MODULE 1: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

UNIT 1.3- GENE TECHNOLOGY

GENETIC ENGINEERING
-Genetic engineering is a method of biotechnology that involves manipulation and
combination of organisms’ genes to produce organisms with particular characteristics.
---Genes are part of a chromosome that carries information for specific characteristics.
-----They control characteristics that we inherit from our parents (genetic
characteristics), ---hence are sometimes referred to as units of inheritance. Below is
structure showing a gene:

The technology of genetic engineering

-In genetic engineering scientists take specific gene from one organism and put it into
the DNA of another organism.
-In this way, they take the desired characteristics from one species and put it into
another species.
-This result in organisms called genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. Below are,
the steps followed in manipulating genes:
 Identifying genes with characteristics needed.
 Removing the needed genes from the organism
 Transferring the gene to another organism that grows fast e.g. bacteria or yeast
 The gene is transferred into an organisms whose characteristics are being changed

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The significance of genetic engineering
-Benefits of Genetic engineering are very significant to area such as medicine,
agriculture, forensic science and energy generation.
Medicine
-Human insulin genes are, transferred to bacteria, to enable them to produce insulin
used for treating sugar diabetes.
-Growth hormone can also be produced is a similar way and be used to treat children
who do not grow.
Agriculture
-Genes are, transferred to plants and animals to make them bigger and resistant to
pests, diseases, drought and frost.
-Some genetically modified foods include rice, potatoes, melons and tomatoes.
Forensic science
-Genetic material can be, used in solving crimes, paternity tests or genetic fingerprinting
to identify bodies of unidentified people involved in accidents or in crimes such as
murder.
Energy generation
-Some plants such as oilseed or rapeseed are, grown for their oil, which is, used for
cooking.
- It can also be converted into a bio-fuels and used in vehicle engines or generate
energy.
-Their yield can be, improved by the use of genetic modification.

Potential benefits of genetic engineering

 Creation of human beings and other organisms (clones) from DNA.
 Curing diseases that are in incurable such as cancer.

Limitations of genetic engineering

 Harmless organism maybe changed into harmful ones.

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  GM crops may kill organisms they are, not intended to.
 Genetic engineering is very expensive.

Ethical and moral issues on genetic engineering

 Some people see genetically modified food and organisms as being unnatural.
 Some people view using organisms in laboratory for research as being cruel to them.

MODULE 2: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

UNIT 2.1-LIVING MATTER
ADAPTATION
-Adaptation refers to the change in organisms that makes them suited to a particular
environment.
-There are three types of adaptations, namely structural, behavioral and physical.
----------Structural adaptation involves the body of an organism developing in certain shape
to help suit its survival.
-Physical adaptation involve developing certain features to help their survival whereas
behavioral involve reacting in a certain way to a stimuli in order to survive.

Adaptation in plants
-Plants may be adapted to live and grow in wet and dry conditions.
- The most common adaptation of plants in Botswana is usually to live and grow in dry
conditions.

Adaptation to dry conditions

 They develop long tap roots to absorb water deep underground e.g. baobab
 Develop large fleshy stem to store as much water as possible e.g. cactus
 They have thorny leaves to reduce water loss by transpiration e.g. cactus
 They also shade leaves in dry season (winter) to reduce water loss by transpiration.

Adaptation to wet conditions

 They develop small or short roots to absorb small amount of water e.g. water lily
 They have large leaves to increases water loss by transpiration e.g. water lily

Adaptations in animals
-Animals maybe adapted to survive predators, dry conditions, cold conditions, competition
for food and to be able to catch preys.

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-Below is how some animals are adapted to their environment:
 A chameleon can camouflage itself to hide from predators.
 A camel defecate dry faeces and urinate small amount of urine to help them live in
dry conditions.
 Polar bears have thick fur and thick layer of fat to help them live in very cold
temperatures.
 Giraffes have a long neck to avoid competition for food.
 A chameleon has a tongue that can stretch to catch its prey from a distance.

Human activities that impact negatively on plants and animal adaptations

-Some human activities change the environment greatly and quickly.
-This usually makes it unbearable and usually makes organisms not adapted to the new
environment die before they could adapt.
-Below are some of the human activities that have a negative impact on plants and animal
adaptation.
 Overgrazing and deforestation lives the ground bare and dry.
 Building of dams flood large areas
 Burning of fossil fuels and bush fires lead to global warming(Increase in world
temperatures)

Predicting effects of human activities on adaptation

-Looking at the current human activities especially those leading to climatic change,
scientists predicts that the following will happen to living organisms found on earth:
 Earth will be so hot that all animals not adapted to living in hot conditions will die.
 Polar ice caps will melt which may kill organisms adapted to hunting on ice.
 Sea levels will rise causing floods in low-lying areas and kill organisms not adapted
to living in water.
 Pollution will cause migration or death to some organisms

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 UNIT 2.4- ECOSYSTEMS
CHARATERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
-An ecosystem refers to all living and non-living things in a habitat.
- It can also be, referred to as a community of living things and the way they
interact with their environment.
- An ecosystem is, made up of a, community, populations, habitat and the
environment.
- A community, refers to all living things found in a habitat while a population is
the total number of given species found in a habitat.
-A habitat means an area where organisms live e.g. pond, trees and hills.

Relationships between organisms in an ecosystem

-Organisms in an ecosystem do not live in isolation; they interact and depend on
each other in one-way or another.
-The relations include competition, predator-prey and symbiosis relationships.
Competition
-This refers to whereby organisms compete with one another for food, water, space
and sunlight.
Predator-prey relationship
-This is a situation whereby one organism is the hunter (predator) while the other
one is the hunted (prey).e.g. lion and a zebra.
Symbiosis
-This is whereby two species live together in an intimate relationship which may
entails one living in, on or every close to another.
-The relation can be grouped into; mutualism, commensalisms or mutualism.
Mutualism
-This is whereby, organisms of different species live side by side and both benefits
from the relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret.
Commensalisms
-This is whereby, organisms live side-by-side and only one benefit but the other is
not hurt or made to suffer by the relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret.

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Parasitism
-This is whereby, organisms, live closer together and only one benefit while the
other one is hurt or made to suffer by the relationship e.g. ticks and cattle.

Homework
1. Research and come up with other pairs of organisms that have the following
types of relationships.
a. Symbiosis
b. Commensalisms
c. Mutualism
d. Parasitism

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
-We learnt that organisms relate with one another in different ways.
-These include for food. Food supply affects the population size in different ways.
-Increase in food supply usually leads to increase in population size while decrease
in food supply usually leads to decrease in population size.
-Predation and overgrazing also have an effect on the size of population.
-The diagram below shows effect of food supply, predation and overgrazing on
population size:

Energy flow in living things

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-The energy used by living things during respiration originally comes from the sun.
--Plants leaves trap it during photosynthesis. For this reason, plants are referred to
as, producers because they produce their own energy from the sun.
- Other organisms like animals do not produce their own energy.
-They get energy from eating plants.
-These are consumers. Consumers can be, grouped into three other groups, namely,
primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.

Primary consumers
-These organisms feed on plants only.
-They are herbivores. Primary consumers get their energy from plants e.g. goats,
cows and zebras.
Secondary consumers
-These feed mainly on herbivores (primary consumers).
- They are carnivores.
-They get their energy from primary consumers e.g. cheetah, leopard and eagle.
Tertiary consumers
-These feed on secondary consumers.
-They are carnivores that can eat other carnivores.
-They get their energy from secondary consumers e.g. hyena, vulture and crow.
-The flow of energy from one organism to another can also be shown using
diagrams.
-These include food chains, food webs and food pyramid.
Food chain
-This uses arrows to show how a given organism passes energy to other organisms.
-It starts with producers, followed by primary consumers then secondary
consumers and ends with tertiary consumers.
- Below is an example of a food chain:

Grass Goat Lion Vulture

Food web
-This is a network of food chains.

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-It shows how energy flow among the many organisms found in a habitat. Below is
the diagram of an example of a food web:

Food pyramid
-This shows the amount of energy passed from one feeding level to another.
-It is also, used to show the number of organisms eaten at each tropic (feeding)
level.
-A food pyramid can be, referred to as stable or unstable.
-Below are examples of the two types of, food pyramids:

A stable food pyramid An unstable food pyramid

Concentration of pollutants through food chains
-Concentration of pollutants often increases as the pollutant is, moved from, one
tropic level to another.
-Tertiary consumers are often the most affected.
-Increase in concentration of pollutants in bodies of organisms as they, (pollutants)
move across food chains are, called, bioaccumulation or biomagnifications.

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Homework
1. From the food chain above, which organism will have the highest amount of
concentration of a poisonous substances prayed to kill locusts?
2. From the food web, what would, happen to the population of the following if
the number of lions was to increase?
a. Grass
b. vultures
3. From the two pyramids, explain why the other food pyramid is, referred to as
unstable.

UNIT 2.5- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER

-A flower is the reproductive organ for flowering plants. It is made up of, two main
parts.
- The male part called, stamen and the female part called the pistil or carpel.
-The stamen is made up of, the filament and the anther while the pistil is made up of
the stigma, style, ovary and ovules.
-Below is the structure of a flower:

Functions of parts of a flower

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 Parts Functions
Anther Produces the male sex cells
Filament Supports the anther
Stigma Receives pollen
Style Directs and guide pollen towards ovules
Ovary Produces female sex cells
Petals Attracts insects
Sepals Protect the flower while in the bud stage
Stalk Attaches and holds the flower to the
flower
Homework
 Draw a well-labeled diagram of the female part of a flower.

POLLINATION
-This is the transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
-There are two types of pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination.
-Self-pollination happens within the same plant whereas cross-pollination happens
in different plants of the same species.
-There diagrams below shows the two forms of pollination:

Agents of pollination
-These are things that helps carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
- There are two agents of pollination.
-These are wind and insects.
-Flowers that are insect pollinated differ from those that are wind pollinated.

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-The table below shows some differences between insect and wind pollinated
flowers:

Parts of a flower Wind pollinated Insect pollinated

Small Big
Petals Dull coloured Brightly coloured
No nectar or scent Have a scent and nectar
Long and feathery Are straight and stiff
Stigma Hangs out the flower Inside petals
Hang loosely outside Stiff, firmly attached and
Anther and the petals. closed in petals.
filament

FERTILIZATION
-This refers to the process through which the male sex cells fuses with the female
sex cells.
-This happens after a successful pollination.
-The diagrams below shows the steps involved in fertilization:

-After fertilization, a zygote is produced which grows into an embryo.

-The embryo is contained in a seed.
-A seed is formed from ovules.

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-The seed is also contained in a fruit that formed from, the ovary.
- The other parts of a flower die and dry off. Below is a diagram of a seed.

Homework
1. After fertilization, which part grows and develop into
a. A seed?
b. An ovum?
2. During germination, which part of a seed develop into;
a. A shoot?
b. A root?

SEED DISPERSAL
-This is the process through which seeds are scattered away from their parent plant.
-This is important as prevents competition from water, sunlight and mineral salts. -
Seeds are, dispersed through; water, animals, wind and self.

Animal dispersal
-Seed that are, animal dispersed often have the following characteristics to help
them to be, carried away by animals.

 The look fleshy, taste and are edible.

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  Usually have hooks.

Wind dispersal
-Seed that are, dispersed by wind often away or a combination of the following
characteristics so that they can be, easily carried away by wind.

 They are very light in weight.

 Have wing-like structures
 Have parachute-like shape

Self-dispersal

-Seed that are usually self-dispersed have the following characteristics so that they
can shoot away seeds.

 Contained in pods
 The pods have a spring-like mechanism through which they throw away
seeds.

Homework
1. For each method of dispersal below, draw any other example of seed that is

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 a. Animal dispersed.
b. Wind dispersed.
c. Self dispersed.

MODULE 3: MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

UNIT 3.1-THE NATURE OF MATTER
DISSOLUTION OF MATTER
-Dissolution refers to the process of dissolving a solute in a solvent to form a
solution.
- A solute is a soluble substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
- A solvent is a liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution.
-A solution is a mixture in which a solute has dissolved in a solvent.
-Substances that that dissolve are, said to be, soluble while those that do not
dissolve are, said to be, insoluble.
Why water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent
-Water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent because almost all known
solutes dissolve in it.
-It is also because it dissolves more solutes than any other known solvents.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Concentration of solutions
-Concentration refers to the measure of how much solute is present in a given
amount of a solution. Solutions with a lot of solute in it are, said to be concentrated
while those with less solute in them are, said to be, dilute.
-The concentration of solutions is, calculated as follows:
1. Concentration per volume of solvent

Conc. = amount of solute(g) ÷ Amount of solvent(cm³)

2. Percentage concentration

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 Conc. = {amount of solute ÷ (amount of solute +solvent)} ×100%

Saturation of solutions
-solutions that can still dissolve more of a solute in them at a particular temperature
is said to be unsaturated while those that can no longer dissolve any solute in it at a
particular temperature is said to be saturated.
-Solutions that contain more solute in them than they can normally hold at a
particular temperature are, said to be supersaturated.

Application of saturated and supersaturated solution

 Drink concentrates
 Purifying solids
 Carbonated drinks

Homework- write as part of notes

1. A student prepared a salt solution of concentration 2.0g/cm³ from a salt solution of
concentration 1.0g/cm³ by adding more salt.
a. Describe another method that the student can use to prepare the same
solution of concentration 2.0g/cm³ from a salt solution of concentration
1.0g/cm³.

b. Another student prepared a salt solution using 80cm³ of water and 20g of
table salt. Calculate the

i. Concentration per volume of solvent

ii. Percentage concentration

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 UNIT 3.3-COMPONENTS OF AIR
-Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air is, made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and
other gases.
-If air is not dry it will also contain water vapour.
-The table below shows the percentages of gases that make up air:

Gas Percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Other gases 0.97

CARBON DIOXIDE
Objective 3.3.1.1 Producing carbon dioxide
-Carbon dioxide can be, produced by a reaction between an acid and a carbonate.
-----The set up below shows how carbon dioxide is, produced in the laboratory:

Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

Objective 3.3.1.2 Testing for carbon dioxide

-Test: bubble the gas through limewater.

Result: limewater turns from clear to milky or cloudy colour.
Objective 3.3.1.3 Properties of carbon dioxide
 It does not support burning

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  It is slightly soluble in water.
 It turns limewater from clear to milky or cloudy.
 It is denser than air.
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
Objective 3.3.1.4 Uses of carbon dioxide
 To make carbonated or fizzy drinks
 In fire extinguishers to put off fire
 As dry ice to keep things frozen
 For baking to make dough rise
Homework- WRITE IT AS PART OF NOTES
1. State why it is possible to, prepare and collect carbon dioxide as shown in the
set-up for preparation of the gas.
2. Why carbon dioxide is used in fire extinguishers?
3. Name any life process that uses carbon dioxide.
OXYGEN
-Oxygen makes about 21% of gases that makes up our atmosphere.
-It is used to produce energy for living things through the process of respiration.
Objective 3.3.2.1 PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN
- Hydrogen peroxide can produce oxygen on its own, but the process is very slow.
- To speed up the process, we use a catalyst called manganese (iv) oxide.
- A catalyst is a substance that is used to speed up the rate of a chemical reaction.

Manganese(iv) oxide
Hydrogen peroxide Oxygen + Water

OBJECTIVE 3.3.2.2 Test for oxygen

-TEST: introduce a glowing splint into a testube containing oxygen gas.

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RESULT: oxygen relights/rekindles a glowing splint .
OBJECTIVE 3.3.2.3 state the Properties of oxygen
 It supports burning
 It is slightly soluble in water
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
OBJECTIVE 3.3.2.4 identify common uses of oxygen
 For medical purposes to help patients who can’t breathe
 It is, mixed with acetylene to melt or cut steel.
 To support divers and mountain climber’s lives at the altitudes they can’t
breathe
Homework- write as part of notes
-Why it is important to keep potted plants in hospitals during day light and remove
them during the night?

UNIT 3.4- CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

INSULATION
Objective 3.4.1.1 identify building materials available in their locality
- list any 7 building materials available in your area
Objective 3.4.1.2 describe properties of different construction
materials,and relate the properties to the use ( complete the table)
MATERIAL PROPERTY USES
Glass - It is transparent -Used to make windows to let

- It is solid light into the house

- used to block out wind and
rain
Clay -it is cheap and freely available
in rural areas
Thatching grass
Metal
Wood
Concrete
ceramics

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Objective 3.4.1.4 evaluate the selection of different materials for constructing
different structures.
- when you evaluate a building material, you consider the following main factors:
- is the material easily available?
-How expensive is the material?
- does the material have right properties for the purpose that you are going to use it
for?

Objective 3.4.2.1 investigate the effects of window positioning, type of

roofing material, roof overhang and colour on controlling heat radiation in
and out of a building.
-Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents
heat loss or gain within them.
-In buildings insulation depend on; the type of materials used for roofing, the
presence of ceiling and thickness of walls.
A) TYPE OF MATERIAL-The set-up below is of an activity used to investigate
the suitability of building materials for insulation:

Observations
 The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the
house with ceiling.
 The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the
house with double walls.
 Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures
than house with thatched roof.

Conclusion

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-Materials that are, suitable for insulation in a building, include, the use of thatch for
roofing, double walls and the presence of ceiling.

-Heat loss or gain can be further improved in a house by the position of windows,
roof overhang, and the colour of houses.
-These control or determine the amount of heat radiation from the sun that enters
or leaves the house.
B) Effect of window positioning
-The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of window position on heat
radiation in and out of a building.

Observation
-The house with windows facing the sun recorded higher temperatures than the one
with windows facing away from the sun.
Conclusion
-Houses with windows facing the sun allows heat radiation from the sun into the
house hence, will be very hotter in summer,
- while those with windows away from the sun allows less heat to enter them
hence will be cooler in summer.
C) Effect of roof overhang
-The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of roof overhang on heat
radiation into and out of a building.

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Observations
-The house model with a longer/big roof overhang recorded lower temperatures
than the one without a roof overhang.
Conclusion
-Roof over hangs prevents heat radiation from the sun from entering a house hence
houses with longer roof overhang will be cooler in summer than the ones with
shorter roof overhang.
D) House colour
-The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of house colour on heat
radiation into and out of a building.

Observation
-The house models with black colour and grey colour recorded higher temperatures
while the one with white colours recorded lower temperatures.
Conclusion
-Dull(black)colours allow too much heat to enter the house whereas bright
(white)colours do not allow too much heat to enter the house.
-This is because, dull colours are good absorbers of heat
- while bright colours are bad absorbers of heat(reflect heat)

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- hence houses with black or dull colour will be warmer in summer and cooler in
winter compared to those with bright colours.

Homework
1. With reasons, state the suitable colour for houses in Botswana.
2. Describe why it is wise for houses in Botswana to have windows high towards
north and south instead of high towards east and west.

MODULE 4: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
PREGNANACY
-Pregnancy refers to a period from the moment the egg is fertilized by the sperm
until birth.
-Pregnancy lasts for 9 months or about 37 weeks.
- Pregnancy is also referred to as gestation period.
Objective 4.4.1.1 describe the process of fertilization.
-Fertilization refers to the process by which the male sex cell (sperm) fuses with
the female sex cell (ovum) to form a zygote.
-note: only one sperm is needed to fertilize an egg.
-fertilization takes place in the oviducts.
Objective 4.4.1.3 describe development of the embryo in terms of zygote, ball
of cells ( blastula or morula) and foetus.
-The zygote then grows and develops into a ball of cells called morula or blastula,
then blastocyst, then embryo and then foetus.

Objective 4.4.1.2 identify signs of pregnancy

Signs of pregnancy
 Production of the hormone Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
 Missed period

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  Morning sickness
 Swollen belly
 Tenderness of breasts
 Food cravings
 List 3 more signs

Homework
 Describe how the clinical test for pregnancy works.

-Immediately after fertilisation the zygote moves to the uterus where it attaches
itself into walls of the uterus.
-This is called implantation.
-Once implantation is complete, the embryo develops within the walls of the uterus
until birth.
Objective 4.4.1.4 identify placenta, amnion and umbilical cord.
-The developments include the development of the placenta, umbilical cord,
amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid.
-Below is the diagram showing an embryo developing within the uterus:

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 PART FUNCTIONS

Placenta -It allows for the exchange of substances between the baby and the
mother.
-substances that move from the mother’s blood to the baby are:
oxygen, nutrients, antibodies
-substances that move from the babys blood to the mothers’s blood
are: waste materials e.g. urea and carbon dioxide
NB: the placenta ensures that the mother and the baby’s blood DO
NOT MIX.

Umbilical cord It connects the embryo to the placenta. It also transports

substances between the baby and the placenta.

Amniotic sac -It surrounds and holds the baby in place.

-It also produces amniotic fluid.

Amniotic fluid -It acts like a cushion that protects the embryo from external
shocks.

Homework
1. Find out why the blood of the baby and of the mother must not mix.
2. State what prevents them from mixing.
3. State two substances transported to the baby from the mother.
4. State two substances transported from the baby to the mother.
Objective 4.41.9 describe the main stages of birth
Stages of birth
1. Contractions; of the uterus walls
2. breaking of the waters; the amniotic sac containing the amniotic fluid
breaks and the fluid is released through the vagina

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 3. dilation of the cervix; this widens so that the baby can come out of the
uterus
4. delivery of the baby; the baby passes out through the vagina/birth canal
5. delivery of the after birth; removal of the placenta and umbilical cord
through the vagina.
Objective 4.4.1.6 state conditions leading to multiple births
Multiple births
-This refers to the process whereby two or more babies who have been developing
in the same womb at the same time are born.
-IDENTICAL TWINS- formed from one egg and one sperm.
-the fertilized egg then divides into two and form two identical babies.
FRATERNAL/NON IDENTICAL TWINS- Formed when two eggs are released from
the ovary at the same time and both are fertilized by different sperm.
- NB- fertility drugs can cause the ovaries to release more than one egg at a time.

Identical twins fraternal twins

Homework
1. State any two differences between identical and fraternal twins.
2. State any other two types of multiple births other than twins.

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Objective 4.4.1.7 discuss antenatal care of a pregnant woman which
contributes towards a healthy development of the baby
Antenatal care
- This refers to the care given to pregnant woman before giving birth.
- -It is very important as it ensures that the baby grows and develops healthily.
Antenatal care includes,
 Not taking substances that are, harmful to the unborn babies’ health e.g.
alcohol, drugs and tobacco.
 Exercising
 Going for antenatal check ups
Homework
1. List five effects of taking harmful substances such as alcohol tobacco and other
drugs during pregnancy.
Objective 4.4.1.8 describe Nutritional needs of a pregnant woman
-During pregnancy a woman needs to eat a balanced diet.
-This ensures the baby is, supplied with all the nutrients it needs.
-The following are some nutrients needed most by a pregnant mother:
Nutrient needed Importance
Protein For growth and building new tissues.
Calcium For development of strong bones
Iron For the formation of red blood cells

Homework
1. For each of the following nutrients, research and come up with two examples
of food rich in the following nutrients.
a. Proteins

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 b. Calcium
c. Iron

Objective 4.4.2.1 compare breast-feeding to bottle feeding

Breast-feeding and bottle-feeding
Breast-feeding Bottle-feeding
The milk is free The milk cost money
Milk contains antibodies Does not contains antibodies
Milk is always of the right temperature Milk is not always of the right
temperature.
Chances of contamination are less. Chances of contamination are high
Milk contain all required nutrients Milk does not contain all required
nutrients.
Milk does not cause any allergic Milk may cause allergic reactions and the
reactions baby may refuse the milk.
Creates a strong emotional bond Emotional bon not so strong
between the baby and the mother

Objective 4.4.2.2 discuss Nutritional needs of a lactating mother and her baby
-The nutritional needs of a breastfeeding mother and her baby are the same as those
of a pregnant woman.
- However, a lactating mother also needs to increase the intake of fluids to increase
milk production.
Objective 4.4.2.3 describe the methods of immunization of babies against TB,
measles, tetanus, hepatitis B, and DPT ( diphtheria, polio and whooping
cough)
IMMUNIZATION
-This is a way of protecting a person from contracting a disease.
- It makes the body immune to diseases.
Homework

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 1. Find out on the differences between passive immunity and active immunity.

Disease Symptom Age(s) of Name of vaccine Method of

immunization vaccination
TB Continuous At birth BCG Injection
coughing and loss
of weight
Polio Paralysis of some 2,3,4 and Polio, Polio, Polio, Drop by mouth
body parts 18months Polio booster dose (oral drop)
Diphtheria Whitish tonsils at 2,3,4 and DPT, DPT, DPT and Injection
the back of the 18months DPT Booster dose
mouth
Whooping A cough with a 2,3,4 and DPT, DPT, DPT and Injection
cough whoop sound 18months DPT Booster dose
Tetanus Jaws become 2,3,4 and DPT, DPT, DPT and Injection
locked 18months DPT Booster dose
Hepatitis Yellowish eyes and At birth, 2,3 HBV, HBV, HBV Injection
B skin and 9months
Measles Rush with red eyes. 9 months Measles Injection

Homework
Find out the Setswana names for diseases that babies are, immunized against, their
symptoms, dates of immunization, and names of vaccines and methods of
immunization.
Objective 4.4.2.4 discuss the Importance of testing for HIV when pregnant
-The HIV virus can pass from the mother to the child during pregnancy,
delivery/child birth or through breastfeeding.
-It is therefore important to test for HIV during pregnancy to prevent mother to
child transmission.
Objective 4.4.2.5 evaluate the significance of Prevention of mother to child
transmission to the child and the mother
The PMTCT programme is very important as it;

28
  Helps prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from the mother to her
unborn child.
 It also helps prolong the mother’s life because they will be receiving ARV’s.
Objective 4.4.2.6 demonstrate proper methods of child care
CHILDCARE
-Babies are very delicate and highly sensitive to their environment.
-For babies to grow healthily, both physically and mentally the following care should
be given to them:
 Proper diet and burping
 Bathing and clothing
 Change of nappy
 Clinical check-ups
 Safety

MODULE 5: FORCE, MOTION AND ENERGY

UNIT 5.3 INVESTIGATING FORCES
TYPES OF FORCES
Objective 5.3.1.1 classify forces into contact forces and action-at-a distance
forces
-A force is referred to as a pull or a push applied by one object on another.
- Forces usually act in pairs and each, acting in opposite direction. Arrows are,
used to show the direction of forces acting on a body. The diagram below shows the
direction of forces acting on a chair and a person:

29
 Force acting on the person Force acting on the chair

Homework
1. What does the term resultant force mean?
2. calculate the resultant of the following forces:

Classification of forces
Forces may be classified as contact and non-contact forces. Contact forces occurs
when objects are physically touching each other e.g. tension force, frictional and
impact force. Non-contact or action-at-a distance forces result when objects are not
in physical contact they act at a distant e.g. gravitational, magnetic and
electrostatic.

Homework
1. With examples, describe the following forces
a. Magnetic
b. Elastic
c. Electrostatic
d. Gravitational

30
 EFFECTS OF FORCES
When force is, applied or exerted on an object it, produces a result. The effects
depend on the type of the force and the object on which it acts. The following are
effect of forces:
 It changes shape or size of an object
 It can increase speed or decrease speed of a moving object
 It can change the direction of objects

Homework
1. Give an example of each of the following effects of forces on objects
a. Changing shape of objects
b. Changing size of objects
c. Changing speed of an object
d. Changing direction of an object

Importance of gravitational force to life on earth

 It pulls objects towards the earth (makes object thrown into space fall back
to earth)
 It keeps people or objects from falling off into space.
 It keeps the earth and all planets in their orbit around the sun

FRICTIONAL FORCE
Frictional force is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in
contact. Frictional force in solids depends on the weight of the object and the nature
of touching surfaces.
Frictional force in fluids

31
Fluids refer to gases and liquids. This is, because they flow. Frictional force in fluids
is, affected by the nature of the fluid and surface area or shape of the object
moving through the fluid.
Effect of nature of the fluids on frictional force
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of the nature of a fluid on
friction.

Observation
The ball fell to the bottom quicker on the measuring cylinder with water and last on
the one with liquid soap.
Conclusion
Liquids with high viscosity (thicker) have more frictional force than those with less
viscosity (thin).

Effects of the shape of objects on frictional force

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of shape of an object on
friction in fluids.

32
Observations
A streamlined coin reached the bottom of the measuring cylinder quicker than the
one that is not streamlined.
Conclusion
Shape of objects affects their frictional force in fluids. Streamlined objects have less
resistance (frictional force) than those that are not streamlined.

Effects of frictional force

 It generates a lot of heat
 Waste energy
 Slows motion
 Wears off touching surfaces

Application of frictional force in fluids

 For swimming
 Movement of aeroplanes
 Descending through parachutes

Ways of reducing frictional force

 Use of ball bearings
 Use of lubricants
 Streamlining
 Using wheels or rollers

33
Homework
1. State two methods that can help reduce frictional force in fluids.
2. State any two problems of frictional force.
3. State any two uses of frictional force in solids.

MEASURING FORCE
Force as a quantity could be, measured. An instrument used to measure force is,
called a force meter. The SI-units of force are Newton (N).The diagram below
shows a force meter:

Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object. It is also a force hence is, also
measured in Newton. The formula below is, used to calculate weight:

Weight = Mass × Force of gravity

Where g = 10N/kg on Earth and 1/6 × 10N/kg at the moon

The relationship between weight and mass

The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its weight provided they are at the
same point and place. Two objects with the same mass will have the same weights
as long as they are on the same point on earth or at the moon.

34
The differences between weight and mass
 Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object whereas mass is the amount
of matter in an object.
 Weight decreases as one moves from earth to the moon whereas mass
remain the same wherever you go.
 Weight is a vector quantity whereas mass is a scalar quantity.

Homework
1. An object has a mass of 210kg. calculate its weight
a. On earth
b. At the moon

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure refers to the amount of force applied against a surface by the
weight of air above that surface. It is the amount of force of air acting over an area. A
barometer is the instrument used to measure pressure. There are two types of
them, mercury and aneroid barometer. The SI-units of atmospheric pressure are

35
 the Pascal (Pa). Other units include millimeters of mercury (mmHg),
atmospheres (atom), bars and millibar (mb), which are mostly, used in weather.
Below is the diagram of a mercury barometer:

Pressure in Pascal is, calculated from the formula below:

Pressure (Pa) = Height of mercury (h)× Density of mercury(ρ) × Force of gravity (g)
Where, h= 760mmρ = 13.6 g/cm³ g = 9.8N/kg

101300Pa = 101.3KPa = 1atm = 760mmHg = 1bar =1000mb

Effects of pressure
 It enables us to suck liquids through straws.
 It makes rubber suckers to stick on surfaces.
 Makes cans with less pressure in them collapse.
 It makes it difficult to open containers with less pressure in them.

Predicting the type of weather from weather charts

Weather can be predicted using isobar patterns in a weather chart. Isobars are lines
that connect points of equal atmospheric pressure in an area. When the lines are
closer to each other, it indicates strong winds. When they are far apart, they indicate
light or calm winds. Below is a chart showing isobar patterns of a given area:

36
A high (H) is an area of high pressure surrounded by lower pressure. A low (L) is an
area of low pressure surrounded by high pressure. If pressure drops rapidly, there
is greater chance of rain. If the pressure rises rapidly, it is associated with
clearing of the skies. Wind blows from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure.

UNIT 5.4- MOTION

LINEAR MOTION
Linear motion refers to the movement of an object along a straight line. Motion can
be, described in terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
Distance

37
This is the description of how far apart two objects are. It is the actual length
between two points along a given path.
Displacement
This refers to the distance traveled in a stated direction. It is the shortest distance
between two given points in a stated direction.
The difference between distance and displacement
Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity. Distance is
the actual length from one point to another along a path whereas displacement is
the shortest distance between two points in a stated direction.
Speed
This refers to the rate at which an object moves. It can also be, defined as the
distance traveled in unit time. The SI-units for measuring speed is meters per
second (m/s). Below is the formula for calculating speed:
Speed = Distance ÷ Time
Velocity
It refers to the rate at which an object moves in a particular direction. It can also be,
said to be, the speed of an object in a particular direction. The units of velocity are
the same as those of distance. Below is the formula for calculating velocity:
Velocity = displacement ÷ Time

The differences between speed and velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity whereas velocity is a vector quantity.

Acceleration
This refers to the rate of change of velocity or to the increase of velocity over time.
The opposite of acceleration is deceleration. The units of acceleration are m/s²
whereas those for deceleration are –m/s².

UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM MOTION

38
Uniform motion/velocity
This is refers to when an object moves at a constant speed in one direction. In this
case, both the speed and direction does not change. Below are some graphs showing
motion of objects with uniform velocity:
a. Constant or uniform velocity
b. A stationary object
c. Constant velocity away from starting position
d. Stationary object
e. Object moving back to stating position

Non-uniform velocity
This is when the motion of object changes. In this case, it could be the velocity that
changes or the direction or both. The change in velocity could be and accelerationor
deceleration. Below are some examples of motions of objects with non-uniform
velocity

a. Accelerating from starting position

b. An accelerating object
c. An object decelerating until it still stops
d. A decelerating object
e. An accelerating object from rest

Motion of objects in fluids

A falling object speeds up when it is, released. As it speeds up fluid friction
(resistance) acting on it increases until it is equal to the weight of the object. As the
air resistance, increases the object’s acceleration decreases until it can no longer
accelerate and moves at a constant velocity called terminal velocity. Terminal
velocity is therefore, the constant velocity of an object falling through a fluid. It

39
occurs when the force driving the object is equal to the frictional force opposing the
movement of the object. The diagrams below illustrate terminal velocity:

MODULE 6: ENERGY
UNIT 5.5- PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light has three main properties. These are that it travels in straight lines; it can be,
reflected when it strikes an opaque material and that it can be, refracted when it
strikes a transparent material at an angle.
Reflection
Light rays reaching a shiny surface bounces back. The bouncing back of light when it
strikes an object is, called reflection. If the rays hit a smooth plane, shiny surface
such as a mirror, the reflected rays are uniform or parallel. This is, called regular

40
reflection. If the rays hit a rough surface, the rays are scattered. This is, called
diffuse reflection. The diagrams below show regular diffuse reflections:

The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection
Below are simplified diagrams of rays of light hitting plane mirrors and how they
are, reflected.

NB: Note that the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.

Images formed by plane mirrors

These are flat mirrors. Below is the diagram of an object and its image, as it would
appear on a plane mirror.

41
The image is
 laterally inverted
 The same distance from the mirror as the object
 The same size as the object
 Virtual or not real
 Always upright

Uses of plane mirrors

 In periscopes
 Kaleidoscope
 Instrument scales

Curved mirrors
There are two types of curved mirrors. These are concave mirror and convex
mirrors. A concave mirror bulges inwards. It has its shiny surface on the inside of
the curve. A convex mirror bulges outwards. Its shiny surface is on the outside of
the curve. Below are the diagrams of the two types of mirrors:

Convex mirror Concave mirror

Images formed by a concave mirror

The diagrams below show images formed by a concave mirror.

42
The image is
 Bigger than the object when the object is, close to the mirror.
 Upright when the object is close to the mirror.
 Smaller than the object when the object is far from the mirror
 Upside down or inverted when the object is far from the mirror.

Uses of a concave mirror

 Dentists mirror
 Shaving mirror
 Spot lights

Images formed by a convex mirror

The diagram below shows images formed by a convex mirror:

The image is
 Always smaller than the object
 Always upright
 Virtual

Uses of a convex mirror

 Security mirrors in shops
 Wing mirrors in cars

REFRACTION
This is the bending of light, which occurs when it passes through an angle from one
transparent material to another. It is due to the change of speed by light as it enters

43
a material of different density. When the ray enters an optical denser medium from
a less dense one (e.g. from air to glass or water), it bends towards the normal and
bends away from the normal when it enters a less dense material from a denser one
(e.g. from glass or water to air).

Refraction through a glass block

When a ray passes through a glass block, it bends towards the normal and when it
leaves it bends away from the normal.

Refraction by a glass prism

When light rays pass through a glass prism they are bent twice, first, towards the
normal and then away from it. Below is the diagram showing refraction by a prism:

Refraction through water

When a stick is placed in a beaker full of water it appears to be bent at a point where
it enters the water. This is because light rays bends when it passes from water into
air. The diagram below shows refraction through water:

REFRACTION BY LENSES

44
A lens is a transparent device made of glass to refract light such that it forms images.
There are two main types of lenses. These are diverging (concave)and converging
(convex)lenses.

Converging or convex lenses

Converging also known as convex is thicker in the middle than at the ends. It bulges
outwards. It makes parallel rays passing through it to come together (converge) at a
point. The point where they meet is, called the focal point (F). The distance from
the centre of the lens to the focal point is, called the focal length. Thicker lenses
have shorter focal points. The diagrams below show convex lenses and their effects
on rays of light.

Images formed by convex lenses

Images are
 Upright and magnified when the object is closer to the lens. The diagram
below shows this.
 Images are upside down and smaller than the object when the object is far
from the lens. The diagram below shows this.
Uses of convex lenses
 Magnifying glass
 Spectacles to correct long-sightedness
 The eye
 Optical instruments e.g. projector, microscope, camera and telescope

Diverging or concave lenses

Diverging lens also known as concave lens bulges inwards- it is thin in the middle
and thicker at the ends. It makes light rays passing through it to move apart
(diverge). The diagram below shows effects of concave lens on light rays.

Images formed by concave lenses

The images are always

45
  Upright
 Diminished
 Virtual
Uses of convex lenses
 Eye pieces of some optical instruments
 Spectacles to correct shortsightedness

Optical instruments
These are instruments used to aid or help the capabilities of our eyes. Below are
some optical instruments and their uses.
INSTRUMENT USES
Camera It captures images (photographs) of objects.
Projector It enlarges images or pictures from slides.
Microscope To view small objects that is normally difficult to see with naked
eyes.
Telescope To view things far on space e.g. planets and the moon
Binoculars To view objects from a distance e.g. game animals
Periscope To see things over an obstacle e.g. submarines to see things above
water

DISPERSION
Dispersion is the process whereby white light splits into its colour components
called the spectrum. The spectrum is made up of seven colours namely; red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The diagram below shows dispersion:

How a rainbow is, formed

A rainbow is, formed when white light rays from the sun are, split into colours of the
spectrum by droplets of rain as it passes through them. Colours on a rainbow are of
the same as those formed by the glass prism above.

THE EYE
The eye is an organ for seeing. For us to see an object light rays strikes the object
and the object reflect the rays into our eyes. The image is, formed into the retina and
sent to the brain for interpretation. Below is the structure of a human eye:

46
Functions of the main parts of the eye

PART FUNCTION

Cornea Refract light rays towards the lens and protect the
eye.
Pupil Controls the amount of light entering the eye e.g in
too much light the pupil become small to reduce
amount of light entering the eye and become larger
when there is little amount of light available so that
enough light can enter the eye.

Lens Focuses light rays into the retina

Retina Acts as a screen where images are, formed.
Optical nerve Transmit impulses to the brain
Conjunctiva Protects the cornea
Iris Controls the size of the pupil and the amount of light
entering the eye.

Ciliary muscles Control the shape or thickness of the lens.

Pupil reflex action

The size of the pupil changes depending on light intensity. This is to protect the eye
from damage by too much light and to allow enough light to enter the eye. The iris
controls its size. When one is in bright light, the iris relaxes to reduce the size of the
pupil. This reduces the amount of light entering the eye. It contracts to increase the
size of the pupil when one is in the dark to increase the amount of light entering the
eye. The diagram below shows how the pupil appears when one is in bright light
and when in the dark:

47
 Accommodation
This means the ability of an eye lens to change shape or thickness to focus images on
the retina. The thickness of the eye lens is, controlled by the ciliary muscles. When
looking at a closer object ciliary muscles contract and squeeze the lens, which make
it thick. This makes the less have a short focal length. When looking at a distant
object, the muscles relax and release the lens from pressure. This makes the lens
thin and the focal length long. Below is the diagram showing the appearance of the
eye lens for distant and near objects:

Eye defects

Eye defect Problem Cause Correction

Short sighted Cannot see far The eyeball is long Corrected with concave
(myopia) away objects and images are spectacle lens:
clearly. focused in front of the
retina.

48
Long sighted Cannot see The eyeball is short Convex spectacle lens:
(hyperopia) near objects and images are
clearly. focused behind the
retina.

Astigmatism Cannot focus Cylindrical lenses are

on horizontal used:
and vertical
lines at the
same time.

Lack of is the in- ability Combination of spectacles with bifocal

accommodation of the eye lens myopia and lenses
(presbyopia) to change its hyperopia.
focal shape in
order to see
near and far
objects clearly

Homework
Find any other two eye defects and state their causes and treatment where necessary.

Eye diseases

Disease Causes Symptoms Treatment

CATARACT: the lens FACTORS LEADING TO  A painless  Surgically
becomes cloudy or CATARACT: blurring removing
opaque and allow less  Old age vision /sees the lens and
light to pass through the  Drugs
retina. only hazy replacing it

49
  Diabetes images with clear
 Dehydration  Lens become plastic lens
 Air pollution opaque  Certain eye
 High alcohol  Poor night drops can
Consumption vision be used to
 Smoking reverse
 Too much cataract.
ultraviolet
light
STY:A painful red bump  Bacteria  Redness in the  Antibiotics
or pink lamp located at affected area cream
the base of an eye lashes,
under or inside the
 The eye  Apply a
eyelid becomes warm
sensitive to compressio
light ns on eye
 Pain will occur for 15
followed by a minutes,
swelling or three to
redness four times a
day
CONJUNCTIVITIS(PINK  Viruses  Watery eye in  Special pink
EYE):is an inflammation  Bacteria such early stage eye drops
of the conjunctiva
as gonorrhea  Inflammation( can relieve
or Chlamydia redness or the
 Irritants such swelling) of the inflammatio
as shampoo conjunctiva n and
 Allergies  Yellowish itchiness
 Injury discharge at  Antibiotics
later stage to fight off
 Itching and the bacteria
pain  A warm
wash with
cotton wool
to dissolve
the
discharge.
TRACHOMA: It affect the  Virus like  Mild itching  Treat early
membrane lining, the eye bacteria and irritation stage with
lid and covering the front
part of the eye
called of the eye antibiotics
Chlamydia  A feeling of  Late stage
trachomatis sand or grit in may require
the eye surgery
 Eye redness  Raise
 Watering eyes hygienic
 Swollen standards
eyelids, caused ( control
by flies, eat
inflammation proper

50
 of the food)
conjunctiva
 Discharge from
the eye
containing
mucus or pus
 Light
sensitivity( pho
tophobia) of
the eye
 Blurred vision
 Eye pain

COMPARING THE EYE AND THE CAMERA

EYE CAMERA
Uses convex lens Uses convex lens
Image formed on the retina Image formed in the film
Has blind spot Has no blind spot
Iris and pupil control light entering the eye Aperture control the amount of light admitted

CAMERA
Used to capture images of objects. The image produced is called photograph. It uses
a convex lens to form image that are real and inverted

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CAMERA

Parts functions
Lens (convex lens) Directs light from an object into the film at the back of the camera
Shutter (cornea) Open to allow light through to the film
Aperture (Pupil) Control the amount of light reaching the film
Film (retina) Is where the images are formed by the camera

51
THE USE OF COLOUR IN COMMUNICATION
NB: Colour is a very important component of communication.

COLOUR CAN BE USED IN MANY WAYS FOR COMMUNICATION WITH PEOPLE.

1. In sign language
2. In traffic lights e.g. red means stop, green –go and amber-prepare to stop.
3. In electric cables e.g. brown - live wire, blue for neutral wire, yellow and
green for earth wire.
4. To identify commonly used button e.g. in remote control red button
symbolizes power on /off.

52
 UNIT 5.6-HEAT ENERGY
EFFECTS OF HEAT

Heat is the type of energy from ‘hot’ objects. Burning objects, frictional force, sun,
electricity and chemical reactions are some of the sources of heat. Heat has two
important effects on matter. These are expansion and contraction.

Expansion and contraction in solids

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on solids.

Observation
The ball easily fits into the ring before being, heated and after being, cooled. It does
not fit into the ring after being, heated.
Conclusion
Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled

Expansion and contraction in liquids

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on liquids.

53
Observation
The level of the liquid rose when, heated and went down when, cooled.
Conclusion
Liquids also expand when heated and contract when cooled.

Expansion and contraction in gases

The set-up below is of an activity to demonstrate effects of heat on gases.

Observation
The balloons increased in size when the air in the conical flask was heated and
decreased in size when the air was, cooled.
Conclusion
Gases also expand when heated and contract when cooled.

NB: Note that expansion and contraction are highest in gases followed by liquids
and is lowest in solids.

Problems of expansion and contraction in everyday life

The problems of expansion and contraction are mostly encountered in the following
fields; railway, pipes or plumbing, glasses and electric or telephone cables. The table
shows the problems and their solutions.

Problem area Problem Solution

Railway line Buckles rails which derail Gaps are left between the rails to allow for
trains expansion
Plumbing It makes pipes that Loops are, made to give them room for
carries hot water or oil to expand and contract.
burst
Cables It makes cables to snap in
When laid in winter they are, slightly
winter or hang to low intightened to give them room for expansion
summer and when laid in summer some sag is,
allowed to allow for contraction.
Glasses It makes glass break or Thinner glasses are, made to prevent
crack. cracking or breaking.

54
Uses of expansion and contraction

Thermometers
Expansion and contraction of mercury inside a thermometer makes mercury move
up and down the column of the thermometer. The extent of the expansion or
contraction corresponds with temperature.

Bimetallic strip
This is, made up of two strips of different metals that are, joined together. One of the
metals is, brass while the other is usually, iron. These metals expand at different
rates when heated. Brass expands more than iron. This makes the strip to bend
towards iron. The diagrams below show a bimetallic strip when before heating and
after heating:

Thermostat
This device control temperature of some electrical appliances. It is, made up of a
bimetallic strip. The diagrams below show a hot thermostat and cold one.

55
Fire alarms
This device also uses a bimetallic strip. When temperature within the house
increases, it makes the bimetallic strip to bend and switch on the bell, which alerts
people. Below is a diagram illustrating the set-up in a, fire alarm:

Homework
1. Find out four examples of devices that use a thermostat.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat always moves from a hotter place to a cooler one. This is called, heat transfer.
There are three methods of heat of heat transfer. These are conduction, convection
and radiation.

56
CONDUCTION
This is the way heat moves mainly through solids. It is, passed by hot particles to
cooler ones. Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids. Materials
that conduct heat quickly are, said to be conductors and those that do not heat well
are, said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat. The diagram below is of a set-
up to investigate the rate at which different solids conducts heat.

Observation
The pin fell first from the aluminum rod, then copper, steel and took longer to fall
from the glass rod.

Conclusion
Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Aluminum is the best conductor
followed by copper and then steel while glass is a poor conductor of heat. It can also
be, noted that metals are good conductors of heat while non-metals are poor
conductors.

Homework
The set-up below is of a set-up used to investigate the conductivity of water. Use it to
answer questions that follow.

1.
a. State expected observation from the experiment.
b. What conclusion can be, drawn from the observations?

57
 c. Explain why heating elements of electric kettles and geezers are, usually
placed at the bottom of them not at the top.

CONVECTION
This refers to the movement of heat through fluids. That is the movement of heat
through liquids and gasses. If a fluid is heated, hot particles become less dense and
move to the top of the liquid while cold ones with high-density sinks to the bottom.
This creates convectional currents, which carries heat around the fluid. The
diagrams below show convectional currents in liquids and in gases.

RADIATION
This is the movement of heat through an empty space. Unlike conduction and
convection the there are no particles involve in movement of heat through radiation.
Heat from the sun reaches us through radiation. Radiation of substances is,
described in terms of heat absorption and emission.

Absorption of heat
This refers to, the rate at which heat is taken into an object. Different surfaces
absorb heat at different rates. The set-up below is of an activity to investigate
absorption of heat by different surfaces.

Observation
The can with black colour recorded higher temperatures while the one that is silver
in colour, recorded lower temperatures.
Conclusion

58
Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas silvery
or light coloured surfaces are poor absorbers of heat. This is because lightly
coloured or silvery coloured surfaces reflected heat outwards.

Emission of heat
This refers to the release of heat to the surrounding. The set-up below is of an
activity to investigate emission of heat by different surfaces.

Observations
The side with a black or dull surface feels warmer than the one with white or bright
colour even though the hands were, placed at the same distance from the cans.

Conclusion
Black or dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white or bright
coloured surfaces are poor emitters of heat. This is because white or bright coloured
surfaces reflected heat inwards.
Homework
1. Which colour of a cup will keep tea hotter for a long time (white or black)?
Explain your answer.
2. Whyis, the backside of an electric heater usually painted silvery?

Application of methods of heat transfer

A vacuum flask
It is used to make hot liquids hot and cold ones cold for a long time. It does this by
preventing heat loss or gain by conduction, convection and or radiation. Below is the
diagram of a vacuum flask.

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  The silvery surfaces reduce heat loss or gain by radiation.
 The vacuum prevents heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.
 A plastic cork reduces heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.

A car engine cooling system

This helps cool the car engine and prevent it from ‘knocking’ or damaged due to
overheating. The cooling system also uses conduction, convection and radiation to
cool the engine. Below is the diagram of a car engine:

 The cylinders conduct heat to water.

 Heat from water, move by convection to the radiator.
 The radiator (black in colour) radiates heat to the surrounding.

Homework
1. Draw the diagram of the solar water heating system, state its functions and
describe features that help it carry out its functions.

Natural phenomena caused by conduction, convection and radiation

 Wind/breeze
 Volcano
 Water cycle

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 TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ANIMALS

This deals with ways in which organisms control their temperature or keeps their
body temperature constant. These include production of a thick layer of fat, thick
layer of fur, hibernation and evaporative cooling.

Insulation effect of fat in animals

Fats is a very poor conductor of heat, hence a very good insulator of heat. Living
organisms produce heat from within the body. Fat then prevent this heat from
escaping from the body to the surrounding. This helps keep the organism warm in
winter.

How different organisms are adapted to keeping cool and warm

 Develop a thick layer of fat to prevent heat loss from the body e.g. seal and
penguin.
 Develop a thick layer of fur which traps air pockets around the body and
prevent heat loss from the body e.g. polar bear and arctic wolf.
 Hibernate.That is goes into a deep sleep e.g. frogs and snakes.
 Evaporative cooling, that is sweating, bathing or panting e.g. people,
elephants and dogs.

Homework
1. Find out and describe how birds are adapted to keeping warm in winter.
2. Other than evaporative cooling, how else are people adapted to keeping cool
and warm?

MODULE 6: HEALTH AND SAFETY

UNIT 6.5- HYGIENIC SURROUNDING
VENTILATION
Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of a building. Poor ventilation
is a serious health hazard and can cause some airborne diseases and illnesses. The
house is also often hot and stuffy. The diagram below shows ventilation in a
traditional and modern house.

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Homework
1. State any, one common injury in everyday life and state how, they can be
prevented.
2. Name any one, safety device and state its uses.
3. State any one, effects of poor ventilation.

SANITATION
This deals with the removal proper disposal of sewage and other domestic refuse.
Improper disposal of these wastes is also a health hazard. It can attract vectors of
disease causing organisms and spread diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, bilharzias,
polio, typhoid and dysentery and pollutes water.

Hygienic ways of disposing sewage

Sewage refers to wastewater, faeces and urine. The best way to deal with it is
through the building and using of toilets, sewage pipelines and wastewater
treatment plants. There are three main types of toilets. These are pit latrines,
chemical toilets and water closets (flash toilets).

Methods of disposing domestic refuse

Domestic refuse refers to solid household waste such as papers, plastics, bottles and
leftovers. Some ways of disposing domestic refuse include:
 Refuse collection
 Recycling and reusing
 Compost heaps
 Burning

MODULE 7: THE HUMAN BODY

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 UNIT 7.3-COMMUNICATION IN ANIMALS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is, made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is, made up of the brain and the
spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is, made up of the nerves (neurons),
sense organs, sensory receptors and effector organs. A Function of the nervous
system is to control and coordinate parts of the body so that they work together at
the right time. Below is the diagram showing the nervous system:

Functions of parts of the nervous system

 Sensory organs contain receptors, which detect or receive the stimuli.
 Sensory neurons carries impulses from the sense organs to the CNS
 The relay neuron passes impulses from the sensory neurons to the motor
neuron
 The motor neurons carries impulses from the CNS to the effector organs
 Brain and the spinal cord interprets impulses from the sense organs
 Effector organs help the body the body act or respond to the stimuli.

Voluntary and involuntary actions

The way the bodies respond to the stimuli or massages differs, and responses
resulting from them are, classified as voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary actions
are, controlled by ones’ will. They are, interpreted and controlled by the brain e.g.
walking, talking and dancing. Involuntary actions are, not controlled by one’s will.
They may, not be controlled by one’s will e.g. heartbeat, blinking and breathing.

Simple reflex action

These are quick involuntary actions, which are a response to possible danger. They
are, interpreted at the spinal cord e.g. knee jerk and pupil reflex.

Learned reflex action

These are reflex actions that are, acquired from past experiences. They are, also not
controlled by ones’ will e.g. salivating when hearing of your favourite food or getting
an erection when seeing an attractive person.

Homework

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 1. describe a path followed by impulses in
a. voluntary actions
b. involuntary actions

HORMONES
These are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands to control functions of
specific organs. They are, transported to their specific targets by blood. Below is the
diagram of the endocrine system.

The table below shows hormones, their source and functions.

Hormone Gland or source When is it secreted Functions

Insulin Pancreas When blood sugar It controls the level
is above normal of blood sugar.
Adrenaline Adrenal glands When frightened It prepares the
body for action
(flight of fight).
Glycogen Pancreas When blood sugar Control the level of
is below level blood sugar.
Growth hormone Pituitary glands Throughout life Stimulates growth
Thyroxin Thyroid glands Throughout life Control metabolic
rate

Homework

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 1. Find out sources, functions and when the testosterone, progesterone and
oestrogen are, produced. Record your findings as in the table below.

Medical conditions caused by hormonal imbalances

Diabetes
This is a medical condition caused by lack of insulin in the body. Lack of insulin lead
less sugar being, removed from blood. It leads to sugar being, detected from blood
and urine.

Low blood sugar

This is, caused by too much insulin produced in the body leading to too much sugar
being changed to, glycogen (fat). Less blood sugar often make people tired and feel
hungry.

Goitre
This is a disease caused by lack of iodine, which also helps in the production of
thyroxin. It make people’s neck gland swell.

MODULE 8: ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETISM

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 UNIT 8.1- ELECTRICAL ENERGY
CIRCUITS

An electric circuit is a path followed by an electric current through interconnected

devices to achieve a certain electric effect. Circuit diagrams are usually used; to
represent the path followed by an electric current. The components of a circuit are,
represented by symbols. Below are symbols of common components of electrical
circuits:

Component Name Symbol

Cell

Bulb

Resistor

Switch

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Fuse

There are two types of circuits. These are Series circuitand parallel circuit. The two
depend on the arrangement of components in a circuit. The diagrams below show
these.

In a Series circuit, components are, arranged in such a way that there is only one
path for current to follow while in a parallel circuit they are, arranged in such a way
that there can be more than one path for current to follow.

ELECTRIC CURRENT

An electric current is the flow of electrons. It is measured in ampere (A) using an

instrument called an ammeter.The ammeter is, connected in series with the

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components. Current flows from the positive to the negative of the source. For
current to flow there must be a complete circuit or closed circuit.

Current in a Series Circuit

Current flowing in a series circuit is the same at every point (A 1=A2=A3), hence the
bulbs burning with the same brightness regardless of the difference in the
resistances of the bulbs. If more bulbs are added in series with other components,
their brightness decreases. Bulbs in series also burns with less brightness compared
to those in parallel with the same components because the resistance in a series
circuit is more than of a parallel circuit with the same components. If one bulb in a
series circuit is removed or blows out the whole circuit is broken and all the lamps
goes off. Bulbs in a Christmas tree are, normally connected in series.

NB: note how the ammeter is, connected in relation to the circuit components.

Current in a Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, current splits and follows different path, but its total value
remains the same. That is (A 1= A2 + A3). If the bulbs are of different resistance, their
brightness will be different. The one with less resistance will be brighter. If they are
of the same resistance, they will burn with the same brightness, but brighter than,
those in a series circuit with the same number of components. Adding extra bulbs
parallel to the circuit does not affect the brightness of the bulbs. The failing of one
bulb also does not affect the other bulbs. Bulbs in houses are usually, connected in
parallel.

The total current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current leaving it.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Potential difference is the force that drives electrons through a circuit. It is, also
referred to as voltage or electro-motive force.It is measured in volts (V) using an
instrument called a voltmeter. A voltmeter is, connected parallel to a component.

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Voltage in a Series Circuit
In a series circuit, the voltage across components adds up to the total voltage from
the source. Thus VT = V1 + V2.

Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit the voltage across components are equal to the voltage produced
by the source. VT=V1= V2.

MODULE 8.0: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

UNIT 8.1-ELECTRICAL ENERGY
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

This is the force that opposes the flow of electric current. It can also be defined as
the tendency of an electric component to oppose the flow of electric current. If the
resistance of a circuit increases, current decreases. The SI-units of resistance is the
ohms (Ω). Current(I), resistance (R)and voltage (V) are related by the formula: V = I
x R. The resistance is then calculated as:

V
R=
I

Factors that affect resistance

The amount of resistance varies depending on the material through which
electricity passes. Materials that do not allow any current to flow through them are
called insulators.
All metals conduct electricity. However different metals conduct electricity at
different rates. That is some have high resistance that allows only a small current to
flow through them. Likewise some have a small resistance which allows larger

68
current to flow through them. Copper and aluminum are the best conductors of
electricity. This is because they have low resistance. Nichrome and tungsten are
poor conductors of electricity because they have high resistances. A short thick wire
will also have low resistance than a long thin wire. In summary we can therefore say
factors that affect resistance are:
 Type of wire.
 Thickness of wire
 Length of wire

Resistors
A resistor is an electrical component designed to provide resistance in an electric
circuit. Resistors control the flow of current in a circuit. When an electric current
flows through a resistor, it causes a heating effect. This heating effect is used in
heating elements of stoves, kettles, iron and heaters. It is also used in filaments of
electric bulbs. Resistors are also used to control the amount of voltage in a circuit.

Resistors in a series circuit

The resistance of two or more resistors connected in a series circuit adds up to
make the total resistance. That is RT = R1 + R2 + R3.

Example
Below is the diagram of series circuit with resistors connected as shown, calculate
the total resistance in the circuit.

Solution
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 2Ω + 3Ω + 4Ω
= 9Ω

Resistors in a parallel circuit

Parallel circuits always provide an alternative pathway for current flow. The total
1 1 1
resistance RT for resistors in parallel is calculated by the formula: = + +
RT R 1 R 2
1
R3

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Example
The diagram below shows some resistors connected in parallel with one another.
Calculate the total resistance in the circuit.

Solution
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R 1 R 2 R 3

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT 4 6 12

1 3+ 2+1
=
RT 12
1 6
=
RT 12

1
=¿ 0. 5
RT

1
RT x =¿ 0.5 X RT
RT

0.5 RT = 1

1
RT =
0.5

RT = 2Ω

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 MODULE 9: THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 9.1- EARTH SYSTEMS
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Earth is spherical and consists of three main layers. The main layers are the
core,mantle and the crust.Below is the diagram showing layers of the earth:

The crust
It is the outer most layer of the earth. It is made up mainly of solid rocks and
consists of two layers. These are the continental crust which is made up of silica
andaluminumand the oceanic crust which is made up of silicaandmagnesium.

The mantle
This is below the crust. It is semi solid due to high pressure and high temperature. It
consists of iron and magnesium.

The core
The core is the innermost part of earth. It consists of the inner core and outer core.
The outer core is a liquid that is made up mainly of ironandnickel.The inner core is a
solid mainly due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron.

Earthquakes
This is the shaking of ground caused by the sudden movements oftectonic platesin
the earth’s crust and upper mantle. It is, caused by a sudden release of energy in
earth’s crust that creates vibrations called seismic waves.The area under the ground
where the earthquake originates is the focus (hypocenter)whereas the area directly
above it on the surface of the ground is, known as theepicenter.The diagram below
shows the focus and epicenter:

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The magnitude of earthquakes is, measured in seismometer and is, recorded on a
seismograph. The Richter magnitude scale is a quantity used to quantify the
magnitude of the earthquake.
Tsunamis
This is a huge wave of water that begins when the sea floor is violently, shaken by
earthquakes, volcanic eruption and other underwater explosions and landslides.
This huge amount of amount of energy is, carried in the seismic waves as it travels.
Volcanic eruption
This is whereby hot moltenrocks (magma) from the mantle breaks through the
earth’s crust. The magma shoots up through the volcanic pipe. When the magna
reaches the surface, it is, called lava. The diagram below shows a volcanic eruption:

Effects of natural disasters on people’s lives

Earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, floods and draughts are,called natural disasters.

The following are some effects of these natural disasters.
 Earthquakes can make buildings collapse and kill people
 Volcanoes can cause hot lava spread and burn people, their farms and
livestock.
 Tsunamis and floods can wash away houses, people and destroy farmlands.
 Droughts can cause, crops fail, and livestock die which brings hanger and
famine and consequently death to people.

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