Bfe Complete Notes

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BFE-Complete Notes
Biology for engineers (Dayananda Sagar University)
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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA as bioplastics), Nucleic acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies and
RNA vaccines for Covid19, Forensics – DNA fingerprinting), Proteins (Proteins as food – whey protein and meat analogs,
Plant based proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in biosensors, lignolytic
enzyme in bio-bleaching).
1. What are Biomolecules ? Explain types of biomolecule with suitable example

Biomolecule are substances that are produced by cells and living organisms.
Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions.
Types: -The four major types of biomolecules
A. Carbohydrates
B. Lipids
C. Nucleic acids
D. Proteins
The main applications of biomolecules are:
• Energy storage (carbohydrates)
• Catalyzing the biochemical reactions (hormones)
• Storing/transmitting the genetic codes (RNA/DNA)
• Altering biological and neurological activities (neurotransmitter/hormones)
A. Carbohydrates
• Abundant class of biomolecules on earth
• Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Act as essential energy sources and structural components of all life
Classification: 2 Types
1. Simple Carbohydrates
2. Complex Carbohydrates
1. Simple Carbohydrates
Dr Shobha G, Assistant Professor, Department of Basic Science and Humanities, KSIT Page 1 of 27

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Sugars
 simple carbohydrates because they are in the most basic form
 They can be added to foods, such as the sugar in candy, desserts, processed foods,
and regular soda
 They also include the kinds of sugar that are found naturally in fruits, vegetables,
and milk.
2. Complex Carbohydrates
Starches
• complex carbohydrates
• made up of many simple sugars units
• Starchy foods include rice, bread, cereals, and pasta. They also are contained in
certain vegetables, like potatoes, peas, and corn.
Cellulose
• complex carbohydrate (or polysaccharide),
• consists of 3,000 or more glucose units.
• It is extremely abundant, easily renewable, and biodegradable.
• Due to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl
groups of the neighboring cellulose chains, cellulose is insoluble in water, and is
difficult to dissolve with common organic solvents.
Fiber
• complex carbohydrate.
• They may help prevent stomach or intestinal problems, such as constipation.
• They may also help lower cholesterol and blood sugar.
• Fiber is found in many foods that come from plants, including fruits, vegetables,
nuts, seeds, beans, and whole grains.
Application:
• Cellulose is used for manufacturing filter
• Sugars will be used in candy, desserts, processed foods, and regular soda

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• Carbohydrates act as energy source

• Fibers help in digestion
• Complex polysaccharides used in preparation of bioplastic
B. Lipids
Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with
a small polar region containing oxygen.
Properties of Lipids
1. Lipids are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble
in water because water is a polar molecule.
2. Phospholipids are amphipathic.
Classification of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids - Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
• Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state
• Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols
2. Complex Lipids - Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and fatty
acid.
Example: Phospholipids, Glycolipids
3. Derived Lipids
These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and ketone
bodies
Application/ Function
• The functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural
components of cell membranes.
• Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries, and in nanotechnology.
C. Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit) is
known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as
polynucleotides.

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Types:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Composition:
• They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three
components:
1. 5-carbon sugar – Ribose/ Deoxyribose
2. phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous bases:adenine(A),guanine(G),cytosine(C),thymine(T), and uracil (U).
• All nucleic acids contain the bases A, C, and G; T, however, is found only in DNA,
while U is found in RNA.
The Functions/ Importance of Nucleic Acids
1. DNA and RNA are responsible for the inheritance and transmission of specific
characteristics from one generation to the other.
2. They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body
3. DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It is
also used for the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in studies
regarding biological evolution and genetics.
D. Proteins
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long
chains of amino acid residues.
Functions:
1. Structural support: Collagen, elastin, Keratin provide strength and elasticity to
tissue such as skin, hair and nails
2. Enzymatic catalysis: catalysing metabolic reactions
3. Immune defense- Antibodies
4. Movement: Actin and Mysoin for contraction and relaxation of muscles
5. Transport: transporting molecules from one location to another (Haemoglobin

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protein is a transport protein or carrier protein because it carries oxygen from lungs
to the other part of the human body)
6. Regulation: protein hormones are insulin regulate glucose in blood
2. Give an account on properties and production of cellulose. Add note on its role as
water filters.
Properties
• Complex polysaccharide carbohydrate consists of 3,000 or more glucose units
• Consisting of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen having Chemical formula (C6H10O5)n
• It is extremely abundant, easily renewable, and biodegradable
• Odorless, insoluble in water and organic solvent
• Due to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl
groups of the neighboring cellulose chains, cellulose is insoluble in water and
organic solvents.
Application
 It is used in the diet as a fibre supplement
 It is used to produce paperboard and paper products
 It helps as an additive in various food items
 It is used in the manufacturing of nitrocellulose
Production:
Cellulose-Based Water Filters
Principle: Nanocellulose filter papers because of high surface area and a three
dimensional structure that allows water to flow through while trapping particles and
other impurities with in a random matrix of cellulose fibers. The removal of bacteria
from water is due to positively charged filters that adsorb negatively charged bacteria
onto the surfaces of the filters. The negative charge of bacteria is due to peptidoglycans,
liposaccharides and proteins in their cell wall, and this makes their removal non-
selective.
Particles removed – Sand, silt, sediments, organic and inorganic contaminants

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Procedure /Design and Development of cellulose based water filter:

1. Material Selection: Cellulose abundantly present- Wood pulp, Cotton and other plant
fibers
2. Processing: Drying – Milling -Chemical and enzymatic treatment - Purification
3. Filter Design: Cellulose media is manufactured using a wet laid process. Cellulose filter
media can be made from pure cellulose fibers or cellulose fibers mixed with synthetic
fibers or glass fibers for enhanced properties.
Depend upon application. Depth filters and membrane filters
4. Chemical treatment: Treated with chemicals to enhance its filtration properties or to
add antimicrobial properties (Cu or Ag Nps)
1. Structural support: Cellulose combine with other materials such as diatomaceous earth or
perlite to create a porous filter material that maintains its shape and does not collapse
under pressure.
2. Treatment with Nanoparticles: have large pores that facilitate water percolation but they
do not sufficiently remove bacteria through size exclusion eg: silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)
and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs)
4. Testing: Tested to ensure that its meets the required filtration standards and is effective
at removing impurties
5. Production: Designed and tested, it can be produce at a scale for commercial use
6. Maintenance: Replaced periodically to ensure continued effectiveness. The frequency of
replacement will depend on factors such as the level of impurties in the water and the
amount of use the filter receives

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Application
• Water Filters
• Engine Air intake Filters
• Fuel and Oil Filtration
Advantages
• Affordable
• lightweight and biodegradable
• High strength and durability
• Large surface area
• Chemical stability
• Temperature stability
Writ the flow chart (Written in Class)
3. What are Bio plastics? Explain in detail on production of PLA. Add a note on its
benefits
Bioplastics are biopolymers which can be generated from natural resources such as
starches and vegetable oils.
Raw materials/ Sources: Vegetable fats and oils, corn
starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste, etc.
Bio plastics are basically classified as bio based and biodegradable
PLA – Polylactic acid
PLA is a polyester (polymer containing the ester group) made with two monomers of
lactic acid/lactide.
• PLA is a biodegrable and biocompatible polymers that can be produced by
microorganism, from renewable resources such as corn starch sugracane and other
plant based sources
Production of PLA
• Selection of Raw materials –Corn starch, sugar cane, cassava
• Pretreatment: cornstarch is separated from wet-milled corn, combined with acid

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or enzymes, and then heated. The heat breaks down the cornstarch and produces
dextrose or corn sugar. The extract strach or sugar that will be used in fermentation
• Fermentation medium: Starch and sugar is fermented by microorganism such as
Lacobacillus or Bacillus to produce lactic acid
• Purification: To remove impurities or residual bacterial cells. Done by filtration,
centrifugation or solvent extraction
• Polymerization: L-lactic acid can be directly polymerized using heat and catalyst
• Processing: Depends upon application. Processed in various forms such as pellets,
granules or sheets
• Material preparation: Pellets or granules which can be melted to create plastic
products
• Melting and Molding: Mold into desired shape. Techniques used – injection
molding, extrusion or thermoforming
• Cooling and finishing: After molding, the plastic product cooled. This include
trimming any excess material, smoothing rough edges and applying any necessary
coating or finishes
• Testing and quality control: Plastic product is tested to ensure that it meets the
required specification and quality standards. Mechanical properties,
biodegradability and other factors
Application:
• In Packaging - materials for food and beverages, disposable cutlery
• In agriculture- use to make mulch films
• In medical – PHA used to make sutures, implants, drug delivery system
• In Textile - can be formed into fibers for clothing.
• 3D printing - widely used 3D printing filaments for fused deposition
modeling(FDM) due to its low melt temperature and its ease of use
Advantages/Properties

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• Biodegradability
• Versatility- Different forms
• Nontoxic- Medical applications such as sutures, drug delivery system and tissue
engineering
• Regarded as food safe -which are non-toxic
• Durability
• Transparency
• Mechanical strength
4. What are PHAs? Explain the production of PHA and advantage of PHA as plastic
material
• PHAs (Polyhydroxyalkanoates) are polymers that can be produced by intra cellular
microorganism under limiting nutritional factors like phosphorus (P) and nitrogen
(N) or the availability of an excess carbon (C) and from renewable resources such
as plant based oils, waste cooking oil and agricultural waste
Production of PHA
• Selection of Microorganism – Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes
• Fermentation medium: Nutrient rich medium that contains a carbon source such
as glucose, starch, oil, lignocellulose or waste stream from agricultural and food
industry
• Extraction: Microorganism harvested and PHA extracted by different methods
such as chemical extraction, enzymatic digestion or physical disruption of bacterial
cell
• Purification: To remove impurities or residual bacterial cells. Done by filtration,
centrifugation or solvent extraction
• Processing: Depends upon application. Processed in various forms such as films,
fibers, 3D printed structures
Application:

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• In Packaging - materials for food and beverages, disposable cutlery

• In agriculture- use to make mulch films
• In medical – PHA used to make sutures, implants, drug delivery system
• In Textile - can be formed into fibers for clothing.
• 3D printing - widely used 3D printing filaments for fused deposition
modeling(FDM) due to its low melt temperature and its ease of use
Advantages/Properties
• Biodegradability
• Versatility- Different forms
• Nontoxic- Medical applications such as sutures, drug delivery system and tissue
engineering
• Regarded as food safe -which are non-toxic
• Durability
• Transparency
• Mechanical strength
5. What are Vaccines? Illustrate the production of DNA vaccines for Rabies/ Explain
the mechanism of DNA vaccine for Rabbies treatment.
Vaccines are harmless piece of a particular bacteria or virus that triggers an immune
response. Most vaccines contain a weakened or dead bacteria or virus.
Types: DNA vaccine, RNA vaccine
DNA VACCINE FOR RABIES
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of DNA to stimulate an immune
response in the body
Rabies is a preventable viral disease that affects the central nervous system ultimately
causing disease in the brain and death
Cause: Rabies is a simple, negative-stranded RNA virus that encodes five structural
proteins, that is, the nucleoprotein (NP), the glycoprotein (G), the phosphoprotein (P), the
matrix protein (M), and the polymerase (L).

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Spread: through the saliva of infected animals commonly through bites or scratches of a
rabid animal like bats, raccoons, skunks, and foxes, although any mammal can get rabies
Treatment: DNA Vaccination
Principle/ Working: The basic working principle behind any DNA vaccine involves the use
of a DNA plasmid that encodes for a protein (specific antigen) which is found on the surface
of a pathogen.
When DNA is injected into the body the cells take up DNA and use it to produce the antigen
which then triggers an immune response
Production/Development of DNA Vaccines
 Identify the gene that codes for protein on the surface of the rabies( principally
targeted against the rabies virus glycoprotein)
 Gene is inserted into plasmid - pCl-neo plasmid (circular DNA that can replicate
independently )
 Plamid with gene is injected into muscle tissue of the patient
 Muscles cells take up the plasmid and produce rabies protein
 This triggers an immune response
 Lead to production of antibodies against rabies virus

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Steps in the production of DNA Vaccines

6. Explain the Process of production of vaccines for COVID 19
RNA Vaccine that uses a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) rather than part of an
actual bacteria or virus.
RNA VACCINES FOR COVID-19
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2
virus.
Cause: SARS-CoV-2 virus (severe acute respiratory syndrome)
Symptoms: Fever or chills Cough, Muscle or body aches, New loss of taste or smell, Sore
throat
Vaccination/Treatment: RNA Vaccines
Principle/ Working: mRNA vaccines work by introducing a piece of mRNA that
corresponds to a viral protein, usually a small piece of a protein found on the virus’s
outer membrane that triggers an immune response, , thus producing the antibodies that
provide protection against a disease.
Production/Development:
It is the basis for the Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines being used by

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governments worldwide, and in the UN-supported COVAX global vaccine solidarity

initiative.
 mRNA vaccines contain the instructions for making the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.
This protein is found on the surface of the virus that causes COVID-19
 The m RNA introduced into the body through a harmless lipid nanoparticle that
protects the mRNA from degradation and helps it to enter the cell
 Once the mRNA enters the cell, it instructs them to produce the antigen or protein
encoded by the mRNA (spike protein )
 The cell then displays the protein piece on its surface.
 which tigers an immune response and leads to the production of antibodies against
pathogen )
 After the protein piece is made, the cell breaks down the instructions and gets rid of
them.
 Produced antibodies recognize and neutralize the actual virus if the person is later
exposed to it
 COVID-19 mRNA vaccines are given by injection, usually into the muscle of the upper
arm.

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7. Explain DNA finger printing

 DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to identity a person based on the
nucleotide sequences of certain regions of human DNA that are unique to
individuals.
 Forensic genetic fingerprinting can be defined as the comparison of the DNA with
the DNA of another person for the purpose of identification
The steps involved in DNA fingerprinting technique are:
1. DNA sample: A DNA sample to analyzed is first collected. such as skin, hair, or blood
cells, which contain DNA.
2. Extraction of DNA: DNA is then extracted from the sample by lysis method.
3. Digestion by restriction endonucleases: Using a specific restriction enzyme, the
DNA fragment is cut at a specific site.
4.Electrophoresis: Using gel electrophoresis, the DNA fragment of various sizes are
obtained.
5. Denaturing DNA fragment: The gel containing DNA fragments are then immersed in
NaOH solution. This will denature DNA into single-stranded DNA.
6. Southern blotting technique: This is performed to transfer single-stranded DNA
from the gel onto the nitrocellulose membrane.
7. Hybridization: This DNA fragment is subjected to hybridization with a suitable DNA
probe tagged with a radioactive substance.
8. Comparing the sample of the suspect with the evidence: Using X-ray films, the
DNA samples showing radioactivity are compared.

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Isolating the DNA.

↓
Digesting the DNA with the help of restriction endonuclease enzymes.
↓
Separating the digested fragments as per the fragment size by the process of
electrophoresis.
↓
Blotting the separated fragments onto synthetic membranes like nylon.
↓
Hybridising the fragments using labelled VNTR probes.
↓
Analysing the hybrid fragments using autoradiography
Flow chart For DNA Finger Printing
Application
 Factual evidence to criminal investigations and court cases.
 Paternity test

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8. What is Protein? Explain different types of dietary proteins (Animal based

proetins, Plant based proteins)
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long
chains of amino acid residues.
PROTEINS AS FOOD
Proteins used as foods can be defined as those that are easily digestible, nontoxic,
nutritionally adequate, functionally use able in food products and available in abundance.
Dietary proteins: animal-based foods, plant-based foods, and alternative sources such as
algae, bacteria, and fungi(mycoproteins).
Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) tend to be good sources of
complete protein,
Plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds) often lack one or more
essential amino acid.
Whey protein
• Whey is the watery part of the milk remaining after the proteinaceous mass that
results from the coagulation of milk by acids or proteolytic enzymes.
• Whey protein is a complete protein i.e., it contains all essential amino acid required
for body
• Digested quickly and can help to promote muscle protein synthesis
Application
• Whey and whey components used in infant formulas, sports nutrition foods and
beverages, and other food products.
• Supplements for muscle growth and development.
• Whey products improve the texture, extends shelf life, provides stability, enhances
both the taste and the colour thus can be used as a food ingredient.
9. Define analogs. Explain whey protein and meat analogs as protein based food
Analogue can be defined as compound that is structurally similar to another but
differs slightly in composition

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1) Whey protein analogs

Refers to a protein product that mimics the properties of whey protein but is not
derived from milk or dairy
• Example whey protein analogs: Include plant based protein sources- Pea protein,
rice protein, synthetic protein created in a laboratory
• Composition: all essential amino acids that the body needs, lower fat and
carbohydrates
• Has similar nutritional benefit as whey protein – high quality protein, easily
digestible and absorbed by the body
• Used as a dietary supplement for those who are lactose intolerant, other dietary
restrictions that prevent them from consuming whey protein
2) Meat protein analogs
Meat protein analogue refers to a protein product that mimics the texture, flavor and
nutritional properties of meat but is made from non animal source
•Meat analogues are plant based products designed to replace meat.
Example: Soy, wheat, peas, Mushrooms, laboratory grown meats also known as
cultured meats or cell based meat
•Composition: all essential amino acids that the body needs, lower fat and
carbohydrates
Cultured meat: Produced by taking a small sample of animal cells and grown them in a
lab under controlled condition
Products: Beyond meat, Impossible foods, Quorn –Plant based meat
Companies: Memphis meat and Mosha meat
Examples of meat alternatives include :
 Mycoprotein–protein sourced from fungi:
 Myco protein is a meat substitute made from a fungus called Fusarium
 Tofu (beancurd) –made from coagulated soymilk:
 Tempeh–fermented soybeans pressed into blocks:

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 To make tempeh, whole soybeans are fermented (broken down) by a fungus

called Rhizopus
 Textured vegetable protein(TVP)–from soybeans:
Diagrams of production of plant-based meat

10. Short note on Plant based proteins / Justify that Plant based proteins are analogs
for Animal based protein/Plant Based Proteins
Plant based protein refers to plant-based products that are direct replacement to animal-
based protein products.
• These products use the biomimicry approach to replicate the animal-based protein
products interms of texture and flavor.
• Plant proteins are highly nutritious – not only as good sources of protein, but also
because they provide other nutrients such as fibre, vitamins and minerals.
Sources:
Legumes: Lentils, chickpea, black beans, Kidney beans, Peas
Nuts and Seeds: Almonds, Peanuts, Cashew, Chia seeds, flax seeds

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Grains: Brown rice, Oats, Barley

Vegetables: Brocooli, Spinach, Sprouts
Soy Product: Tofu, tempeh
Processing of Plant Based Protein

11. What are Lipids? Illustrate Lipid are the source for Biodiesel Production and
explain the process
Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms, which
form the framework for the structure and function of living cells.”
These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar
solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule.
Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel that is manufactured from vegetable oils, and
animal fats.” The fuel is produced by transesterification and esterification—a process that
converts fats and oils into biodiesel and glycerin (a coproduct)
Major sources of suitable oil (to make biodiesel): crops like palm, soybean or rapeseed.
Biodiesel Production
There are three stages of this transformation of oil and fats to biodiesel.
a) Transesterification of the oil in which it is base-catalyzed.
b) The direct acid-catalyzed transesterification
c) Finally conversion of oil to fatty acid and then the formation of biodiesel.

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1. Feed stock preparation: Prepare the feed stock – Vegetable oil, animal fat, cooking
oil feedstock must be cleaned and dired to remove impurties and water
2. Trans esterification: Transesterification is the chemical process, which converts
natural fats and oils (triglycerides) into Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) or
Biodiesel and glycerol in the presence of alcohol (Methnol) and catalyst (Sodium
Hydroxide).
Triglycerides+ alcohol - Mixture of alkyl esters + glycerol

3. Separation: Separated using a settling tank, where the heavier glycerol sinks to the
bottom and the lighter biodiseel floats on top.
4. Washing: Washed to remove impurities such as catalyst residues or unreacted alcohol

5. Drying: Dry the fuel to remove water. Done using a vaccum or desiccant

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Important Features of Biodiesel

1) Biodegradable and Renewable Fuel.
2) Safer to use and has low toxicity compared to fossil diesel fuel.
3) Lower exhaust emission rate than normal diesel fuel.
4) As per ASTM D 6751 quality parameters, the quality of diesel is analyzed.
5) Using biodiesel doesn’t require any diesel engine modification.
Benefits of Biodiesel
1) Biodiesel and biodiesel blends are used in almost all diesel engines and vehicles.
2) It is a carbon-neutral liquid, which means that the combustion of biodiesel never
produces the net output of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide like other mineral diesel.
3) In 2007, British Royal Train ran its train with 100% biodiesel fuel.
4) Used as heating oil – In many commercial & domestic boilers, biodiesel is also used as
heating fuel.
12. Discuss on process of production of soaps and detergent using lipid/ Lipid acts as
a detergent
Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain of benzene sulphonic acid.
Principle:

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• The hydrophobic end of the phospholipid bilayer stays away from the water. This
avoids the dissolution of cell membrane in water.
• But the detergent can bind to the hydrophobic end of the cell membrane and form a
solution with water, thus breaking the cell membrane barrier.
Types of Detergents: Natural (animal or vegetable oil) and Synthetic (Petroleum
products)
Anionic detergents: detergents have a net negative electrical charge.
• Commercial anionic detergents are usually alkyl beneze sulfonates.
• The alkylbenzene is lipophilic and hydrophobic, so it can interact with fats and oils.
• The sulfonate is hydrophilic, so it can wash away soiling in water.
Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents have a net positive electrical charge.
• The chemical structures of cationic detergents are similar to those of anionic
detergents, but the sulfonate group is replaced by quaternary ammonium. Eg:
cetrimide (acetyl trimetyl ammonium bromide)
Lipids can act as detergents due to there amphiphilic nature, meaning they have both
hydrophobic – tail and hydrophilic - head regions.
• lipids differ from detergents in the shape of the monomers, in the type of aggregates
formed in solution, and in the concentration, range required for aggregation.
Principle: Phospholipids have hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, which allows
them to form a bilayer in water with hydrophilic facing outwards and hydrophobic
facing inwards. This allows them to interact with water and oil making them effective at
removing dirt, grease and other substances from surface

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13. What are Enzymes? Add a note on its classification

Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as biocatalysts) that speed up
biochemical reactions in living organisms
E+S E+P
Enzyme+ Substrate Enzyme + Product
Properties
• Protein in nature
• Highly specific- Catalyze specific reaction
• has an “active site” which has a unique shape.
• Enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over.
• Enzymes need optimum conditions to work
• Active site and substrate are complementary in nature

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Classification
According to the type of reactions that the enzymes catalyze, enzymes are classified into 6
groups
Applications:
 Biosensors
 Medicine
 Diagnostic tool
 Therapeutic agent
 Food industry
 Detergents

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14. Elaborate on enzymes used in biosensor to detect blood glucose / Explain the
principle, working and instrumentation of amperometric biosensor or glucose
biosensor / Elaborate on biosensor used to detect blood glucose
• Glucose sensors are biosensors designed to detect glucose levels, which is vital to
managing diabetes and use Glucose oxidase enzymes for detection.
Principal:
The enzyme glucose oxidase reacts with glucose, water, and oxygen to form gluconic acid and
hydrogen peroxide. The FAD is reduce to FADH2(Flavin adenine di nucleotide). Hydrogen
peroxide is oxidized at a platinum electrode . The number of electrons transfer at electrode
surface is directly proportional to number of glucose molecules present in the blood.
Quantification of glucose can be achieved based on either the detection of
• hydrogen peroxide produced
• the oxygen consumed
• electrons transfer from enzyme to the electrode
Glucose oxidase Hydrogen peroxidase
D-Glucose + H2O + O2 + FAD Gluconic acid + FADH2+ H2O2 (Hydrogen
peroxide)2H++O2+2e-
Instrumentation:
• Bienzymatic sensor phase (test Strip) - consisting of glucose oxidase and horseradish
peroxidase (HRP)
• Electron-transfer mediator – Ferrocyanide / FADH2
• Electrode – Measure electrical current generated by reaction

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Working:
• Drop of blood
• Applied on strip
• Glucose in blood react with Amperometric glucose biosensor fabricated by immobilizing
glucose oxidase (GOx)
• Transfer of electrons from reaction to electrode
• Signal generated
• Intensity of signal is directly propotional to concentration of glucose in blood
Advantages:
Better stability
relatively low cost
15. Write a Short Note on Lignolytic Enzymes/ Enzyme as Bio-Bleaching
Bio-Bleaching - The use of bacteria or enzymes or biological agents in the removal of color is
termed as bio bleaching.
Enzymes in bio bleaching/ Ligninolytic enzymes: Ligninolytic enzymes are a group of
enzymes that are capable of degrading lignin a complex polymer that found in plant cell walls
• Ligninolytic enzymes are most effective because it directly attacks on lignin.
• Laccase, Lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase appear to constitute a major
component of the ligninolytic system.
• Produced/Found: Fungi – White rot, Aspergillus, Bacteria , Plant
• Principal/Mechanism: These fungi secrete a number of oxidative enzymes and some

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hitherto unknown substances (mediators) into their environment together effecting a

slow but continuous degradation ie., bonds between the basic units and the aromatic
structure of lignin are broken into their various monomeric units that are further
bioconverted into value-added products.
Application:
 Ligninolytic enzymes play a key role in degradation and detoxification of lignocellulosic
waste in environment.
 Paper and pulp industry - as a Delignification and bio bleaching agent
 Food Industry - Laccase used for Color enhancement in tea, etc.
 Fuel Production: Ligninolytic fungi and their enzymes (i.e., laccase, manganese
peroxidase, and lignin peroxidase) have been applied in the production of second-
generation biofuels
 Bioremediation agent: Detoxification of industrial effuelents
 Medical Diagnosis
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@-END-@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

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Module - 2 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS - 1 (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Brain as a CPU system (architecture, CNS and Peripheral Nervous System, signal transmission, EEG, Robotic arms for
prosthetics. Engineering solutions for Parkinson’s disease).Eye as a Camera system (architecture of rod and cone cells,
optical corrections, cataract, lens materials, bionic eye).Heart as a pump system (architecture, electrical signalling - ECG
monitoring and heart related issues, reasons for blockages of blood vessels, design of stents, pace makers, defibrillators)
Explain the architecture of Brain

The human brain is a part of the nervous system. That’s the control system that sends
instructions to all the other parts of body.
The human Brain has many different parts. Each one plays a different function. But they all
work together to manage complex thoughts, feelings and behaviours
The brain has three main parts. They are the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem.
1. The cerebellum helps fine-tune your muscle movement. For example, it helps
control balance, posture and motor learning.
2. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, spanning both the left and
right hemispheres. It sits on top of the cerebellum and the brainstem. Many of your
body’s higher functions rely on the cerebrum. For instance, it controls touch, vision,
hearing, speech and fine motor skills. You also need your cerebrum to interpret
emotions, solve problems and learn.
3. The brainstem connects the base of the brain to the spinal cord. It helps coordinate
the brain’s communication with the rest of the body. The brainstem also helps coordinate
involuntary actions like breathing and heart rate.
How brain act as central processing unit
Both CPU and brain use electrical signals to send messages. The brain uses chemicals to
transmit information; the computer uses electricity. Even though electrical signals travel at

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high speeds in the nervous system, they travel even faster through the wires in a computer.
Similarities:
 Both transmit information
 Both the brain and CPU receive and process inputs, store information, and perform
calculations to produce outputs.
 In the human brain, information is processed in a distributed manner across
multiple regions, each with specialized functions, rather than being processed
sequentially in a single centralized location.
 Computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform mathematical
calculations, the human brain has specialized regions for processing mathematical
and logical operations. The prefrontal cortex, for example, is responsible for higher-
level cognitive functions such as decision making and problem solving.
Differences:
 CPU store and process information and human brain has the ability to learn and
adapt, while a computer's CPU does not.
 Human brain is capable of performing tasks such as perception, thought, and
emotion, which are beyond the scope of a computer's CPU

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Differentiate CNS and PNS

The nervous system helps all the parts of the body to communicate with each other. It also
reacts to changes both outside and inside the body. The nervous system uses both electrical
and chemical means to send and receive messages.
The nervous system has two main parts:
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) are the two
main components of the nervous system in the human body.
The central nervous system (CNS)
 The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible
for receiving, processing, and integrating sensory information and transmitting
commands to the rest of the body.
 The brain is the body’s “control center.” The CNS has various centers located within
it that carry out the sensory, motor and integration of data.
 These centers can be subdivided to Lower Centers (including the spinal cord and
brain stem) and higher centers communicating with the brain via effectors.
 CNS is usually considered to have seven basic parts: the spinal cord, the medulla, the
pons, the cerebellum, the midbrain, the diencephalon, and the cerebral hemispheres.
 The brain acts as the command center, receiving and processing sensory inputs and
generating motor outputs, while the spinal cord acts as a relay center, transmitting
information between the brain and peripheral nerves.
The Peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand, consists of all the nerves that lie
outside the brain and spinal cord.
 It is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the periphery of the
body (such as the skin, muscles, and organs) to the CNS, and transmitting commands
from the CNS to the periphery.
 The PNS can be further divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic
nervous system.

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 The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, while the autonomic
nervous system controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and
respiration.
Robotic arms for prosthetics

Definition: Robotic arms for prosthetics are advanced prosthetic devices that use robotics
technology to restore functionality to individuals with upper limb amputations.
These devices typically use motors, actuators, and sensors to mimic the movements of a
human arm and hand, allowing the wearer to perform tasks such as reaching, grasping, and
manipulating objects.
Working:
Robotic arms for prosthetics can be controlled in a variety of ways
1. Direct control through muscle signals (myoelectric control)
2. Brain-machine interfaces, which use electrodes implanted in the brain or placed on
the scalp to detect and interpret brain activity
3. Some prosthetic arms also incorporate machine learning algorithms to improve
their performance and adapt to the user's needs over time.
Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control through Muscle Signals (myoelectric control)

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 Myoelectric control of a robotic arm prosthetic involves using the electrical signals
generated by the wearer's remaining muscles to control the movement of the
prosthetic. The system typically involves electrodes placed on the skin over the
remaining muscle that are used to detect and interpret the electrical signals
generated by the muscle contractions.
 When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect the electrical signals
and
 send them to a control unit, which interprets the signals and uses them to control
the movement of the robotic arm.
 Depending on the specific design, the control unit may use pattern recognition
algorithms to determine which movement the wearer is intending to perform, or the
wearer may use a combination of muscle signals to control specific degrees of
freedom in the prosthetic arm.
Design: The design of a robotic prosthetic arm typically consists of a mechanical arm with
several joints and a hand or gripper that can be controlled by the user. The arm is powered
by motors and sensors that enable the user to control the movements of arm through a
range of motion and gripping force.
Development of robotic prosthetic arms
Development robotic prosthetic arm is a complex process that involves a range of
engineering and design challenges.
1. Conceptualization - The first step is to define the requirements and goals of the
prosthetic arm taking into account the needs and preference of potential users. This

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can involve consultation with clinicians, researchers and end users to understand
the specific needs and challenges of the target population.
2. Design and engineering - Once the requirements are established the next step is to
design and engineer the robotic arm. This typically involves creating detailed CAD
models, selecting materials and components and developing software and
controlled system
3. Prototyping - After the initial design is complete the team will typically build and
test a series of prototype to refine the design and test the functionality of the arm.
This can involve 3D printing machine and fabrication techniques.
4. Testing and validation - Once a protype is built it will be tested and validated
through a series of trials and evaluations, this can involve laboratory testing field
testing with end users and clinical trials to assess safety and efficacy
5. Manufacturing and commercialization - If the protype is successful the team can
move on to manufacturing and commercialization the robotic arm. This involves
scaling up production obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing the device to
potential users and health providers.
Illustrate the mechanism of signal transduction in Nervous system
 Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the firing of nerve cells, or neurons.

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 A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its dendrites, integrates the
information, and then generates an electrical impulse, or action potential, that
travels down its axon to the synaptic terminals.
 At the synaptic terminals, the neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters, which
cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to
the initiation of another action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
 This process of transmitting information from one neuron to another is known as
synaptic transmission and forms the basis of communication within the brain.
Discuss the principle, instrumentation and working mechanism of EEG/Explain the
engineering application of EEG and its role in capturing different type of brain
activity
EEG stands for electroencephalography/ electroencephalogram, which is a non-invasive
method for measuring the electrical activity of the brain.
Principle: An EEG works by recording the electrical signals generated by the brain's
neurons as they communicate with each other. The signals are recorded through electrodes
placed on the scalp and the resulting EEG pattern provides information about the
synchronized electrical activity of large populations of neurons.
Working:
 Patient sits or lies down with electrodes attached to scalp using a conductive gel or
paste.
 The electrode detects the electrical activity of the brain for 20-40 minutes as a
result of communication between neurons and transmit it to a computer for analysis
 The resulting pattern is a series of wavy lines with peaks and valleys that
correspond to different state of brain activity such as wakefulness, sleep and seizure
activity
EEG Signals and Types of Brain Activity
 EEG signals have unique features that correspond to different types of brain activity.

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 Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): associated with deep sleep, infancy, and brain disorders
such as brain damage or dementia.
 Theta waves (4-8 Hz): associated with sleep and relaxation, as well as meditation
and hypnosis.
 Alpha waves (8-12 Hz): associated with brain is relaxed and not focused on any
particular task.
 Beta waves (12-30 Hz): associated when brain is focused on a task, such as
problem-solving or decision-making. They are also associated with anxiety and
stress.
 Gamma waves (30-100 Hz): associated with high-level cognitive processing, such
as attention, perception, and memory.
Applications of EEG
An EEG can find changes in brain activity that might be useful in diagnosing brain disorders
· Diagnosis of Epilepsy:
· Sleep Studies
· Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI)
· Research on Brain Function
· Diagnosis of Brain Disorders
· Anesthesia Monitoring

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Explain the development of prosthetics arms. Add a note on its application

Explain the engineering solutions for Parkinson disease.
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement and motor
function
Cause: In Parkinson's disease, certain nerve cells (neurons) in the brain that controls
movement become gradually break down or die. Many of the symptoms are due to a loss
of neurons that produce a chemical messenger in brain called dopamine. When
dopamine levels decrease, it causes a typical brain activity, leading to impaired
movement and other symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
Symptoms: Tremors are common, but the disorder may also cause stiffness or slowing of
movement, sleep disorder, depression and anxiety
ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS TO THIS DISEASE ARE:
Engineering solutions: aimed at improving the quality of life for individuals with
Parkinson's disease, including:
1. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) - DBS involves the surgical implantation of electrodes
into specific regions of the brain to deliver electrical stimulation, which can help to
relieve symptoms such as tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
2. ENGINEERING NEURONS are another treatment method for this.
Transplantation of embryonic neurons can restore functional dopaminergic neurons in the
brains of patients with Parkinson's disease.

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 First obtained neuronal stem cells from mouse cells transfected with a transcription
factor that encourages cells to adopt a neuronal fate.
 They then co-cultured the cells with astrocytes, which release a factor that induces
development into dopaminergic neurons.
 The engineered cells released dopamine, and some maintained the characteristics of
dopaminergic neurons for up to two weeks after implantation into mouse brains.
•Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for
individuals with mobility issues. Some exoskeletons have been developed specifically for
people with Parkinson's disease, and can help to improve balance, reduce tremors, and
increase overall mobility.
•Tele rehabilitation: Tele rehabilitation involves the use of telecommunication
technology to provide physical therapy and rehabilitation services to individuals with
Parkinson's disease, without the need for in-person visits to a therapist.

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•Wearable technology/ Smart watch Applications: Smart watch, fitness trackers

applications can be used to monitor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, and
provide reminders and prompts for medication and exercise.
• Virtual Reality: Virtual reality systems can be used for rehabilitation and therapy for
individuals with Parkinson's disease, providing interactive and engaging environments
for patients to practice movements and improve coordination and balance.
Eye works as a camera. Explain the comparison.
The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera capture
light and is transformed into an image by the lens and the light-sensitive component. The
eye processes the image further, allowing for visual perception, while a camera stores the
image for later use.
The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:
· The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the eye functions like a camera lens, bending
light to focus it onto the retina.
· The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera, controlling the amount of
light that enters the eye.
· The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the size to control
the amount of light entering the eye.
· The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the light and
converting it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
· The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the camera to a
computer, transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to the brain.

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Add a note on common method of optical correction of vision problem

Optical corrections
Optical corrections refer to techniques used to improve or correct vision problems caused
by a refractive error in the eye
There are several types of refractive errors, including:
· Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making distant objects
appear blurry.
· Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near objects
appear blurry.
· Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or distorted
vision.
The most common optical corrections include:
· Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used to refocus light onto the retina,
improving vision.
· Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of contacts sit directly on the cornea and
work similarly to eyeglasses.
· Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can reshape the cornea
to correct refractive errors.
Ortokeratology: Special contact lens to reshape the cornea temporialy
Intraocular lenses- implanted in the eye to correct refractive errors in certain cases
Describe the cause and symptoms of cataracts. Explain the surgical procedure used
to treat cataracts and restore clear vision.
A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of the eye that affects the vision. For
people who have cataracts, seeing through cloudy lenses is a bit like looking through a
frosty or fogged-up window.
Cause:
As we age or due to other factors, the proteins in the lens can clump together and cause the
lens to become opaque, leading to vision problems.

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Signs and symptoms of cataracts include:

o Clouded, blurred or dim vision
o Increasing difficulty with vision at night
o Sensitivity to light and glare
o Need for brighter light for reading and other activities
o Seeing "halos" around lights
o Frequent changes in eyeglass or contact lens prescription
o Fading or yellowing of colors
Treatment:
cataract Surgery
The artificial lenses used in cataract surgery or for vision correction can be made of a clear
plastic material called Intraocular lens
Discuss the development of bionic eye/ Bionic eye is a type of prosthetic device.
Explain the working process of Bionic eye
A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant, is a type of prosthetic device that is surgically
implanted into the eye to help restore vision to people who have lost their sight due to
certain conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration
Principle: The camera captures images and sends signals to the processor, which then
transmits electrical stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the remaining
healthy cells and restore vision bypassing the damaged or non functioning cells

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Components:
The device typically consists of a camera, image sensors, microprocessors, receivers, radio
transmitters and an electrode array that is attached to the retina.
Working:
1. A bionic eye typically works by capturing images with a small camera and
transmitting the information to a processing unit that is attached to the eye.
2. The processing unit then converts the visual information into electrical signals
3. and sends them to an electrode array that is surgically implanted onto the retina.
4. The electrodes stimulate the remaining healthy cells in the retina, which then sends
signals to the brain to create the perception of vision
Materials Used in Bionic Eye
· Silicon or other semiconducting materials - camera and the electrode array.
· Conductive materials, such as platinum, iridium, or gold, for the electrodes in the array
to provide efficient electrical stimulation to the retina.
· Polymers, such as silicone or polyimide, for insulation and protection of the electrodes
and other components.

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· Optical materials, such as glass or acrylic, for the lens of the camera.
· Biocompatible and flexible materials for the electrical connections between the camera
and the processing unit and between the processing unit and the electrode array.
In addition to these materials, advanced computer algorithms and machine learning
techniques are also used to improve the accuracy and reliability of the bionic eye
Heart act as a Conducting system.
The heart's pumping action is controlled by a complex network of electrical and chemical
signals, which generate the rhythm of the heartbeat.
Specialized electrical system that regulates the timing and force for contraction
• Sinoatrial node Atrioventrical node Purkinje fibers
 An electrical stimulus is generated in a special part of the heart muscle called the
sinus node. It's also called the sinoatrial node (SA node).
 The sinus node is a small mass of special tissue in the right upper chamber of the
heart (right atrium) and act as natural pacemaker.
 In an adult, the sinus node sends out a regular electrical pulse 60 to 100 times per
minute.
 This electrical pulse travels down to AVN, located in the wall between the atria
and ventricles, which act as a sort of gate keeper, slowing down the impulses and
allowing them to pass through to the ventricles at appropriate time
 From AVN the impulses reach the ventricles through the conduction pathways
called purkinjie fibers and causes the heart's lower chambers (ventricles) to
contract and pump out blood.
 The right and left atria are stimulated first and contract to push blood from the
atria into the ventricles.
 The ventricles then contract to push blood out into the blood vessels of the body.

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Describe the architecture of heart/ Heart act as a pumping system.

The heart is a complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the body.
Location: Chest , Slightly to left
Size: Fist size
Chambers: It consists of four chambers:
the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle The left ventricle
Atria: Upper chambers – Receive blood from the body (right) and the lungs( left)
Ventricles: Lower chambers – Pumps the blood out of the heart to body (left) and the
lungs( right)
Halves: 2
1. Right half- pumping deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs where it is
oxygenated
2. Left half- Pumping oxygen rich blood from the lungs to rest of the body
Sac: The heart is also surrounded by the pericardium, a sac that contains a small amount of
fluid and helps to protect and lubricate the heart as it beats.
Bloody Supply: Coronary arteries, wrap around the heart. Supply blood and nutrients to
heart
Pumping action: Sinoatrial node Atrioventrical node Purkinje fibers
Working:

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• The blood first enters the right atrium from the body. The blood then flows through
the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
• When the heart beats, the Right ventricle pushes blood through the pulmonic
valve into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery carries blood to the lungs
for oxygenation.
• It then leaves the lungs to return to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
• The blood enters the left atrium. It drops through the mitral valve into the left
ventricle.
• Oxygenated blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium, which pumps
the blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps the oxygenated
blood through the aortic valve and into the aorta
• The aorta is the artery that feeds the rest of the body through a system of blood
vessels.
• Blood returns to the heart from the body via two large blood vessels called the
superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.
• This blood carries little oxygen, as it is returning from the body where oxygen was
used. The vena cava pump blood into the right atrium and the cycle begins all over
again.
• Between each chamber, there are one-way valves that ensure the blood flows in the
correct direction and prevent backflow.

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Illustrate a role of ECG

ECG-Electro cardiogram
• An ECG measures the electrical signals produced by the heart as it beats and generates a
trace or waveform that reflects the electrical activity of the heart.
• The ECG is a useful tool for diagnosing and monitoring heart-related issues and helps to
provide important information about the heart's function and health.
Some common heart-related issues that can be diagnosed or monitored using an ECG
include:
· Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate that can be either too fast
(tachycardia) or too slow (brady cardia) detected using an ECG.
· Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the presence of
heart disease, such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
· Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting changes in the heart's
electrical activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the heart.
· Heart Failure: This is the condition in which heart is unable to pump enough blood to
meet the body needs.
Mention the heart disease and reason for blockage
Heart disease is a collection of issues that can affect heart
Heart diseases include:
1. Blood vessel disease - Coronary artery disease
2. Irregular heartbeats - Arrhythmias
3. Heart problems - Congenital heart defects
4. Disease of the heart muscle - Cardiomyopathy
5. Heart valve disease – Endocarditis
Reasons for Blockage:
· High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol
in the blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels, which can narrow or
block them.

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· High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood
vessels, leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
· Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and promote the
buildup of plaque, leading to blockages.
· Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing blockages
in their blood vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high levels of glucose.
Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible, increasing the risk
of blockages.
· Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their blood vessels
due to genetic factors.
· Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can increase the risk of
developing blockages in the blood vessels.
Discuss the Principle, design, Instrumentation, working of Stents

Stents are small, metal mesh devices that are used to treat blockages in blood vessels.
They are typically used in procedures such as angioplasty, where a balloon catheter is used
to open up a blocked blood vessel and a stent is placed to keep it open
Why Would You Need a Stent?/ Cause

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• If a fatty substance called plaque builds up inside an artery, it can reduce blood flow
to heart. This is called coronary heart disease and it can cause chest pain.
• The plaque can also cause a blood clot that blocks blood flowing to your heart,
which may lead to a heart attack.
• By keeping an artery open, stents lower your risk of chest pain. They can also treat a
heart attack that's in progress.
· Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, helical, and
spiraled, to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support
Most stents are made out of wire mesh and are permanent. Some are made out of fabric.
These are called stent grafts and are often used for larger arteries.
Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel, cobalt,
chromium
· Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials to prevent blood clots from forming
and reduce the risk of restenosis (recurrent blockage of the blood vessel).
· Expansion mechanism: Stents can be designed to expand in different ways, such as by
balloon inflation or self-expansion
Discuss the Principle, design, Instrumentation, working of pacemaker
Definition: A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the chest to
regulate the heartbeat. It is used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as bradycardia (a
slow heartbeat) or arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms), by delivering electrical
impulses to the heart to regulate its rhythm.
Basic design/ Working:
The basic design/ Working of a pacemaker consist of
· Generator: The generator is the main component of the pacemaker and contains a
battery and electronic circuitry to generate and control the electrical impulses.
· Leads: Leads are thin wires that connect the generator to the heart and carry the
electrical impulses from the generator to the heart.

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· Electrodes: The electrodes are located at the end of the leads and are used to deliver the
electrical impulses to the heart.
Label the parts

Construction of Pacemaker/ Materials Used
· Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to
construct the exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the
internal components.
· Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the
leads and electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
· Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries,
capacitors, and high-voltage transformers, are used to control the delivery of the
electrical impulses and to provide power to the device.
· Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the
components of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal
components.
The manufacturing process for pacemakers includes multiple quality control measures to
ensure their safety and reliability.
Pacemakers can be designed to work in different ways, including:
· Single-chamber pacemaker: A single-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to
either the right atrium or the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
· Dual-chamber pacemaker: A dual-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to
both the right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.

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· Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to both

ventricles of the heart to coordinate their contractions and improve heart function in
people with heart failure.
Discuss the Principle, design, Instrumentation, working of Defibrillator
Definition: A defibrillator is a medical device that delivers an electric shock to the heart to
restore its normal rhythm in cases of cardiac arrest or other life-threatening heart rhythm
disorders.
Defibrillators can be external (placed on the chest) or internal (implanted within the body).
Basic Design/ Working
The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
· Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver the
electric shock to the heart.
· Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electric shock to the
heart to restore normal rhythm..
· Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electric shock,
including the timing, strength, and duration of the shock.
· Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart rhythm,
battery life, and other relevant information.
Construction of defibrillators / Materials Used
· Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used to
construct the exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the
internal components.
· Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction of the
leads and electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting performance.
· Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors, batteries,
capacitors, and high-voltage transformers, are used to control the delivery of the
electrical impulses and to provide power to the device.

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· Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the
components of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal
components.
Explain Artificial Heart
Definition: An artificial heart is a device that is designed to replace the functions of a
damaged or failing heart.
It can be used as a temporary measure to support a patient while they are waiting for a
heart transplant, or as a permanent solution for people who are not eligible for a heart
transplant.
There are two main types of artificial hearts:
1. total artificial hearts
2. heart assist devices.
A total artificial heart is a self-contained device that completely replaces the functions of
the natural heart. It is used as a bridge to transplant, meaning it provides temporary
support to a patient while they are waiting for a heart transplant.
Heart assist devices, on the other hand, are devices that are surgically implanted into the
heart and work alongside the natural heart to support its functions.
Architecture of rod and cone cells
Photoreceptors in the retina are classified into two groups, named after their physical
morphologies.
1. RODS – Rod shape
2. CONES- Cylindrical or cone Shape
The architecture of these cells and their connections to other cells in retina, including
bipolar cells and ganglion cells which transmit signals to the brain through the optic nerve
allows for the processing of visual information including motion detection contrast
enhancement and pattern recognition

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Rods Cones
Number 120 million 6 million
Vision Responsible for vision in Responsible for color
light condition, they are vision in bright light
more sensitive to light condition
Light function in night vision In Bright
Pigment Rhodopsin, which Different types of pigments
absorbs light and each of which is sensitive
initiates the electrical to different range of
signal that is sent to wavelengths of light allows
brain us to see a range of colors
and distinguish between
different shades
Packed Densely packed in the Densely packed in the
peripheral regions of center of retina
retina

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Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung physiology - COPD,
Ventilators, Heart-lung machine). Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration, CKD, dialysis
systems). Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds (architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering solutions for muscular
dystrophy and osteoporosis).
Lungs as purification system

The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the
bloodstream. The process of purifying air in the lungs can be described as follows:
Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful
substances in the air, such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose, called cilia,
and the mucus produced by the respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them
from entering the lungs.
Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the
respiratory tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying
out.
Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where
oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and
carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to
be exhaled. This process ensures that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich
air, while waste carbon dioxide is removed from the body.
Overall, the lung serves as a vital purification system, filtering out harmful substances,
adding oxygen to the bloodstream, and removing waste carbon dioxide. It plays a critical
role in maintaining the body's homeostasis and supporting life.
Architecture

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• Number: Pair (Right and left)

• Location: Thoracic cavity.
• Color: Brown or Grey
• Weight: Right lung - 445g, Left lung-395g
• Separated - from each other by the heart and great vessels and other structures in
the mediastinum.
• Covered - with visceral pleura, and suspended free in its own pleural cavity,
• Each lung - blunt apex, concave base that sits on the diaphragm
• Middle of lung - the hilum, a depression in which the bronchi, vessels, and nerves
that form the root enter and leave the lung.
The architecture of the lung is designed to maximize surface area for efficient gas exchange.
The lung is divided into several parts, including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and
alveoli.
Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the
lungs. It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful
substances and trap them in the mucus.
Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are
larger airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli.
They are surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange.
Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This
allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli
and the bloodstream.
Gas exchange mechanisms
1. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which bringing atmospheric air into & out of
lungs (CO2 rich alveolar air )
2 PHASES
Inhalation (inspiration)- air flowing into lungs

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Exhalation (expiration)- air living lungs

2. External Respiration: exchange of gases between air & blood in the alveoli
3. Internal Respiration :exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide between blood & body
cells
The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the air in
the alveoli to the bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream to the air in the alveoli. This process is known as diffusion and occurs due
to differences in partial
pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than
the partial pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that
causes oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the bloodstream, where it binds to
hemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin.
Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is
higher than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference
creates a gradient that causes carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the
alveoli, where it is exhaled.
Spirometry
Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by measuring the
amount and flow rate of air that can be exhaled. The test is commonly used to diagnose
lung conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and
interstitial lung disease.
Principle: The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume of air that can be
exhaled from the lungs in a given time period. By measuring the volume of air exhaled,
spirometry can provide information about the functioning of the lungs and the ability of the
lungs to move air in and out.
Working: Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a
mouthpiece, a flow sensor, and a volume sensor.

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The patient is asked to exhale as much air as possible into the spirometer, and the
spirometer measures the volume and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume of air
exhaled is displayed on a graph called a flow-volume loop, which provides information
about the lung function.
Spirometry measures two main components:
• Forced vital capacity (FVC). FVC is the highest amount of air that can be breathed
out after taking a deep breath in.
• Forced expiratory volume (FEV1). FEV1 is the amount of air breathed out in one
second.
Interpretation of Results
The results of spirometry can be used to determine if the lungs are functioning normally
and to diagnose lung conditions.
Application/Uses:
• Assesses the integrated mechanical functions of lungs, chest wall and respiratory
muscles.
• The gold standard for diagnosis, assessment and monitoring of obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect breathing.
• Assess one aspect of response to therapy
• Perform pre-operative assessment
• Distinguish between obstruction and restriction as causes of breathlessness
Abnormal lung physiology
Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal functioning of the
respiratory system. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including diseases, injuries,
orgenetic conditions.
Some common examples of abnormal lung physiology include:
Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow, making it
difficult to breathe.

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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease that

makes it hard to breathe and can include conditions such as emphysema and chronic
bronchitis.
Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs, making it
difficult to breathe and reducing lung function.
Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause inflammation and fluid buildup in
the air sacs.
Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by a blood
clot, which can cause lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the body.
Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can impair lung function by
interfering with normal air flow and oxygen exchange.
Symptom: shortness of breath, wheezing, or chest pain
Treatment: Medications, lifestyle changes, or surgery.
COPD - Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
COPD is a group of conditions in which there is persistent difficulty in expelling (or
exhaling) air from the lungs.
It includes two diseases:
A- Chronic bronchitis
B- Emphysema.

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In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged or blocked,
leading to difficulty in exhaling air. This results in a decrease in lung function, leading to
shortness of breath, wheezing, and coughing. Over time, these symptoms can get worse and
limit a person's ability to perform everyday activities.
Cause: long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, and dust.
Other risk
Ventilators
Ventilators are medical devices used to generates a controlled flow of blended air and
oxygen into a patient’s airway who are unable to breathe adequately on their own.
Working: Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through
a breathing tube or mask. The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to
help maintain adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
Types of ventilator
1. Invasive ventilation or conventional mechanical ventilation (MV)
Ventilatory support that is given without establishing endotracheal intubation or
tracheostomy
Example: Face mask ventilators

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2. Non invasive ventilation (NIV)

Ventilatory support that is given through endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy
i.e., work via tubes that a doctor inserts through a hole in the neck that leads to the
trachea, or windpipe
Example: Mechanical and Tracheostomy ventilators
Application/Uses: In the treatment of acute respiratory failure, which can occur as a result
of a variety of conditions such as pneumonia, severe asthma, and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD).
Disadvantages:
Prolonged use of a ventilator can increase the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia
patients may experience discomfort or pain from the breathing tube.
Heart-lung machine or cardiopulmonary bypass machine
A heart-lung machine is a device used in cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over
the functions of the heart and lungs.
Principle: The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body through
a series of tubes and pumps.
Working:
 Consists of a chamber that receives the Deoxygenated blood (Venous) from the body
which is the responsibility of the right atrium of the heart to CPB machine
 The machine then pumps the blood through an oxygenator, which is the function of
the right ventricle.
 Oxygenator removes CO2 and adds oxygen to the blood, which is the typical
function of the lungs
 The machine then continues by pumping the newly oxygenated blood back to the
body, which is the function of the left atrium and ventricle.

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Instrumentation:
1. Venous and arterial cannula (tubes)
2. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or silicone tubing
3.Reservoir(to hold blood)
4.Membrane oxygenator
5. Cardiotomy (filtered reservoir)
6.Heat exchanger(s)-tubes are placed in a waterbath
7.Pump(s)- typically includes up to five pumpassemblies
8. Flow meter

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9. Inline blood gas and electrolyte analyzer

10. Pressure-monitoring devices.
Application/Uses:
The heart-lung machine is used during open-heart surgery, such as coronary artery bypass
graft (CABG) surgery and valve replacement surgery, to support the patient's circulatory
and respiratory functions while the heart is stopped.
Kidney as a filtration system
The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. It removes
waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of
electrolytes,
hormones, and other substances that are critical for the body's normal functioning.
The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by secreting the
hormone renin, which helps control the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the body. It also
regulates red blood cell production and the levels of various minerals in the blood, such as
calcium and phosphorus.
Without the kidney, waste and excess fluid would accumulate in the body, leading to
serious health problems.
Architecture
Kidney - External anatomy
• Number: 2 Paired –Right and Left
• Color- Reddish
• Size – 3 x 6 x 12 cm
• Weight – 130 g
• Shape – Bean shaped
• Location – Lie on the posterior abdominal wall
Kidney - External Features
1. Renal capsule – fibrous connective tissue
2. Perirenal fat

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3. Renal fascia – fibro elastic connective tissue

• Hilum of the kidney
• Concave medial border of the kidney
• Structures enter / leave through the hilum (from anterior to posterior),
1. Renal vein
2. Renal artery
3. Ureter
4. Renal nerves and Lymphatics
Kidney - Internal Features
Components of kidney are arranged in three layers:
1. Outer - Renal cortex
• A reddish, brown, layer of tissue immediately below the capsule and outside the
pyramids
• Divide into outer cortical zone and inner juxtamedullary cortex
• Cortex is dark , Smooth and granular in appearance.
• It contains renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules.
2. Inner – Renal medulla
• The innermost layer consisting of pale conical shape striations
• In between renal pyramids – Renal columns
• Broad base of each pyramid is in contact with cortex and the apex projects into
minor calyx.
3. Renal sinus
Renal sinus consists of the following structures:
i. Upper expanded part of ureter called renal pelvis
ii. Subdivisions of pelvis: 2 or 3 major calyces and about 8 minor calyces
iii. Branches of nerves, arteries and tributaries of veins
iv. Loose connective tissues and fat.

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Explain Structure of Nephron /Structural and functional unit of Kidney

The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, long tube-like structure, its
length varying from 35–55 mm which are the basic structural and functional units of the
kidney.
Each nephron consists of two major portions :
1. RENAL CORPUSLES (GLOMERULUS + BOWMAN’S CAPSULE)
found in cortex
forms a protein-free filtrate from blood
2. RENAL TUBULE
found in medulla
processes the filtrate to form urine
The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the glomerulus and
filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream into the renal tubule.
Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule that filters
waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream.
Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important
substances, such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the
reabsorption of ions and water.
Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels of

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electrolytes and other important substances in the bloodstream.

Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules and
transport it to the renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the
bladder.
The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including the afferent
arteriole and the efferent arteriole, which bring blood into and out of the glomerulus,
respectively. The filtrate produced by the nephron passes through the renal tubules, where
it is modified by reabsorption and secretion, before being eliminated from the body as
urine.
Functions: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Mechanism of filtration/Urine formation

Urine formation takes place in three processes:
1. Glomerular filtration: Plasma is filtered in glomeruli and the substances reach the renal
tubules along with water as filtrate.
2. Tubular Reabsorption: The 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed in different segments of renal
tubules.
3. Tubular Secretion: Some substances are transported from blood into the renal tubule.
With all these changes, the filtrate becomes urine

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The mechanism of filtration in the kidneys is a complex process that involves multiple
steps to remove waste and excess fluids from the bloodstream.
The following is a summary of the steps involved in the filtration process:
Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries and flows into tiny filtering units
called glomeruli.
At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the plasma and
dissolved substances to filter out and enter a structure called Bowman's capsule.
In Bowman's capsule, the filtrate is then transferred into the renal tubules, which are the
main filtering units of the kidneys.
In the renal tubules, the filtrate passes through a series of specialized cells, such as
proximal tubular cells and distal tubular cells, which reabsorb important substances such
as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes back into the bloodstream.
At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine,
back into the filtrate.
Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and
ureters to the bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the body.
This process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion helps to maintain the proper balance
of fluids and electrolytes in the body, as well as to remove waste and excess substances.
CKD

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Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) it is a long-term condition in which the kidneys gradually
become less able to function properly.
• This leads to a decreased ability to remove waste products from the body and
perform homeostatic functions.
• GFR of less than 60 ml/minute per 1.73m2 per body surface area (normal is
125ml/min) .
Cause: diabetes, high blood pressure, and other health problems that damage the kidneys.
Symptoms: fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping, and difficulty
concentrating. As the disease progresses, it can lead to more serious complications, such as
anemia, nerve damage, and an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.
Diagnosis
 Laboratory tests
• Renal sonogram/Renal ultrasound
• Renal biopsy
• Renal scan
Treatment:
 lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and exercising regularly, as well as
medications to manage symptoms and underlying health conditions.
 In severe cases, kidney transplant or dialysis may be necessary.
Dialysis systems
Dialysis is an artificial process for removing waste and excess water from the blood, and is
used primarily as an artificial replacement for lost kidney function in people with renal
failure.
PURPOSE
• to maintain fluid electrolyte and acid base balance
• to remove endogenous and exogenous toxins
Principles: Dialysis works on the principles of
• Diffusion of solutes

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• Ultrafiltration of fluid across a semipermeable membrane

Instrumentation
a. Dialyzer
b. Dialysate
c. Blood delivery system
Dialyzer (Artificial Kidney)
Plastic chamber - contains hollow-fiber that contain thousands of tiny/ capillary tubules
that act as semipermeable membranes.
• The blood flows through the tubules, while a solution (the dialysate) circulates
around the tubules in opposite counter current direction
• The exchange of wastes from the blood to the dialysate occurs through the
semipermeable membrane of the tubules - Diffusion & ultrafiltration
Dialysate also called dialysis fluid, dialysis solution or bath
• is a solution of pure water, electrolytes and salts, such as bicarbonate and sodium.
• The purpose of dialysate is to pull toxins from the blood into the dialysate.
Blood Delivery system
• Blood Pump - moves blood from access site through the dialyzer & back to the
patient
• Blood flow Rate - 250-500 ml/min
There are two main types of dialysis systems:
1. Hemodialysis
2. Peritoneal dialysis.
Hemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood. During hemodialysis,
blood is removed from the body, passed through a dialysis machine that filters out waste
and excess fluids, and then returned to the body.
Hemodialysis typically takes place in a hospital or dialysis center, and is typically
performed three times a week for three to four hours at a time.

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Peritoneal dialysis is a type of dialysis that uses the lining of the abdomen, called the
peritoneum, to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. A sterile solution is introduced
into the abdomen, where it absorbs waste and excess fluids, and is then drained and
replaced with fresh solution.
Peritoneal dialysis can be performed at home and allows for more flexibility in scheduling.
Muscular Systems
• Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40% -50% of the body
weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
• Muscles have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and
elasticity.
• Muscles have been classified by different criteria, based on their location,
appearance and nature of regulation of their activities.
Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified
• Visceral (SM)
• Cardiac
• Skeletal
Properties Visceral (Smooth) Cardiac Skeletal

Location alimentary canal, Heart skeletal components
reproductive tract, etc. of the body
Striation Nonstriated muscle striated muscle striated muscle
voluntary involuntary muscles involuntary voluntary muscles
muscles
Structure Spindle shape Cylindrical Cylindrical

branched unbranched
Nucleated Single Uninucleated Multinucleated

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Muscular and Skeletal Systems as architecture

• Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a protective layer called endomysium.
• Skeletal muscle in our body is made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles held
together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer called fascia.
• Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres. Each muscle fibre is lined
by the plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing the sarcoplasm.
• The endoplasmic reticulum, i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres is the
store house of calcium ions.
• Inside the muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of parallelly arranged
filaments in the sarcoplasm called myofilaments or myofibrils.
• Myofibrils are made up of smaller units called sarcomeres, which are responsible
for muscle contraction. Sarcomeres contain thin (Actin) and thick filaments
(Myosin) that work together to make the muscle fibers contract.
Mechanisms of Muscle contraction/ Contraction and relaxation of Muscle

• Mechanism of muscle contraction is explained by the sliding filament theory.
• The contraction of a muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments
over the thick filaments.
• Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the CNS via a motor neuron.
• The junction between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is
called the neuromuscular junction or motor-end plate.

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Muscular Systems as scaffolds

Muscles have the potential to be used as scaffolds for the regeneration of tissues due to
their inherent mechanical properties and ability to support cell growth and tissue
formation.
The basic steps in this process are as follows:
Harvesting of muscle cells: Muscle cells are typically obtained from the patient and
then isolated and expanded in culture.
Cell removal: The living cells within the muscle tissue are removed using a process
called decellularization. This involves treating the tissue with specific chemical solutions or
enzymes that break down and wash away the cellular components, while preserving the
ECM.
ECM scaffold: The remaining ECM, which forms the structure of the muscle, is now a
scaffold. It consists of proteins, such as collagen and elastin, and other molecules that
provide support and signals for tissue growth.
Seeding onto scaffold: The muscle cells are then seeded onto a scaffold, such as a
hydrogel or artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow and
differentiate into new tissue.
Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are seeded onto the scaffold,
they undergo differentiation, in which they change into specific cell types, such as muscle
cells or heart cells. The cells also begin to organize and form new tissue, such as heart
tissue or skeletal muscle tissue.
Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then implanted into the patient to
promote the growth of new, functional tissue.

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Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive weakness
and degeneration of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for movement.
Cause: By mutations in genes that encode proteins-dystrophin needed for muscle
function.
Symptom: muscle weakness that begins in the muscles close to the body and later affects
muscles in the outer limbs.
• Progressive muscular wasting
• Poor balance
• Atrophy
• Scoliosis (curvature of the spine and the back)
• Inability to walk
• Frequent falls
• Waddling gait
• Calf deformation
• Muscle spasms.
• Gowers' sign

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Diagnosis :
• Muscle biopsy
• Increased creatine phosphokinase (CpK3)
• Electromyography
• Electrocardiography
• DNA analysis
Treatment: Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy
Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing or mutated gene
to the affected muscle cells. The goal is to restore the production of the missing protein and
improve muscle function.
Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged muscle cells
and promote repair and regeneration of the muscle tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the
patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
Exoskeleton technology: This involves using wearable devices, such as robotic
exoskeletons, to support and enhance the movement of individuals with muscular
dystrophy. The devices use motors and sensors to mimic the movements of the wearer and
help improve mobility.
Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials, such as scaffolds
and growth factors, to promote the growth and repair of muscle tissue. The goal is to create
functional muscle tissue that can replace the damaged tissue in individuals with muscular
dystrophy.
Skeletal Systems
The skeletal system of human beings refers to the framework of bones, joints, and
connective tissues that provide structure, support, and protection to the body.
The key components and functions of the skeletal system are:
1. Bones: The human body consists of 206 bones that vary in size and shape. Bones are
composed of hard and dense connective tissue that provides strength and support. They

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serve as the anchor points for muscles, protect internal organs, and store minerals like
calcium and phosphorus.
2. Cartilage
 Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in certain joints and structures such as
the ears and nose.
 It acts as a cushion between bones, reducing friction and absorbing shock.
 protects the bones
3. Joints – Place were two bones meet
• Ball and Socket - Ex. Shoulder and Hip
• Hinge Joint :Ex. Knee and Elbow
• Pivot Joint : Ex. Neck, Wrist and Ankles
• Fixed Immovable: Ex. Skull
• Gliding Joint: Ex. Knuckles
4. Ligaments & Tendons - The Connectors of the Body
• Ligaments are long bands of tissue that connect bones to joint (Bone) providing
stability and preventing excessive movement.
• Tendons- Attaches bone and Muscle
Tendons are strong fibrous tissues that connect muscles to bones, enabling movement by
transmitting the force generated by muscles.
Functions:
• MOVEMENT: Allows for muscle attachment therefore the bones are used as levers.
• SUPPORT: Hard framework that supports and anchors the soft organs of the body
• PROTECTION: Surrounds organs such as the brain and spinal cord.
• BLOOD CELL FORMATION: The bone marrow is responsible for blood cell production.
• STORAGE: Minerals and lipids are stored within bone material.
Skeletal Systems as scaffolds
Scaffold-based tissue engineering is a field that aims to create artificial scaffolds to support
the growth and regeneration of tissues and organs.

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• The natural structure of the skeletal system can serve as a scaffold or template for
tissue engineering purposes.
• For example, bone tissue engineering often involves the use of scaffolds to facilitate the
repair and regeneration of bone defects or injuries. Synthetic or natural biomaterial
scaffolds, designed to mimic the properties of bone, can be used to fill the void left by a
bone defect.
The basic steps in this process are as follows:
Harvesting of bone cells: Bone cells are typically obtained from the patient and then
isolated and expanded in culture.
Cell removal: The living cells within the bone tissue are removed using a process called
decellularization. This involves treating the tissue with specific chemical solutions or
enzymes that break down and wash away the cellular components, while preserving the
ECM.
ECM scaffold: scaffolds are coated with ECM derived gels or ECM- like gels to enhance
biocompatibility and to promote cell seeding.
The scaffold provides a three-dimensional structure that supports the attachment,
proliferation, and differentiation of cells involved in bone regeneration. Over time, the
scaffold can be replaced by newly formed bone tissue, resulting in the restoration of bone
structure and function.
Additional steps, such as surface modifications, incorporation of bioactive molecules may
be necessary to optimize the scaffold's effectiveness for promoting tissue regeneration.
Different types of scaffold material- Polymeric scaffold , Ceramic scaffolds , Metallic
scaffolds:
Seeding onto scaffold: The bone cells are then seeded onto a scaffold, such as a hydrogel
or artificial matrix.
Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are seeded onto the scaffold,
they undergo differentiation, in which they change into specific cell types.

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Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then implanted into the patient to
promote the growth of new, functional tissue.
Typical bone tissue engineering (BTE) approach.

Bone defects are commonly healed through the use of scaffolds which are comprised of
osteoprogenitor cells, relevant biomaterials and biochemical molcues, such as growth
factors.
Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens the bones and makes them more likely to break
(fracture), especially the bones in the hip, spine, and wrist.
Cause: It occurs when the body loses bone mass and density more quickly than it can be
replaced, leading to fragile bones that are prone to fracture.
Treatment:
1. Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis
Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis aim to improve bone health and prevent
fractures. Some of the approaches being explored include:

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Tissue engineering: This involves using scaffolds and growth factors to stimulate the
growth of new bone tissue and promote the repair of damaged bones. The goal is to create
functional bone tissue that can replace the lost bone mass and density in individuals with
osteoporosis.
Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged bone cells and
promote the repair and regeneration of bone tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the
patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
Biomaterials: This involves using synthetic or natural materials to replace or augment
damaged bone tissue. Biomaterials can be designed to mimic the properties of natural bone
and promote the growth of new bone tissue.
Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of a gene involved in bone
growth and repair to the affected bone cells. The goal is to restore the production of the
missing protein and improve bone health.
2. Others
Medications: Bisphosphonates, denosumab, and teriparatide are some of the
medications that can slow down bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures.
Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation: Calcium and Vitamin D are essential for
healthy bones, and taking supplements can help maintain bone mass.
Exercise: Weight-bearing and resistance exercises can help improve bone density and
reduce the risk of fractures.
Lifestyle changes: Quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, and eating a healthy
diet that includes enough calcium and Vitamin D can help maintain healthy bones.
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Module - 4 NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Echolocation (ultrasonography, sonars), Photosynthesis (photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf). Bird flying (GPS and aircrafts),
Lotus leaf effect (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces), Plant burrs (Velcro), Shark skin (Friction reducing swim
suits), Kingfisher beak (Bullet train). Human Blood substitutes - hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and
perflourocarbons (PFCs).
ECHOLOCATION (ULTRASONOGRAPHY, SONARS)

Explain the Echolocation and its application

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Comparison of sound emission and sensory reception organs/devices in biological

and technological systems:
Biological System Technological System
Sound Biological organisms, such as bats and Technological systems rely on
Emission cetaceans, have specialized sound artificial sound emission devices,
emission organs to produce sounds for such as speakers or transducers, to
echolocation. generate sound waves for
 Bats emit sounds using their larynx echolocation.
and modify the emitted sounds Ultrasonic sensors or sonar
using structures like the nose leaf or systems
mouth cavity. emit sound waves through these
 Dolphins and whales emit sounds devices, typically using
through their blowholes, producing piezoelectric
clicks or vocalizations. elements or transducers.
Sensory Biological organisms possess Technological systems use sensors
Reception specialized sensory reception organs and receivers to capture and
that allow them process the returning echoes.
to detect and interpret the returning  Ultrasonic sensors are
echoes. commonly employed, which
 Bats have highly sensitive ears consist of a transducer that
designed to detect and analyze emits sound waves and receives
ultrasonic frequencies. the echoes.
 Dolphins and some whales also  Sonar systems often
receive echoes through their incorporate hydrophones or
lower jaw. The jawbone conducts other specialized underwater
sound vibrations to the middle microphones to detect and
ear, where they are converted into interpret the echoes.
nerve impulses for interpretation
by the brain.
A] ULTRASONOGRAPHY
Apply the concept of echolocation in the field of science. Explain the principle and process
in detail / Explain the application of Echolocation in ultrasonography/ What are the
different components of ultrasonography

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Figure: Representing working principle of ultrasonography

Advantages of Ultrasonography
Non-invasive
No ionizing radiation
Real-time imaging
Portable
Cost-effective
Versatile
Limitations of Ultrasonography
Limited depth
Operator dependence
Limited resolution
Limitations in overweight patients
Limitations in detecting some types of cancer
B] SONARS
Apply the concept of echolocation in the field of science. Explain the principle and process
in detail / Explain the application of Echolocation in sonars/ What are the different
components of Sonars

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Figure: Representing working principle of sonar

Advantages of Sonar Technology
Versatility
Cost-effective
Non-invasive
Real-time imaging
High resolution
Limitations of Sonar Technology
Limited visibility
Interference
Short range
Limited depth
Acoustic noise
Complex technology
Inaccurate readings
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS, BIONIC LEAF)
Discuss the comparison of Photosynthesis in plant with photovoltaic cells and bionic leaf/
Construct the model of Bionic leaf to demonstrate how it will work
A] PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:

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B] BIONIC LEAF:
A flow chart of the working principle of bionic leaf is given below:

Sunlight is captured and directed to the bionic leaf.
↓
The bionic leaf contains a catalyst (typically a special type of bacteria or an artificial catalyst)
and a water-splitting enzyme.
↓
Sunlight energy is used to split water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen (O2)

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through a process called photolysis.

↓
The hydrogen ions (H+) generated from water splitting combine with electrons from an
external source (e.g., a wire) to form hydrogen gas (H2).
↓
The oxygen gas (O2) produced during water splitting is released into the atmosphere.
↓
The generated hydrogen gas (H2) can be collected and stored for later use as a clean and
renewable energy source.
↓
The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or a supplied source.
↓
The absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon-based compounds, such as formic
acid or methane, through a reduction reaction.
↓
The carbon-based compounds can be used as a fuel or converted into other useful chemicals.
↓
The bionic leaf operates in a closed-loop system, where the produced oxygen (O2) during water
splitting is reused by the catalyst in subsequent cycles.

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BIRD FLYING (GPS AND AIRCRAFTS)

What is the basic principle of the flying of the bird and aircraft and GPS?
A] GPS Technology
GPS (Global Positioning System) is a technology that uses a network of satellites to provide
location and time information to users. The technology works by measuring the time it
takes for signals to travel from satellites to a receiver on the ground or in a vehicle, and
using this information to calculate the user's position.
Here are some key components of GPS technology:
Satellites: The GPS satellite network consists of 24-32 satellites orbiting the Earth. These
satellites continuously broadcast signals containing information about their location, time,
and status.
Receivers: GPS receivers, which are typically integrated into devices such as
smartphones, navigation systems, and aircraft, receive signals from GPS satellites and use
the information to calculate the user's position.
Control segment: The control segment consists of ground-based monitoring stations
that track the GPS satellites, check the accuracy of their signals, and make adjustments as
needed.
User segment: The user segment consists of the GPS receivers used by individuals and
organizations to obtain location and time information.
Figure: Representing GPS

GPS technology has a wide range of applications, including navigation, mapping, surveying,
search and rescue, and military operations.

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Importance of GPS Technology in Aircrafts

GPS technology is essential for aircraft navigation and guidance.
Positioning and Navigation: GPS helps aircraft accurately determine their position and
follow precise routes. Signals from satellites are received by GPS receivers onboard,
allowing the system to calculate the aircraft's position.
Flight Planning: GPS assists pilots and planners in creating optimal flight plans,
considering waypoints, altitudes, and current information on navigation aids, weather, and
airspace restrictions.
Approach and Landing: GPS-based navigation systems provide precise guidance during
approach and landing, even in low visibility. This enhances safety and reduces reliance on
ground-based navigation aids.
Air Traffic Management: GPS is integrated into air traffic management systems,
improving airspace efficiency, reducing congestion, optimizing routing, and enhancing
aircraft tracking and situational awareness for controllers.
Collision Avoidance: GPS contributes to collision avoidance systems like TCAS and ADS-
B. These systems use GPS data to track nearby aircraft, provide alerts, and ensure safe
separation.
Flight Data Recording: GPS data is often recorded by flight data recording systems,
aiding post-flight analysis, accident investigation, and overall flight safety
improvements.GPS technology has revolutionized aircraft navigation and has become an
integral part of modern aviation. It provides accurate positioning, enhances safety,
improves operational efficiency, and contributes to the overall advancement of the aviation
industry.
Comparing Birds and Aircrafts with GPS Technology for Navigation

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Table: Comparison between birds and aircraft with GPS technology for navigation
Criteria Aircrafts Birds
Mechanism GPS technology in aircraft Birds use a combination of visual cues,
relies on signals received magnetic fields, landmarks, and celestial
from satellites to determine navigation to navigate and orient
precise position, velocity, and themselves during flight.
time.
Accuracy GPS technology provides Birds have remarkable navigational
highly accurate position abilities but may not possess the same level
information with a margin of of accuracy as GPS. However, birds can
error typically within a few adjust their flight path based on real-time
meters. environmental cues, which allows for more
dynamic and adaptable navigation.
Sensory GPS technology relies solely Birds integrate various sensory inputs for
Input on receiving satellite signals. navigation. They can perceive and interpret
visual cues, such as landmarks and the
position
of the sun or stars, and they may also have
sensitivity to Earth's magnetic field,
enabling them to navigate across vast
distances.
Adaptability GPS technology in aircraft Birds, on the other hand, demonstrate
provides consistent and remarkable adaptability in their navigation
reliable navigation regardless abilities. They can adjust their flight paths
of the environmental based on changing weather conditions,
conditions or time of day. wind patterns, and other factors, which
allows for efficient long-distance migration
and navigation through complex
landscapes.
Evolutionary GPS technology is a Birds, however, have evolved over millions
Aspect humanmade innovation of years, developing specialized neural and
designed to enhance physiological adaptations that enable them
navigation and safety to navigate and fly efficiently in diverse
in aircraft. habitats.
B] Aircraft Technology
What is the basic principle of the flying of the bird and aircraft / Bio Mimicking Birds Fly
for Aircraft Technology? Explain.
The basic principle of the flying of the bird and aircraft is same.

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 Both birds and aircraft uses their wings to produce lift, which allows them to rise into air
and stay. In addition to lift, both birds and airplanes use their wings or engines to
generate thrust, which propels them forward towards the air.
 Both birds and aircraft use their tail feathers or tail surface to control pitches, or the
angle at which they fly relative to the ground. By adjusting the angle of their tail feathers or
tail surface, they can raise or lower the nose of their body, allowing them to climb or
descend in the air.
MECHANISM
Lift, Drag, and Thrust:
Figure: Representing Bernoulli’s Principle
The fundamentals of bird flight are similar to those of aircraft, in which the aerodynamic
forces sustain flight lift, drag, and thrust.
Lift force
 Is produced by the action of airflow on the wing, which is an airfoil.
 The wings of the bird are shaped to provide lift and reduce drag and aircraft wings
are designed in a similar manner.
 The airfoil is shaped such that the air provides a net upward force on the wing,
while the movement of air is directed downward.

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 The curved shape of bird wings creates a pressure differential that allows the bird to
generate lift and stay aloft. This concept is applied in the design of aircraft wings,
which are typically curved on the top surface and flat on the bottom to create a
similar pressure differential and generate lift.
 Another example is the use of flaps and slats on aircraft wings, which can be
extended or retracted to alter the shape of the wing and improve aerodynamic
performance. Birds also adjust the shape of their wings during flight such as
changing the angle of the wing or adjusting the position of their feathers.
Aerodynamic drag
 is the force opposite to the direction of motion, and hence the source of energy loss
in flight.
 The drag force can be separated into two portions, lift-induced drag, which is the
inherent cost of the wing producing lift (this energy ends up primarily in the wingtip
vortices), and parasitic drag, including skin friction drag from the friction of air and
body surfaces and form drag from the bird's frontal area. The streamlining of the
bird's body and wings reduces these forces.
Thrust
Unlike aircraft, which have engines to produce thrust, birds flap their wings with a given
flapping amplitude and frequency to generate thrust.
LOTUS LEAF EFFECT (SUPER HYDROPHOBIC AND SELF-CLEANING SURFACES)
Describe the application of Lotus leaf inspired surface (Super hydrophobic and self-
cleaning surfaces)
Introduction
The lotus leaf effect, also known as the "lotus effect," refers to the ability of lotus leaves to
repel water and self-clean through their unique surface structure. This effect has inspired
the development of super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces, which have a wide range
of applications in various industries.
The lotus leaf surface has a microscale and nanoscale structure that consists of numerous
small bumps and wax-coated hairs. This structure creates a high contact angle between the
water droplets and the surface, causing the droplets to roll off and carry away any dirt or

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debris. This self-cleaning property is due to the lotus leaf's ability to repel water and resist
adhesion.
Super Hydrophobic Effect
Principle
 The super hydrophobic effect refers to the ability of certain surfaces to repel water
and resist wetting. Super hydrophobic surfaces are characterized by a high contact
angle between water droplets and the surface, typically over 150 degrees, and a low
contact angle hysteresis, meaning that the droplets roll off the surface with ease.
 The super hydrophobic effect is achieved through the use of various techniques.
These techniques create a surface structure that traps air between the surface and
the water droplets, reducing the contact area between them and making it more
difficult for the droplets to wet the surface.
Materials and Examples
Super hydrophobic surfaces are created by modifying the surface chemistry and structure
of materials to achieve extremely high water repellency. Several materials and coating
techniques are used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces.
Materials Used: Fluoropolymers, silica nanoparticles , Carbon-based Materials, Metal-
based Materials
Techniques:
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), Sol-Gel Method, Electrochemical Methods, Plasma
Treatment
Engineering Applications of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces
1. Electronics Industry:
Waterproofing Electronics
Moisture Resistance
Self-Cleaning Displays
2. Automobile Industry:
Anti-Fogging Windows and Mirrors
Self-Cleaning Surfaces
Fuel Efficiency

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3. Aerospace Industry:
Anti-Icing and Deicing
Drag Reduction
Corrosion Resistance
4.4.2 Self-Cleaning Surfaces
Self-cleaning surfaces are surfaces that are able to clean themselves without the need for
manual cleaning. These surfaces are typically super hydrophobic and have a high contact
angle with water, which causes water droplets to bead up and roll off the surface, carrying
away any dirt or debris.
Principle of Self Cleaning Surfaces
The principle of self-cleaning surfaces is based on two main mechanisms: the reduction of
surface energy and the modification of surface texture. These mechanisms work together to
minimize the adhesion of dirt, water, and other contaminants, enabling the self-cleaning
effect.
Materials and examples of self cleaning surfaces
Self-cleaning surfaces are designed to minimize the adhesion of dirt, dust, and other
contaminants, making them easier to clean or allowing them to self-clean when exposed to
external forces like water or sunlight.
Materials:
Photocatalytic Coatings
Super hydrophobic Coatings
Self-Cleaning Glass
Applications
Architecture and Building Materials
Solar Panels: Self-cleaning coatings on solar panels prevent the accumulation of dust and
dirt on the surface, ensuring optimal energy efficiency. By repelling contaminants,
selfcleaning surfaces help maintain the transparency and effectiveness of solar panels.
Automotive Industry
Electronics
Textiles

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Medical Equipment
Kitchen and Bathroom Surfaces
Outdoor Signage and Billboards
PLANT BURRS (VELCRO)
Explain the biomimicry of Plant burrs (Velcro) / Velcro design is the inspiration from
Plant Burrs? Explain
Velcro is a popular hook-and-loop fastening system invented by Swiss engineer George de
Mestral in 1941
Principle: Is based on the principle of plant burrs, which have small hooks that can latch
onto clothing, fur.
Velcro, which consists of two strips of nylon fabric, one with tiny hooks and the other with
small loops. When pressed together, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a strong bond
that can be easily detached by pulling the two strips apart.
Materials Used in Velcro Technology/Working
Velcro technology uses two main materials: nylon and polyester.
The nylon is extruded to create tiny hooks that are then cut and shaped into the familiar
hook shape. These hooks are designed to latch onto the loop side of the Velcro.
The loop side of Velcro is made of polyester. Polyester is a synthetic fabric that is strong
and durable. The polyester is woven into a fabric that has many tiny loops. When the loops
are pressed against the hook side of the Velcro, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a
secure attachment.
Engineering Applications of Velcro Technology
 Clothing and footwear: for closures and adjustable straps. It can be easily opened
and closed, making it convenient for users with limited dexterity or mobility.
 Medical devices: Velcro is used in medical devices such as braces, splints, and
compression garments for its adjustable and secure fastening capabilities.
 Aerospace equipment: Velcro is used in aerospace equipment, such as satellites
and spacecraft, to secure components in place and prevent them from vibrating or
shifting during launch or flight.

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 Automotive industry: Velcro is used in the automotive industry for a range of

applications, such as securing carpets and headliners, and attaching door panels and
seat cushions.
 Packaging industry: Velcro is used in the packaging industry for resealable
closures on bags, pouches, and other types of packaging.
 Sports equipment: Velcro is used in sports equipment, such as helmets and gloves,
for its ability to provide a secure and adjustable fit.
SHARK SKIN (FRICTION REDUCING SWIM SUITS)
Shark skin reduces the friction. Explain the structure/mechanism of shark skin and its
application (Friction reducing swim suits)
Structure and mechanism of shark skin:
 Shark skin refers to the dermal denticles that cover the body of sharks.
 These denticles are small, tooth like scales or tiny bumps or ridges and are
covered in tiny grooves or ridges that run parallel to the long axis of the scale.
 These grooves are filled with mucus layer that helps to reduce the drag and
prevent the growth of microorganism.
 The shape and orientation of the scales help to minimize drag turbulence as
shark moves through water by breaking up the interface between skin and water,
reducing the friction between the two entities. As a result, sharks can swim faster
and with less effort compared to other fish
Frictionless Swim Suits
Friction-reducing swim suits use a similar structure to that of shark skin to reduce drag
and improve swimmer performance. These suits are made from high-tech materials that
mimic the properties of shark skin, such as the shape and size of the denticles.
Materials Used
1. Polyurethane
2. Lycra/Spandex
3. High-tech fabrics
Examples
 Speedo Fastskin

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 Arena Powerskin Carbon Ultra

 TYR Venzo
Application:
1. Replicate the dermal denticles in swimsuits for athletes as the riblets on the skin can
reduce drag and improve performance
2. Replicate the dermal denticles coating in bottom of ships or boats. Aircrafts that
reduces drag and increases fuel efficiency
When cargo ships can squeeze out even a single percent in efficiency, they burn less bunker
oil and don’t require cleaning chemicals for their hulls.
3. Sharkskin mechanism is also applied to create surfaces in hospitals that resist bacteria
growth since the bacteria can’t catch hold of the rough surface.
4. Replicate the dermal denticles in fabrics It is typically made with acetate and rayon
yarns, as well as with worsted wool and various synthetic blends. Lightweight and wrinkle-
free, sharkskin is ideal for curtains, tablecloths, and napkins.
5. Sharkskin fabric is popular for both men’s and women’s worsted suits, light winter
jackets, and coats. Sharkskin is commonly used as a liner in diving suits and wetsuits.
KINGFISHER BEAK (BULLET TRAIN)
Kingfisher beak is an analogy for Bullet train. Explain the analogy with
mechanism/Kingfisher beak is compared to Bullet train. Analyze the
analogy/KINGFISHER BEAK has been used as a source of inspiration for the
development of the bullet train Japan? Explain the comparison between them
The Strategy:
 The secret is in the shape of the kingfisher’s beak. The beak is long and straight,
with a sharp pointed tip.
 It is also much narrower and flatter. This streamlined shape helps reduce drag,
turbulence and allows the bird to enter the water with minimal disturbance.
 The beak is also equipped with specialized sensor that allow the kingfisher to detect
the exact location of the fish in water. These sensors are highly sensitive to changes
in water pressure which birds uses to calculate the distance to its prey.
 Once the fish is located the kingfisher is able to dive into the water with incredible
speed and accuracy, using this beak to spear the fish and bring it to the surface.

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 The front of the bullet train is similar to the beak of the kingfisher which reduce air
resistance and noise. This design has helped to increase the speed of the train and
reduce noise levels making it more efficient and confortable.
A] The Physics behind the Kingfisher Beak
1. Streamlining:
The beak of a kingfisher is long, slender, and sharply pointed, which helps reduce drag or
air resistance as the bird dives into the water. The streamlined shape allows the kingfisher
to smoothly cut through the air and minimize the energy required for the dive.
2. Surface Tension:
When the kingfisher hits the water, it encounters the resistance caused by surface tension.
Surface tension is the cohesive force between water molecules that creates a "skin" on the
water's surface. The sharp beak of the kingfisher helps to pierce through the water's
surface, breaking the surface tension and reducing the force required to enter the water.
3. Minimizing Splash:
As the kingfisher dives, it needs to enter the water with minimal disturbance to avoid
scaring away the fish it intends to catch. The shape of the beak helps to reduce the splash
generated upon entry. The beak's narrow and pointed design helps create a smooth entry
by minimizing the disturbance of the water surface, allowing the kingfisher to enter silently
and effectively.
B] Technological Importance
Shinkansen bullet train of Japan is the best example which used the biomimicry of
kingfisher’s beak.
1. Aerodynamic Design:
The front of the Shinkansen is meticulously shaped to reduce air resistance and improve
aerodynamic performance. The streamlined design minimizes drag as the train travels at
high speeds, allowing it to maintain stability and efficiency. The smooth, tapered shape
reduces the pressure difference between the front and rear of the train, reducing noise and
vibration.
2. Pressure Wave Reduction:
When a high-speed train moves through a tunnel, it creates pressure waves that can cause

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noise and discomfort for passengers. The nose of the Shinkansen is designed to reduce
these pressure waves by effectively managing airflow and minimizing the compression and
expansion of air as the train enters and exits tunnels. This reduces the noise level and
enhances passenger comfort.
HUMAN BLOOD SUBSTITUTES - HEMOGLOBIN-BASED OXYGEN CARRIERS (HBOCS)
AND PERFLOUROCARBONS (PFCS)
Explain the artificial substances that are used to replace lost blood (HBOCs and
PFCs)/Explain Human Blood substitutes
Basic Requirement for Human Blood Substitutes

 Effective Oxygen Transport
 Safety and Compatibility
 Storage and Transport
 Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability
1. Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs)

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Advantages of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers

 Increased oxygen-carrying capacity
 Universal compatibility
 Longer shelf life
 Reduced risk of infections
 Availability in remote or challenging settings:
Examples of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs)
 Hemopure
 Oxyglobin
 Oxyglobin
2. Perflourocarbons (PFCs)

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Advantages of PFCs
 High oxygen-carrying capacity
 Improved oxygen solubility
 Stability and long shelf life
 No blood typing or cross-matching required
 Reduced risk of infection transmission
 Compatibility with diagnostic tests
Limitations of PFCs
 Limited oxygen offloading
 Need for specialized administration methods
 Short half-life
 Clearance and elimination
 Side effects and toxicity-Adverse effects can include respiratory distress, immune
reactions, and potential organ toxicity.
 Regulatory considerations
Examples of PFCs
 Perftoran
 Oxycyte
 Hemopure-PFC
Difference Between:
HBOCs PFCs
hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs), PFCs are synthetic chemicals
which are based on natural proteins
They require modification from natural they do not require modification from
sources natural sources
HBOCs binds with hemoglobin and PFCs are able to dissolve oxygen and
transport it throughout the body, similar to transport it throughout the body, similar to
the way that red blood cells work. the way that red blood cells work.
PFCs typically require specialized
administration techniques, such as
emulsification or
encapsulation,
---------------------------------------------------X--END--X-------------------------------------------------

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Module - 5 TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Bioprinting techniques and materials, 3D printing of ear, bone and skin. 3D printed foods. Electrical tongue and electrical
nose in food science, DNA origami and Biocomputing, Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis. Self-
healing Bioconcrete (based on bacillus spores, calcium lactate nutrients and biomineralization processes) and
Bioremediation and Biomining via microbial surface adsorption (removal of heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium, Mercury,
Arsenic).
Explain the different bioprinting techniques

Bioprinting techniques involve the precise deposition of bioinks to create three
dimensional structures with living cells.
The most commonly used bioprinting techniques:
1. Inkjet-based Bioprinting:
2. Extrusion-based Bioprinting:
3. Laser-assisted Bioprinting:
4. Microvalve-based Bioprinting:
5. Bioprinting with Solid Freeform Fabrication:
1. Extrusion based bioprinting
 most common method of printing non-biological 3D structures.
 Uses a syringe or a similar mechanism to extrude the bioink through a nozzle.
 The bioink is deposited layer-by-layer to create the desired structure.
 The printers used in this method have a temperature-controlled material handling and
dispensing system with a stage, both of which are capable of moving along the x, y, and z
axes.
Examples of Extrusion based bioprinting
 used in various biomedical sectors ranging from the pharmaceutical industry to research
sectors.
 used for single tissue applications, and to manufacture scaffolds that mimic tissue
interfaces.
 capable of producing models that mimic soft tissues and bone structures which provide
an opportunity for possible implants.
Advantages:
• versatile
• can handle a wide range of bioinks with varying viscosities, including those with
living cells or cell aggregates

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Arsenic).
• allows for high cell viability

• can produce structures with controlled porosity.
Limitation:
• achieving high resolution
• complex geometries.
2. Inkjet-based bioprinting
 commonly used technology for both non-biological and biological applications.
 The bioink is loaded into cartridges, and droplets of the bioink are ejected through
fine nozzles onto a substrate.
 The droplets form layers, and the structure is built by depositing subsequent layers.
 One of the limitations of inkjet bioprinting is that the biological materials have to be in a
liquid form to enable droplet formation.
Examples of Inkjet-based bioprinting
 regeneration of functional skin and cartilage tissues where the high printing speed of this
technique enables direct deposition of cells and biomaterials onto skin and cartilage
lesions.
 allows the deposition of primary or stem cells with uniform density onto lesions while
maintaining cell viability and function.
Advantages:
 high-resolution printing
 precise control over droplet size
Limitation:

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Arsenic).
 limited by the viscosity of the bioink

 cell viability during the ejection process.
3. Pressure-assisted bioprinting (PAB)
 Pressure-assisted bioprinting is based on the extrusion of biomaterials out of the nozzle
of the printer in order to fabricate a 3D biological structure.
 Some of the common biomaterial used in this method include hydrogels, cells and
proteins, and ceramic material solutions, collagen and chitosan, etc.
 The speed of the printers remains low, and it provides about 40-80% cell viability.
 The use of pressure-assisted bioprinting allows room temperature processing and direct
incorporation of homogenous cells onto the substrate.
Examples of Pressure-assisted bioprinting (PAB)
 used in the printing of cells and organs with functional activity.

 The technique has been used to produce human mesenchymal cells, endothelial cells, and
osteogenic progenitors.
4. Laser-assisted bioprinting (LAB)
 Utilizes laser energy to precisely deposit bioinks onto a substrate.
 The bioink is placed on an energy-absorbing layer, and the laser creates a pressure wave
that propels the bioink onto the substrate in a controlled manner.
 A laser-assisted bioprinter consists of a pulsed laser beam, a focusing system, a ribbon
with donor transport support, a layer of biological material prepared in a liquid solution
with a receiving substrate facing the projector.
 The biomaterials to be used in laser-assisted bioprinting include a hydrogel, culture
media, cells, proteins, and ceramic materials.
Advantages:
• High resolution, precision
• ability to print complex structures.
• It can be used with delicate bioinks

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Arsenic).
• allows for cell viability.

Limitation:
• relatively slow
• limitations in terms of bioink viscosity
Examples of Laser-assisted bioprinting (LAB)
 used to produce a cellularized skin constructs with relevant cell densities in a layered
tissue construct.
 Cells of the human dermal fibroblasts, pulmonary artery endothelial cells, and breast
cancer cells can be produced via laser-assisted bioprinting.
5. Stereolithography (STL)
 Stereolithography is a freeform, nozzle free technique used to produce the 3D structure
of biological and non-biological materials.
 The stereolithography technique has the highest fabrication accuracy, and a large
number of materials can be used in the process.
 The technique utilizes light-sensitive hydrogels that are deposited in a layer-by-layer
fashion to form a 3D structure.
 The speed of this method is very fast (about 40,000 mm/s) with cell viability of more
than 90%.
Examples Stereolithography (STL)

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 This technique has been used in several ways to produce tissues and organs of different
animals, including humans.
 Besides, the technique was tested upon on DNA material, but the use of UV light has
chances of affecting the DNA structure. However, a custom light source can be prepared
to use with DNA molecules.
Explain the different material used for bioprinting.
• Bioprinting materials also known as bioinks, are specifically designed to be

compatible with living cells and provide a supportive environment for their growth
and organization.
Examples of commonly used bioprinting materials:
1. Hydrogels: Gelatin-based hydrogels
2. Cell-laden Aggregates
3. Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (dECM): Decellularized porcine or bovine
dermis
4. Synthetic Polymer-based Bioinks: Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based bioinks
5. Composite Bioinks- Collagen combined with hyaluronic acid (HA)
1. Hydrogels:

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 Hydrogels are soft, gel-like water-based polymer networks that closely mimic the
extracellular matrix (ECM) found in living tissues.
 It can be used to create 3D structures for cell growth.
They offer excellent
 Biocompatibility
 mechanical support
 water-retaining capacity.
 Similar physical properties to native tissues.
Examples: Gelatin-based hydrogels, Alginate hydrogels, Collagen-based hydrogels
2. Cell-laden Aggregates:
 In some cases, cells are first aggregated into biomolecules and biomaterials (or
microtissues) before being incorporated into the bioink.
 These aggregates provide a more physiological environment for the cells and
enhance their viability and functionality.
Examples: Gelatine methacryloyl, Alginate.
3. Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (dECM):
 The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network of molecules surrounding cells
in tissues and organs. It provides structural support, biochemical signaling, and
regulatory functions.
 The ECM of tissues can be extracted and processed to remove cellular components,
resulting in a decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM).
 dECM bioinks contain natural signaling molecules and proteins that promote cell
attachment, growth, and differentiation.

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Examples : Decellularized porcine small intestine submucosa (SIS), Decellularized porcine
or bovine dermis
4. Synthetic Polymer-based Bioinks/ Biocompatible polymers:
These bioinks provide control over various parameters, such as stiffness, porosity, and
degradation, to support specific tissue engineering goals.
 Biodegradable
Examples: Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based bioinks, Polycaprolactone (PCL)-based
bioinks
5. Composite Bioinks:
These bioinks often contain a combination of natural and synthetic materials or a
mixture of different biomaterials.
 Similar physical properties to native tissues
 printability
Examples: Gelatin-methacryloyl (GelMA) combined with alginate, Collagen combined with
hyaluronic acid (HA)
6. Ceramics:

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Ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, are natural components of human bones and can be used
as the "ink" in 3D printing. Hydroxyapatite is a biocompatible material that has been shown
to be an effective material for 3D printing of bones and other tissues.
Examples: Hydroxyapatite, Calcium phosphate, Tricalcium phosphate.
7. Scaffolds:
 Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for cells to grow and
develop.
 In the case of 3D printing scaffolds can be used to create a specific shape or
structure for the tissue to grow around.
Examples: Polyglycolic acid (PGA), Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA), Polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).
The bioinks used in the bioprinting process should have the following properties:
1. The bioinks used should be able to provide adequate mechanical strength and
robustness while maintaining the tissue-matching mechanics in the resulting tissue
constructs.
2. The bioink molecules should have adjustable gelation and stabilization to result in
high shape fidelity during bioprinting.
3. The bioinks should be biocompatible and can undergo biodegradability according to
the natural microenvironment of the tissue.
4. The bioinks should be suitable for chemical modifications to form specific tissues.
What was the need of development of Bio printing? Any one example explain (ear,
bone, skin if they are not specified)

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• Bio printing is a technology that uses various techniques where bioinks, mixed with
living cells, to produce three dimensional (3D) structures and functional biological
tissues for medical and scientific applications.
The main objective of bioprinting is
• to mimic the structure and function of human tissues and organs, leading to the
development or replacement parts for damaged or diseased organs.
Explain the protocol for 3D printing of ear

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Definition: The process involves creating a 3D model of ear using specialized software and
then using a special material, such as a biocompatible polymer or a hydrogel, as the "ink to
deposits cells layer by layer until a functional ear is created
The Steps of Bioprinting Process of Ear
Design of the tissue structure
The tissue ear structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
software, which is then used to control the movement of the bioprinter's print head.
↓
Scaffold Creation
Once the digital model is created, a Scaffold is 3D printed using a biocompatible hydrogel
material. This scaffold will provide a structure for the cells to grown on
↓
Preparation of the bioink:
The bioink used in bioprinting is a mixture of cells extracted from patient own tissue such
as cartilage cells and growth factors, and other biological materials that are formulated to
promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Printing:
The bioprinter – extrusion based printing or inkjet based printing dispenses the bioink in a
controlled manner, layer by layer, to build up the final tissue structure onto the scaffold.
The bioink is deposited in a manner that promotes cell survival and tissue formation.
↓
Incubation/ Maturation
After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell culture
incubator, to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Assessment:

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The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue
structure, and tissue function.
↓
Transplantation
Once the ear has matured, it can be transplanted into the patient. Because the ear is made
from the patient own cells, there is a reduced risk of rejection
Application:
Personalized ear prosthesis:
• 3D printing allows for the creation of customized ear prostheses that match the
unique anatomy of each patient.
• This can be especially useful for children with congenital ear deformities or
individuals who have suffered ear injuries or losses.
• Additionally, 3D printing can also be used to create ears that are anatomically and
functionally similar to a patient's normal ear, reducing the risk of complications
associated with traditional surgical methods.
Medical education:
• 3D printing of human ears can be used to educate medical students and healthcare
professionals on the anatomy and treatment of ear defects and injuries.

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Explain the protocol for 3D printing of bone
Definition: This process involves using a 3D printer to create a bone-shaped structure

using a special material, such as a biocompatible polymer or a ceramic material, as the
"ink." The printed bone structure can then be implanted into a patient to replace missing or
damaged bone tissue.
There are two main approaches to 3D printing of bones:
1. Additive manufacturing - involves building up the bone structure layer by layer
2. Scaffold-based techniques - involves creating a porous structure that provides a
framework for bone cells to grow and develop
The Steps of Bioprinting Process of Bone

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The tissue Bone structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
↓
Scaffold Creation
↓
as Bone cells/ osteocyctes and growth factors, and other biological materials that are
formulated to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Printing:
↓
↓
Assessment:
↓
Transplantation

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Once the bone has matured, it can be transplanted into the patient. Because the bone is
made from the patient own cells, there is a reduced risk of rejection
Application:
Personalized bone prosthesis:
• 3D printing allows for the creation of customized bone prostheses that match the
unique anatomy of each patient.
Medical education:
• 3D printing of human bone can be used to educate medical students and healthcare
professionals on the anatomy and treatment of ear defects and injuries.
Explain the protocol for 3D printing of skin.
Definition: 3D printing of skin refers to the process of creating three-dimensional human

skin tissue using a 3D printer. The process involves the use of bioprinting technology,

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where a bioink made from living cells and growth factors is printed in a specific pattern to
create the desired tissue structure.
The goal of 3D printing skin is to create functional, living tissue that can be used for a
variety of purposes, such as cosmetic testing, wound healing, and drug development.
The Steps of Bioprinting Process of Skin
The tissue skin structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
↓
Scaffold Creation
↓
as fibroblasts and keratinocytes and growth factors, and other biological materials that
are formulated to promote cell growth and tissue formation.
↓
Printing:
↓
↓

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Assessment:
↓
Transplantation
Once the skin has matured, it can be transplanted into the patient. Because the Skin is
made from the patient own cells, there is a reduced risk of rejection
Application:
• Better wound healing:
3D printing of skin can produce customized skin grafts that promote wound healing and
reduce the risk of infection. This is particularly important for patients with burns, chronic
wounds, or other skin injuries.
• Reduced scarring:
3D printed skin can promote more natural healing and reduce scarring, improving the
cosmetic appearance of the skin after injury.
• Replication of skin structure:
3D printing can replicate the structure and properties of natural skin, such as the thickness
and elasticity of different layers of the skin. This can improve the functionality and
durability of the skin graft.
• Reduced donor site morbidity:
3D printing of skin can reduce the need for skin grafts from other parts of the patient's
body, reducing donor site morbidity and promoting faster healing.
• Alternative to animal testing:
3D printing of skin can provide an alternative to animal testing in the cosmetic and
pharmaceutical industries, reducing the ethical concerns and improving the accuracy and
relevance of testing.
• Research and development:

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3D printing of skin can be used in research and development to study the properties and
behavior of different skin types, test the effectiveness of new treatments, and develop new
skin care products
Explain the protocol for 3D printing of food
Definition: 3D printed food refers to food items that are created using 3D printing
technology. This technology allows for the creation of food items with intricate shapes and
designs, which can be customized based on individual preferences and dietary needs.
Materials used:
The process of 3D printing food involves the use of edible materials, such as pastes, gels,
and powders, which are combined and printed layer by layer to create the final product.
• Edible pastes: Edible pastes, such as pureed fruit, chocolate, and cream cheese, can
be used in 3D printing of food. These materials are easily printable and can be used
to create intricate shapes and designs.
• Edible gels: Edible gels, such as agar and gelatin, can be used in 3D printing of food.
These materials are flexible and can be used to create 3D structures that are both
aesthetically pleasing and functional.

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• Edible powders: Edible powders, such as flour and sugar, can be used in 3D
printing of food. These materials can be combined with liquids to form a printable
mixture that can be used to create 3D structures.
Examples of 3D Printed Food
• Sweet and savory snacks: 3D printed snacks, such as crackers, cookies, and chips,
can be customized to include intricate shapes and designs.
• Pastries: 3D printing technology can be used to create intricate and aesthetically
pleasing pastries, such as cakes and cupcakes.
• Decorative garnishes: 3D printing technology can be used to create unique and
attractive garnishes for dishes, such as cheese and fruit designs.
The importance of 3D printing in the food industry
1. Customization and Personalization
2. Novelty and Creativity
3. Enhanced Food Safety
4. Supply Chain Efficiency
5. Sustainable Food Production
6. Food Innovation and Research
Explain the construction of Electrical tongue. Add a note on its role in food science
Definition: The electrical tongue is an analytical device that mimics the human tongue
sense of taste and is used in food science to analyze the taste and flavor of food and
beverages.

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Principle: It works by measuring the electrical properties such as conductivity, impedance,

and capacitance of the sensor in the array when exposed to a food or beverage sample,
which are related to the concentration of ions in the sample and the texture of the sample.
Instrumentation/ Working and Components /Technology behind the Electrical

Tongue:
The electrical tongue typically consists of a sensor array, which is placed in contact with the
food or beverage sample.
1. Sensor Array used in Electronic Tongue Applications
• A sensor array in the electrical tongue refers to a collection of multiple sensors that
are designed to detect and measure different taste qualities.
• These sensors are often specific to particular taste components and provide
information about the presence and intensity of specific taste attributes.
• Potentiometric Ion-Selective Electrodes: detect the salty taste by measuring the
concentration of sodium ions in a sample.
• Voltammetric Sensors: measure changes in electrical current resulting from the
oxidation or reduction of specific bitter compounds
• Impedance Sensors: detect changes in impedance caused by the adsorption of
sweet compounds on its surface.
2. Sample holder: Is the part of the e-tongue that holds the sample during testing. It is
made of a material that is inert and does not interact with the food sample.
Example: glass or plastic

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3. Signal processor: It is responsible for analyzing the electrical signals generated by the
sensory array in response to the food sample. It converts these signals into a profile of the
taste and flavour of the sample which can be displayed on a computer screen or other
output device
4. Data analysis soft ware: Is used to interpret the data generated by the signal processor
and create profile of the taste and flavour of the food sample. Tis soft ware can be
customized to suit the specific needs of a particular application or industry
5. Calibration solution: To ensure accurate and reliable results, e-tongue require regular
calibration using standardized solutions with known taste and flavor characteristics.
Calibration solutions can be used to verify the performance of the instrument and ensure
that it is operating within the desired range of accuracy and precision
Applications:
Advantages of Electrical Tongue Technology

• Non-invasive
• High-throughput
• Objective analysis
• Cost-effective
Limitations of Electrical Tongue Technology

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• Limited sensory experience

• Incomplete understanding
• Interfering factors
• Calibration issues
• further research is needed to fully understand its capabilities and limitations.
• The electrical tongue may not be able to fully replicate the complex sensory
experience of tasting food and beverages, as it only measures a limited number of
aspects of taste and flavor.
Explain the construction of electrical nose. Add a note on its role in food science
Definition: The electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose, is an analytical

instrument that works by detecting and quantifying volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in
food and beverage samples.
Principle: It works by measuring the electrical properties that occur when the sensors are
exposed to volatile organic compounds. Each sensor in the array is designed to respond to
a specific range of volatile organic compounds, and the combination of signals from all of
the sensors allows for the analysis of the overall aroma and flavor profile of a sample.
Components/ Instrumentation:

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1. Sensor Array in Electronic Nose

Sensory array refers to a collection of multiple sensors that are designed to detect and
analyze odor molecules. The sensors in the array are often selective to different chemical
properties or patterns, allowing for the identification and differentiation of various odors.
Example: Metal Oxide Sensors (MOS), Conducting Polymer Sensors, Quartz Crystal
Microbalance (QCM) Sensors
2. Sample Delivery system: Is used to introduce the sample into the e-nose. Depending
on the type of sample, the delivery system can vary, but it typically involves exposing the
sample to the sensor arry through inlet port
3. Signal processor: It is responsible for analyzing the electrical signals generated by the
sensory array in response to the sample. It converts these signals into a profile of the
aroma of the sample which can be displayed on a computer screen or other output device
4. Data analysis soft ware: Is used to interpret the data generated by the signal processor
and create profile of the aroma or odur of the sample. This soft ware can be customized to
suit the specific needs of a particular application or industry
5. Calibration solution: To ensure accurate and reliable results, e-nose require regular
calibration using standardized solutions with known aroma or odur characteristics.

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Advantages of Electrical Nose in Food Science

• Rapid Analysis:
• Non-Invasive:
• Objective Analysis
• Repeatability
• Cost-Effective
Limitations of Electrical Nose in Food Science
• Limited Sensory Experience
• Calibration Challenges
• Limited Range of Volatile Organic Compounds
• Technical Challenges
• High Cost
Explain DNA origami with an example
Definition: DNA Origami is a technique used to create 2D and 3D structures by folding a

long single stranded DNA molecule (Scaffold) into a desired shape using short
complementary DNA strands called staples
Principle: Is to use the natural base pairing properties of DNA to fold a long sDNA
molecule into a desired shape. This is accomplished by designing a DNA sequence that is
complementary to the target shape, which serves as a template for folding the sDNA
molecule into desired structure. Short synthetic DNA strands called staples are then added
to the template DNA to hold the structure in place

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Steps:
1.DNA Scaffold
2. Staples
3. DNA tiles – Holiday junction
4. DNA Lattice
Application of DNA Origami

 Nanoscale manufacturing: used as a template for the precise assembly of
nanoscale structures, which have applications in areas such as electronics,
photonics, and materials science.
 Drug delivery: used for drug delivery, as it can be designed to carry therapeutic
agents directly to specific cells or tissues.
 Biosensors: used to develop new biosensors that can detect specific biological
molecules and signals in real-time.
 Biomedical imaging: used as a tool for biomedical imaging, as it can be designed to
target specific cells or tissues and provide high-resolution images.
 Gene therapy: used as a delivery vehicle for gene therapy, as it can be programmed
to target specific cells and deliver therapeutic genes to those cells.
 Biocatalysis: used to develop new approaches for biocatalysis, as it can be designed
to perform specific chemical reactions and act as a catalyst.

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 Nanopatterning: DNA origami can be used as a tool for nanopatterning, as it can be

programmed to arrange and position nanoscale structures with precise control.
Advantages of DNA Origami
 Programmability: DNA origami allows for the precise and controlled folding of
DNA molecules into specific shapes, which can be programmed to fit the
requirements of a particular application.
 Versatility: DNA origami can be used to create a wide range of shapes, from simple
2D shapes to complex 3D structures, which makes it a versatile tool for various
applications.
 High precision: DNA origami is capable of creating nanoscale structures with high
precision and accuracy, which is useful for many applications in the field of
nanotechnology.
 Functionality: DNA origami structures can be functionalized with additional
molecules or materials, such as proteins, nanoparticles, or other materials, which
makes them useful for a variety of applications.
 Biocompatibility: DNA is a naturally occurring molecule, which makes it
biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune response. This makes DNA
origami a promising tool for biomedical applications, such as drug delivery.
Limitations of DNA Origami
 Complexity: Creating complex DNA origami structures can be challenging and time
consuming, and requires specialized knowledge and expertise.
 Cost: The cost of producing and synthesizing the DNA required for DNA origami can
be high, making it an expensive technique.
 Stability: DNA origami structures are relatively fragile and can be degraded by
enzymes or other factors, which can limit their stability and shelf-life.
 Scalability: The scalability of DNA origami remains a challenge, as producing large
quantities of complex DNA origami structures is difficult and expensive.

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Explain Biocomputing with an example
Bio-computing refers to the use of biological systems, such as cells, enzymes, and DNA, for
computing and information processing.
This field combines the principles of computer science, biology, and engineering to create
novel systems for computing and data storage.
Technological Importance/ Application/ Advantages of Bio-computing:
1. Computational power: Bio-computing systems have the potential to provide new
levels of computational power, as they can perform complex tasks and calculations
using biological processes.
2. Data storage: Bio-computing systems can be used to store and process large
amounts of data, as DNA has a high information density [consider that a single gram
of DNA can theoretically store up to 215 petabytes (1 petabyte = 1 million
gigabytes) of data] and can be easily synthesized and amplified.
3. Medical applications: Bio-computing systems can be used to develop new
diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in medicine, such as biosensors and gene
therapies.
4. Environmental monitoring: Bio-computing systems can be used to monitor and
track environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, in real-time.

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5. Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems are energy-efficient, which is becoming

increasingly important as we face the challenge of climate change and the need to
reduce our energy consumption.
6. Robustness: Bio-computing systems are highly robust, as they are less susceptible
to errors and failures compared to traditional electronic systems.
7. Versatility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to
perform different tasks, which makes them highly versatile and adaptable.
Limitations of Biocomputing:
1. Speed: Bio-computing systems are generally slower than traditional electronic
computers, as they rely on biological processes that occur over time.
2. Complexity: Bio-computing systems can be complex and challenging to design and
build, requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
3. Reliability: Bio-computing systems can be unreliable, as they are subject to the
fluctuations and errors inherent in biological systems.
4. Cost: Bio-computing systems can be expensive to produce, as they require
specialized materials and equipment.
Describe Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis
Bio-imaging is the use of imaging technologies to visualize biological processes and

structures in living organisms. It does not inhibit the various life processes such as
movement, respiration, etc.,

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It plays a crucial role in disease diagnosis by providing detailed images of the body's
internal structures and functions, and can help healthcare professionals to identify and
diagnose a wide range of diseases and conditions.
1) it helps to report the 3D structure of specimens apart from inferencing physically.
2) It is helpful in connecting the observation of subcellular structures and all the
tissues in the multicellular organisms.
Examples of Bioimaging Techniques
X-rays, CT scans, MRI, PET scans, ultrasound, and optical imaging. These technologies can
be used to visualize a wide range of structures and functions, including bones, tissues,
organs, blood vessels, and more
Technological Importance
· Improved accuracy: Bio-imaging technologies can provide high-resolution images of the
body's internal structures, which can help healthcare professionals to identify subtle
changes and make accurate diagnoses.
· Early detection: Bio-imaging can be used to detect diseases in their early stages, when
they are often more treatable. This can lead to earlier treatment and better outcomes for
patients.

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Multi-modality: Bio-imaging technologies can be combined to provide a multi-modal view

of the body's internal structures and functions, which can provide a more comprehensive
understanding of a disease or condition.
· Cost-effectiveness: Many bio-imaging technologies are relatively low-cost, which makes
them accessible to a wider range of patients.
· Minimally invasive: Many bio-imaging techniques are non-invasive, which means that
they do not require incisions or the insertion of instruments into the body. This makes
them less painful and less risky than many traditional diagnostic procedures.
· Improved patient outcomes: By providing healthcare professionals with detailed images
of the body's internal structures and functions, bio-imaging can help to improve patient
outcomes by enabling earlier and more accurate diagnoses, and more effective treatments.
· Advancements in research: Bio-imaging technologies are also important in advancing
medical research, by providing detailed images of the body's internal structures and
functions, which can help researchers to better understand the underlying mechanisms of
diseases and develop new treatments.
Advantages
· Non-invasive
· High resolution
· Early detection
· Multi-modality
· Cost-effective
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DISEASE DIAGNOSIS
• Bio imaging and AI are being used together in disease diagnosis to improve
accuracy, speed and efficiency.
• AI algorithms are trained on large datasets of medical images and use machine
learning to identify patterns and make predictions. This approach can help doctor to

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diagnosis diseases earlier and with grater accuracy leading to better patient
outcomes.
• Artificial intelligence techniques ranging from machine learning to deep learning are
prevalent in healthcare for disease diagnosis, drug discovery, and patient risk
identification.
1.. AI algorithms have been developed to detect and diagnose a variety of diseases
including lung cancer, breast cancer and heart disease. These algorithms can quickly
analyze large volumes of medical images, flagging areas of concern and highlighting
potential abnormalities.
2. AI also used to assist in the interpretation of medical images. For example a CAD system
may be used to help radiologist analyze medical images more quickly and accurately. By
providing additional information and analysis these system can help doctors to make more
informed decision about patient care.
3. AI is in the analysis of genetic data. By combing genetic data with medical images,
researchers can identify patterns and correlations that may help to predict disease risk or
improve patterns and correlations that may help to predict disease risk to improve
diagnosis. For example in the field of neuroimaging researchers are using diagnosis. For
example in the field of neuroimaging researchers are using AI to analyze bran images and
identify early signs of Alzheimer's disease.
Advantages
· Image analysis: AI algorithms can analyze medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans, and
MRIs, to detect signs of diseases. For example, AI algorithms can identify patterns in

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medical images that may indicate the presence of a particular condition, such as a tumor or
an injury. This type of image analysis is known as computer-aided diagnosis (CAD).
· Data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large amounts of patient data, such as electronic
health records, to identify patterns and trends that may indicate a disease. This type of data
analysis is known as predictive analytics.
· Diagnosis: AI algorithms can be used to diagnose diseases by evaluating symptoms, test
results, and other patient information. AI algorithms can help healthcare professionals
make faster and more accurate diagnoses, reducing the risk of misdiagnosis.
· Personalized medicine: AI algorithms can be used to create personalized treatment
plans for patients based on their specific medical histories, lifestyles, and other factors. For
example, AI algorithms can analyze a patient's medical history, lifestyle habits, and genetic
information to recommend the best course of treatment for their condition.
· Clinical decision support: AI algorithms can be integrated into electronic health records
to provide healthcare professionals with real-time decision-making support. For example,
AI algorithms can provide physicians with information about the best diagnostic tests to
order, the most effective treatments to consider, and the best ways to manage patient care.
Limitations
· Lack of understanding of the underlying algorithms
· Bias
· Regulation
· Cost
Bacillus spores and calcium lactate plays a important role in bioconcrete. Explain

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Definition: Bio-concrete is a self-healing form of concrete that incorporates

microorganisms, such as Bacillus fragments, into the mixture, along with calcium lactate as
a nutrient source to repair its own cracks.
Microorganism used: Bacillus, Pseudomonas that are able to produce limestone on a
biological basis.
Mechanism: When the concrete cracks, water and oxygen enter the crack and activate the
Bacillus bacteria. The bacteria then produce calcium carbonate, which is a type of mineral
that is commonly found in natural stone. The calcium carbonate acts as a binder and fills in
the cracks, repairing the concrete and restoring its structural integrity.
Steps: Self-healing Process Process Flow Chart
Mix Bacillus bacteria and calcium lactate with concrete
↓
Bacteria remain dormant within the concrete
↓
Concrete cracks
↓
Water and oxygen enter the crack
↓
Bacteria become activated
↓
Activated bacteria produce calcium carbonate

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↓
Calcium carbonate fills in the cracks
↓
Concrete is repaired and structural integrity is restored
Technological Importance of Self-Healing Bioconcrete
• Increased durability: Self-healing bioconcrete has the ability to repair itself, which
can help to increase its overall durability and reduce the need for maintenance.
• Improved sustainability: Self-healing bioconcrete is considered to be a more
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional concrete.
• Reduced maintenance costs: Because self-healing bioconcrete is able to repair
itself, it has the potential to reduce the need for costly maintenance and repairs over
time.
• Increased longevity: By repairing cracks and reducing the amount of water that is
able to penetrate the surface, self-healing bioconcrete can help to extend the
lifespan of concrete structures.
Advantages:
• increased durability, reduced maintenance costs, and improved sustainability, as the
concrete is able to repair itself without the need for human intervention.
• Additionally, because the microorganisms used in the concrete are naturally
occurring and non-toxic, self-healing bio-concrete is considered to be
environmentally friendly.
Limitations:
currently in the research and development phase
Discuss bio mineralization processes
Definition: Is the process by which living organism form minerals within their tissues.
Mechanism: This process is carried out by specialized cells that are able to control the

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Arsenic).
formation and organization of minerals resulting in structures with specific shapes, sizes
and function
Steps
• Specialized cells called mineralizing cells produce organic matrices that serve as
template for the mineralization process
• These matrices are composed of proteins, lipids and other biomolecules that can
interact with the minerals to control their growth and organization
• Minerals ions are transported to cells either from surrounding environment or from
within organism body where they begin to form crystalline structures
• Crystalline structures continue to grow and organize themselves under influence of
the organic matrix and other environmental factors resulting in the formation of
mineralized structure with specific shapes and function
Examples: Seashells, bones, teeth and coral leaf
BIOREMEDIATION AND BIOMINING VIA MICROBIAL SURFACE ADSORPTION
(REMOVAL OF HEAVY METALS LIKE LEAD, CADMIUM, MERCURY, ARSENIC).
Definition- Bioremediation a process by which microorganisms ( bacteria, fungi, algae),
plants, or animals are used to degrade, transform or remove contaminants from the
environment, such as soil, water, or air.
Mechanism: Microorganism break down harmful compounds into less toxic compounds
through a series of metabolic process. These process include oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis and other biochemical reaction
Definition: Biomining refers to the use of microorganisms to extract valuable minerals
from ore deposits.
Mechanism: This process involves the use of microorganisms to dissolve minerals from
ore, creating a solution that can be separated and purified to obtain the valuable minerals.

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Arsenic).
Explain the method and mechanism of removal of heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium,
Mercury, Arsenic by microbial surface absorption.
Bioremediation and biomining via microbial surface adsorption is a process that utilizes
microorganisms to remove or adsorb heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and
arsenic from contaminated environments or ore deposits onto their cell surface
Organism Used: Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium
Heavy metal: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic
Source of Heavy Metal: Nature- Volcanic eruption, Geothermal springs, Earth crust,
others
Man Made: Industry, Agriculture, Food processing industries
Effects: Effect nervous system, kidney, liver, lung reproductive sysyem
Removal: The process of removing polluting heavy metals using bioremediation or
biomining via microbial surface adsorption
Steps:
Identification of heavy metal-contaminated site:
Identify the site or area contaminated with heavy metals, such as soil, water, or industrial
waste sites.
↓
Isolation and characterization of metal-resistant microbial strains:
Select and isolate microbial strains that have demonstrated resistance to heavy metals.
These can include bacteria, fungi
↓
Culturing and enrichment of microbial strains

lOMoARcPSD|37536006

Arsenic).
Culture and propagate the selected microbial strains in a suitable growth medium under
laboratory conditions.
↓
Preparation of microbial suspension:
Harvest the microbial biomass and prepare a suspension by suspending the biomass in a
carrier solution, such as water or a nutrient broth.
↓
Application of microbial suspension to the contaminated site:
Apply the microbial suspension to the heavy metal-contaminated area. This can be done
through spraying, injection, or soil/water mixing, depending on the specific site conditions.
↓
Microbial adsorption and sequestration of metal:
The applied microbial strains adsorb to the surfaces of metal particles or form biofilms.
Through their metabolic activity, the microbes produce extracellular compounds such as
organic acids or biofilm matrix components that have an affinity for binding metal ions.
↓
Separation or removal of metals from the contaminated site can be achieved through
different methods including chemical elution or thermal desportion
Advantages of Bioremediation and Biomining
• Environmentally friendly
• Cost-effective
• Selective
• Effective
• Sustainability
Limitations of Bioremediation and Bio mining
• Slow process
• Incomplete removal

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Arsenic).
• Microbial inhibition
• Difficulty in harvesting
• Limited application
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Biology for engineers (Dayananda Sagar University)

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

1. What are Biomolecules ? Explain types of biomolecule with suitable example

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

• Carbohydrates act as energy source

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Procedure /Design and Development of cellulose based water filter:

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

• In Packaging - materials for food and beverages, disposable cutlery

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Steps in the production of DNA Vaccines

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

governments worldwide, and in the UN-supported COVAX global vaccine solidarity

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

7. Explain DNA finger printing

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Isolating the DNA.

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

8. What is Protein? Explain different types of dietary proteins (Animal based

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

1) Whey protein analogs

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

 To make tempeh, whole soybeans are fermented (broken down) by a fungus

Diagrams of production of plant-based meat

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Grains: Brown rice, Oats, Barley

Processing of Plant Based Protein

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Module - 1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) BFE

Triglycerides+ alcohol - Mixture of alkyl esters + glycerol

4. Washing: Washed to remove impurities such as catalyst residues or unreacted alcohol