driven chain is characteristic may be in an NIC such as Malaysia.
of capital- and technology-intensive indus- • Marketing and distribution are carried out in
tries (automobiles, computers and other high- North America and the EU with their large
technology activities) where the system is and wealthy consumer markets.
controlled by large TNCs. • After-sales and customer services operate
2 The buyer-driven chain is typical of labour- through a call centre located in India (Places
intensive activities such as the fashion 107), taking advantage of its low-priced but
industry (Case Study 21), retailing (Wal-Mart skilled labour.
- Figure 19.46 - and lkea) and merchandising Each year, the value chain becomes more com-
(Nike and Adidas) which involves the setting plex, dynamic and service industry oriented. The
up of a global network and which increas- issue is where and when can value to a product
ingly depends on access to, and advances in, be added and how far can factories and locations
ICT. at the lower end of the chain manage to upgrade
The value chain involves dividing the industry (Places 102 on chocolate in Ghana). For example,
into several components, each of which may be in the garment industry (Case Study 21), where
located in a country that offers the lowest-cost design adds considerable value, sub-contractors
factors. For example: in places such as Turkey and India used only to
• The head office for administration and from make the clothes designed elsewhere but now,
where raw materials may be ordered and increasingly, they design their own.

Places 107 India: call centres

The rapid growth in call centres is one consequence
of space-shrinking technologies. Call centres represent
a company-customer relationship in which a wide
range of support services, including after-sales advice,
marketing, technical support, claims enquiries, seat
reservations and data provision, are provided over
the telephone from dedicated centres to a widely
dispersed customer base by firms such as American
Express, Bank of America, BT(BritishTelecom) and Dell.
Call centres provide information and advice for existing
Figure21.67 customers as well as trying to attract new ones. In the
last decade, global isation has seen India, with the city
A callcentrein
Bangalore of Bangalore in particular, specialisinq and becoming
. a world hub inthis sector of
business process outsourcing,
which is the final link in the value
chain. India has become such a
prime location for call centres and
offshore servi ces for firms based
in the USAand Britain that it is in
danger of becoming stereotyped
for providing that specialised
type of service, rather than being
known for its wider economic
development. It isthe world's
leading exporter of ICTservices
and its volume of outsourcing is
doubling every three years, to the
detriment of similar jobs back in the
USAand the UK.Some of India's call centres are adding
value by moving up into business service provision.
To many American and British employers, India has a
stable democracy, a huge English-speaking population
and a sound education system that turns out more
than a million graduates a year, all of whom are looking
for well-paid jobs. But'well-paid' is a relative term. The
average income per capita in India is under $1000
a year; for a person working in a call centre in that
country it is between $15 000 and $25 000 a year; to
pay someone in America or the UKto do the same job
is likely to cost $70000-$90 000 a year. So large firms in
the Western world are moving their call centres to India
in order to reduce their financial costs in an attempt to
remain competitive in today's world.
But it is not an easy life for Indian call centre workers
(Figure 21.67). Due to the time difference - Bangalore
is 11 hours behind New York-the manning ofphones
has to be done throughoutthe night. Byday the
agents, as the call centre telephonists are known, have
typical Indian names but by night they take on names
that sound like the boy or girl next door in America
or Britain. Intheir training they are taught to identify
different 'Western' accents a nd to use those accents
whenever possible themselves in order to make them
sound more friendly and helpful to the caller. Bythe
end oftheir training, only 5 out of every 100 ofthe
original applicants are likely to getajob.
In the early 19th century, Britain was a
leading producer of textiles. At that time, it
imported ilk from China and some cotton
from India. Later, Britain began exporting
textile machinery to countries such as India
which were then able to export manufac-
tured textiles back to the UK.This, on hind-
sight, was the beginning of globalisation
in industry and the creation of a relatively
simple value chain.
Today, the mention of globalisation can
provoke extreme opinions. Certainly its
impact on the peoples and economies of
both China and India has been considerable
- sometimes for the good. sometimes for the
worse. Butthis impact of global isat ion has not
just been one-way. The growth of the Chinese
and Indian economies has affected many
people across the world, again sometimes for
their benefit, sometimes totheir detriment.
The textile and fashion industry provides a
good example of how a global value chain
affects people and where, as so often is the
case,some are winners and some are losers:
644 Development and globalisation
garment design -- __ ~ production
(sourcing)
China
Many designer clothes, including sports-
wear, trainers and jeans, are produced on
a global scale by large TNCs which have
located their main production factories
in developing countries, especially if, like
Mexico and Turkey, these countries are
near to the market for mid-range prod-
ucts. As designs and styles of clothing are
constantly changing, then it is quicker,
easier and cheaper to get employees to
adapt to these changes than it is to replace
expensive machinery geared to specific
garments. This means that the TNCs locate
their main factories in countries like China
where labour costs are still low, although in
China's case many garment factories were
initially financed from Hong Kong.
Many people living near to new textile
and fashion factories, which have modern
machinery, have benefited from
globalisation.They are likely to getthe better
jobs and, should two orthree members ofthe
family also b employed, may earn enough
to build a new house for themselves (Figure
21.68a).Unlike the house they will have left,
this will be larger,lighter and cleaner; it will
have electricity, running water and sewerage;
and the new owners can probably afford a
washing machine, TV, fridge and computer.
~ retail ___ ___;~ supply
(sales) (wearing)
However, the number of new factories
that have opened has greatly exceeded
the supply of local labour. This has led to
thousands of people from the surrounding
poorer, rural areas being attracted to the
large cities, creating a scale of rural to urban
migration never before seen anywhere
in the world (page 366). As is so often the
case, the reality of urban factory life is
far from the migrants' perceptio and so
China's 150 million migrant workers, many
of whom are women, have benefited
lessfrom globalisation. They are likely
to get the worst jobs, may have to work
more than 12 hours a day for at least six
days a week, and earn under £ 100 a month
(£4 a day). The worst factories have been
described as 'sweatshops'as working condi-
tions are often cramped and sometimes
unhealthy and the jobs repetitive and
boring (Figure 21.69). Accommodation may
be in single-sex dormitories (Figure 21.68b),
sharing a room with up to 12 other workers.
There is little space or privacy, and washing
facilities may have to be shared with up
to 50 people. Most of their wages will be
sent home as remittances but the workers
can rarely afford to return to their villages
themselves.
Figure 21.69
Sweatshop conditions
 China and India: globalisation in the textile and fashion industry
There is another group of people who cer-
tainly have not benefited from globali-
sation. Tang Lee's family have been making
children's clothes in Beijing for five genera-
tions and then selling them in their small
shop in a quiet back street (Figur 21.70)
Now his business is failing in he face of
globalisation. As China becomes richer,
more of its people can afford the brand-
named fashion products that are pouring
into or being made in China and which are
available for sale in the hundreds of new,
large department stores. Added to this, the
increase in the number of foreign televi-
sion programmes has made the Chinese,
especially the younger ones, more aware of
'Western-style' designer products. AsTang
Lee said: 'People want whatever they see on
television but it will mean the end of small
clothes makers, small shops and the tradi-
tional Chinese culture'.
India
In 2005, India's newspapers reported that,
due to the end of textile quotas and Chinese
trade disputes,'exports to the USA had
increased by 36 per cent and the textile
boom has given jobs to India's poor' and
Case Study~21
a government minister predicted thatas
-nany as 12 million jobs could be created in
the textile sector over the next few years:
The globalisation policy of the govern-
ment has seen the construction of modern
capital-intensive spinning mills that use
modern technology (Figure 21.71); the
introduction of a promotion and marketing
strategy aimed at capturing both the urban
and rural market; and a diversification in the
range of the products which are aimed to be
low-price and high-quality. The industry has
also invested heavily in acquiring sophisti-
cated high-technology equipment and tools
from overseas countries and introduced
production and marketing collaboration
with foreign manufacturers. The high-
volume production of quality synthetic and
cotton items, which has benefited so many
people as well asthe national economy, has,
however, given it a competitive advantage
over traditional hand loom products.
The government has recognised the
impact thatthe entry of global com petitors is
having on the handloom sector (Figure 21.73)
which is mainly located in rural areasand
operated by women working in weaver com-
munities (Figure 21.72).The weakening of the
hand loom sector is posing a serious threat to
the socio-economic life and livelihood oftra-
ditional weaver communities In general and
the socio-economic status of rural women
working in those communities in particular. As
rural women constitute a major segment of
the labour force in the handloom industry, it
will have a far-reaching effect on the govern-
ment's drive for rural poverty alleviation and
economic empowerment for women.
21 Case Study China and India: globalisation in the textile and fashion industry
Although Bangalore has become the
global hub for call centres (page 643), it
is still important for textiles. Figure 2174
describes how the less wealthy, less edu-
cated members of the community can also
benefit from globalisation.
Champa Kala does not have the
English nor the computer skills
needed to find work in one of
the many call centres located in
the skyscrapers of central
Bangalore, nor with one of the
software firms that have
transformed the region into a
high-tech hub. Instead she
works in an industrial suburb as
a seamstress in a new garment
export factory which, since the
expiration six months earlier of
a 30-year-old global system of
textile quotas and the end of a
long USA-EU trade dispute
with China, is part of India's
booming textile sector.
N aturall y she does not earn the
wages nor work in the
air-conditioned atmosphere of a
China, the EU and North
America: the quotas row,
2005
This crisis had its origins in the scrapping, at
the beginning of the year, of the Multi-Fibre
Arrangement (MFA) which set quotas on
how many garments could be imported
from individual countries into the EU and
North America.
Cheaper manufacturing costs in China
mean that it can undercut other countries
by up to 25 per cent and so hundreds of
retailers switched production there (as
manufacturing costs in China are only 4
per cent those of the USA and the EU, then
production, packaging, shipment to and
then distribution in the EU and the USA can
all be paid and still leave a decent profit). As
a result, imports from China soared by up
to 1200 per cent and, by the middle of the
year, several billion more garments were en
route to European markets.
Within months, at least 50 000 jobs were
lost in traditional textile countries in South-
east Asia as factories closed down, and by
646 Development and globalisation
With increasing globalisation, the degree of handloom industry sector, with its distinct and
competition for marketing textile items has unique features, prepares and strengthens itself to
intensified with the entry of foreign suppliers and meet the challenges and intensity of competition in
foreign brands. The position and share of the global and internal market.
handloom products has been suffering by the entry Source: Ministry of Human Resource
of major competitors. It is imperative that the Development, government of India
Figure 21.73
call centre but she is happy people a week straight from Extract from a
enough simply to have found a villages and farmland and, govern ment report
job that pays around $1200 a within a month in their training
year as she helps produce centre, giving them the skills to
jackets for Gap Inc. work the machines. The
Many economists believe that it garment firm opened this
is new factories like this that factory in 2004 and within 12
typify the low-end, labour- months employed 1600 people.
intensive manufacturing sector It has since opened several more
that India needs if it is to in the region. In 2006 the textile
improve the standard of living sector, which nationally
of its 400 million low-skilled, employed 35 million people and
poverty-stricken citizens who generated $14 billion in exports,
live on less than $1 a day and had raised the hopes for
who have been largely sustained job creation,
by-passed by the country's especially if India's share of the
high-end job growth. A director global textile market rises from
for the garment factory claimed the 4 per cent of 2004 (China
that it was providing jobs for the had 20 per cent) to a predicted
Figure 21.74
illiterate and semi-illiterate 15 per cent by 2010.
Textilesin
classes by taking up to 300
Bangalore
the end of the year over 1 million jobs were protectionism at its worst and that while
to be lost in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (still the EU had been preaching to the devel-
recovering from the previous year's tsunami), oping countries about the need to open up
Cambodia and the Philippines (Figure 21.75). their markets, the EU then imposed restric-
According to the UN, these countries lost tions to protect their own. The general sec-
10 per cent of their export earnings in eight reta ry of the International Texti le, Ga rment
months. However, itwas only when firms and LeatherWorkers'Federation said:'Our
in Italy (Europe's leading garment manu- concern is that countries like Bangladesh
facturer), France and the UK began closing and Sri Lanka are being forced to try to
that the EU acted. In July it imposed quotas undercut China and each other. They can
on ten categories of garments coming from only do this by increasing their already long
China in order to protect its own domestic working hours and reducing their already
market from a deluge of cheap goods - but low wages. Garment manufacturing
by then more than 80 million items were provides one of the few economic oppor-
already made up and on their way! tunities for poorer countries to raise their
Retailers in the EU were unhappy, incomes. Now people working in textile
claiming that the quotas inhibited free factories in those cou tries are having to
trade and that consumers would be live at a subsistence level, and undercutting
hit through price rises and shortages means that these nations cannot lift them-
of jumpers, jeans, trousers and lingerie. selves out of poverty:
Campaigners said that Western demand Although the crisis was eventually
for cut-price clothes was fuelling a vicious brought to a conclusion, it did not prevent
circle of supply-chain switches, rapid wage further factory closures and job losses in
reductions in the poorest countries and both developing countries and the EU as
worsening labour relations globally. They China continues to dominate the world's
argued that the introduction of quotas was garment trade (Figure 21.76).

The quotas row, the rise of China, and the West's demand for cheaper clothing, are consigning hundreds ofthousands to poverty.
~ half of its export earnings as
------'/
z.::»> 'i"
j/ // " . -'..._S'--y____J/
',,"r- (~
,1,'\
r' ____.
I) I",
BANGLADESH The garment
industry accounts for 75% of the
country's export earnings and
employs 1.8 million people. It is
estimated to have lost 10% of its
industry due to retailers switching
to China since January. The
working week has been increased
to 72 hours while the minimum
wage has halved in real terms in
the past 10 years as the country
tries to compete with China.
Figure 21.75
The quotas row: the
situation in August
2005
Slow death of region's textile industry
THE North-East clothing and
textile industry has been in
decline for two decades, when
customers such as Marks &
Spencer - which once prided
itself on selling British-made
clothes - began to source
garments from cheaper
foreign suppliers.
Dewhirst, once one of M&S's
largest suppliers, employed
up to 20,000 people in the UK
at one stage. Now, the
business has around 1,500
British staff, mainly in design,
China and India: globalisation in the textile and fashion industry Case Study 21
=
EUROPE 200 textile firms across the continent
closing each week with job losses predicted to
reach 250 000, according tt? industry lobby group
Euratex.ltaly, where most of the industry is based,
fears losing 30000 jobs unless quotas are imposed
PHILIPPINES Has lost up to
<. '-\
--':..
a result of the end of the MFA.
The government recently
~ . -''-\
Y ~ exempted small businesses -
<, \)
v.
~~
_/I
'-.._, which make up the majority
\ \_-.-J y of the garment industry-
\ from minimum wage
~r~~) legislation in an attempt to
/ -, / undercut China.
-,~- l. I
i.,. r--__,_/-----''---------,
SRI LANKA Since the beginning
of 2005, 36 ga rment factories have
-, closed with the loss of 26000 jobs.
1 million people (total population
CAMBODIA The clothing market accounts for 90% of export earnings,
7 million) work in the clothing
mainly to Europe and America. More than 20000 workers have already
industry.
been laid off and unions are concerned that pay and conditions are
being sacrificed in an attempt to win trade from China.
Figure21.76
From the NewcastleJournol, February 2008
sampling and office-based The North-East's textile Fred Kirkland, from the
roles. In the region, it retains industry is made up of around North-East Textile Network
a menswear manufacturing 600 firms - mainly working in and Skillfast - the UK sector'
site in Sunderland and a plant the areas of design, laundry skills council for fashion and
in Peterlee. and distribution - the majority textiles - said: 'Clothing and
Much of tbe work at these two of which employ fewer than textiles as an industry has
sites is alterations to clothing 20 staff. changed and moved on.
that is made abroad. The The manufacturing side of the What we do retain is the
region'S textile industry has business tends to concentrate design and technical aspect.
been hit hard by cheap on quality, expensive goods This is the high value end of
imported goods in recent such as the garments made by the industry. It is very
years. Since the late 1990s, Barbour in South Shields. important we keep these
more than 5,000 clothing jobs Beau Brummell in Seaham skills in order to compete
have been lost in the makes blazers and other with companies abroad.'
North-East. school clothing.
Development and globalisation 647
 Barke, M. and O'Hare, G. (1991) The Third Thottathil, S. (2008) 'Energy matters: fair Population Reference Bureau:
World, Oliver & Boyd. trade or food miles', Geography Review www.prb.org
Bek, D. and Binns, T. (2000) 'Putting Vol21 '03 (February). United Nations (UN):
ethics on the table', Geography Review ~ Canadian International Development v\n,\TW. u n.o rg/P ubs/CyberSchoolB us/
Vol21 No 2 (November). Agency, Virtual Library on index.sbtml
Black, W.R. (2003) Transportation-A International Development: UN AIDS:
geographical analysis New York, The wvvvI/.acdi-cida.gc.ca/cidaweb/acdicida. www.unaids.org
Guildford Press. nsf/En/Home UN Development Programme (UNDP):
Bumpus, A. (2008) 'Energy matters: Centre for Health Protection, www.undp.org/
carbon offsets', Geography Review Vol 21 Department of Health, Government of UN Water for Life:
No 4 (April). the Hong Kong Special Administrative www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/
Region:
China Business Handbook 2008. UN World Food Programme:
www.chp.gov.hk
China Economic Review 2008. www.wfp.org/english/
CIA World Fact Book:
Coe, N.M., Kelly P.E and Yeung, H.vV.C. www.cia.gov/library/publications/ Wateraid:
(2007) Economic Geography, Blackwell. the-world-factbook/ www.wateraid.org/
Dicken, P. (2007) GLobal Shift, Sage food and Agrrculture Organisation World Bank:
Publications Ltd. WY\TW. worldbank.org/
(FAO):
Digby, B. (2004) 'The changing geography www.fao.org/indexen.htm World Bank, development mdtca-
ofHIVjArDS', Geography Review, Vol 18 HDI data, human development reports: tors, annual GNP: (by country and the
No 1 (September). http://hdr.undp.org/en!reports/global/ world)
Global Civil Society Yearbooks. hdr2007-2008/ www.worldbank.org/data/

Held, D. etat. (1999) Global Human Development Index, life World Energy Council:
Transformations, Polity Press. expectancy tables: www.worldenergy.org/

Phlllips, D.R. and Verhasselt, Y. (eds) http://hdrstats. undp.org/indicators/2. World Health Organisation (WHO):
(1994) Health and Development, International Energy Agency: www.wto.irit/
Routledge. www, worldenergyou tlook.o rg/htrn 1 World Trade Organisation:
Singapore Yearbook of Statistics 2007, International Labour Organisation www.wto.org/
Singapore Ministry of Trade & Tndustry. (ILO), child labour:
Statistical Yearbook (or Asia and the Pacific www.ilo.org
2007, Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacifi c.

~~~- ~~-~- -- r , - --

:;;::-:_ - -' . -

Questions & Activities

Activities
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

1 a i What is meant by'gross domestic product'(GDP) per c Choose one of the following sets of statistics that can also be
capita? (2 marks) used to show development:
ii Why is this often chosen as a useful indicator of a •energy consumption/person
country's level of development? (2 marks) •number of doctors/thousand people
iii Sometimes the Human Development Index (HDi) is •level of education offemales.
used to indicate level of development, rather than
Explain why your chosen set of statistics is a good indicator
using GDP/capita. What are the advantages of using
of a country's level of development. (10 marks)
the HDI? (4 marks)
b Study Figure 21.3 on page 606.
To what extent does this map support the view that the
old division of the world into the 'rich north' and the'poor
south' is no longer very useful? (7 marks)

648 Development and globalisation

2 a The Rostow model shows the economy of a country going b In Myrdal's core-periphery model, why does population
through five stages: often move from the periphery towards the core? (5 marks)
·traditional society c Name a country that shows evidence of having a core
•preconditions for take-off and a periphery. Explain how Myrdal's model helps you to
•take-off understand the distribution of economic development in
that cou ntry. (10 marks)
•the drive to maturity
•high mass consumption.
Describe the characteristics of each stage. (10 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3 Study Figure 21.36 on pages 626-627. 4 a i What is a 'hub' airport? (2 marks}
a Describethe main features ofthe imports and exports of: ii Name one international hub airport and explain why
the developed countries (USA, UK and Japan) (3 marks) it has become important on a world scale. (3 marks)
ii the OPEC countries (UAE and Nigeria). (3 marks) b Discuss the economic and environmental arguments for
b Choose one of the emerging market countries (China or and against an increase in the number of aircraft flights
India) and explain how that country has succeeded in around the world. {10 marks}
developing its economy in recent years. (9 marks) c Name one city with an integrated transport system. Outline
c Referring to two developing economies, for example Kenya the main components ofthat system and explain the social,
and Sierra Leone, explain how changes in the world trade economic and environmental benefits of the integrated
system might help their process of development. {1 0 marks} system. (1 0 marks}

Exam practice: structured questions

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
5 a Chooseoneofthe MDGs in Figure 21.77 numbered 2, 3,40r S. Figure 21.77
Eradicateextremepovertyandhunger
Explain whyyourchosen MDG can makean important
Theeight Millennium
contribution to the development of poor countries. (5 marks) 2 Achieveuniversalprimaryeducation
DevelopmentGoals
b Many people thinkthat HIV/AIDS is a disease that is particu- 3 Promotegenderequalityandempowerwomen (MDGs)
larly damaging to the development process in many poor
4 Reducechildmortality
countries.
Suggest reasons forthis view. (8 marks) 5 Improvematernalhealth

c With reference to one or more case studies, show how the
process of econom ic development ca n take pi ace wh ilst
also ensuring environmental sustainability. (12 marks)
6 a Explain the importance of capital investment in Rostow's
model of industrial development. (4 marks)
b Barke and O'Hare developed a different model to help
explain the way many African countries were developing.
Explain the importance of transnational corporations in
th ei r model. (5 marks)
c Name a country where a clear core-periphery relationship
exists. Explain why the core developed much more than the
periphery and discuss whether the difference between the
core and the periphery is likely to be reduced in the future.
{15marks}
6 CombatHIV/AIDS, malaria,andotherdiseases
7 Ensureenvironmentalsustainability
8 Developaglobalpartnershipfor development
7 a Study Figure 21 .33 on page 623.
Discuss the economic and social Significance ofthe
prevalence of HIV infection in the different age cohorts in
Botswana, and in similar countries of southern Africa.
(12 marks}
b Outline the main features of the epidemiological transition
model, and explain how a study of the model can help with
an understanding of the process of economic and social
development. {13 marks}

Exam practice: essays

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
8 With reference to one country where there are marked
differences between the level of development in the core region
and the periphery:
explain why the different levels of economic development
have arisen
explain whatthe government is doing to try to reduce the
differences between the core and the periphery. (25 marks)
9 With reference to countries at different stages of economic
development, discuss how globalisation has affected either
the textile and clothing industry orthe ICT industry. (25 marks)
10 'Free Trade is more important than FairTrade in encouraging the
economic development of the poor countries of Africa, South
America and Asia:
Discuss this statement. (25 marks}

Development and globalisation 649

 dex
Places - Abcrtan Geographical
A altitude 206-7, 210, 213,
Abcrfan 54-5, 523
ablation zone 106, 120
abrasion 72, UO-ll, 113,
149,151-2,184
absorption 207-8, 213,
242
accessibility matrix 615
accumulation zone 106,
120
acidity 269
acid rain 43, 56, 207,
222, 243, 269, 536
acid soil 261-2, 269,
271-2,275-6,331
acid volcanoes 17, 24-5
active layer 47, 131, 133,
135, 137-8
adiabatic lapse rate
216-17
administration principle
409
adret slopes 212-13, 464
adsorption 265, 268-9
advection fog 178-81,
215,217,222,234,
322-3,454
afforests tion 63, 67, 281,
283, 309, 518-20
age-gender pyramids
353-4, 360, 370, 383
ageing population 354,
359-60, 383, 648
aggLomeration economies
560-3, 565-8
agriculture (see farming)
aid 501, 503, 547, 576,
611, 629, 632-3
AIDS/HIV 346, 349, 360,
483, 503, 520, 622-3
air
conditional instability
217
instability 217, 220,
226-7,229,231.,
316
stability 216-17, 222,
226-9
air masses 219, 221,
229-33, 239
air transport 456, 634-5,
637-8, 640-1
Alaska 136
albedo 126, 207-9, 212,
242-3
ALdeburgh 190-1
alkaline soils 261. 269,
274, 32R
alluvial fans 188--90
Alps 8, 125, 213. 241, 463
650 Index
terms - abrasion People's names - Burgess, t.W.
aurotrophs 288, 296
261, 276, 289, 305, avalanches 31-2, 52, 106,
346, 348, 463-4 124-5
Amazon/ Amazonia azonal soils 273, 314
316-18,347-8, :{94,
427,477, 480, 520
anabatic winds 240 B 379-83, 387, 418, 6n
anaerobic soils 272, 275 backwash 141-2, 144-6,
Andes 17, 1',1, 46:{ 153
Antarctica 104, 126, 209 bacteria 261, 266, 268,
antecedent drainage 85 288-9, 292, 300-1, 317
anticyclones 216-17, Bagnold, ItA. IS4
221-2, 228, 234, 240 bahadas J88-9
apartheid 369, 372-3 balance of payments/
appropriate technology trade 502, 624
449,499,505,547-9, Bangalore 643, 646
576-7,611 Bangladesh 63, 148,238,
aquifer 195,200 359,377, 48l, 647
arable 466, 470,476, 478, bankfull discharge 61, 71,
481-2, 485-6, 492, 76, 88
495, 498, 508 baobab trees 320
arches 152 barchans 184-6
arctic air 221, 229-30 Harke, M. and O'LIarc, C.
arctic climate 315, 332-3 616-17
arctic sea-ice 127 barrier islands/beaches
areres 112-13, 115 155-6, 168
Argentina 354, 405, bars 155
484-5 basal slippage 107-8
aridity index 178-9, 321 basalt 13, 24, 76, 194-5,
Arran 29-30, 116, 120-1, 203
166, 276, 288-9, 293, baseflow 58-9, 61, 188
:~os base level 81, L23, 163,
ash/cinder cones 16, 25, 200
33, 149 basic volcanoes 24-5
aspect 105, 110-11, 210, batholiths 17, 19, 28-9,
212-13, 261, 289, 305, 201
391,464 bays 14~ 14~ 151, ISS
assisted areas 556, 571-2 beaches 60-1, 143-6,
asthenosphere 10, 13-14, 149-51,153-7, 171-3,
21 594
asylum seekers 367 bedding planes 28-30, 40,
Atacama 1 ao, 222, 250, 63, 194-5, 198, 201
321-2 bedLoad 71, 73-4
atmosphere behavioural factors
475-6, 557
composition 207-9,
243, 249, 254-5 Benidorrn 594
energy/heat budget Bentley, \4. US
207-10, 220, 226, Bergcron-Hndcisou 219
235, 249 bergschrunds 109-10
moisture 213-15, berms 143-5
219-22 best-fit line 66, 546, 612
motion/winds 224-41 bid-rent theory 425-6,
pressure and 471-3
circulation 206-7, bifurca tion ra tlo 66
224-8 binary distribution 405
structure 206-7 binomial data 524-5
temperature 206-7, biofuels!bioenergy 543
210-13, 254-5 biomass 293, 297, 300-1,
attrition 73, 149 543
biomes 295, 304-6,
Australia 307-10, 485
314-41
Key reference - 100
biota 260-3, 268-9,
327-9
birth control 357-8, 379,
381-3
birth rate ]91, 349-55,
357-8,371, 377,
Hlaenau l.'festiniog 52:{
block disintegration 40
blockfields 40, 132-4, 139
blocking anticyclone
228,234
blow holes 152
bluff line 76-7, 79, 82
boreal fores t (see
coniferous forests)
Boscastle (Cornwall) 80
Botswana 359, 623
boulder clay 116
bournes 199-200
braided channels 77,
119-20, 132, 135-6,
139, 188
Brazil 49, 76, 347-8, 374,
405, 427, 442-3, 449,
480, 520, 543, 627
breaking point (Reilly)
410-11
break of bulk ports 570
breakpoint bars 143-4
bridging points 391-2
brown earths 315,
329-30
brownfield sites 441, 556
brush/bush fires 31-2,
293,453
building materials 321,
338, 389-90, 443, 449,
577,593
Hurges~, I.:..W. 420-1,
424-5, 4~7
Hurkina Faso 280, 282
business parks 429,
435-6, 567
bustees 442-3
buttes 189
C
Cairngorms 595
Cairo 447-8
calcification 271,273
calcimorphic 274
calderas 25
(alder, ;\I. 89
California 20-21,452-7,
496,540-1
call centres 643
Cam bourne (Carnbs)
412-]3
Canada 377, 463-4, 477,
486
canal transport 635
canyons 95, 186-7,
527-30
capacity (river) 72, 118
capillary action 41,59,
182, 261, 273, 275,
281, 321, 323, 327-8
capillary water 267
capital (money) 469-70,
477,555-6
car assembly 565, 579
carbon credits/trading
536, 638-9
carbon cycle 297-8
carbon dioxide 43-4,
103-4, 138, 192, 207,
243, 249, 254-5, 268,
295, 520, 537
carbonation 43, 56,194,
196-8, 274
Carboniferous limestone
8, 21,43, 63, 75,
194-9, 203-4, 274,
592-3
Carboniferous period 8,
196,201
Caribbean 238, 510-11,
598
CarlisLe 396
carnivores 296-7, 320, 327
carrying capacity J 9J -2,
280,297,336-7,378
Carson, M.A. and Kirkby,
M.J,46
cartogram 639
cash tenancy 467
catena 261, 276, 464
cation exchange 268-9
caves/caverns 152, 166,
196-8
census data 371-2, 448,
454
Central America s:{, 2:~S,
510-11
central business district
(CBD) 420-6, 428-33,
435, 442, 444, 455
central business height
index (CBHI) 430-1
central busi ness intensity
index (CBIl) 430-1
cen tral place theory 402,
406-10
centrally planned
economies 466, 468,
475, 492
centrifugal movement
421, 436
cereal fanning 341, 466,
472-6, 478, 481-2,
484-6. 492, 499, 501,
508, 629
chalk 8,63, 132,135,
] S0, 194-6, 199-200,
274, 389-90, 397, 459
channel flow 58-9, 68
chaparral 293, 324, 454
check dams 283, 505
chelates/cheluvtation 43,
271,332
chemical wea theri ng 29,
40,42-4,56,181-3,
194, 196, 202, 260,
263, 269, 271, 274,
317,321, 323
chernozems 267, 315,
327, 339-40, 486
chestnut soils 315, 328,
339-40
Chicago 420-1
child labour 575
China 11, 20, 192, 198,
280, 283, 359, 363,
380-3,386,414-1S,
419,456,468,470,
485, 502, 505, S44-S,
580-2, 618, 625-7,
637, 639, 644-7
chinook 241, 326, 464, . coasts
486
chi-squared 614-15
Christa lieI', W. 406-10,
SS7, 634, 641
cirque glaciers 106, 117
Cirques 41-2, 106,
109-12, 115
cirrus 218-] 9, 232
cities
in developed countries
418-26, 428-41,
452-7
in developing
countries 418-19,
442-51
million population
418-19
city breaks 596
classifications 24-8, 46-8,
106, 116, 132, 164,
167, 185,225,306,
315, 361, 378, 392,
492,532,587
clay-humus complex
266, 268-9
cliffs 143, 149-52, 166-7,
170-3, 196, 198
climate
arctic 130-1, 315,
332-3
British Isles 228-34,
244-5,255
classification 315
cold 315, 330
cool temperate
continental Sf S,
325-6, 339
cool temperate western
margin 315,328
desert 178-80, 315,
321-2
equatorial 315-16
Mediterranean 307,
315, 323-4
monsoon 239-40, 315, condensation 215-17, cumulus 218-19, 232, detritivores 268, 296.
325 219-22,231,235 236 development gap 502,
tropical continental condensation nuclei 215, cwms (see cirques) 605-8, 624-5
311,315,319, 219, 243 cycle of poverty 438, 609 development models
335-8 conditional instability cyclones 235-8 615-18
tropical eastern margin 217 Devon 399
90, 315, 318 confidence levels 159, Devonian period 8, 201
urban 212, 242-3 D dew 215,221,234,316
524-5
warm temperate coniferous forests 293, Dalmatian coastline 164, dew point 215-17,219,
eastern margin 315, 300-1, 306, 315, 167 221, 231
325 330-1, 518-19 dams 39, 54, 92-7, 129, diet 377, 480, 500, 503
climatic change 34, consequent rivers 84-6 528-30,539, 545 diminishing returns, law
102-4, 123, 130-1, conservation 591-3, 595, Davis, W.M. 51 of462,465,607
137, 169, 181, 189-91, 598 death rates 349-55, discharge 61, 64, 135-6
200, 246-55, 294 conservative plate 359-60,377, 380, 418, disease 610, 619-23
climatic climax margins IS, 20-1 438,621 dispersed settlements
(vegetation) 286-92, constructive plate deciduous forests 59, 62, 394, 397, 399, 402
320, 324, 326, 328, margins 14-] 7, 203 287, 293, 306, 315, dissolved load 71-4
335 constructive waves 144-6, 328-9, 518-19 distance decay 361, 410
clints and grykes 43, 196, 153, 155, 168 decomposers 261, 268, Doha (trade talks) 62S-9
198 containerisation 636, 296 doldrums 226, 316
Cloke, 1'. :~93, 398, 517 640-1 deep-sea trenches 17-19, dolines 197-8
clouds 212, 218-20, 232, continental crust 10, 14, 180 dome volcanoes 25
236 16-20 defensive sites 390-2, dominant species 286-7,
Club of Rome 379 continental drift 12 397, 400 318, 328-30
clustered settlement 397, contour fanning 281 deflation 183 Don River 64
402-4 convection currents 14, deforestation 63, 91, 125, dormitory towns/villages
coal 8, 248, 522, 532-7, 16 191,279,307-10,317, 375, 392, 398
539, 544-5, 563-4, convectional rainfall 58, 480,494,503,518-21 drainage
570-1 210, 215, 220, 226, DHRA 170, 172, 174, antecedent 85
316, 319, 330, 340, 255, 498, 593 dendritic 84
classification 164, 167 480 deglaciation 116-21, 163 parallel 84
concordant and convenience goods 432-3 deglomeration economies radial 84, 190
discordant 167 convergence 219, 226, 560 rectangular/trellis 84
deposition 154-S, 1SS, 316 Delhi 240, 619 superimposed 85, 200
163, 170-1, 173 cool temperate deltas 73, 77-8, 97, 490-1 drainage basins 58-67,
erosion 149-52, 163, continental climate demographic transition 93-7
170-3 315, 326-7, 339 model 350-2, 380, drainage density 63, 67,
floods 31-2, 148, coral 196, 302, 511, 526, 387, 620 195, 201
169-170, 172-5, 598 dendritic drainage 84 drainage diversion 122-3
236, 238, 377 core dendrochronology 248, drift 116
land use 170 and frame 430 294 drought 31-2, 190-2,
management 150, and periphery model dependency ratio 354, 267, 340-1, 346, 453,
170-5,594,598 569,617-18 383 490, 502-3, 528
transportation ISO, of Earth 10, 14 dependent variable 612 drumlins 118-21
153-4, 171 core stones 202 deposition dry adiabatic lapse rate
Coriolis force 146, coasts 154-5, 158, 163 (DALR) 216-17, 234,
Coe, N., Kelly, P. and
179-80, 224-6, 231, deserts 184-9 241
jeung. H. S61, 582
cold climates 315, 330 235, 239 glacier 116-21 dry farming 282
cold fronts 229-33 glacifluvial 116, dry-point sites 390
Cornwall 80, 522
cold glaciers 107-8 corrasion 72, 149, 197 119-21 dry valleys 132, 135,
collision plates 14-15, correlation 64-7, 299, rivers 7l-4, 76-9, 81 197-200
19-20, 199 404, 492, 546, 612-15 wind 132, 157, 184-6 Dubai 631'1
collision raindrops 219 corries (see cirques) depressions 132, 210, duricrust 182, 187
Colorado River 186-7, corrosion 73,149,197 219-20, 226-33, 245, dust storms 182-3, 280,
S27-30 Costa del Sol 594 328 283
commercial farming 337, cotton belt 463, 467 deprivation indicators dykes 28-30
477-8,482-8, 492, counterurban isation 365, 399,438,456-7 dynamic equilibrium 48,
5CJ8-Il 419 clerelict land grants 439 81, 143, 157, 276
common agricultural crag and ta iI 114 Derwent, River 122-3
policy (CAP) 487, 493 creep 46-7, 107-8, 263 desertification 191-2,
communes 467-8, 580 Cretaceous period 8, 21, 20S, 320, 479, 503 E
communities (plant) 196, 201 deserts early civilisations 388-9,
286-8, 290-3 crevasses 109, 126-7 climate 178-80, 315, 397, 400
commuter villages 375, Crewe, L. S6 I, 568 321-2 earthflows 47
398-9 critical isodapane 560 landforms 180-9 earthquakes 9-11, 13,
commuting 375, 425, 457 cruises 597, 600 location 103, 179, 306 15-20,31-2,36,52,
comparison goods 432-3 CTU mb structure 265-6,
soils 315, 323 452
competence (rivers/ 268,327 vegetation 304, 306, t.asr Anglia 172-5
glaciers) 72, 118 crust 9-10, 13-14 315, 322 Ebbw Vale 564, 570-2
composite cones 25 cuestas 199 desert varnish 182, 323 ecological footprint 376,
compression flow cumulative causation 569 destructive plate margins 379, 509, 536
107-10, 113 cumulo-nimbus 218-20, 14-15, 17-18, 33 ecology 295
concentric urban model 226, 232, 236, 292 destructive waves 144-6, economically active
420-1 153,168 population 354
Index 651
economic development En terprise Zones (EZs) famine 32, 502-3 fetch 140, 144-5, 148-9, occluded 231, 233
604-8 434,439,571 farming 153-4, 171 polar 226-30, 328
economic growth 615-18 entrenched meanders 83 arable 466, 472-6, 478, fiards (fjards) 164 warm 229-32
'economic man' 471, entrepreneurs 553, 557 481-2, 485-6, 492, field capacity 60, 267 frost 215, 217, 221, 234,
475,561 Environment Agency (EA) 495, 498, 508 financial institutions 435 241
economic migrants 362, 64,94-5,97,172,174 commercial 477-8, finite resources 522, 532 frost-free days 463
367, 369-70, 354 environmental lapse rate 482-8,492,508-11 fiords (fjords) 113, 123, frost heave 46, 132-3, 138
economic rent 471-3 (ELR) 206,216-17 environment 491, 164-5, 168, 597 frost hollows 241, 463
ecosystems 156, 169, environmentally sensitive 493-8 fires 31-2, 279, 293, 3J 1., frost shattering 40,
295-8, 300-6, 315-42, areas (£SAs) 496-7, 593 extensive 469, 472, 320, 324, 326, 335, 110-11, 119, 132,
339-42, 526, 595-8 Environmental Stewardship 475, 477-8, 480, 453, 521 135,181,196,202
ecotourism 591, 597-8 Scheme 496-7 484-6, 489, 492 firn 105, 110-11 fuelwood 543, 549, 577
ceo-towns 400 ephemeral plants 304, 322 extensive cereals 466, fissure eruptions 25, 203 fumaroles 26
edge cities 455 ephemeral rivers 187-8 478, 485-6, 492, flexible production/ functions
edge-of-city council cpiccntrcs 9 499, 508, 629 specialization 561, developed cities 426,
estates 429, 436, 441 epidemiological transition extensive commercial 565-6 428-9
edge-of-city regional 619-21 pastoral 475, 478, flood hydrographs 61-3, developing cities 442,
shopping centres 423, epiphytes 317,329 484-5, 492 95-6, 188 444-5
428, 433-4, 458-9 equatorial climate 223, health check 493 floodplains 71, 76-7, settlement 392, 396,
Egypt 168,447-8,490-1 315-16 hunters and gatherers 82-3, 90-2, 388, 390 406-10
EI Nino 93, 96, 249-53, erg 180, 11>4-6 478, 492 floods fungi 261, 266, 268, 317
452-3, 521 erosion intensive 468-70, 472, coastal 31-2, 148, fynbus 324
elongation ratio 118, 120 coastal 149-52, 163, 475, 477-8, 481-2, 169-7~ 172-5, 23~
cluviation 261-2, 271 170-3 487-8, 492 238,377
emergent coasts 165-6, deserts 183-4 intensive mixed deserts 187-8 G
288 glacial 109-11, 113-15 commercial 475, flash 49, 62-3, 80, G8 countries 627, 629
emerging countries 578, rivers 72-6, 78-9, 81-2 478,487-9,492 187-8, 465 Ganges Valley 477, 481-2
604, 625, 627, 644-7 soil 183, 191,261, 266, intensive subsistence rivers 31-2, 61-4, 72, garrigue 274, 293, 324-5
emigration 361, 369 279-81, 283 468,470, 478, 76-80, 87-93, 377, geographical inertia 554,
employment structures surfaces 165 481-2, 489, 492 453, 490-1 563,571
552, 616-17 wind 183-4, 191,279, irrigation 478, 490-2, flow movements 47, 49, Geographic Information
enclosures 397, 494 320, 495 496, 505 52-5, 453 Systems (GIS) 23,
energy erratics 117, 119-20 Mediterranean 475, fog 277-8
atmospheric 207-10, escarpments 196, 478,488-9, 492 advection 180-1,215, geological timescale 9-10,
220, 226, 235, 249 199-201, 390 nomadic herding 336, 217, 222, 234, 201
b.omass/biofuel/ eskers 116, 119-20 465, 478-9, 492 322-3, 453 geostrophic wind 225
bioenergy 293, 297, estuaries 73-4, 123, 147, organic 282, 497-8, radiation 215, 217, geothermal energy 533,
300-1, 543 ]63-4 508-9 221, 234, 243 542
coal 522, 532-7, 539, ethical consumerism 631 pastoral 336-8, 34J, fohn 125,241 gentrification 436
544-5 Ethlopia 520, 611 470,476,478-9, fold mountains 11, 15, Gereffi, G. 643
conservation 544 ethnic grou ps 371-5, 454 484-5, 492, 506-9 17-19, 249 Gersrnehl, P.l'. 300
distribution and European Union (EU) plantations (tropical food chains 296-7, 303, geysers 26, 527
reserves 533-4 469, 475, 487, 493, commercial) 467, 322 Ghana 617, 631
ecosystems 295-8 496, 500, 506-10, 556, 478, 482-3, 492, food supplies/shortages Gilbert, A. 604
environment 536-45 624-8, 639, 646-7 510-11 378-9, 390, 487, 493, glaciation/glaciers
Iuelwood 543, 549, eustatic (glucto-eustatic) sedentary 477, 492 498, 500-3, 628-9 budgets 106
577 change 81, 123, 162-3, shifting 477-8, 480, food web 297 debris 104, 109-11,
geothermal 533, 542 165, 200, 248 492 footloose industry 436, 113-14,117-18
hydro-elcctrtclty 533, eutrophication 281, 309, slash and burn 480 553, 562, 566 deposition 116-21
535, 539, 544-5, 494, 509 subsistence 468, 47O, Ford, H./FordisLll 557, diversion of drainage
547 Evans, D. 118, 123 477-82,492 561-2 122-3
hydrogen 543 evaporation 58-9, 62, systems 476 Ford, :<. 355, 379 erosion 109-11,
micro-hydro 547-9 188, 214-15 world location 478 forestry 307-10, 518-21 113-15
non-renewable 532, evapotranspiration 58-9, farm size 467-8 forests lakes i n, 113, ll5,
536-9,544-5 93, 178, 263, 269, fashion industry 644-7 coniferous 293, 300-1, 119-23
nuclear 532-3, 535, 315-16,331,464,520 faults 15-16, 20-1, 152, 306, 315, 330-1, movement 107-9
538-9, 544-5 Ewing, M. 13 165 518-19 periods (glacials) 102
oil and natural gas exfoliation 41, 181, 202 favelas 49, 427, 442-3, deciduous 59, 62, transportation 109,
116-17
532-5, 537-9, exponential rate 378-9 449 287, 293, 306, 315,
544-5 extending flow 107-10, feldspar 43, 56, 194-5, 328-9, 518-19 troughs 41-2, 113-15,
renewable 532-3, 535, 113 201-2, 260 fires 521 121
539-43, 545, 547-9 extensive farming 469, felsenmeer 40, 134 micro-climate 243 types 106-8, 169
resources 532-3 472, 475, 477-8, 480, fermentation layer 262 rainforest 62, 301, glacifluvial material 116,
rivers 68-71, 73, 75-8, 484-6, 489, 492 ferralitic soils 315, 306, 315-18, 347, 119-21
82,188 external migration 361, 317-18, 325 519-20 Glaslyn River 73-4, 115
solar 207-8, 249,295, 367-70 Ferrel cell 226-7, 328 fos il fuels 532-8, 544-5 Glen Canyon 527,
533, 541 extreme poverty 503, 609, ferruginous soils 315, fragmentation of 529-30
tidal 147, 542 628 321, 336 holdings 467 gleying 42, 263, 271-2,
UK consumption 535 extrusive volcanic rock 24 fertiliser 261, 268, 281-2, free ports 348, 636-7 275,332,334
waves 140-6, 149-51, 491, 494, 498, 504-5, freeze-thaw 40, 110-11, global warming 34, 123,
154, 168, 171, 173, 508-10 132, 134-5, 181, 196, 126-7, 131, 137-8,
541 F fertility rates (TFR) 355, 202 148, 168, 174, 191,
wind 533, 540-1 Fair trade 511, 626,630-1 357-8, 360, 377-83, freezing nuclei 219 249, 254-5, 465, 520,
world consumption family planning 357-8, 387, 620 fronts 528-9, 536, 538, 595,
533 379, 381-3, 386-7 cold 229-33 635, 638

652 Index
globalisation 501, 552, haloseres 287, 291 hurricanes 31-2, 53, 156, infiltration 58-9, 62, 187, K
554, 60S, 609, 616, harnada 180 210, 235-8, 510 195 kames 116, 119-20
628-30, 633-4, 638-9, hanging valleys 114-15, hybrids 504-5 infiltration capacity 59, kaolin/kaolinite 43, 56,
642-7 121 hydration 42, 56, 181-2, 195, 280 202-3
GM foods 498 hard (iron) pan 272, 332 194 informal sector 456, karst 195-8
Gondwanaland 12 haulage costs 634-5 hydraulic action 73, 149, 573-5 katabatic winds 241
Goudie, A. 41, J 44, 178, hazards 11, 16, 18, 30-6, 152 ingrown meanders 83 Kenya 252, 302-3, 335-8,
183,191,200 49, 52-3, 80, 87-92, hydraulic radius 69-70, inheritance laws 467 354, 359,444-5, 449,
government policies 124-7, 148, 169, 188, 76 inland waterways 635 465, 479, 492, 575-7,
farming 468-9, 475, 233, 236-8, 377, 452-4 hydro-electricity 528, inner-city areas 364-5, 608, 627
483, 493-4, 496-7 head 47, 135, 139 533, 535, 539-40, 426, 428-9, 432, kcttleholes 119-20
industry 436, 439-40, headlands 142-3, 149, 544-5, 547 436-40 King, K. 51, 187
556, 569, 571-2, 151-2 hydrograph 61-4, 188 inselbergs 189, 202 knickpoints 76
574, 578-9 health 209, 222, 350--1, hydrological cycle 162, insolation 206-13, 255, Kolkata 442-3
inner cities 436, 357, 377, 438, 446-7, 214 316, 321 Koppen, W. 31-1
439-40 500-2, 608-11, 619-23 hydrolysis 42-3, 56, 194, insolation weathering Krakatoa 18, 27-8, 249,
graded profiles 81-2 heat budget/transfer 202,323 41, 181 289
Grand Canyon 95, 186-7, 209-11, 220, 226, 229 hydromagmatic 28 instability 217, 220, k-values 408-9
527-9 Heathrow Airport 637-8 hydromorphie soil 275 226-7, 229, 231
granite 29, 40--1, 43, ISO, heat islands 212, 242 hydroseres 287, 292 intensive farming 468-70,
181, 194-5,201-3, hedgerows 494-6 hygroscopic nuclei 215, 472, 475, 477-8, L

248, 260
granular disintegration
41, 181, 202
grassland
temperate/prairie
300-1,306, 315,
326-7, 339-42
tropical/savanna 103,
293,301,306,315,
319-20, 335-8
gravitational water 267
gravity models 402,
410-11
Greece 489
green belt 398, 400
greenfield sites 400, 436,
441
greenhouse effect/gases
103, 162, 169, 207,
249,254-5, 536, 538,
543-4, 635, 638
Greenland 104
Green Revolution 482,
501,504-5
Griggs, DT 41,181
gross domestic product
(GDP) 492, 546, 588,
604,606-7,613-14,
632
gross national product
(GNP) 377, 492, 604,
606
gross raw materials 554,
558-9, 562
ground contraction
132-3
groundwater 58-9, 61,
132-4,188,190
growing season 463, 486
growth poles 569, 616-18
groynes 153, 171-2
Guatemala 53
guest (migrant) workers
361,367,369-70,373
gullying 279-81, 283, 318
H
habitats 295
Hadley cell 179,226,
319, 322
hail 220-1, 326
halomorphic 275
halophytes 158, 213, 275,
291, 322
llcimaey 16, 25 221, 249 481-2,487-9, 492 labour 469,477,510,
herbivores 296-7, 320 hygroscopic water 267 interaction model 410-11 555, 557, 560-1, 565,
heritage Sites 596, 598 hypothesis testing 145, interception 58-9, 62, 187 567, 574-8
Hess, H. 13 299, 430-1, 492 interdependence 624-8 lag time 61-2, 188, 200
hierarchies 65, 225, 393, Interglacials 102, 111 lahars 24,31-2,34,53
406 interlocking spurs 62 Lakes
high-class/high-income internal flow 107-8 glaclal 111, 113, 115,
housing 420-3, 425-6, ice internal migration 361-7 119-23, 137
428, 442-5, 450 damming lakes 122-3 internally displaced hydroscres 287, 292
high pressure 179-8, formation 105 persons 367 ice-dammed 122-3
223-30, 234, 239-40, ice ages 8, 102-4 international trade 60S, microclimates 243
319, 322-3 ice caps 106, 163 624-31, 635-7, 646-7 oxbow 79
high-tech industry 436, ice crystals 105, 107, 132, internet/email 22-3, 553, playa 188-9
552, 566-7, 572, 215, 218-20 555, 589, 634, 642 laminar flow 68
578-81, 630, 637, 643 Iceland 16, 25, 149 interquartile range 246-7 land and sea breezes 234,
Himalayas 8, 20, 85, 239 ice lens 132, 137 intertropical convergence 240,316
HIV/AIDS 346, 349, 360, ice sheets 103-4, ) 06, zone (JTCZ) 219, 223, land reform 504
483, 503, 520 and 122-3, 126-7, 163, 256 226-7, 235, 239, landslides 48-9, 53, 55,
622-3 ice shelves 106, 126 250-1,316,319,323, 236, 452
Hjulstrom graph 72 ice wedges 132-3, 137, 335 Land tenure 397, 466-8
Holderness 150 139 intrazonal soils 274-5, land use, rural 393,
holiday homes 398 icr 642-3 314 471-5, 516-17
Holocene period 8, 102, igneous rocks 24, 28-30, intrusive rock 17, 24, land values theory 425-6
294 40, 181, 194, 201-3 28-30, 201, 203 La Nina 250, 253, 452-3
honeypoK527,591 Iguacu Falls 76 iron and steel 563-4, lapse rates 206, 216-17,
Hong Kong 55, 237, 581, illegal immigrants 362, 570-2 234,241
616,621,640-1 367, 454 iron pan 272, 332 latent heat 210, 216, 220,
horizons 262-3, 266, illuviation 261-2, 271 irrigation 93-7, 191,281, 231, 233, 235, 239, 241
272-4,318,321,323, immigration 349-50, 283, 361, 478, 490-2, laterite 321, 336
325, 327, 329, 332, 361-2, 367, 454 496, 505, 530 latifundia 466, 488
334 impermeable rock 63, 67, island arcs 17-19 Laurasia 12, 17
horns 131, 187, 195, 197-8, isodapanes 559-60 lava 16,24-5, 2R, 203
desert 184-5 201 isolated settlements 394, leaching 261-3, 265,
glacial 112-13, 115 incised meanders 82-3 399 267, 271-2, 279, 300,
horticulture 473-4, 487-8 independent variable 612 isostatic (glacio-isostatic) 317-18, 321, 325,
Horton, R.E. 65-6 index of rurality 393,517 change 81-2, 123, 327-9, 332
hot plumes/spots 14, India 20, 203-4, 239-40, 162-3,248 leaf litter 262, 266, 293,
18-19 352,354,359, 387, isoti rns 559-60 300-1, 316-19, 323,
l loyt, [-l, 422, 424 443, 448, 481-2, isotope analysis 104, 190, 325, 329, 332, 334,
Human Development 504-5, 522, 574, 248 340
Index (HDI) 502, 600-1, 627, 643-6 Italy 26, 54, 359, 405 least cost location (LCL)
604-7 Indonesia 18-19, 521 557-60, 570
human resources 532 industrial estates 436, leisure 586-8
humic acid 43, 196, 317 556, 5Tl J levees 77, 87-92
humidity 214-15,242-3, industrial linkages 560, Japan 359-60, 405, 424, lichens 43, 288-9, 333-4
316, 319 568-9 565, 625-8 life expectancy 353-4,
hurnification 271 industrial location factors T curve 378 359-60,377,383,
humus 157, 260-2, 436, 553-67, 573-4 jet streams 210, 226-8, 438, 446, 501, 607-9,
266-8, 271, 300, industrial regions 569-72 233, 239, 323 620-3
317-18,321,323,325, industrial theory 557-62, joints 29-30, 40, 63, Limestone pavements
327, 329, 332, 340 568-9 110--11, 134, 149, 152, 43, 196, 198
hunters and gatherers/ infant mortality 354, 359, 194-8, 202-3 limits of production
collectors 388, 478, 377, 380, 438,446, ilia kaii 575-7 462-3
492 608-9 Jurassic period 8, 196, 201 linear settlements 395,
[ust-In-time/-In-case 561 398

Index 653
linkages 560, 568-9
Linton, U.L. 202
.Iiteracy 607-8
lithology 50, 194-5
lith oseres 287-9
lithosphere 10, 14, 21
Li Valley 198
load (river) 68, 71-4,
76-7, 136, 188
loam 264-6
location
industrial 436, 553-7,
562-7
triangle 558-9
locational rent 471-3
loess 103, 132, 136, 28O,
283, 327
logarithmic scale 10,
65-6,269, 404-5, 546,
614-15
logging 307-9, 519-21
London 348, 364-5, 392,
437-40, 458-9, 596,
637-8
long profiles 70, 74, 81-2
longshore bars 143-4,
146, 155
longshore drift 142,
153-4, 172-3
Lorenz curves 349
Los Angeles 452-5
low-classllow-income
housing 420-3, 425-6,
428, 436, 442-6, 450
low pressure 224-33,
235-7, 239--40, 319,
328
Lusaka 449
M 367, 369-70, 373, 644
M4/Mll corridor 552,
566-7
Maasai 311-12, 336-8,
449,577
magma 16--17, 24, 28, 201
Malawi 359, 611
Malaysia 482-3, 520-1,
523, 543, 578-9, 626
malnutrition 500
Mal thus, T. 378-9, SOl
mangroves 156, 169, 317,
526
Manning's equation 70
Mann, P. 422-4
mantle 9-10, 13
maquis 293, 324
margins
of production/
cultivation 462-3,
471-3
plate 14-21, 33
marine parks/reserves
526, 598
marketing principle 409
markets 469, 47]-4,
553-5,557-60,562
marrarn grass 157, 281,
290
mass movement 46-9,
52-5, 124, 149-50,
173,261
mass tourism 590, 598
material index (MI) 554,
558,561
654 Index
:VlcCarty, H.H. and rnisf t streams 86 net primary production open-field system 397,
Lindberg, L.B. 462-3 Mississippi River 77-8, (NPP) 306, 316, 319, 401, 467
mean, arithmetic 112 87-90 322, 324, 326, 328, optima and limits model
meanders 78-9, 90 mobile phones 553, 555, 330, 333 462-3
measures of dispersion 642 net profit curve 472-3 optimum population
246-7 mode 112 Nevado del Ruiz 53 376, 381
mechanical weathering models 110, 119, 143, neve 105, 110 organic farming 282,
40-2, 44, 134, 181-2, 209-10, 220, 226, New Deal for 497-8, 508-9
202, 260, 262, 334 230-2, 236, 261-2, Communities (NDC) organic matter 260-8,
median 112 287-8, 290-2, 300, 439 271-2, 279, 282, 318,
Mediterranean 317,352,367,402-11, newly industrialised 321, 323, 327-9, 334
climate 307, 315, 420-4, 442, 471-4, countries (NICs) organisms (biota) 260-3,
323-4 516,557-61,594, 578-9,604,617,620- 268-9
farming 475, 478, 615-18,620-1 1, 625-7,630, 640-1 orogeny 19, 163
488-9,492 Mohorovicic ('Moho') Newson, M. S\!, 62-3 orographic rainfall 215,
soils 315, 325, 488 discontinuity 9-10, Newton, 1. 410 220,239
vegetation 293, 304, 18-19 new towns 398, 447, 450, orthogonals 142-3
307, 315, 324-5 moisture (soil) 58-60, 579 outwash plains 116, 119
medium-class/medium- 157, 267, 276, 316, Niger 502 overcultivation 191, 280,
income housing 420-3, 322, 336 Nigeria 192, 627 341
425-6, 428, 436, 442, monsoon 198,228, Nile River!Valley 168, overgrazing 191, 280,
444-6, 449-50 239--40, 249, 315, 325, 344, 490-1 282, 335, 342, 479
meltwater 105-8, J 11, 470, 481, 521 nitrogen cycle 297-8 overland flow 58-9, 62,
113, 119-21, 131, mol' 262, 272, 332, 334 nitrogen in air 207, 222 187
135-6 moraines 108, 111, nivation 110-11, 132, overpopulation 376-7,
mesas 189 116-21 135,139 502
mesosphere and morphology (settlement) nodes/nodal paints 390, overspi ll settlement 398
meso pause 206--7 394-6 397 oxbow lakes 79
metamorphic aureole 29 morphometry (stream) nomadic herding 336, oxidation 42, 56, 201,
metamorphic rock 28-9, 65-6 465,478-9, 492 271
40 Mottershead, I). 194 non-renewable resources! oxygen 40, 42, ~04, 207,
methane 207, 254, 543 mountain and valley energy 522, 532, 295,317-18,520
Meb'oCentre 433-4 winds 234, 240-1 536-9, 544-5 ozone 34, 206-7,209,
Mexico 598 mountain building Norfolk 172--4 249
mica 43, 194-5,201-2,260 19-20,163 normal curve of
microclimates 242-3 mountain tourism 586, distribution 112, 159
micro-hydro 547-9 595 North Sea 147-8, 150, P
mid-ocean ridges 13, mountain vegetation 305, 537-8 Pacific Ocean 18-19
15-16,19,24 463 Northumberland 508-9 palaeomagnetism 13
migrant workers 361-2, Mozambique 90-1 Norway 164 Pampas 484-5
mudflows/slides 24, 34, nuclear energy 532-3, Pangaea 12, 20, 102
migration 47,49,53-5,293,452 535, 538--9, 544-5 parallel drainage 84
balance 361 mud volcanoes 26 nucleated settlements parallel slope retreat 51,
developed countries mull 262, 274, 327, 329 401-2 187
362-5, 455-6 multicultural societies nutrients parent material 260-3,
developing countries 371-5, 437, 445, 455 cycle/recycling 261, 269,271, 274, 279,
366--8, 418, 617-18 multinationals (see 263, 281, 297-8, 325,330,334
external 361, 367-70 transnationals) 316--18, 327, 330, parent population 159,
internal 361-7 multiple-nuclei theory 340,480,497 524-5
laws and models 361-2 423-4 soil 260-3, 265, 268-9, particle size 70-4, 79,
political resettling 367, multiplier effect 568-9, 271, 281 143--6, 154, 182-3,
Nye, J.F. 167 264--5
373 616
rural-urban 361-3, Myanmar 238 pastoral farming 336-8,
366, 415, 581, Myrdal, G. 569, 617 341, 470,476,478-9,
617-18,644 0 484--5, 492, 506-9
types 361 oak 287-92 patterned ground 132-3
voluntary and forced N oasis 390, 397 Peak District 592-3
361-2 Nairobi 444-5, 575-7 obsequent streams 84, peak flow 61, 63-4, 91.
within UK 363-5 National Parks 203, 309, 199 135-6, 188
within urban areas 338, 527-30, 591-3, occluded fronts 231, 233 peak land-value
364-5 595, 597 ocean crust 10.. 14, 16 intersection (PLVI)
Milankovitch, M, 102, natural hazards ll, 16, ocean currents 130-1, 425-6,430-1
104-5, 249 18, 30-6, 49, 52-3, 64, 179,210-12,220, peat 261-2,275-6
Millennium Development 80, 87-92, J24-7, 148, 249-53,318,321,323, pebble orientation
Goals (MDG) 368, 500, 169, 233, 236-8, 377, 328 116--17, 120
577, 609-10, 619, 622, 452-4 ocean transport 127,456, pediments 187-90
628 natural increase 349-53, 597, 635-7, 640-1 peels 265-6, 279-80
Miller, A.A. 315 355, 377,380, 418 offices 425-6, 429-30, Peltier 44
million cities 418-19 natural resources 346, 435 Pcnck, W. 51
Millstone Grit 201, 592 532 offshore bars ISS percolation 58--9, 143,
minerals (soil) 260, nearest neighbour oil and natural gas 532--5, 145-6
262-3, 268, 317-18 analysis 402-4 537-9, 544-5, 637 periferia 442, 446, 449
minimum sample size 159 neoclassical location omnivores 296-7 periglacial 47, 111,
mining 307, 522-3, 537, theory 557 Ornran, A.R. 620-1 130-8, 197, 200, 202
..Nepal 547-9 OPEC 624, 626-7 permafrost 130-1, 134-8,
570-1
letherlands 477, 487-8 open cities 580 197, 332-4