AS-Level Chemistry ZNotes

ZNOTES.
ORG
UPDATED TO 2022-2024 SYLLABUS
CAIE AS LEVEL
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Shouryasena Reddy Pamulapati for personal use only.
CAIE AS LEVEL CHEMISTRY
e- lighter than P+ ∴ deflected at greater angle
1. Atomic Structure
1.4. Electronic Configuration
1.1. Subatomic Particle Electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells
Each shell is described by a principle quantum no. (P.Q)
Relative As the P.Q. increases, the energy of the shell increases
Subatomic Particle Relative Mass/ a.m.u
Charge Inside the shell, there are subshells: s, p, d and f
Protons (P) +1 1 Orbital: region in space where there is a maximum
Neutrons (n) 0 1 probability of finding an electron
Electrons (e-) -1 1/1840
1.2. Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

Mass concentrated within the centre, nucleus
An atom is electrically neutral; P+ = e- Each orbital can hold 2e-s in opposite directions
Atomic number or proton number (Z) = no. of protons When e-s are placed in a set of orbital of equal energy,
Atomic mass or nucleon no. (A) = no. of P + N they occupy them singly, and then pairing takes place
e-s placed in the opposite direction: both -ve charge & if
placed in the same direction, they’d repel. In the opposite
direction, they create a spin to reduce repulsion
Completely filled or half-filled (i.e. one e- in each orbital)
are more stable (reduced repulsion)
Examples of this Method are Shown Below:
Isoelectronic Ions: ions having the same no. of e-s

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same
proton number but different numbers of neutrons
Isotopes have similar chemical properties since they
have the same number of protons and electrons (so
chemical interactions are similar)
Isotopes have different physical properties since they
have different numbers of neutrons, causing them to
have different masses and, therefore, different
physical interactions. In certain cases (e.g., period 3 elements), an electron
would prefer the 4s orbital over 3d while filling up. For
1.3. Behaviour of a Beam of Subatomic example, 2 electrons in Titanium would be filled into the
4s orbital before 2 electrons are filled in the 3d orbital.
Particles This is because the 4s orbital is a more stable (lower)
energy level than the 3d orbital.
However, while losing electrons, the electrons from the 4s
orbital would be lost first, and then those from the 3d
orbital would be lost. This is because the 4s orbital is
outer than the 3d orbital.
1.5. Subshells
Protons: positively charged ∴ deflected to -ve pole s p d f

Neutrons: no charge ∴ not deflected Orbitals 1 3 5 7
Electrons: negatively charged ∴ deflected to +ve pole Max e-s 2 6 10 14
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Aufbau’s Principle: method of showing how atomic orbitals

are filled in a definite order to give the lowest energy
arrangement possible
Energy difference between 4s & 3d very small ∴ an e-

1.8. Factors Affecting Ionisation Energy
from 4s can be promoted to half-fill or full-fill 3d orbital to
Nuclear Charge
make the atom more stable
+ve charge due to protons in the nucleus
When filling, fill 4s before 3d and when removing, also
Greater nuclear charge means greater ionization
remove first from 4s
energy
1.6. Orbitals Shielding Effect

Inner shells of e-s repel outermost e-s, thus shielding
s orbitals are spherical, with the nucleus at the centre
them from the +ve nucleus. The more e- shells, the
p orbitals are dumbell-shaped greater is the shielding effect
Greater effect lower I.E because lesser attractive
force between nucleus & outer e-s
Atomic Radius
Distance from the centre of the nucleus to the
outermost orbit
As the number of electron shells increases, the atomic
radius increases
As the number of electrons in the outermost shell
increases, the atomic radius decreases as the
electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and outer
electrons increases
Greater radius lower I.E; a distance of outermost e- to
the nucleus is large ∴ less energy needed to remove
e-
Stable Configuration
High I.E needed to remove e-s from completely or half-
filled orbitals
A free radical is a species with one or more unpaired 1.9. General 1st Ionisation Energy
electrons. Trends
Note: ions and free radicals are different.
Down a group (decreases):
New shells added
1.7. Ionisation Energies (I.E) Attraction of nucleus to valence e-s decreases
Shielding effect increases
1st I.E: the energy needed to remove 1 mole of e-s from 1 Across a period (increases):
mole of a gaseous atom to form 1 mole of unipositive ions Shell number remains the same
Each Successive I.E is higher than the previous one Proton number increases
because as e-s are removed, protons > e-s ∴ the Effective nuclear charge increases
attraction between protons and remaining electrons Atomic radius decreases
increases
Successive I.Es have a large jump in their value when e-s 1.10. Trend in 1st I.E across 3rd Period
removed from the lower energy shell
Deduce group no. by checking when 1st big jump occurs
As the positive charge on the cation increases, the

number of electrons lost increases, so the electrostatic
attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons
increases.
2. Atoms, Molecules and

Stoichiometry
2.1. Relative Mass
Atomic mass (Ar): weighted average mass of an atom
I.E of Al lower than Mg: e- removed in Al is from higher Molecular mass (Mr): mass of a molecule
energy 3p orbital which is further away from nucleus than Formula mass: mass of one formula unit of a compound
3s e- being removed from Mg. Nuclear attraction is less Isotopic mass: mass of a particular isotope of an element
for 3p than 3s ∴ I.E of Al is lower than Mg
Compared with 12C where one atom of 12C has mass of
-
I.E of S lower than P: e being removed in P is in a half exactly 12 units
filled, more stable 3p orbital whereas in S, the pairing of Unified atomic mass unit: u = 1.66 x 10-27kg
electrons in 3p results in increased repulsion ∴ less
energy need to remove an e- 2.2. The Mole
1.11. Ionic Radius Mole: amount of substance that has the same number of
particles (atoms, ions, molecules or electrons) as there
Ionic Radius: describes the size of an ion are atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope.
Avogadro’s constant: number of atoms, ions, molecules or
electrons in a mole = 6.02 × 10 23
2.3. Mass Spectra

Abundance of isotopes can be represented on a mass
spectra diagram
Positive Ion: smaller radius than original neutral atom
because shell no. decreases, the screening effect Peak Height
Relative Abundance = × 100%
Total Height

decreases, but the attraction of the nucleus increases.

Negative Ion: larger ionic radius than neutral atom
M ass × Relative Abundance
because e-s added while nuclear charge remains same Ar = ∑
100

Groups 1 to 3 5 to 7
Ion Positive Negative
No. of shells
n−1 n
Across the period:
Proton no. and effective nuclear charge increases

Ionic radius decreases 2.4. Empirical and Molecular Formulae
Empirical Formula: gives the simplest ratio of different
Negative ions are always larger than positive ions in the atoms present in a molecule
same period as they have one more shell Molecular Formula: gives actual numbers of each type of
Ionic radius increases down the group since the number atom in a molecule
of electron shells increases. Molecular formula can be calculated using the Mr of a
As the negative charge on anion increases, the ionic compound and its empirical formula
radius increases since the number of electrons gained
increases such that the number of electrons exceeds the
M olecular F ormula = (Empirical Formula )n
number of protons.
l l
Molecular Mass Dipole Moment: slight charges on atoms in a covalent

Where n =
Mass of Empirical Formula bond due to differences in electronegativity

The difference between the electronegativity of two

Atomic M ass × N o. of M oles atoms in a compound determines the overall dipole
% C omposition = × 100%
Molar Mass of Compound

moment and overall polarity of the compound.

A large difference in electronegativity will make the bond
more polar (more ionic in nature), but a small difference
in electronegativity will make the bond less polar (more
covalent in nature)
3.2. Ionic (Electrovalent) Bonding

An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
Structure: giant ionic lattice, crystalline solids
2.5. Calculations Involving Mole

Concept
Mass Have high melting and boiling points
M oles =
Molar Mass

V olume of a Gas = M oles × 24

The formula applies to gases at r.t.p.
Unit of volume is dm3 and 1000cm3 = 1dm3
Moles
C oncentration = Coordination Number: number of oppositely charged ions
Volume

that surround a particular ion in an ionic solid

Concentration unit = mol dm−3 E.g: NaCl, MgCl2
Anhydrous: a compound in which all water molecules are
removed
Hydrated: a compound which has a number of water
3.3. Dot and Cross Diagrams
molecules associated with its crystalline structure
1. For anions, electrons are added to the atom (e.g.
Water of Crystallisation: these water molecules in a
hydrated compound are called water of crystallisation Chlorine forms Chloride Cl- ions.
2. For cations, electrons are removed from the atom
(e.g. Sodium forms Na+ ions.
3. Chemical Bonding 3. Atoms form the same number of bonds as the number
of electrons required to be added/removed for
3.1. Electronegativity and Bonding maximum stability. (e.g.: Chlorine will form 1 bond,
Sodium will form 1 bond, but Calcium Ca2+ will form 2
Electronegativity: the power of an atom to attract bonds
electrons to itself 4. The central atom may expand its octet to form more
The electronegativity depends on: bonds if necessary (e.g, S 8
The radius of atom (atomic size) inversely ∝ 5. In ionic compounds, electrons are shown to be
electronegativity completely transferred to each of the ions in the
Nuclear attraction directly ∝ electronegativity compound.
Electronegativity increases across a period because of
atomic radius ↓ and nuclear attraction ↑, so polarity ↑
Electronegativity decreases down a group because of
atomic radius ↑ and nuclear attraction ↓, so polarity ↓
6. In covalent compounds, electrons are shown to be

shared between the atoms in the molecule.
3.5. Covalent Bonding

Covalent Bond: the bond formed by the sharing of pairs of
electrons between the nuclei of two atoms.
Bonding Electrons: e-s involved in bond formation
7. Use a legend of different shapes (e.g. solid circle, Non-bonding electrons or lone pair: pair of valence e-s
unfilled circle, triangle, cross etc.) to show which that are not involved in bond formation
electrons come from which atom in the same way as Covalent compounds are made of molecules which are
colours have been used in the above diagrams. held together by weak intermolecular forces
Elements in period 3 can expand their octet, including the
3.4. Metallic Bonding compounds sulfur dioxide, SO2, phosphorus
pentachloride, PCl5, and sulfur hexafluoride, SF6.
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal They have low melting and boiling points.
cations and delocalized mobile electrons
Structure: lattice of +ve ions surrounded by mobile e-s 3.6. Coordinate (Dative Covalent)
Strength of metallic bond increases with:
Bonding
Increasing positive charge on the ions in the lattice
Decreasing size of metal ions in the lattice A coordinate bond is a covalent bond where both
Increasing number of mobile e-s per atom electrons in the bond come from the same atom
Conditions:
An atom should have a lone pair of electrons
An atom should be in need of a pair of electrons
Donor: the atom that supplies the pair of electrons
Acceptor: the atom that accepts the pair of electrons
Coordinate bond is represented by an “→ ” drawn from
the atom donating to towards the atom accepting
Formation of Ammonium ion NH +
4:
Note: Elements in Period 3 can expand their octet by making

use of the energetically accessible but lower lying d-subshell
for bonding. This means that some elements of period 3 can
bond with more than 4 electrons at once. (e.g: Sulfur,
Phosphorus etc)
3.8. Shapes of Molecules

The shape and bond angles of molecules depend on:
Formation of AlCl3 dimer ( Al2 Cl 6 ): The number of pairs of electrons around the central
atom
Whether these pairs are lone pairs or bonded pairs
Valence shell electrons are arranged in pairs to minimize
repulsion between themselves
Order of Repulsion Strength (VSEPR Theory):
Above 750oC, exists as vapor & covalent molecule AlCl3

As vapor cools, exists as dimer Al2Cl6 2 pairs of e’s
Bond angle as AlCl3 = 120o 2 bonded, 0 lone pair
Bond angle as Al2Cl6 = 109.5o Linear
180O
E.g. CO2
3.7. Orbital Overlap
For a covalent bond to form, atomic orbitals containing
unpaired valence electrons must overlap each other
S – S (Sigma Σ) 3 pairs of e’s
3 bonded, 0 lone pair
Trigonal planar
120O
E.g. BF3
S – P (Sigma Σ)
4 pairs of e’s
Tetrahedral
109.5O
E.g. CH4
P – P (Sigma Σ)

Pyramidal
107O
E.g. NH3
P – P (Pi π )

Angular
104.5O
E.g. H2O
Sigma bond has greater overlap ∴ σ > π
Pi bond cannot exist without a Sigma bond.
5 pairs of e’s
Trigonal Bipyramid
90O and 120O
E.g. PF5
6 pairs of e’s
Octahedral
90O
E.g. SF6
sp 3 Hybridisation
When 1 s orbital combines with 3 p orbital.

They form linear molecules with 109.25 o angles, e.g.
3.9. Hybridisation SiC l4 , and all hydrocarbons containing 4 bonds like

C 2 H4 ( C − C ).

Definition Has three times the property of p orbital properties than s

orbital.
Mix atomic orbitals like s and p to form new hybrid
orbitals like sp 2 , sp 3 , and sp .
The resultant orbital has different energy levels, shapes,
and properties.
sp Hybridisation
When 1 s orbital combines with 1 p orbital.

They form linear molecules with 180 o angles, e.g. C O2
and all hydrocarbons containing 2 bonds like C 2 H2

(Carbon-Carbon triple bond).

Has an equal amount of s and p orbital properties.
3.10. Bonds
sp 2 Hybridisation Bond Energy: the energy needed to break one mole of a
given bond in one mole of gaseous molecules
When 1 s orbital combines with 2 p orbital. Bond Length: distance between the centres of two nuclei
They form linear molecules with 120 o angles, e.g. BH3
of two adjacent atoms

and all hydrocarbons containing 3 bonds like C 2 H4 (

Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because

C = C ). double bonds have a greater negative charge density
Has twice the property of p orbital properties than s between the two atomic nuclei hence greater attraction
orbital. The bond length depends on the radii of the two bonded
atoms; the larger the radius, longer the bond length
The strength of the bond depends on the length of the
bond
3.11. Hydrogen Bonding

The strongest type of intermolecular force in covalent Permanent Dipole-Dipole Forces
bonds
For hydrogen bonding to occur, we need: Weak forces present between polar molecules
A molecule having a H atom bonded to F, O or N Molecules are always attracted to charged rods, whether
Molecule having F, O or N atom with lone pair of e-s +ve or –ve because molecules have +ve and –ve charges
3.14. Summary
Note: Important properties of water (high melting/boiling

points, high surface tension) are due to the strong hydrogen
bonds present between water molecules.
3.12. Polar and Non-Polar

Polar Covalent Bonds
Bonds with slight ionic character

The bond formed with atoms of different electronegativity
Bonding e-s attracted more towards atom with greater
electronegativity ∴ unequal sharing of electrons ∴
molecule develops slight charges = Polar Molecule
Polar molecules have dipoles, electric charges of equal 4. States of Matter
magnitude and opposite sign
The greater the difference in electronegativity of the two
4.1. Basic Assumptions of Kinetic
bonded atoms, the greater is the ionic character
Theory
Non-Polar Covalent Bonds
Ideal Gas: a gas whose volume varies in proportion to
The bond formed between:
temperature and inverse to pressure.
Identical Atoms: the electronegativity of both atoms is
Noble gases such as helium and neon approach ideal
the same so a pair of electrons shared equally
behaviour because of their low intermolecular forces.
Symmetrical Polyatomic Molecules: dipoles of bond
expert equal & opposite effects, hence cancel charge Ideal Gas Laws:
Non-polar molecules have no overall charge
Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
The distance between gas molecules is greater than the
3.13. Intermolecular Forces
diameter of molecules ∴ volume is negligible
Intermolecular Forces: weak forces present between two No forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules
covalent molecules All collisions between particles are elastic EK conserved
Temperature of gas related to average EK of molecules
Induced Dipole (Van Der Waals’ Forces) Conditions at which gases behave ideally:
High temperature
Very weak forces present between non-polar molecules Low pressure
Due to constant motion of e-s, at an instant, a non-polar
molecule develops poles due to distortion of electron Limitations of Ideal Gas Laws:
density giving rise to instantaneous dipole, which can
Real gases do not obey kinetic theory in two ways:
induce a dipole in the adjacent molecules
There is not zero attraction between molecules
Van der Waals forces increase with:
We cannot ignore the volume of molecules
increasing the number of contact points between
themselves
molecules; point where molecules come close
together Deviations visible at low temp. and high pressure
increasing number of electrons (+ protons) in
molecule Molecules are close to each other
The volume of molecules is not negligible relative to the Particles continue to break away from the surface but are
container trapped in space above the liquid.
VDW forces present, pulling molecules to each other As gaseous particles collide, some of them hit the surface
Pressure is lower than expected from ideal gas of the liquid again and become trapped there.
The effective volume is less than expected from the ideal An equilibrium is set up in which the number of particles
gas leaving the surface is balanced by the number rejoining it.
Liquid water molecules ⇌ Vapor water molecules
4.2. General Gas Equations A fixed number of gaseous particles will be in the space
above the liquid in this equilibrium.
P V = nRT Vapour Pressure: pressure exerted by a vapour in
M ass × RT equilibrium with a liquid.
Mr = Vapour pressure increases as:
PV

P1 V1 P2 V2
=

T1 T2
Quantity Unit Conversion

4.4. Crystallisation
Pressure Pascal 1KPa = 1000Pa
Anhydrous
Volume m3 1m3 = 1000dm3 = 1x106cm3
Temperature OK OC Salt containing no water molecules.
+ 273
Hydrous
Standard Conditions: 101KPa and 298 K
Mols of One Gas Salt containing water molecules.
Mole Fraction = Total Mols of Gases
Partial Pressure of a Gas = M ole F raction × Water of Crystallisation

T otal P ressure
The number of water molecules present in the Hydrous salt.
4.3. Liquid State For example, C uSO4 ⋅ 5(H2 O) has 5 water of crystalisation.

Particles touching but may have gaps 4.5. Recycling

Have EK slide past each other in random motion

Enthalpy of Fusion: heat energy required to change 1 Finite resource: resource which doesn't get replaced at
mole of solid into a liquid at its melting point the same rate that it is used up.
Heating a Solid (melting): Examples of finite resources: copper, aluminium, glass
Energy transferred makes solid particles vibrate Advantage of Recycling: ○ Saves energy ○ Reduces
faster environmental issues ○ Conserves ore supplies ○ Less
Forces of attraction weaken & solid changes to liquid wastage ○ Cheaper than extracting
Enthalpy of Vaporisation: heat energy required to change
1 mole of liquid into a gas at its boiling point
Heating a Liquid (vaporisation):
4.6. States of Matter and Properties
Energy transferred makes liquid particles move faster
Forces of attraction weaken
Solubility
The highest energy particles escape first
For solids, generally, solubility increases with increasing
Liquid starts to evaporate – temp. Below b.p.
temperature as the increase in temperature facilitates
Forces weaken further – particles move faster &
the overcoming of intermolecular bonds, making it easier
Spread
for the solid to dissolve.
Liquid boils – temp. At b.p.
For gases, generally, solubility decreases with increasing
The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container
temperature as the pressure of the gas increases
(pressure only affects the solubility of gases)
Conductivity
Solids (metals) are generally the best conductors of

electricity, while gases are the worst.
Constant evaporation from the surface Solids (metals) are generally better conductors of heat
than liquids, while liquids are better thermal conductors
than gases. This is because of the proximity of molecules Layers kept together by weak Van der Waal’s forces
in solids, allowing heat to be transferred rapidly through High m.p./b.p. - strong covalent bonds throughout
vibrations of neighbouring molecules. Soft – forces between layers are weak
Conducts electricity - has delocalized electrons
4.7. Solid State
Ionic lattice
Silicon(IV) Oxide:
Each Si is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, but each oxygen
is bonded to 2 Si atoms
Sand is largely SiO2
Similar properties to diamond
Metallic lattice
Hydrogen-Bonded Lattice:
In ice form, water molecules slow down and come closer

together
Due to polarity, molecules form hydrogen bonds between
lone pairs of oxygen & δ + charge of hydrogens
Each water molecule has 2 H-bonds
Simple molecular They arrange themselves into an open crystalline,
hexagonal structure
Due to large spaces, ice is less dense than water
Macromolecular Lattice:
Diamond: Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties:

High m.p./b.p. - each carbon forms four covalent Relatively high m.p./b.p.: many strong H-bonds
bonds High viscosity: hydrogen bonding reduces the ability of
Hard-tetrahedral structure water molecules to slide over each other
High surface tension: hydrogen bonds in water exert a
Doesn’t conduct heat or electricity – no free e-
Used for cutting as is the strongest known substance downward force on the surface of the liquid
and has sharp edges Ice is less dense than water: larger spaces between
molecules in a hexagonal structure
Simple Molecular Lattice:
Iodine:
Dark grey crystalline solid; vaporizes into purple gas
m.p./b.p. are slightly higher than room temp
Slightly soluble in water; dissolves in organic solvents
Graphite:
Diatomic molecules formed due to covalent bonds
Three strong (sp2) covalent bonds between individual atoms
Fourth e- in p orbital ∴ forms a pi bond, forming a Molecules have weak Van der Waals forces of
cloud of delocalised electrons above and below the attraction between them
planes
Fullerenes:
Buckminsterfullerenes(C 60)
C atoms in pentagonal and hexagonal rings
Spherical
C 60 molecules held together by Van der Waals
forces
Can conduct heat and electricity
Very strong and tough
Insoluble in water
Low m.p./b.p. Endothermic Reactions
Nanotubes
C atoms in hexagonal rings only
Cylindrical
The structure is rod-like due to continuing rings
Conducts heat and electricity
Very strong and tough
Insoluble in water
High m.p./b.p.
5.3. Enthalpy Change Definitions

Standard Conditions (this syllabus assumes that these are
298K and 101 kPa) shown by ⦵
5. Chemical Energetics Standard Enthalpy Change of:
1. Reaction ΔH
5.1. Energy Change in Reactions 1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of element or
compound is completely reacted under
Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions standard conditions in their standard states.
Energy given out Energy taken in 2. Combustion ΔHC
1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of element or

Surrounding warmer Surrounding cooler
compound is completely combusted under
Bond making Bond breaking standard conditions in their standard states.
ΔH positive 3. Formation ΔHF
ΔH negative
EReactants > EProducts 1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of a compound

EReactants < EProducts is formed from its elements under standard
conditions in their standard state.
Energy Change is measured in 1mol dm−3 4. Neutralization ΔHn
1. Enthalpy change when 1 mole of H + and

5.2. Reaction Pathway Diagrams OH − combine to form 1 mole of H2 O under
standard conditions in their standard states

Exothermic Reactions
5.4. Bond Energy
Energy needed to break a specific covalent bond

5.8. Worked Examples - Hess Law
Also how much energy is released when a bond forms
5.5. Calculating Enthalpy Changes

Q = −mcΔT
Q
ΔH =
no. of moles

When substance dissolved in water use c & m of water

ΔT is a change in temp.: add –ve or +ve to show rise/fall
5.6. Hess’s Law

The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is
independent of the route by which the chemical reaction
takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are
the same.
Reason to Use Hess’s Law:
Standard conditions hard to maintain (e.g. Exo/endo)
Elements don’t always react directly
5.7. Calculation of Enthalpy Change, ΔH

Reaction from Formation
Formation from Combustion
Hydration from Anhydrous Salt
Reaction from Bond Energies
Oxygen as peroxide; oxidation number = -1

1st group elements & hydrogen; oxidation number = +1
H with highly reactive metal; oxidation number = -1
Following these rules, all other atoms in a covalent bond

must balance out the charge
6.2. Redox Processes

Reaction where both oxidation and reduction occur
This can be shown with changes in oxidation numbers of
elements from the product side to the reactant side.
E.g. C a2 S i + 6H2 O → 2C a(OH)2 + SiO2 + 4H2

C a = +4 → +2 ⟹ gain of negative charge ∴ a

reduction
Si = −4 → + 4 ⟹ loss of negative charge ∴
oxidation
Disproportionation Reaction: When the same species
undergo oxidation and reduction in a reaction.
Oxidising Agent: A substance which helps to oxidise

another species by accepting electrons from it and itself
gets reduced in the process
Reducing Agent: A substance which helps to reduce
another species by donating electrons to it and itself gets
oxidised in the process
Source: Alt Academy
6. Electrochemistry
6.1. Calculating Oxidation Numbers
Ionic Molecules: group number = valence electrons
Covalent Molecules:
Rules: 6.3. Balancing Equations
Atoms in a diatomic molecule; oxidation number =
0 Equation: HI + HN O3 → I 2 + N2 O3 + H2 O

Oxygen in a compound; oxidation number = -2 Half ionic: 2I − − 2e− → I 2 N +5 + 2e− → N +3

For every 2 iodines, there will be 1 nitrogen Weak acid: an acid that dissociates partially in solution
Thus first put in correct ratio for iodine and nitrogen then (e.g., ethanoic acid)
balance hydrogens and oxygens Strong base: a base that dissociates completely in
Balanced: 4HI + 2HN O3 → 2I 2 + N2 O3 + 3H 2 O
solution (e.g., NaOH)
Weak base: a base that dissociates partially in solution
(e.g., ammonia)
7. Equilibria Strong acids/bases react more vigorously than weak
acids/bases.
Strong acids have lower pH values than weak acids.
7.1. Introduction
Strong bases have higher pH values than weak bases.
When an acid reacts with a base, salt & water are formed.
Reversible reaction: a reaction in which products can be
The pH changes in this neutralisation reaction can be
changed back to reactants by reversing the conditions
graphed as shown in the image below: \n
Dynamic Equilibrium: the state of a reversible reaction
carried out in a closed container where the rates of
forward and backward reactions are equal and constant
7.2. Le Chatelier’s Principle

When a chemical system in dynamic equilibrium is
disturbed (conditions changed) it tends to respond in such
a way so as to oppose the change and a new equilibrium
is set up
7.3. Equilibrium Constants

Equilibrium constant expressed in terms of concentration
KC =
[Product]mols
[Reactant]mols

8. Reaction Kinetics
Only liquids and gases
Equilibrium constant expressed in terms of partial 8.1. Introduction
pressure
p(Product)mols
KP =
p(Reactant)mols

Rate of a Reaction: change in concentration of reactants
Only gases or products per unit of time
Activation Energy: minimum energy colliding particles
Large value of K C /K P ⇒ equi. towards products side must possess for a successful collision to take place
Catalysis: acceleration of a chemical reaction by a catalyst
Smaller value of K C /K P ⇒ equi. towards reactants

side
8.2. Effect of Concentration Changes
K C /K P changes only with changes in temperature

The amount of reactants that disappear will always

Increasing conc. of reactants increases rate of reaction:
appear in the products in the same ratio as present in a
more particles per unit volume, collision rate between
balanced equation reacting particles increases, ∴ rate of successful collision
increases, resulting in increased rate of reaction.
7.4. Brønsted–Lowry Theory of Acids
and Bases 8.3. Effect of Pressure Changes
Brønsted-Lowry Theory: Increasing the pressure of the system increases the rate
An acid is a proton (H+) donor of reaction: more particles per unit volume, collision rate
between reacting particles increases, and rate of
A bases is a proton (H+) acceptor
successful collision increases, resulting in an increased
Amphoteric: substances that can act like bases or acids
rate of reaction.
Strong acid: an acid that dissociates completely in solution
(e.g., HCl)
8.4. Maxwell-Boltzmann Theory Group 1 2 3 4

Element Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon
Explains effect of temp. & catalyst on rate of reaction Character Metal Metalloid
Based on distribution of energy among reacting Structure Giant metallic lattice Macromolecular
molecules under different conditions
Metallic bond between cations Covalent bonds
Bonding
and delocalized e- between atoms
Diagram
8.5. Effect of Temperature 9.2. Reaction of Elements with Oxygen

Formulae Reaction Structure Oxid. Nature
Burns yellow
Na Na2O(s) +1 Basic
flame
Burns Bright Giant ionic
Mg MgO(s) +2 Basic
White Flame lattice
Burns Bright
Al Al2O3(s) +3 Amphoteric
White Flame
Number of collisions and chance of success will increase
Giant
Si SiO2(s) Coating +4 W. acidic
covalent
8.6. Effect of Catalyst
P2O3(s) Burns yellow +3
P S. Acidic
Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of reaction
P2O5(s) flame Simple +5
but remains chemically unchanged at the end SO2(g) Burns blue molecular +4
S S. acidic
It does not alter the chemical composition of substances SO3(g) flame +6
and only lowers the activation energy
It provides a new route or mechanism to follow for P 2 O5 empirical formula of P 4 O10

reactants that requires less energy

9.3. Reaction of Na & Mg with Water
Na & 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) Very fast, floats, forms
Water 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) ball & dissolves
Mg & Mg (s) + 2H2O(l)
Very slow
Water Mg(OH) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg & Mg (s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) +
Very fast
Steam H2(g)
Curve unchanged; only activation energy changes

Homogeneous catalysts: reactant and catalyst are in the 9.4. Reaction of Oxides with Water
same physical state
Heterogeneous catalysts: reactant and catalyst are in Reaction Oxid. Nature
different physical states Na2O(s) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) +1 S. Alkaline
Enzymes: a protein molecule that is a biological catalyst. MgO(s) MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH) 2(aq) +2 W. Alkaline
Most are specific to a substrate & function as lock-key
Al2O3(s) NO REACTION
SiO2(s)
9. The Periodic Table: P2O3(s) P2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO3(aq) +3
S. Acidic
P2O5(s) P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq) +5
Chemical Periodicity SO2(g) SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) +4
S. Acidic
SO3(g) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) +6
9.1. Introduction
9.5. Acid-Base Reactions

Aluminum oxide is amphoteric ∴ reacts with the acid and
base
Al2O3 + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4) 3 + H2O | Al2O3 + NaOH →NaAlO2

+ H2 O
P+ in nucleus increases so nuclear charge increases
Silicon dioxide is acidic: SiO2 + NaOH (hot & conc.)
There are more e-, but increase in shielding is negligible
Na2SiO3
because each extra e- enters same principal energy level
Sulphur dioxide and trioxide are strongly acidic
∴ force of attraction between nucleus & e- increases ...
With Produces So atomic radius decreases.
SO2(g) NaOH NaHSO3(aq)
SO2(g) Excess NaOH Na2SO3(aq) + H2O 9.9. Ionic Radius
SO3(g) NaOH NaHSO4(aq)
SO3(g) Excess NaOH Na2SO4(aq) + H2O
9.6. Reactions of Elements with

Chlorine
Ionic radius decreases across a period however, since
Formula Structure Oxid. Nature
non-metals gain electrons, they have one more shell than
Na NaCl(s) +1 Neutral
Giant ionic metals therefore they always have a larger radius than
Mg MgCl2(s) +2 Neutral metal ions
Al AlCl3(s) +3 Acidic
Si SiCl4(l) +4 S. Acidic 9.10. Melting Point
PCl3(l) Simple molecular +3
P S. Acidic
PCl5(l) +5
9.7. Reactions of Chloride with Water
Na Al m.p. increases because delocalized e- per atom

increases making metallic bond stronger
Sodium chloride simply dissolves in water. Water is polar
Si has highest m.p. due to giant covalent structure
∴ positive Na+ attracted to OH- while Cl- attracted to H+ The larger the molecule size, the stronger the Van Der
MgCl2 slightly acidic because Mg ion has smaller radius & Waals forces ∴ S 8 > P4 > Cl2 > Ar
higher charge ∴ attraction to water is so strong that H2O
loses a proton and solution becomes slightly acidic 9.11. Electrical Conductivity
9.8. Atomic Radius

Na < Mg < Al because no. of delocalized electrons which
can carry charge increases
Silicon is a semi-conductor
Non-metals – covalent ∴ no charge

10.2. Reaction of Group 2 Metals with
9.12. Electronegativity Oxygen
All group 2 metals tarnish in air, forming oxide coatings

Burn vigorously in oxygen-forming white solids
10.3. Reactions with Water

Metals: M (s) + H2 O(l) → M (OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Increases across period because the bonded e- are in the Metal Oxides: MO (s) + H2 O (l) → M(OH)2(aq)

same energy level but are attracted more strongly as no.

Solubility of MO (Metal Group 2 Oxide) and M(OH) 2(Metal
of protons increases
Group 2 Hydroxides) increases down group
Alkalinity of solution increases down the group
9.13. First Ionisation Energy Solubility of MSO4 decreases down group
M(CO3) don’t react with water
10.4. Reaction with Acids

M (s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Hydrogen

MO (s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Water

Generally, increases as no. of protons increases M(OH)x(s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Water

Decrease Mg → Al: more distant and less effective

nuclear charge on 3p orbital MCO 3(s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxi

Decrease P → S: in S, one electron paired ∴ causing

repulsion and easier to lose an electron 10.5. Thermal Decomposition of Group
2 Metals
10. Group 2 MCO 3(s) M O (s) + CO 2(g)
10.1. Introduction 2M(NO 3 )2(s) 2 MO (s) + 4NO 2(g) + O 2(g)

NO2: thick brown, acidic and soluble gas

Thermal stability increases down the group ∴
decomposition becomes more difficult.
10.6. Uses of Group 2 Metals

Calcium compounds:
m.p./b.p. decreases down group: atoms/ions get larger,

the distance between nuclei & e-s increases ∴ bonds
weaker
m.p./b.p. higher in gp. 2 than 1: 2e-s per atom donated
into delocalized system ∴ metallic bonding stronger
Calcium oxide (lime): basic oxide used to neutralize acidic
density increases down group: mass of atoms increases
soil and used as a drying agent for drying ammonia
faster than their size (volume) as atomic no. increases
Calcium carbonate (limestone): used as building material
(cement, concrete) etc., for extraction of iron, glass
industry, neutralize soil or chemical waste
The complex ion formed is called Diamine Silver(I) ion

11. Group 17
[H3 N :⟶ Ag ←: N H3 ]+

11.1. Trends in Colour and Volatility

11.5. (Sub) Halide Ions and Aqueous
Fluorine Yellow Sulfuric Acid
Yellow- Gas
Chlorine
Green Metal Halide + Conc. H2SO4(aq) Hydrogen Halide
m.p. & b.p. Volatility The colour
Orange-
Bromine Liquid increases decreases gets darker Conc. H2SO4(aq) is an oxidising agent (except for chloride
Brown
down the down the down the and fluorides as it is not strong enough)
Grey, group ↓ group ↓ group ↓ This reaction is used for the preparation of hydrogen
Iodine Black, halides
Solid
Violet
Astatine Black Chlorine NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) HCl(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
NaBr(s) + H2SO4(aq) HBr(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
Bromine
11.2. Oxidising Ability HBr(g) + H2SO4(aq) Br2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
NaI(s) + H2SO4(aq) HI(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
Halogens have high electron affinity (they gain electrons
HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) I2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
easily) hence, they are good oxidising agents Iodine
Oxidising ability decreases down the group because HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) I2(g) + H2S (g) + H2O(l)
electron affinity decreases as atomic size increases. 6HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) 3I2(g) + S (s) + 4H2O(l)
11.3. Reactions of Halide Ions 11.6. The Reactions of Chlorine with

X2(g) + H2(g) 2HX(g) Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide
Product Reaction Description
Disproportionation: a reaction in which the same
HF Reacts explosively in all conditions
substance is oxidized and reduced simultaneously,
HCl Reacts explosively in sunlight producing two different products
HBr Reacts slowly on heating When chlorine reacts with a solution of cold aqueous
HI Forms an equilibrium mixture on heating sodium hydroxide, the disproportionation goes to lower
oxidation states
The thermal stability of halogen hydrides decreases down
C l2 + 2N aOH → N aCl + N aClO + H2 O
the group because:

The size of halogen atom increases With a hot solution, the oxidation state of chlorine goes up
Nuclear attraction decreases to +V
The H – X bond becomes longer and weaker
Thus, less energy is needed to break the bond 3C l2 + 6N aOH → N aClO3 + 5N aCl + 3H2 O

Bond energies decrease down the group

This happens as the chlorate is formed by
disproportionation of hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid
11.4. (Sub) Halide ions and aq. Silver
Ions ClO− + 2HClO → ClO3− + 2HCl
Higher temperatures promote the formation of hypochlorous

Ag +(aq) + X-(aq) AgX(s) acid through the hydrolysis of hypochlorite and, therefore,
Halide With Silver With dilute aq. With conc. aq. speed up the reaction
Ion Nitrate ammonia ammonia
Cl‑ White ppt. ppt. dissolves 11.7. Important Uses of Halogens and
Br- Cream ppt. X ppt. dissolves Halogen Compounds
I- Yellow ppt. X X
Fluorine:
To make chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
dissolves, it forms a complex ion:
As fluoride in toothpaste
AgX(s) + 2NH3(aq) → [Ag(NH3) 2]+(aq) + X- To make polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) – non-sticking
coating in pots and pans
Bromine and Iodine: manufacture of photographic films Catalytic convertors: exhaust gases passed through
Chlorine: catalytic convertors containing a catalyst (platinum/
In bleaches palladium/nickel) helping to reduce oxides to nitrogen.
To make PVC and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) Catalytic role in oxidation of sulphur dioxide:
As solvents
Use of chlorine in water purification:
The oxidising power of chlorine is used in the
treatment of water to kill bacteria
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l)→ HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

HClO(aq)→ HCl(aq) + O
This disproportionation reaction produces reactive 12.5. Pollution

oxygen atoms which kill bacteria
Acid Rain: SO3 + H2O→ H2SO4
12. Nitrogen and Sulfur 2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2 or 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 →
4HNO3
12.1. Lack of Reactivity of Nitrogen Damages trees & plants, kills fish and other river life,
buildings, statues and metal structures
Nitrogen molecule has three strong covalent bonds.
Combustion Pollutants:
The bond is very strong and requires high energy to split
the two nitrogen atoms of a molecule.
Nitrogen oxide (NO): formed by reaction of N2 and O2 in
It reacts only under extreme temperature or pressure or
the engine, forms acid rain and respiratory problems
in the presence of a catalyst.
Atmospheric oxides of nitrogen (NO & NO2) can react with
unburned hydrocarbons to form peroxyacetyl nitrate
12.2. Ammonium (PAN) which is a component of photochemical smog
Carbon monoxide (CO): source: incomplete combustion of
Lone pair of e-s of nitrogen forms a coordinate bond with hydrocarbon fuel, toxic effect on haemoglobin
the H+ ion
Formation: NH3(g) + H+ NH4+ 12.6. Food Preservation
Shape: tetrahedral
SO2 is used by itself or as a sulphite to preserve food
Bond angle: 109.5o
Bond length: equal lengths
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3(aq)
SO2 & sulphites inhibit growth of bacteria, yeasts, etc. &

Displacement of ammonia from its salts: are reducing agents, so reduce rate of oxidation of food.
Used to prevent spoilage of dried fruit, dehydrated
warm
Any Ammonium Salt + Any Base
Ammonia Gas + salt + and
vegetables fruit juices.
water
12.3. Uses of Ammonia & its 13. An Introduction to AS

Compounds
Level Organic Chemistry
Used in the production of nitric acid
Used in the production of inorganic fertilizers
Used in the production of nylon
13.1. Introduction
Used in the production of explosives
Organic Chemistry: study of hydrocarbons and their
derivatives
12.4. Oxides of Nitrogen Carbon can form a variety of compounds because:
Carbon is tetravalent
N2(g) + O2(g)→ 2NO(g) or N2(g) + ½O2(g)→ NO2(g) Carbon-carbon bonds can be single, double or triple
Atoms can be arranged in chains, branches and rings
Naturally: during lightning, EA provided for N2 to react Homologous series: a series of compounds of similar
Man-made: in car engine, high temp. and pressure structures In which:
contain the same functional group
all share the same general formula Organic Family Suffix Example
the formula of homologue differs from neighbour by
CH2
similar chemical properties
gradual change in physical properties as Mr increases
Functional group: an atom or group of atoms in an organic -yne Ethyne
molecule that determines the characteristic reactions of a
homologous series.
Alkyl group: a reactive group which is alkane minus 1 H
Alkyne
13.2. Hybridisation
Hybridisation: mixing up of different atomic orbitals
resulting in new orbitals of equal energy.
Carbon’s Electron Configuration:
-ol methanol
Alcohol
sp3 sp2 sp
All orbitals mix 2s, 2px, 2py mix 2s and 2px mix methoxy-
-oxy-
methane
3 sp2 orbitals 2 sp orbitals
4 sp3 orbitals
1 pure p orbital 2 pure p orbitals
Ratio of characteristics s : p
Ether
1:3
1:2 1:1
Chloro-
halo- -ane
ethane
13.3. Classes of Compound Haloalkane
Organic Family Suffix Example
-al Methanal
-ane Methane
Aldehyde
Alkane
-one Propanone
-ene Ethene
Ketones
Alkene
Organic Family Suffix Example
Methanoic
-oic Acid
Acid
Structural formula (Hexane)
CH3-CH2CH2CH2CH2-CH3 or CH3(CH2) 4CH3
Carboxylic Acid Skeletal formula (Hexane)
Molecular formula (Hexane)

Methyl- C 6H14
-ate
ethanoate
13.5. IUPAC Nomenclature
Ester Select the longest chain as the main chain
Other carbon chains as substituent alkyl groups
Give the lowest number C in the main chain to a
substituent
If different alkyl groups are present on identical positions,
-amine Methyl-amine give simpler alkyl smaller number
Two or more alkyl groups present, order alphabetically
If the same substituent is repeated use the di, tri, or tetra
prefix
Amine
If the ring of carbon is present, use the prefix “cyclo”
Write the position of the double bond in alkene, e.g. but-1-
ene
nitrile Ethyl nitrile 13.6. Breaking of Covalent Bonds

Homolytic Fission:
Nitrile Two atoms sharing e- pair of similar electronegativity
-benzene When bond breaks, each atom takes one e- from pair of
also have electrons forming free radicals
Nitro- Free radicals: electrically neutral atoms or groups of
other
benzene atoms with unpaired electrons are very reactive
naming
methods Free radical reaction catalysed by heat or light
Arene/Phenyl/Benzene
Heterolytic Fission:
Two atoms sharing e- pair are of different

electronegativity
methyl-
amine When the bond breaks, one of the bonded atoms takes
methanamine
both bonding e-s
Results in the formation of +ve and –ve ions
Amide If +ve charged on C, it is called carbocation or carbonium
If –ve charged on C, it is called carbanion
13.4. Types of Formulae Note: homolytic fission requires less energy than heterolytic
Displayed formula (Hexane) 13.7. Types of Reagents
Nucleophilic reagent (nucleophile): donator of pair of e-
Must have lone pair of e-s

Attack centre of +ve charge (positive pole)
Reaction with nucleophile called nucleophilic reactions
Examples: CH-, Cl-, NH3, H2O, CN-
Electrophilic reagent (electrophile): acceptor of pair of e-

13.11. Isomerism
Existence of two or more compounds with the same
+ve ions or e- deficient molecules
molecular formula but different structural formula
Attack regions of high e- density
Examples: Br+, CH3+, AlCl3
13.8. Types of Reaction

Addition reaction: single product formed
Electrophilic addition (alkenes)
Nucleophilic addition (carbonyl compounds)
Substitution reaction: two products formed Note:
Nucleophilic substitution (halogenoalkanes)
Straight chain alkanes have higher b.p. than branched
Free radical substitution (alkanes)
Branching makes molecule more spherical reduces
Elimination reaction: more than one product formed,
contact points VDW forces decreases
small molecule removed from reactant (alcohols and
halogenoalkanes)
Hydrolysis reaction: breaking down of molecule by water, 13.12. Chain Isomers
sped up by acid or alkali (esters and alkenes)
Isomers have different carbon chain length
Same chemical properties but slightly different physical
13.9. Oxidation and Reduction
Example:
Oxidation: addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen
Reduction: addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
13.10. Shapes of Ethane and Ethene
Ethane: sp3 bonds, all sigma bonds
13.13. Position Isomers

Isomers differ in position of substituent atoms or group or
the functional group
Same chemical properties but slightly different physical
Example: But-1-ene
Ethene: Planar Shape, H – C – H bond = 120o
Example: But-2-ene
13.14. Functional Isomers

Isomers have different functional groups, belong to
Benzene
different homologous series
Have different physical and chemical properties The volatility of the alkanes decreases and m.p/b.p
increases as number of carbon atoms increases
Ratio of C : H Functional Gps. Example Reason: increasing Van der Waals forces
1:3 Alcohol & Ether C 2H6O
1:2 Aldehyde & Ketone C 3 H6 O 14.2. Combustion
1:2
Carboxylic acid & Ester C 3H6O2 Used as fuel because they burn in oxygen to given out
Must have O2
large amounts of energy
Alkanes kinetically stable in presence of O2; combustion
13.15. Geometric (cis/trans) Isomers occurs when necessary amount of Ea supplied
Reaction occurs only in gas phase
Shown only by alkenes
Complete: carbon dioxide + water
Arises due to restriction of double bond Incomplete: carbon monoxide + carbon (soot) + water
Only possible when each carbon has 2 different groups
General Equation of Hydrocarbon Combustion:
cis-trans isomers have different b.p.
y y
cis isomers have higher dipole C xHy + (x + ) O2 → xCO 2 + H2 O
trans isomer of symmetrical alkene has zero dipole 4 2

14.3. Substitution
Alkanes react with halogens: Cl2 and Br2
Example: Chlorination of Methane

Reaction
Reagent Condition
Type Mechanism
Cl2(g) UV light Substitution Free Radical
13.16. Optical Isomers
Arises from different arrangement of atoms or groups in
3D space resulting in two isomers
Have effect on polarised light
Chiral carbon: a carbon having 4 single bonds and 4
different atoms or groups
Isomers non-super-imposable images of each other
Have same physical and chemical properties
No. of optical isomers in a molecule containing n chiral
carbons = 2n
Reactants are Halogens and Alkane.

Involves 3 steps: initiation, propagation, and termination.
requires the action of UV light or Heat.
14. Hydrocarbons 14.4. Initiation

Breakdown of Chlorine into radicals.
14.1. Properties Uses the action of UV light.
Starts the reaction.
Generally unreactive:
Creates radicals.
o
All C–C bonds single; alkanes = saturated hydrocarbons C l2(g) → 2C l(g)

Non-polar ∴ no center of charge to act as either

nucleophile or electrophile ∴ cannot attract polar Propagation
reagents like acids, bases, metals or oxidizing agents
Chlorine radical reacts with the alkyl/alkane.
Physical properties:
Helps the reaction to propagate (chain reaction).
Maintains balance of radicals.
C H4 + C lo → C H3o + HCl

C H3o + C l2 → C H3 C l + C lo

Termination
Chlorine radical and alkyl radical reacts.
Stops propagation of reaction.
Reduces the number of radicals.
C H3o + C lo → C H3 C l

Electrophile forms by heterolytic fission
2C lo → C l2 Electrophile attacks double bond
C H3o + C H3o → C H3 C H3

Pair of e-s from double bond migrate to electrophile and
π bond breaks
Hint: Carbocation formed which attacks the nucleophile
C H3o and C lo represents radicals which is neutral atom

14.9. Carbocations

and an unpaired electron.
14.5. Cracking
Breaking of large less useful alkanes into useful, more
energy value smaller products using heat & catalyst
Products:
smaller alkanes and alkenes or
smaller alkenes and hydrogen gas
Thermal cracking: high temp. & pressure
Catalytic cracking: high temp. & catalyst
Markovnikov’s principle: an electrophile adds to an
unsymmetrical alkene so that the most stable carbocation
14.6. Hydrocarbons as Fuels is formed as an intermediate
Hydrogen binds to carbon with more hydrogens
Source of alkanes: crude oil
Steady change in b.p. of alkanes allows crude oil to be Inductive effect of alkyl groups:
separated by fractional distillation Alkyl groups donate e- to the ring
Catalytic conversion of CO and NOx: Producing a positive inductive effect
2NO2 + 4CO → N2 + 4CO2 A larger alkyl group has a weaker inductive effect
2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2
14.10. Addition Reactions
14.7. Alkenes
Hydrogenation (Alkene + H2 Alkane)
Unsaturated hydrocarbons Reagent: H2(g)
Contain at least one C=C double bond Condition:
General formula: C nH2n (like cycloalkanes) Catalyst: Nickel
Source of alkenes: Temp.: 100oC
Cracking alkanes Press.: 2 atm.
Dehydration of alcohols Use: convert liquid oils to saturated solid fats
More reactive than alkanes due to presence of double Halogenation (Alkene + X2 Dihaloalkane)
bond; pi electrons loosely and more susceptible to attacks Reagent: Halogen(aq)
by e- deficient groups like electrophiles Condition: r.t.p./dark

Alkenes combust completely carbon dioxide + water Halogenation (Alkene + Hydrohalogen Halogenoalkane)
Give energy but not used as fuels; have other uses Reagent: Hydrohalogen(g)
Condition: r.t.p.
14.8. Electrophilic Addition Mechanism Hydration (Alkene + H2O(g) Alcohol)
Reagent: steam
Condition:
Catalyst: H3PO4 – phosphoric acid
Temp.: 300oC
Press.: 70atm Non-biodegradable: does not break down so increases

the amount of volume needed for landfill sites
14.11. Oxidation of Alkenes Combustion produces harmful gases which contribute
to global warming e.g. SO2, CO2 and HCl from PVCs
Both oxidation and addition to double bond involved Disposal of Polymers:
KMnO4 changes from purple/pink to colourless Recycle existing plastic
Make polymers biodegradable by adding starch units
With Cold Dilute Acidified KMnO4/H+
Diol is formed 15. Halogen Compounds

15.1. Types of Halogenoalkanes
Primary 1o (S N 2)
With Hot Concentrated Acidified KMnO4/H+
This leads to the rupture of the double bond

Two compounds are formed
Products formed depend on alkene
Secondary 2o (S N 2 and S N 1)
Tertiary 3o (S N 1)
14.12. Polymerisation
Repeated addition of 1000s of alkene molecules
(monomer) to each other forming a macromolecule
Polyethene: 15.2. Strength of C – Hal Bond
LDPE: cling wrap
HDPE: water pipes, wire insulation Polar Nature Bond Energy Reactivity
Fluoro
Chloro
Decrease Decrease Increases
Bromo
Polychloroethene (PVC): Iodo
Water pipes
Electronegativity Bond length increases, bond
Insulation of wires
decreases energy decreases, lower EA so
down group more reactive
General conditions: high pressure, 15.3. Nucleophilic Substitution

high temperature and catalyst Mechanism
Disadvantages:
The C-X bond is a polar bond and has partial charges due
to the high electronegativity of halogen.
The δ+ carbocation is easily susceptible to attack by a
nucleophile
S N 1 Mechanism:
15.6. Elimination Reaction
Unimolecular – only one molecule involved in 1st step R – X + OH- Alkene + X- + H2O
Secondary and Tertiary halogenoalkanes Mechanism:
S N 2 Mechanism:
Bimolecular – two molecules involved in 1st step

Reagent: ethanolic NaOH or KOH
Primary and secondary halogenoalkanes
Conditions: temp. 60oC, reflux
OH- acts as a proton acceptor; it accepts the H+ loss from
15.4. Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction
the halogenoalkanes during elimination
Elimination becomes progressively easier
Hydrolysis (R – X + OH- R – OH + X-)
Reagent: strong alkali; NaOH(aq) or KOH(aq) Primary < Secondary < Tertiary
Condition: heat/reflux
Fluoroalkanes are not hydrolysed because the C – F Note: the carbon atom adjacent to carbon with halide
bond is too strong must have at least one hydrogen attached to it.
Ease of hydrolysis increases: Primary < Secondary <
Tertiary 15.7. Uses of Halogenoalkanes
Tertiary halogenoalkanes can be hydrolysed without
alkali CFCs are inert and can be liquefied easily: Strength of C –
- -
Note: if any Cl or Br ions present in NaOH(aq), these X bond is very high, hence do not decompose easily and
ions will interfere with reaction are not flammable.
Uses:
Nitrile (cyanide) (R – X + CN- RCN + X-)
As propellants in aerosol cans
Reagent: KCN or NaCN in ethanol
As solvents in dry-cleaning
Condition:
As refrigerant for freezers and fridges
Solvent: Ethanol
Fire extinguishers, insecticides and pesticides
Heat/Reflux
Reaction forms a C – C bond; therefore number of
Carbon increases; name has one more carbon 15.8. CFCs Effect on Ozone Layer
Primary Amines (R – X + NH3 RNH2(l) + HX(g))
Destroys the ozone layer
Reagent: Ammonia (NH3)
CFCs escape the atmosphere and, because of their
Condition: Ammonia in alcohol under pressure in a
inertness, remain without further reaction until they reach
sealed container
the stratosphere and ozone layer.
Note: If excess concentration of ammonia used, HX
In the stratosphere, high energy U.V causes the Cl atom to
reacts with it forming NH4X
split CFC molecule forming Cl⋅, which reacts with ozone
This is a catalytic cycle where one Cl⋅ can react with many
15.5. Reflux O3 thus causing destruction of ozone layer:
Many organic reactions proceed slowly Cl⋅ + O3(g) ⋅OCl(g) + O2(g)

Heating done under reflux to prevent volatile organic ⋅OCl(g) + O(g) Cl⋅ + O2(g)
solvents to evaporate Can react and breakdown another O3 molecule
Mechanism similar to simple distillation
Note: the alternative is using HCFCs (replace Cl with H or
more F atoms) as they break down more easily and do not
release Cl → less effect on the ozone layer
form hydrogen bonds and ∴ solubility decreases

16. Hydroxy Compounds Small alcohols (e.g. ethanol) are good solvents for both
polar and non-polar compounds as they have polar and
16.1. Types of Alcohols non-polar components
Primary 1o 16.3. Reaction with Sodium
R – OH + Na(l) RO- Na+ + ½ H2(g)
Type of reaction: acid-base

Reagent used: liquid sodium metal
Reactivity of alcohols decreases with increasing chain
lengths of hydrocarbon
Secondary 2o Reaction less vigorous than that of Na and water which
shows water is a stronger acid than alcohol
16.4. Reaction with Carboxylic Acids
Tertiary 3o
Reagent Condition Type of Reaction

Heat-reflux
R-COOH Esterification
Source of Alcohols: Conc. H2SO4
Hydration of alkenes
Fermentation as fats, oils & flavours in fruits
Used in food flavourings and perfumes and as solvents

16.2. Properties
Physical Properties: 16.5. Hydrolysis of Esters
Colourless liquids at r.t.p
b.p. and density increases with increasing C atoms and
also with increasing OH groups
Boiling Point:
b.p. decreases→
Because: 16.6. Dehydration of Alcohols

Alcohol(l) Alkene + H2O(l)
b.p. of alcohols > alkenes as they have hydrogen bonds Condition:
Conc. H2SO4 OR
H3PO4 at 180oC OR
Solubility of Alcohols in Water:
Al2O3 at 300oC
Smaller alcohols mix completely with water since strong Type of reaction: Elimination
hydrogen bonds occur between alcohol and water
As hydrocarbon nature increases (i.e. more C-C… bonds), Mechanism:
the non-polar character outweighs the ability of the OH to
16.9. Tests for Alcohols

Result with:
Reagent
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Adjacent carbon to carbon with OH must have at least one Na metal Bubble of H2 Gas
hydrogen (tertiary cannot undergo dehydration)
K2Cr2O4/H+ Green X
16.7. Halogenation KMnO4/H+ Colourless X
Type of Reaction: Nucleophilic Substitution

17. Carbonyl Compounds
R – OH R – X
Forming
Producing: Reactions Condition 17.1. Introduction
Reagent
Conc. HCl Boiling Point:
Zn +
RCl(l) +
Heat/Reflux
H2 O
SOCl2
RCl(l) +
SO2(g) +
HCl(g) Solubility:
Alkyl r.t.p
PCl5 RCl(l) Smaller carbonyl compounds: completely soluble as they
Chlorides
+ form hydrogen bonds with water molecules; are good
POCl3(aq) solvents for polar & non-polar solutes
R– + HCl(g) Larger carbonyl compounds: polar nature decreases, and
OH+ non-polar nature increases, ability to form hydrogen
PCl3 RCl(l)
+ bonds decreases
Heat/Reflux
H3PO3(aq)
+ HCl(g) 17.2. Production of Carbonyl
NaBr + HBr(g) Compounds
H2SO4(aq) RBr(l) +
HBr Alkyl H2 O Oxidation of Primary Alcohols (Aldehydes)
r.t.p
P + Br2 – Bromides PBr3(g)
warm RBr(l) + Reactants: acidified K 2 C r 2 O7 /K M nO3 .

PBr3 H3PO3(aq) Distillation to separate Aldehyde from other compounds.

Aldehyde can easily be oxidized into Carboxylic acid, so it
PI3(g) RI(l)
P + I2 – Alkyl needs to be distilled as soon as it forms.
+ r.t.p
warm PI3 Iodide C H3 C H2 OH + [O] => C H3 C HO + H2 O.
H3PO3(aq)

Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols (Ketones)

16.8. Oxidation of Alcohols
Reactants: acidified K 2 C r 2 O7 /K M nO3 .

Reagent: Oxidising agents Distillation to separate Ketone from other compounds.

Ketones cannot be further oxidized.
Reagent Type of Reaction C H3 C HOHC H3 + [O] => C H3 C OC H3 + H2 O.

Acidified K2Cr2O7 Acidified KMnO4

Oxidation
Orange to Green Pink to Colourless 17.3. Nucleophilic Addition with HCN
png) Reagent Condition Type of Reaction
HCN HCN w/alkali or HCN w/KCN Nucleophilic Addition
Tertiary alcohols not oxidised because no hydrogens
attached to carbon with OH group so oxidising agent
colour does not change Since HCN was added, the carbon chain increases
The product formed is hydroxynitrile or cyanohydrine
Aldehydes are more susceptible to nucleophilic attacks Fehling’s Solution

than ketones C uSO4 in ammonia solution

More minor carbonyl compounds are more reactive Aldehyde + Fehling’s Solution Red ppt.
Product has a chiral carbon ∴ exhibits optical isomerism C u 2 + reduced to C u (I) oxide and –C HO oxidized

to acid.
Mechanism:
2C u 2 + +RC HO => 2C u + > +RCOOH −

18. Carboxylic Acids and

Derivatives
Note: HCN is a poor nucleophile with few CN- Ions, the 18.1. Introduction
-
reaction is slow. To increase CN conc.:
Weak acids don’t dissociate completely
Make HCN react in the presence of alkali Forms hydrogen bonds:
High melting and boiling points
HCN + OH- H2O + CN- High solubility of smaller carboxylic acids
Forms hydrogen-bonded dimers when pure vapour, liquid
Addition of KCN and dilute H2SO4 can provide HCN and or solid & when dissolved in non-polar organic solvents
more CN- ions
17.4. Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds
Type of Reaction: nucleophilic addition (H- ions) 18.2. Formation of Carboxylic Acids
Reducing agents:
NaBH4 – sodium tetrahydrioborate From alcohols: complete oxidation of primary alcohols
LiAlH4 – lithium aluminium hydride From aldehydes: oxidation of aldehydes
H2/Pt or Ni From nitriles: acid/base hydrolysis of a nitrile
Aldehydes ⟹ 1o Alcohols
R-CHO + 2[H] RCH2OH
Ketones ⟹ 2o Alcohols
R-CO-R + 2[H] R-CH(OH)-R
17.5. Testing Carbonyl Compounds

18.3. Formation of Salts
2,4,-dinitrophenylhydrazine:
Heterolytic fission of the hydroxyl bond (-OH)
Salts called carboxylates
It is a nucleophilic addition & condensation/elimination.

Forms: red/orange ppt.
The m.p. of the ppt. can be used to identify individual
aldehydes and ketones 19. Nitrogen Compounds
Tests Given only by Aldehydes:
19.1. Introduction
Tollen’s Reagent
Types:
Solution of Ag(N O3 )2 + N H3 excess

Aldehyde + Tollens agent Silver Mirror Amines ( −N H2 )
Ag + reduced to Ag , and –C HO oxidized to the acid Amides ( −CO − N H2 ) {not included in AS}

Nitriles ( −CN )
2Ag + + RC HO2 => Ag + RCOOH − + H +
19.2. Formation of Primary Amines Base Hydrolysis
Products:
Reactants and Conditions
Base
Primary Halogenoalkanes Salt of Carboxylic Acid
Ammonia
Heat under Pressure Reaction:
Ethanol (Catalyst) C H3 C H2 C N + N aOH => C H3 C H2 C O2 N a + N H3

Reaction:
C H3 C H2 B r + N H3 => C H3 C H2 N H2 + HBr

20. Polymerisation
19.3. Formation of Nitriles 20.1. Addition Polymerisation
Reactants and Conditions Monomers are alkenes; the polymer formed is polyalkene
Alkene joins to itself, and no molecule is lost
Halogenoalkanes
E.g. nA → −A − A − A − A− or (−A−) n
K CN The molecular mass of the polymer is multiple monomers

Heat under Reflux
Ethanol (Catalyst) Physical Properties of Polymers:
Reaction: Only C and H present = only VDW forces present

C H3 C H2 Br + K CN => C H3 C H2 CN + K Br

Presence of Cl or F = dipoles = permanent dipole
interaction
19.4. Formation of Hydroxynitriles Longer chains with fewer side chains have stronger VDW
forces
Aldehydes or Ketones
HCN
Heat under Reflux
‎ ‎
KCN (Catalyst)
polyethene polytetrafluoroethene
Reaction:
C H3 C H2 C HO + HCN =>

C H3 C H2 C (OH)(CN )H

C H3 C H2 C O + HCN =>

C H3 C H2 C (OH)(CN )C H3

19.5. Hydrolysis of Nitriles

Nitriles
Heat Under Reflux
Acid/Base
Acid Hydrolysis
Products:
Salt
Carboxylic Acid
Reaction:
C H3 C H2 C N + HCl => C H3 C H2 C O2 H + N H4 C l

Poly Vinyl Chloride (poly-chloroethene)
LDPE HDPE
Soft plastic made with non-
Using Ziegler catalyst
polar polymer
Hard plastic made with non-
Highly branched chains
polar polymer
Low melting point Unbranched chains
Chains cannot pack closely
due to random branching, High melting point
leaving gaps
Closely packed chains, fewer
Low density
gaps
High density
20.2. Environmental Impact of 22. Analytical Techniques

Poly(alkenes)
Non-biodegradable
22.1. Infra-red Spectroscopy
They can not be decomposed by the action of bacteria
This is when a sample being analysed is irradiated with
Dangerous to Decompose
Produce harmful gases into the air when burned electromagnetic waves in the infra-red region of the
It takes hundreds of years to turn into decomposable electromagnetic spectrum.
The machine used is a spectrophotometer, and it detects
material
Results in large amounts of landfills or Garbage the intensity of wavelengths of infra-red that pass through
Patches at Oceans the sample
The energy absorbed corresponds to changes in the
vibration of bonds, leading to the bond being stretched,
21. Organic Synthesis bend and twist
At a specific frequency, the resonance frequency, the
largest vibrations are obtained
21.1. Introduction Each type of vibration will absorb characteristic
wavelengths of infra-red radiation
Branch of Organic Chemistry. We can hence identify the presence (or absence) of
Used to construct new chemicals artificially from different functional groups from the absorbance pattern
petroleum or other organic compounds. on an infra-red spectrum
For example, make propanoic acid from ethane.
Involves multiple steps and reactants.
It can have more than one route for a specific product.
21.2. Things to Remember

Reactants and products
Reaction Mechanisms
Electrophilic Addition
Nucleophilic Substitution 22.2. Monitoring Air Pollution
Free Radical Substitution
Nucleophilic Addition IR spectroscopy identifies particular bonds in a molecule,
Conditions for reactions like and so each pollutant will show a different pattern of
Organic Compounds like ethanol absorption – this allows the identification of the pollution
Heat under Reflux It is also possible to measure the concentration of each
Pressure/Closed Container pollutant with the different amounts of absorption
Catalyst like N aBH4 , acids

22.3. Mass Spectrometry

Introduction
Chemical substances are identified by their mass-to- Here, 72 is the Molecular ion peak.
charge ratio. It is the total mass of the organic molecule.
The substance is ionized and given charge. Used to identify Carbon atoms present in the Compound
The charged ions pass through magnetic and electric using formula.
fields to calculate the mass-to-charge ratio of each ion
present.
100 ∗ M +1
n (N umber of C arbon atoms) =

1.1 ∗ M +

M +1 Represents the abundance of peak to the right of

molecular ion peak.

It is smaller than the M + peak and caused by the C-13

isotope.
1 in every 100 Carbon is C-13, so it has a ratio of M +
depending on the number of carbon atoms.

Different atoms and functional groups create several
peaks that the table can identify.
The abundance of the ions is used to identify different
elements and functional groups of a compound. 22.6. Halogen Identification
Uses M +2 peak to identify Chlorine and Bromine atoms
22.4. Isotopic Abundance of Elements
in the organic compound.
Identifies the relative abundances of different isotopes in

a sample.
For 1 Chlorine:
The 2 left most peaks represent the 2 isotopes of Chlorine

i.e., Cl-35 and Cl-37. M +2 is in 3:1 to M +

The right-most 3 peaks represent the Chlorine molecules Both have a difference of 2 m/z due to the isotopes of
with different arrangements with Cl-35 and Cl-37. Chlorine.
The ratio between the Cl-35 and Cl-37 peaks represents If the conditions are met, there is a Chlorine atom.
the relative abundance of the isotopes.
For 2 Chlorine:
22.5. Organic Fragment Pattern
Alkyls like C H3 - form Fragment patterns on Mass

Spectrometer
We can use the Molecular ion peak ( M + ) as identified

here
There are M +2 and M +4 peaks alongside M + peak.

They have a difference of 2 m/z.

M +4 , M +2 , M + are in the ratio 9:6:1.

If the conditions are met, there are 2 Chlorine atoms. There are M +2 peaks alongside M + peak.

They have a difference of 2 m/z.

For Bromine: M +2 , M + have almost same height.

If the conditions are met, there is a Bromine atom.
CAIE AS LEVEL
Chemistry
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UPDATED TO 2022-2024 SYLLABUS

e- lighter than P+ ∴ deflected at greater angle

Electrons (e-) -1 1/1840

1.2. Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

Examples of this Method are Shown Below:

Isoelectronic Ions: ions having the same no. of e-s

Protons: positively charged ∴ deflected to -ve pole s p d f

Aufbau’s Principle: method of showing how atomic orbitals

Energy difference between 4s & 3d very small ∴ an e-

1.6. Orbitals Shielding Effect

As the positive charge on the cation increases, the

2. Atoms, Molecules and

2.3. Mass Spectra

decreases, but the attraction of the nucleus increases.

Proton no. and effective nuclear charge increases

Molecular Mass Dipole Moment: slight charges on atoms in a covalent

The difference between the electronegativity of two

moment and overall polarity of the compound.

3.2. Ionic (Electrovalent) Bonding

2.5. Calculations Involving Mole

V olume of a Gas = M oles × 24

that surround a particular ion in an ionic solid

6. In covalent compounds, electrons are shown to be

3.5. Covalent Bonding

Note: Elements in Period 3 can expand their octet by making

3.8. Shapes of Molecules

Above 750oC, exists as vapor & covalent molecule AlCl3

3 bonded, 1 lone pair

2 bonded, 2 lone pair

When 1 s orbital combines with 3 p orbital.

Definition Has three times the property of p orbital properties than s

When 1 s orbital combines with 1 p orbital.

and all hydrocarbons containing 2 bonds like C 2 H2

(Carbon-Carbon triple bond).

of two adjacent atoms

Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because

3.11. Hydrogen Bonding

Note: Important properties of water (high melting/boiling

3.12. Polar and Non-Polar

Bonds with slight ionic character

Temperature of gas related to average EK of molecules ​

Quantity Unit Conversion

Partial Pressure of a Gas = M ole F raction × Water of Crystallisation

Particles touching but may have gaps 4.5. Recycling

Solids (metals) are generally the best conductors of

In ice form, water molecules slow down and come closer

Diamond: Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties:

Simple Molecular Lattice:

5.3. Enthalpy Change Definitions

5. Chemical Energetics Standard Enthalpy Change of:

1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of element or

EReactants > EProducts 1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of a compound

1. Enthalpy change when 1 mole of H + and

standard conditions in their standard states

Energy needed to break a specific covalent bond

5.5. Calculating Enthalpy Changes

When substance dissolved in water use c & m of water

5.6. Hess’s Law

5.7. Calculation of Enthalpy Change, ΔH

Formation from Combustion

Hydration from Anhydrous Salt

Reaction from Bond Energies

Oxygen as peroxide; oxidation number = -1

Temperature of gas related to average EK of molecules