INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the study of matter and its properties. Chemistry
studies chemical substances, the way they are changed and the energy associated with these changes.

Chemistry is widely applied in many industries that manufacture food, clothes, plastics to mention but
only a few. Other applications of chemistry include the extraction of metals from their respective ores in
mines, manufacture of cement and fertilizers and purification of water.

Page | 1
 1. THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF
MATTER
1.1 Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Basically, there are three states of matter, namely
solid, liquid and gas.

Solid

Figure 1.10

In a solid, particles are closely packed and are arranged in an orderly manner. There are slight vibrations
of the particles. In addition, solids have fixed shape and a fixed volume. Particles are closely packed in
solids because the intermolecular forces (forces of attraction) between them are very strong.

Liquid

Figure 1.12

Particles in a liquid are not closely packed. Particles are able to move slightly due to increased vibrations.
Liquid has no fixed shape but takes the shape of the container and has fixed volume. In liquids the forces
of attraction among particle are not very strong (weak).

Gas

Figure 1.13

There are much more vibrations of particles in a gas. Particles have enough kinetic energy and move
randomly and independently. Gases have no fixed shape and no fixed volume. A gas completely fills the
entire volume of the container in which it is put. In gases there is no attraction among particles, thus the
intermolecular forces are very weak.

Page | 2
1.2 Change of state
Liquid

Evaporation
Melting

Freezing Condensation

Sublimation

Figure 1.20 Gas

Solid
Important terms

(i) Melting is the change of state from solid to liquid. The temperature at which a solid melts is
called the melting point.
(ii) Freezing is the change of state from liquid to solid. The freezing point is the temperature at
which the liquid solidifies.
(iii) Evaporation refers to the change of state from liquid to gas. The differences between
evaporation and boiling are firstly, boiling occurs at a certain temperature while evaporation
occurs at different temperatures. Secondly, all the molecules of the liquid are involved
during boiling but only the molecules at the surface of the liquid are involved during
evaporation.
(iv) Sublimation refers to the change of state from solid directly to gas. An example of a
substance that sublime is ammonium chloride.

Heating curve of a solid

On the graph below the temperature at region B (melting point) remains constant because the heat that
is being supplied is used to change the state of solid to liquid. Once the solid is completely changed to
liquid, the temperature continues to rise provided heat is being supplied. Again the temperature
remains constant at D (boiling point) because the heat being supplied is being used to change the state
of the liquid to gas. Note that both the solid and liquid states are present at the melting point and the
liquid and gas are present at the boiling point.

Page | 3
Temperature
(°C)

A= solid

B = solid and liquid

E
D C = liquid
bp
D = liquid and gas
C
E = gas

mp mp = melting point
B
A bp =boiling point

0 Time (s)
Figure 1.21

1.3 The kinetic theory of matter

The kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made up of very tiny particles which are in constant
motion.

1.4 The Brownian motion

The Brownian motion experiment is used to investigate the kinetic theory of matter. Smoke particles are
suspended in a cell and there motion is observed under a microscope. It will be observed that a small
point of light will be moving haphazardly in a zigzag manner (continuous random motion) due to the
collisions between gas particles and smoke particles. This proves that particles of matter are in constant
random motion.

Page | 4
1.5 Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles (ions, molecules, protons, electrons e.t.c) from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusions occur in liquid and gaseous states only.

When a small amount of sweet-smelling perfume in released at the front of a classroom, it takes some
time before everyone in the room can smell it, because time is required for the ammonia to mix with the
air. The rate of diffusion is the rate at which gases mix.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

(i) Temperature
At high temperatures particles have great kinetic energy and they mix quickly. That is at high
temperatures the rate of diffusion is high. The opposite is true at low temperatures.
(ii) Size of diffusing particles
Smaller particles tend to diffuse faster than bigger particles. That is the smaller the diffusing
particles, the faster the rate of diffusion.

(iii) Concentration
The rate of diffusion depends on the difference between concentrations across the host
material, resulting in higher diffusion rates. In short the higher the concentration of diffusing
particles, the faster the rate of diffusion.
(iv) Diffusing distance.
The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the distance through which the material is
diffusing. That is, the smaller the distance the higher the rate of diffusion and the large the
distance the lower the rate of diffusion.

1.6 Instruments used in chemistry

Instrument Use
Measuring cylinder Measuring very large volumes of
liquid
Pipette Measuring fixed volume of liquid
Burette Measuring large volume of liquid
(e.g. 50cm3)
Beaker Mixing liquids
Bunsen burner Source of heat
Round bottomed flask Heating liquids
Table 1.0

Page | 5
Sample of examination questions on the particulate nature of matter

1. In both liquids and gases the molecules present are moving.

(a)Compare the movement and the spacing between molecules in a gas with those in a liquid. [3]
(b)How do these movements change as the temperature is increased? [2]
(c)How does your answer to (b) explain how the rate of chemical reactions change as the
temperature of the reaction mixture is increased? [2]
2. The diagram below shows models representing the three physical states of matter.

P
Q R

(a) Using the letter P, Q and R only, give the state of matter:
(i) in which particles occupy the whole volume of any vessel. [1]
(ii) which represents water at 50°C and standard pressure. [1]
(b) Give the name of the process involved when:
(i) Q changes to P. [1]
(ii) Q changes to R. [1]
(c) In which diagram P, Q or R is the rate of diffusion highest. Give a reason for your answer. [2]
3. Smoke particles in a transparent box are observed using a microscope. A small point of light is
seen to move around as shown below.

Point of light

What does this experiment demonstrate about air molecules? [1]

Page | 6
2. THE LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY
2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
An element is a substance which contains one kind of atom only. An element cannot be broken further
into simpler substances and it is a pure substance. (Examples of elements include sodium (Na),
Potassium (K), Lithium (Li) etc).

A compound is a pure substance that is formed when two or more elements combine chemically, for
example, Magnesium Oxide (MgO) and Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

Mixtures are not pure substances. They contain more than one substance (element and/or compound).
Sea water is an example of a mixture.

Differences between compound and mixture

Compound
1 It is a single substance.
2 A chemical change takes place when a
compound is formed.
3 The properties are very different from
those of individual elements.
4 The composition does not change (it is
always the same).
5 The components can only be separated by
one or more chemical reactions.
Table 2.0
Mixture
It comprises two or more
substances.
When a mixture is formed no
chemical change takes place.
Properties are those of individual
substances (element etc).
The composition can vary.
The components can be easily
separated by physical means.

1.2 Separation techniques and criteria of purity

The criterion of purity postulates that pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points.
Addition of impurities to a pure substance lowers or raises its boiling or melting point.

2.21 Fractional distillation

Miscible liquids are liquids whose molecules mix completely e.g. water and alcohols. These liquids can
be separated by fractional distillation because they have different boiling points. Water boils at 100°C
while alcohol boils at 78°C. During fractional distillation the liquid with the lowest boiling point is
collected first.

Page | 7
 Apparatus for fractional distillation

Figure 2.21

Immiscible liquids are liquids that do not mix e.g. water and oil. Since oil floats on water it is easily
drained off.

2.22 Chromatography
This is the method used to separate dyes or colours (solutes) in particular solvents due to their different
rates of movement over absorbent material.

There are two types of paper chromatography, ascending paper chromatography and descending
paper chromatography.

Ascending paper chromatography is one in which components moves upwards.

Consider a spot of ink made from mixing blue and red inks. Let us assume that we do not know the
components. To identify how many and which colours are in the spot of ink we use paper
chromatography as shown in the diagram below.

Starting line is drawn in pencil instead of ink because pencil is insoluble and it has no dyes but ink is
soluble and can separate and contaminate the sample been tested.

Page | 8
 Chromatogram
Solvent front

Chromatogram

Red spot
Spot (mixture of ink)

Blue spot
Starting line

Solvent (water)

Figure 2.220 Figure 2.221

During chromatography a small spot of the dye to separate is put on the starting line which is drawn in
pencil above the solvent. To prevent the spot from dissolving in the solvent and contaminating it the
starting line is drawn in pencil above the solvent. Pencil is insoluble and has no dyes.

The base of the chromatogram in put in the solvent, the molecules of the solvent diffuses up the
chromatogram dissolving the spot. Once the spot is dissolved it separate into components (different
colours) and the most soluble component travels the longest distance on the chromatogram.

The solvent front is the maximum distance a component can travel over absorbent material, and it is
drawn near the top of the paper because some components are very soluble and travels a longer
distance. A chromatogram is the paper (e.g. filter paper, plain paper e.t.c) used in chromatography
which shows the results of the experiment.

In descending paper chromatography components move downwards. The advantage of this method
over the former is that is faster because it is aided by the force of gravity. The only disadvantage of
descending paper chromatography is that more chromatogram is used as compared to ascending
chromatography.

Spot of ink to be separated

Starting line

Solvent front

Figure 2.222

Page | 9
It is worth to note that the process of chromatography takes place inside a closed vessel firstly, to
prevent dust particles from contaminating the solvent which can affect the results of the experiment.
Secondly, to prevent the solvent and the solute from evaporating.

Rf value of a solute is the ratio of the distance moved by solute to distance moved by the solvent.

2.221 Application of chromatography

(i) Separating blood from plasma.
(ii) In indentifying food flavourings.
(iii) Separating amino acids from proteins.
(iv) Separating green pigments from plants.

Sample of examination questions on separation techniques

(1) Use the list of separation techniques below to answer the questions that follow.
Fractional distillation, Simple distillation, Using separating funnel, Magnetism, Chromatography,
Evaporation and Filtration.
(a) Sand from water [1]
(b) Oil from water [1]
(c) Water from ink [1]
(d) Sulphur powder from iron fillings [1]
(e) Salt from paraffin [1]
(2) (a) The diagram below shows a chromatogram obtained using solutions of three single dyes
(blue, green and red) and four other solutions (A, B, C and D).
Solvent front

Starting line
A B C D Blue dye Green dye Red dye

Which of the solutions A, B, C or D contains the following?

(i) One dye only [1]

(ii) Three of the dyes [1]
(iii) Green and red dyes only [1]

(b) In preparing the chromatogram, the following instructions were given. Suggest a reason for
each instruction.
(i) the starting line should be drawn in a pencil rather than ink. [1]

(ii) the spots of the solutions and dyes on the starting line should be small. [1]

Page | 10
2.3 An Atom
An atom is a smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction. Atoms are very
tiny and are made up of three sub-atomic particles (protons, electrons and neutrons) that have different
masses and electrical charges as shown in the table below.

Name of particle Symbol Mass (a.m.u) Charge Position in atom

Proton P 1 +1 Nucleus

Electron E 1/1840 -1 shells (around the

nucleus)
Neutron N 1 No charge Nucleus

Table 2.1

Structure of an atom

electron

Shell 1
nucleus

proton
Shell 2

neutron

Figure 2.30

In a neutral atom the number of proton is equal to the number of electrons. The total number of
protons in an atom is called the proton number (Z). Likewise the total number of protons (Z) and
neutrons (N) in an atom make up the mass number (A) or nucleon number of an atom.

The term nucleon is used to refer to protons and neutrons.

Mass number = Proton number + Neutron number

A=Z+N

Page | 11
2.31 Electron configuration in an atom
The maximum number of electrons a particular shell can occupy is found using the formula 2n2 where n
is the number of the shell (energy level). n≥1.

When n=1 (1st shell) 2(1)2 = 2 electrons in 1st shell

When n=2 (2nd shell) 2(2)2 = 8 electrons in 2nd shell

Electronic configuration and structures of some atoms

Name of atom Chemical Electron configuration Structure of atom

symbol

Lithium Li 2,1 Li

Magnesium Mg 2,8,2
Mg

Oxygen O 2,6 O

Table 2.2

Page | 12
2.4 Bonding
Bonding is the process in which atoms combine so as to achieve stability like the noble gases. All atoms
that do not have a full outermost shell are not stable. In order to gain stability, these atoms should
combine with other atoms or radicals by either donating electrons or sharing electrons.

Valency is the combining power of atoms.

Group of elements Valency

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 3
6 2
7 1
8 0
Table 2.3

Radical refers to a group of atoms which is in several compounds but is incapable of existing
independently.

Radical Chemical Valency

formula
Hydroxide OH- 1
-
Nitrate NO3 1
Carbonate CO32- 2
Sulphate SO42- 2
Phosphate PO43- 3
Table 2.4

2.41 Types of bonding

(1) Ionic bonding (electrovalent bonding)
This type of bonding involves the metal donating electron(s) to the non-metal(s). Ionic bonding
occurs between metals and non-metals. The metal is the electron donor while the non-metal is
the electron acceptor.
(a) Formation of Magnesium Oxide.
2+ 2-
Mg O
After interchanging the valencies we have
MgO

Page | 13
 Structure of MgO
2+ 2-
Key

O electron

Mg electron
Mg O

Figure 2.40
(b) Formation of sodium chloride
+ -
Na Cl
After interchanging the valencies we get
NaCl

Structure of NaCl
+ -

Cl
Na

Figure 2.41

Properties of ionic compounds

(i) They are solid at room temperature and pressure.

(ii) They are made up of positively and negatively charged ions.
(iii) They conduct electricity in liquid and molten states because in this state their ions are
mobile.
(iv) They have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between oppositely charged ions.
(v) They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.
(vi) They have high densities.

Page | 14
 (2) Covalent Bonding (Molecular Bonding)
This type of bonding involves the sharing of electrons and occurs between non -metals.
Examples of covalent compounds are carbon dioxide and ammonia.
(a) Structure of Carbon dioxide (CO2)

O C O

Figure 2.42

(b) Structure of ammonia (NH3)

H N H

Figure 2.43

Properties of covalent compounds

(i) They are usually gases at room temperature and pressure.

(ii) They do not conduct electricity.
(iii) Have low melting and boiling points.
(iv) Have low densities.

Page | 15
Sample of examination questions on atoms and bonding

(1) (a) complete the table below about two different oxygen atoms

Atom Proton (atomic) number Nucleon number

16
O
8

18
8
O

[2]
(b) (i) draw the electronic arrangement in an oxygen atom, using cross (X) to represent an
electron. [1]
16
(ii) explain how O atom forms a negative ion. [1]
8 35 37
(2) Chlorine has two isotopes, 17Cl and 17Cl.
(a) Define the term isotopes. [2]
(b) State the number of neutrons in each of the following isotopes of chlorine.
(i) Chlorine – 35 [1]
(ii) Chlorine – 37 [1]
(c) (i) draw the atomic structure of an atom of chlorine. [1]

(ii) give the formula of a chloride ion. [1]

(d) Explain why the relative atomic mass of chlorine on the Periodic Table is not a whole
number. [1]
(3) Magnesium burns in oxygen to form a solid X.
(a) Write down the chemical formula of the solid X. [1]
(b) What type of bonding occurs in solid X? [1]
(c) Draw the structure of solid X. [1]
(d) (i) explain why X conducts electricity in the solid state. [1]

(ii) name another substance that conducts electricity in the solid state. [1]

(4) Ammonia (NH3) gas is a covalent compound.

(a) Draw the structure of ammonia that shows the bonding in this molecule. [1]
(b) State one physical property of the gas that is due to the type of bonding it has. [1]
(c) Name another compound which has the same type of bonding. [1]

Page | 16
 4. THE PERIODIC TABLE
In the Periodic Table element are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The columns on the
Periodic Table are called groups and there are 8 groups on periodic table. The rows are called Periods.

Table 3

3.1 Group One Elements

Group one elements are commonly known as alkali metals.

General properties

(i) They are solid at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p ).

(ii) All Group One Elements have a valency of one.
(iii) They conduct electricity and forms ions of the type X+.
(iv) They have high melting and boiling points.
(v) They have high densities.
(vi) Reactivity increases as you go down the group.
(vii) Atomic radius increases down the group.
(viii) They are stored under oil because they are very reactive.

Page | 17
Chemical properties

(i) They react with oxygen to form metal oxides.

Na (s) + O2 (g) Na2O(s)
(ii) They react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas is librated.
2Na(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (aq)

3.2 Group Two Elements

Group Two elements are also known as alkaline earth metals because they react with water to form
alkaline solutions.

General properties

(i) They are solid at room temperature (25°C) and pressure (r.t.p ).
(ii) All Group Two Elements have a valency of two.
(iii) They conduct electricity.
(iv) Forms ions of the type X2+.
(v) Reactivity increases as you go down the group.
(vi) Atomic radius increases down the group.
(vii) They have high melting and boiling points.
(viii) They have high densities.

Chemical properties

(i) They react with oxygen to form metal oxides.

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)
(ii) They react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas is librated.
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (aq)

3.3 Transitional Elements

Transitional elements are those that are found between Group 2 and Group 3 elements of the Periodic
table.

General properties

(i) They are all solids at room temperature and pressure with the exception of Mercury which
is in a liquid state at r.t.p.
(ii) They form coloured compounds.
+
(iii) They have complex ions and variable valencies. For example Copper (I) (Cu ) has a valency of
1 and Copper (II) (Cu2+) has a valency of 2.
(iv) They have high densities and some are catalysts.
(v) They have high melting and boiling points.

Page | 18
3.4 Group Seven Elements
These elements have a special name Halogens. They include Fluorine, Bromine, Chlorine, Iodine and
Astatine.

General properties

(i) They have a valency of one.

(ii) They have seven electrons in the outermost shell.
(iii) They have low melting and boiling points.
(iv) They have low densities.
(v) Form ions of the type X-.
(vi) Reactivity increases as up the group.
(vii) Like Group Six Elements halogens exist as diatomic molecules. For example Chlorine
exists as Cl2 and Bromine as Br2.

Chemical properties

(i) They react with metals to form ionic compounds (salts).

2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl(s)

Important uses of some halogens

Chlorine

(i) Used to satirize drinking water.

(ii) Used as a bleaching agent.
(iii) Used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

Fluorine

(i) Used in the making of toothpaste.

(ii) Used as an oxidizer in rocket fuels.

3.5 Group Eight Elements (Group O)

Group Eight elements are called noble gases because they are very unreactive.

General properties

(i) They have no valency.

(ii) They have eight electrons in the outermost shell.
(iii) They are very unreactive.
(iv) They exist as monatomic particles.

Page | 19
Uses of some noble gases

(I) Argon is used in filament light bulbs to create a suitable safe and inert environment.
(II) Neon is used in blimps and balloons since it is light.
(III) Neon is also used inside lighting tubes as it glow distinctive colours.
(IV) Helium and argon are very commonly used to shield a welding arc and the base metal from
atmosphere during welding.
(V) Krypton is used in lasers, which are used by doctors for eye surgery.

Sample of examination questions on The Periodic Table

(1) Use The Periodic Table to answer the questions below.

(a) Give the symbol of:
(i) A non-metal used to sterilize water. [1]
(ii) An element which forms diatomic molecules. [1]
(iii) An element which reacts with water to give an alkaline solution. [1]
2-
(iv) An element which forms an ion of the type X . [1]
(b) Oxygen, sulphur and selenium are in Group VI of The Periodic Table. At room temperature
oxygen is a gas and sulphur is a solid. Predict whether selenium is a liquid, a solid or a gas at
room temperature. [1]
(c) The trend in reactivity of Group VI is similar to that in Group VII. Suggest the most reactive
element in Group VI. [1]
(2) (a) Lithium, sodium, potassium and rubidium are members of Group I of the Periodic Table.
(i) For these four elements, construct a table using the following headings: name, chemical
symbol, relative atomic mass, electronic configuration and formula of oxide. [5]
(ii) What name is given to Group I metals? [1]
(iii) Describe the trend in reactivity of Group I elements. [1]
(iv) Sodium reacts vigorously with water. For this reaction, state the names of the two
products formed. [2]

(b) Calcium is a metallic element in Group II of the Periodic Table. Explain in terms of structure
why calcium conducts electricity in the solid state. [2]

(c) Calcium and chlorine react together to form calcium chloride, an ionic solid.

(i) Give the formula of calcium chloride. [1]

(ii) Give the formulae of the two ions present in calcium chloride. [2]

(iii) Would you expect calcium chloride to dissolve in water? Give a reason for your answer. [1]

Page | 20
 5. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND
IONIC EQUATIONS
Chemical equation is the simplest way to show the reactants and products and their ratios.

5.1 Rules to follow when writing chemical equations

(i) The chemical formulae of reactants are written on the left while those of products are
written on the right.
(ii) An arrow ( ) is used instead of an equal sign (=). A single headed arrow ( )
means the reaction proceeds in one direction only (i.e. reactants to products) while a double
headed arrow ( ) means the reaction is reversible.
(iii) There must be the same number of each type of particles (atoms) on the left as on the right.
(iv) Include state symbols for both reactants and products. State symbols used in chemical
equations are (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous solution.

5.2 Chemical equations and types of chemical reaction

(1) Neutralization reaction
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
(2) Oxidation
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
(3) Double displacement
Sodium sulphate + barium nitrate barium sulphate + sodium nitrate
Na2SO4 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

5.3 Writing Ionic equations

Rules to follow
(i) Split every compound which is in aqueous solution into its constituent ions for both
reactants and products. Compounds in solid, liquid and gaseous states should not be
split.
(ii) Cancel out ions that are appearing both on the reactants side and products side.
(iii) The remaining species make up the ionic equation.

Consider the neutralization reaction above

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Page | 21
 Splitting compounds in aqueous solution into their constituent ions
H+ (aq) +Cl- (aq) + Na+(aq) OH- (aq) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

Cancelling out ions appearing on both sides

H+ (aq) +Cl- (aq) + Na+(aq) OH- (aq) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
The ionic equation is
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

Consider the double displacement reaction above

Na2SO4 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Splitting compounds in aqueous solution into ions

2Na+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + Ba2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)
Cancelling out ions appearing on both sides

- -
2Na+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + Ba2+ (aq) + 2NO3 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO3 (aq)
What is left is the ionic equation

Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4 (s)

Sample of examination questions on chemical and ionic equations

(1) Zinc can be reacted to form, gas A and solid B.
(a) Name gas A and solid B. [2]
(b) State the product when gas A burns in air. [1]
(c) Give two uses of gas A. [2]
(d) (i) Construct a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the reaction between
solid B and dilute hydrochloric acid. [3]

(ii) Write the ionic equation for this reaction. Include state symbol. [2]

(2) Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium sulphate and water.
(i) What name is given to the reaction above? [1]
(ii) Write the ionic equation for the reaction above. Include state symbols [4]

Page | 22
 6. THE MOLE CONCEPT AND
STOICHIOMETRY
6.1 Relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative molecular mass (Mr)
Relative Atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the ratio of the average mass per atom of an element to
1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon 12.

Atom Atomic mass (Ar)

40
Ca (calcium) 40
20

23
11
Na (sodium) 23

35.5
17
Cl (chlorine) 35.5

Table 6.0

6.11 Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different mass
numbers.

Chlorine has two isotopes chlorine – 35 and chlorine – 37 with percentage abundance of 75% and 25%
respectively. Therefore we can calculate the average mass of chlorine.

( X ) ( X )
( )

The Ar of chlorine is 35.5 because chlorine has two isotopes whose average mass compared with 1/12th
the mass of an atom of carbon gives 35.5.

Relative Molecular mass is the mass of a compound or molecule compared with 1/12th the mass of an
atom of carbon – 12. To find the mass of a compound, simply add all the atomic masses of individual
atoms making up that compound.

(i) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

Mr (CaCO3) = Ar(Ca) + Ar(C) + 3Ar(O)
= 40 + 12 + 3(16)
= 100

(ii) Calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3)2]

Mr (CaCO3) = Ar(Ca) + 2Ar(N) + 6Ar(O)

Page | 23
 = 40 + 2(14) + 6(16)
= 164
Note: Ar and Mr have no units.

6.2 The Mole

The mole can be defined as the amount of substance that contains particles that are equal
in number to the number of atoms contained in 12 grams of carbon – 12.
One mole of any substance contains 6.022 X 1023 particles of that substance. This number (6
X 1023) is called the Avogadro’s constant and is denoted by the letter NA.

g
n= Mr
Examples

1. How many mole of magnesium are in 0.24g of magnesium.

Ar(Mg) = 24

= 0.01 moles

2. 0.5 moles of water weighs 9g calculate the relative molecular mass of water.

Mr

=18

6.3 Molar volume of gas

Molar volume of a gas is the amount of space occupied by a gas. At room temperature and pressure
(r.t.p), one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 (24000 cm3). In the same manner, one mole of
any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 (22400 cm3) at standard temperature pressure (s.t.p).

1dm3 1000cm3

Page | 24
Example

Calculate the volume occupied by 2.0 moles of oxygen gas

(a) At r.t.p
(b) At s.t.p

Solutions
(a) 1 mol (O2) 24 dm3 (b) 1mol 22.4dm3
2 mol (O2) V
2mol V
3
2 mol X 24 dm
V = 2 mol X 22.4dm3
1 mol V=
1 mol
V= 48dm3
V = 44.8 dm3

6.4 Concentration
Concentration refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent. Concentration can be expressed in
terms of number of moles per dm3 or 1000cm3 of solution.

When concentration is expressed in mole per decimeter cubic (mol/dm3) it is called molarity (M).

( )

Note: To convert from mol/dm3 to g/dm3 multiply by the relative molecular mass (Mr) and to
convert from g/dm3 to mol/dm3 divide by the relative molecular mass (Mr).

Page | 25
Example

(a) 3g of NaOH was dissolved in water and the volume of the solution was made up to 250cm3.
What is the molarity of the solution?
Mr(NaOH) = 40 v = 250cm3 = 0.25dm3

Finally,

M = 0.075mols ÷ 0.25 dm3 = 0.3 mol/dm3

(b) 2.5 moles of sugar was dissolved in water and the solution was made up to 1000cm3. Calculate
the molarity of the solution.

M = 2.5mols ÷ 1 dm3 = 2.5 mol/dm3

6.5 The concept of limiting reactants and reactants in excess

A limiting reactant is one which is completely consumed during a chemical reaction. When all the
limiting reactant is consumed the reaction will stop.

A reactant in excess is one that remains after the limiting reactant is completely consumed.

Example

A 2.00g sample of ammonia is mixed with 4.00g of oxygen. Identify the limiting reactant and the
reactant in excess.

Solution

Step 1: write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction

4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

Page | 26
 Step 2: workout the number of moles of each reactant

n(NH3) = 2 ÷ 17 = 0.118 moles n(O2) = 4÷16 = 0.25 moles

Step 3: calculate the number of moles of each reactants stoichiometrically.

0.25mols (O2)
0.118 mols (NH3)
X 5mols (O2) n(O2) = X 4mols (NH3)
n(NH3) = 0.118mols (NH3)
0.25mols (O2)
= 8.475 mols (O2)
= 2.36 mols (NH3)

Stoichiometrically, 2.36 moles of (NH3) are reacting with 8.475 moles of (O2), but according to
the chemical equation 4 moles of (NH3) and not 2.36 moles are needed, therefore NH3 is the
limiting reactant. Also 5 moles of O2 are needed but 8.475 moles are present, therefore O2 is
the reactant in excess.

6.6 Empirical Formula

This is the simplest formula of a compound.

How to calculate empirical formula given percentage composition

Example

A compound Z consists of 50% sulphur and 50% oxygen by mass. What is the simplest empirical formula
of Z?

S O

50% 50%

Divide by Ar to get n
50 50
32 16

1.5625 3.125
Divide by smallest value of n
1.5625 1.5625

These are number of

1 2
atoms for each element

Therefore the empirical formula for Z is SO2

Page | 27
Sample of examination questions on the mole concept and stoichiometry

(1) Potassium carbonate reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form potassium sulphate, carbon
dioxide gas and water.
(a) Construct a balanced chemical equation, including state symbols for the reaction above. [2]
(b) Calculate the mass of potassium sulphate produced when 2.0g of potassium carbonate
reacts with an excess of dilute sulphuric acid. [2]
(2) Urea, (NH2)2CO and water are formed when ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide. Urea is
obtained as a solid from the reaction mixture.
(a) (i) Write a balanced chemical equation including state symbols for this reaction. [3]

(ii) How many atoms of hydrogen are present in one molecule of urea? [1]

(b) What mass of urea in tonnes can be formed from 34 tonnes of the acid? [2]

Page | 28
 7. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

7.1 Acids
An acid is a substance which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ion (H+) as the only positively
charged ion. According to Bronsted – Lowry model an acid is a “proton donor”.

7.11 Types of acids

(i) Strong acid
Strong acid is one that dissociate completely when dissolved in water.

Strong Acid Chemical formula Dissociation in water

Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq) HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) HNO3(aq) H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 (aq) H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO4 2- (aq)
Carbonic acid H2CO3 (aq) H2CO3 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + CO3 2- (aq)
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 (aq) H3PO4 (aq) 3H+ (aq) + PO4 3- (aq)
Table 7.0
(ii) Weak acid
A weak acid is one that ionizes partially when dissolved in water.
Weak acid Chemical formula Dissociation
Methanoic acid HCOOH (aq) HCOOH (aq) H+(aq) + HCOO- (aq)
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (a q)
Table 7.1

General properties of acids

(a) Acids have a sour taste.

(b) They turn blue litmus paper red.
(c) Acids are corrosive.
(d) They have a pH which is less than 7.

Chemical properties

(a) Acids react with bases to produce a salt and water.

Acid + Base Salt + Water
(i) HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
(b) Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
(i) H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (aq) CaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

(c) Acids react with reactive metals to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.

Page | 29
 Metal+ Acid Salt + Hydrogen gas
(i) Na (s) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)

7.12 Basicity of an acid

Basicity refers to the number of replaceable hydrogen ions in a molecule of an acid.

Acid Basicity
HCl (aq) 1
H2SO4 (aq) 2
H3PO4 (aq) 3
CH3COOH (aq) 1
Table 7.2

7.2 Bases
A base is a substance which when dissolved in water produces hydroxide ions (OH-) as the only
negatively charged ion. Bronsted – Lowry model a base as a “proton acceptor”.

7.21 Strong bases

A strong base is one which ionizes completely when dissolved in water. Alkaline earth metals make
strong bases. Some strong bases like sodium hydroxide are soluble in water and they are called alkali.
All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.

Strong base Chemical formula Dissociation in water

Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq) NaOH (aq) Na+(aq) + OH- (aq)
Potassium hydroxide KOH (aq) KOH (aq) K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (aq) Ca(OH)2 (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)
Table 7.3

7.22 Weak bases

A weak base is one which ionizes partially in water. For example ammonium hydroxide

NH4OH (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

The symbol means the reaction is reversible.

Physical properties of bases

(i) They have a bitter taste.

(ii) Bases have a pH which is above 7.
(iii) They turn red litmus paper blue.
(iv) Bases have soapy feel when touched.

Page | 30
7.3 Acid – Base indicator and the pH scale

Indicator Colour in base Colour in acid

Methyl orange Yellow Red
Phenolphthalein purple Colourless
Litmus paper From red to blue From blue to red
Table 7.4

7.31 The pH scale

The pH scale is one which is used to identify the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. pH stands for
potential of Hydrogen.

Increasing alkalinity Neutral Increasing alkalinity

14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 7.0

Common substances and their pH

Substance pH
Ammonia (household cleaner) 12
Blood 7.5
Pure water 7
Sodium chloride( Table salt) 7
Milk 6.5
Vinegar 3
Lemon juice 2.5
Stomach acid 2
Table 7.5

7.4 Salts
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ion(s) of an acid is completely or partially replaced by a
metallic or ammonium ions.

7.41 Types of salts

(I) Normal salts
A normal salt is one which is formed when all the hydrogen ion of an acid has been replaced
by a metallic or ammonium ions. Examples of normal salts include; Sodium chloride (NaCl),
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
Normal salts are formed from strong acids.

Page | 31
 (II) Acidic salts
An acidic salt is one in which the hydrogen ion of an acid is partially replaced by a metallic or
ammonium ions. Calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2 and sodium hydrogen sulphate,
NaHSO4 are examples of acidic salts.

7.42 Naming salts

Salts are named according to the acid they are derived from.

Acid Name of salt

Hydrochloric acid Chloride e.g. sodium chloride
Sulphuric acid Sulphate e.g. magnesium sulphate
Carbonic acid Carbonate e.g. calciulm carbonate
Phosphoric acid Phosphate e.g. potassium phosphate
Nitric acid Nitrate e.g. silver nitrate
Table 7.6

7.43 Solubility of salts

Group of salts Solubility in water
Nitrates All nitrates are soluble
Chlorides All chlorides are soluble in water except
that of lead, silver and mercury.
Sulphates All sulphates are soluble in water except
that of barium and lead. Calcium sulphate
is slightly soluble.
Carbonates All carbonates are insoluble in water
except alkali metal carbonates and
ammonium carbonates.
Alkali metal and ammonium salts Are all soluble in water
Table 7.7

7.44 Preparation of soluble salts

Soluble salts can be prepared using any of the following methods.

(i) Neutralization reaction (Titration method).

Acid + base salt + water
(ii) Acid + metal salt + hydrogen gas.
(iii) Acid + insoluble base salt + water
(iv) Acid + insoluble carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

Preparation of magnesium chloride (soluble salt)

The reactants to be used for this reaction are magnesium metal powder and hydrochloric acid.

In the first place, warm the dilute hydrochloric acid in a beaker. To the warm acid add magnesium metal
powder a little at a time stopping only when effervescence stops when magnesium is in excess.
Magnesium should be in excess so that all the acid reacts. The next step involves filtering off the

Page | 32
unreacted magnesium metal. The magnesium chloride filtrate is then evaporated to saturation in an
evaporating dish. Furthermore, the saturated magnesium chloride solution is left in cool dry place to
form crystals (crystalise). Once the crystals form they are dried by placing them between filter papers or
placing them in an oven.

The chemical equation for the reaction is shown below

Mg (s) +2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (aq)

Effervescence is a term used to describe the sound made by bubbles of a gas as the gas is been librated
in a chemical reaction.

Preparation of copper (II) sulphate (soluble salt)

Reactants: Copper oxide and dilute sulphuric acid.

Firstly, the acid is warmed in the beaker to speed up the rate of the reaction. Black copper (II) oxide
(CuO) is added a little at a time until it is in excess. Likewise, the filtrate (copper (II) sulphate solution) is
evaporated to saturation using an evaporation dish. The saturated solution is then left to crystallize in a
cool dry place. Once crystals form they are dried between filter papers.

Preparation of insoluble salts (double decomposition or double displacement)

Insoluble salts are prepared by mixing together solutions of two soluble salts. This type of reaction is
called double decomposition. A double decomposition reaction is of the type

PX + QY PY + QX

When two particular soluble salts are mixed an insoluble salt and a soluble salt are produced. To
obtain a pure sample of the insoluble salt, filter off the precipitate and then wash it with distilled
water. Finally, dry the precipitate thoroughly between filter papers.

Preparation of silver chloride (insoluble salt)

Reactants: silver nitrate solution and sodium chloride solution.

Silver nitrate and sodium chloride solutions are mixed in beaker. The mixture is then filtered. The
residue or precipitate (silver chloride) is then obtained and washed with distilled water then it is dried
between filter papers.

Sodium chloride + silver nitrate silver chloride + sodium nitrate

NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Page | 33
 Sample of examination questions on Acids, Bases and Salts

(1) Copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) is a soluble salt prepared by using sulphuric acid as one of the
starting materials.
(a) Define a salt. [1]
(b) (i) Name one other reagent which must be reacted with dilute sulphuric acid to form copper
(II) sulphate. [1]

(ii) Construct a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in b (i) above. [2]

(c) Describe briefly how a dry sample of copper (II) sulphate can be prepared from the named
reagents in (b). [4]
(d) Will the method in part (c) above be suitable to prepare a sample of potassium chloride?
Give a reason for your answer. [2]
(2) (a) Name a soluble salt which can be suitably prepared by the action of an acid on:
(i) A metal [1]
(ii) An alkali [1]
(c) Barium sulphate is prepared by precipitation method.
(i) Explain why the precipitation method is suitable for the preparation of barium sulphate.
[1]
(ii) Name two chemicals which can be used to prepare barium sulphate. [2]
(iii) State the method used to separate the barium sulphate from the resulting mixture after
the reaction. [1]
(3) The diagram below shows a kiln used to decompose limestone.
Double bell device for loading

Gas F

Fuel and air inject

Limestone

Discharge G
(a) What is the chemical formula of limestone? [1]
(b) Identify F and G. [2]
(c) Describe the test for gas F. [2]
(d) Mention two uses of substance G and one use of limestone. [3]
(e) Explain why limestone may not be used to prepare calcium sulphate by reacting it with
dilute sulphuric acid.

Page | 34
 8. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

8.1 Oxidation
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from or the addition of oxygen to a substance. The increase in
oxidation number is also oxidation.

(i) In this reaction carbon has been oxidized

C + O2 CO2

(ii) In this reaction sulphur has been oxidized

2H2S + O2 2S + 2H2O
(iii) Oxidation by increase in oxidation number
Cu + 2e- Cu2+

Oxidizing agent
An oxidizing agent is a substance that causes oxidation why it undergoes reduction.
Oxidizing agents include oxygen, concentrated nitric acid, potassium dichromate, hydrogen
peroxide, potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid.

8.2 Reduction
Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to or removal of oxygen from a substance. Reduction is also the
decrease in oxidation number.

(i) In this reaction copper (II) oxide has been reduced to copper by hydrogen.
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
(ii) The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen during the manufacture of ammonia is also a
reduction reaction.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Reducing agent

A substance that causes reduction while it undergoes oxidation is a reducing agent. Examples of
reducing agents are carbon, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen and potassium iodide.

Page | 35
8.3 Redox reaction
A redox reaction is one in which oxidation and reduction occurs simultaneously.

(i) CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

In this reaction CuO has been reduced to Cu by H2 and H2 has been oxidized to H2O by CuO.
Thus CuO is the oxidizing agent and H2 is the reducing agent in this reaction.

(ii) Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

In this reaction Fe2O3 has been reduced to Fe by CO and CO has been oxidized to CO2 by
Fe2O3. Thus Fe2O3 is the oxidizing agent and CO is the reducing agent.

8.4 classification of oxides

Oxides are divided into four classes; these are acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral oxides.

(i) Acidic oxides are those that make acidic solutions when dissolved in water. They do not
react with acids but with bases to form salt and water. Sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide
(CO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are examples of acidic oxides.
(ii) Basic oxides are oxides of metals. They do not react with bases but with acids to form salt
and water. They are usually insoluble in water; those that are soluble form alkaline
solutions. Sodium oxide (Na2O), magnesium oxide (MgO), iron (II) oxide (FeO) and copper (II)
oxide (CuO) are examples of basic oxides.
(iii) Neutral oxides include carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide (NO) and water (H2O).
They have a neutral pH.
(iv) Amphoteric oxides include Zinc oxide (ZnO), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and lead oxides (PbO).
They react with both acids and bases to form salt and water.

Sample of examination questions on oxidation and reduction

1. Deduce whether the named substances in bold in the following equations have been oxidized,
reduced, or neither oxidized nor reduced.
(a) Iron oxide + carbon monoxide carbon dioxide + iron. [1]
(b) Sulphuric acid + sodium sodium sulphate + hydrogen gas [1]
2+ 2+
(c) Zn (s) + Cu (aq) Zn (aq) + Cu (s) [1]

2. When steam is passed over hot coke, a redox reaction occurs:

H2O (g) + C (s) H2 (g) + CO (g)
(i) Explain why the reaction is redox. [2]
(ii) State with reason which substance is acting as the reducing agent and which one is
acting as the oxidizing agent? [4]

Page | 36
 9. RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Rates of reaction refers to how fast the reactants are been consumed or how fast products are been
formed.

( )

Volume against Time graph

1.8
A
1.6 B
Volume 1.4
3
(cm ) 1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s)

Figure 9.0

Note: The point on the graph where the curve is closest to the y – axis is where the reaction was
the fastest.

For a reaction to take place, energy is needed to break bonds in the reactants. The minimum energy
required to breaks bonds in the reactants for a reaction to take place is called activation energy. If the
activation energy is high the reaction will be slow, however a catalyst can be used to lower the
activation energy thereby speeding up the chemical reaction.

Page | 37
9.1 Exothermic and endothermic reaction
An exothermic reaction is one that releases heat energy to the surroundings. In an exothermic reaction
the energy taken in during bond breaking is lower than the energy given out during bond making. The
symbol ∆H means energy change and it is negative for exothermic reaction.

(i) Reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is exothermic.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) energy change (∆H) = -92 kJ
(ii) Dissolving solid sodium hydroxide in water is also an exothermic reaction.
NaOH (s) NaOH (aq)

An endothermic reaction is one that absorbs energy from the surroundings. In this reaction the energy
taken in during bond breaking is greater than the energy given out during bond making. The energy
change is positive for endothermic reaction. Photosynthesis is an example of an endothermic reaction.
sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

9.2 The collision theory

The collision theory states that particles have to collide in order to react but not all collisions results in
reaction.

9.3 Factors that affect the rate of reaction

(i) Temperature. At high temperature particles of reactants have great kinetic energy and
collide frequently. These collisions promote formation of products, therefore the high the
temperature the higher the reaction rate.
(ii) Size of reacting particles. The smaller the reacting particles, the higher the rate of reaction.
The opposite is also true.
(iii) Concentration. If reactants are concentrated the reaction takes place at a fast rate. If the
concentration of reactants is low the reaction will be slow.
(iv) Catalyst. The rate of a chemical reaction can be altered by a substance chemically known as
a catalyst. A catalyst can either speed up or slow down the rate of a chemical reaction.

Sample of examination question on rates of reactions

A student measured the total volume of carbon dioxide produced over 2 minutes by reacting solid
calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid. His results are shown in the table below.

Time/s 0 5 20 35 55 70 90 120
Total volume/ cm3 0

(i) Plot these points on a graph paper. [3]

(ii) Describe how the rate of this reaction changes with time. [1]
(iii) Mention two ways in which the student could increase the rate of this reaction. [2]

Page | 38
 10. METALS AND THE REACTIVITY
SERIES

10.1 Properties of metals

(i) Sonorous. This means metals produce sound when stroked by an object.
(ii) Malleable. This means metals can be drawn into sheets.
(iii) Ductile. This means metals can be drawn into wires.
(iv) Metals have high melting and boiling points.
(v) Metals have high densities and are usually solid at r.t.p except mercury which is liquid.

10.2 The reactivity series of metals

These metals are arranged in order of decreasing reactivity

Name of metal Reaction with steam Reaction with Reaction with
dilute acids oxygen
Potassium (K) Reacts with cold water Reacts violently Reacts
Sodium (Na) Reacts with cold water Reacts violently Reacts
Calcium (Ca) Reacts with cold water Reacts violently Reacts
Decreasing reactivity
Magnesium (Mg) Reacts Reacts slowly Reacts
Aluminum (Al) Reacts Reacts slowly Reacts
Zinc (Zn) Reacts Reacts slowly Reacts
Iron (Fe) Reacts reversibly Reacts slowly Reacts slowly
Lead (Pb) No reaction Reacts slowly Reacts slowly
Copper (Cu) No reaction No reaction Reacts slowly
Mercury (Hg) No reaction No reaction Reacts reversibly
Silver (Ag) No reaction No reaction No reaction
Gold (Au) No reaction No reaction No reaction
Table 10.0
Metals from potassium to aluminum are very reactive and they are found combined with
other elements in nature. They are extracted using the process of electrolysis.
Metals from zinc to copper are fairly/ moderately reactive and they are found either
combined or uncombined (native) with other elements. These metals are extracted by
reduction method.
The rest of the metals always occur native (uncombined) and they are unreactive.
Note: a metal will displace any metal which is below it in the activity series.

Page | 39
10.21 Decomposition by heating
Carbonates of potassium, sodium and ammonium carbonate are not decomposed on strong heating but
all other carbonates are decomposed on strong heating.

All metal nitrates are decomposed on strong heating

10.3 Extraction of iron (The Blast Furnace)

The chief ores of iron are haematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).

Iron is extracted in the blast furnace using iron ore (Fe2O3), limestone (CaCO3) and coke (carbon) as raw
materials.
The Blast Furnace

Figure 10.30

The raw materials in the furnace are heated by a blast of very hot air from pipes called tuyeres.

In the first place, carbon burns in air producing carbon dioxide.

C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

Carbon dioxide undergoes reduction in the presence of carbon producing carbon monoxide.

CO2 (g) + C(s) 2CO (g)

This furnished carbon monoxide reacts with iron (II) oxide (haematite) reducing it to iron.

Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) Fe (l) + CO2 (g)

Page | 40
After this process, limestone decomposes at high temperatures producing calcium oxide and more
carbon dioxide.

CaCO3 (s) ∆ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Impurities are removed by calcium oxide reacting with silica impurities forming slag (calcium silicate).

CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) CaSiO3 (l)

Finally, the molten iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace and slag floats on the surface. The iron
produced at this time is called pig iron (cast iron) because it still contains some impurities. When pig iron
is purified it is known as wrought iron.

Iron and slag are tapped of separately, once collected slag is used as a phosphorous fertilizer and for
road building.

Use of Wrought iron

Wrought iron is soft and easy to work therefore it is used to make ornamental gates.

Uses of cast iron (pig iron)

(i) Making charcoal pressing irons.

(ii) Manufacture of machine parts that require little stress.
(iii) Manufacture of domestic boilers.

10.4 Alloys of iron

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a non – metal. The properties of alloys
are different from those of their components and make them therefore suitable for particular
purposes than the parent metals. The table below gives a summary of alloys of iron and there uses.

Name of Alloy Components Use

Bronze Copper + Tin - Making medals and
statutes.

Brass Copper + Zinc - Making bimetallic

strips for thermostats.

Steel Iron + Carbon + Chromium or - Making knifes ,spoons

nickel or manganese etc
Stainless steel Iron + Carbon + Chromium + - Making cattery e.g.
nickel knife, spoons and folks
because it does not
rust.
Mild steel Iron + carbon - Making car bodies
- Bridge construction

Table 10.1
Page | 41
10.5 Rusting of iron
Rust is the common name given to iron oxide (Fe2O3). The conditions needed for iron rusting to take
place are moisture, oxygen and other strong oxidizing agents.

Ways of preventing rusting

(i) Painting. Paint the metallic surface.

(ii) Oiling. Application of oil provides insulation between iron and air.
(iii) Chromium plating.
(iv) Galvanizing. This involves coating iron with zinc. In this case zinc reacts with air and water
instead of iron.

10.6 Extraction of copper

The chief ores of copper are chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and Malachite (CuCO3)

Stages in copper extraction

(i) After the ore is mined it is crushed into a fine powder.

(ii) The ore is then concentrated by floatation, removing the impurities.
(iii) The copper concentrate is smelted (heated and reduced).

The equations in the extraction of copper are as follows.

(a) The copper concentrate in roasted in air.

2CuFeS2 + 4O2 Cu2S + 2FeO + SO2

(b) Iron oxide reacts with sand (silica oxide) forming slag (iron silicate)
FeO + SiO FeSiO3

(c) Copper (II) sulphide is then burned in air to form copper metal and sulphur dioxide.
Cu2S + O2 Cu + SO2

The blister copper is then purified by electrolysis.

Uses of copper

(i) Alloy making e.g. in bronze and brass.

(ii) Copper is an electrical conductor in copper wires and cables.
(iii) Making ornaments.

Page | 42
10.7 Extraction of zinc
Zinc is extracted from an ore known as zinc blende (zinc sulphide).

(i) Zinc blende (ZnS) is heated in air to get rid of sulphur. Zinc oxide and sulphur dioxide are
produced.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)

(ii) The zinc oxide is then mixed with carbon and heated. Zinc oxide is reduced to zinc metal by
carbon.
ZnO (s) + C (s) Zn (s) + CO2 (g)

Note: sulphur dioxide is a pollutant.

10.8 Aluminum
Aluminum is extracted from an ore called bauxite (Hydrated aluminum oxide, Al2O3.2H2O)

Uses of aluminum and the reason why it is used for that purpose

Use of aluminum Reason

1 For electrical overhead cables. Light and good conductor of electricity.

2 Making kitchen utensils. Good conductor of heat and does not corrode.

3 Making airplane bodies and car It is light.

engine blocks.
4 Making light-weight aluminum It is light and does not corrode.
roofing sheets.

5 Making aluminum foil for wrapping It does not corrode.

food and making drink canes.
Table 10.2

Page | 43
Sample of examination questions on metals and the reactivity series

(1) The main ore of iron, haematite, contains the compound iron (II) oxide, Fe2O3. The iron (III)
oxide is reduced in a blast furnace to form iron.
(a) Explain how the furnace is heated to the high temperature needed for the reduction of the
iron (III) oxide. [2]
(b) Name two processes that lead to the production of carbon dioxide in the blast furnace. [2]
(c) Carbon dioxide reacts with carbon to form carbon monoxide, construct a balanced chemical
equation for this reaction. [2]
(d) Apart from iron ore, name two other substances that are added into the blast furnace as
raw materials. [2]
(e) Name one element which is added to iron to make steel and state a use for the type of steel
made. [2]
(2) The following metals A, B and C were added to cold water and to dilute hydrochloric acid.

Metal Reaction of mixing with water Results of mixing with HCl (aq)
A No reaction Very slow reaction producing
bubbles of colourless gas
B Slow reaction Vigorous reaction producing
bubbles of colourless gas
C Vigorous reaction Violent reaction producing
bubbles of colourless gas

(i) Arrange the metals A, B and C in order of the decreasing reactivity. [2]
(ii) Name the colourless gas produced when metals A, B and C react with dilute
hydrochloric acid. Describe a test you would perform to confirm its identity. [3]
(iii) Which of the three metals A, B and C is the most metallic? Give a reason for your
answer. [3]
(3) (a) Aluminum is used to make containers for soft drinks.
(i) Why should these containers be recycled? [1]
(ii) Aluminum is a reactive metal, yet foods that are acidic are safely supplied in aluminum
containers. Explain why the acid in the food does not attack the metal. [2]

(b) Some metals usually rust when exposed to air. Rusting can be prevented by using different
methods.

(i) Name two common methods of rust prevention. [2]

(ii) State the possible conditions need for rusting to take place. [3]

Page | 44
 11. PREPARATION OF AMMONIA
Ammonia is a colourless and pungent alkaline gas that is prepared by the Haber process.

nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted taken back to reaction vessel

Nitrogen
Reaction vessels compressors

Hydrogen
Liquefied ammonia to
storage tank

In the Haber process nitrogen gas obtained from the atmosphere and hydrogen gas obtained from
natural gas (methane) is mixed in a reaction vessel. The mixture is them passed through powerful
compressors at a pressure of 250 atmospheres and a temperature of about 500°C. In this reaction iron is
used as a catalyst. Likewise, nitrogen and hydrogen gases that have not reacted are taken back to the
reaction vessel by means of small pipes. Once ammonia is formed it is liquefied and taken to the storage
tank.
500°C
N2 (g) + H2 (g) NH3 (g)
250 atm

11.1 Natural sources of ammonia

(i) Dead plants and animals.
(ii) Human and animal waste.

11.2 Uses of ammonia

(i) Used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate.
(ii) Used in the making of nitric acid.
(iii) Used in the synthesis of many organic compounds used as dyes and drugs.

Page | 45
 12. THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON
Carbon is found in many compounds. It is the fourth most abundant element in the world and has the
ability to form strong single, double and triple covalent bonds.

Carbon has two allotropes, these are diamond and graphite. An allotrope is one of the physical forms in
which an element exists.

Diamond is a gemstone and it is the hardest form of carbon; it is used for cutting and drilling. Graphite is
the soft form of carbon; it is used as a lubricant in pencil. Graphite conducts electricity.

12.1 Unusual properties of carbon

(i) It conducts electricity (graphite) even though it is a non-metal.
(ii) It has the melting point which is higher than most metals.

13. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry can simply be defined as the chemistry of carbon. Organic chemistry involves the
study of carbon compounds with the exception of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and carbonates
which are studied under inorganic chemistry.

13.1 Terminologies commonly used in organic chemistry

(i) Organic compound is one which burns in plentiful supply of oxygen producing carbon
dioxide and water.
(ii) Hydrocarbon is a compound that contains carbon and hydrogen atoms only.
(iii) Saturated hydrocarbon is a compound made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms only joined
together by single covalent bonds.
(iv) Unsaturated hydrocarbons refer to a compound made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms
only and, contain double or triple covalent bonds.
(v) Isomers refer to organic compounds having the same chemical formula but different
structural formula.
(vi) Non-biodegradable means cannot be broken down through biological reactions by bacteria.

13.2 Fractional distillation of crude oil

Crude oil or petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons which are separated by fractional distillation. These
hydrocarbons are able to separate by fractional distillation because they have different boiling points.

Page | 46
 Components of crude oil after distillation

Figure 13.0

Fractions and their uses

Fraction Use(s)
Natural gas - electrical generation
- Steam heat production
Petrol - Used as a fuel in petrol car engines
- Used as a solvent for paint
Kerosene (paraffin) - Used as a fuel in paraffin lamps and stoves
- Used as a solvent for paint
Diesel - Used as a fuel in diesel car engines
Fuel oil - Used as a fuel in ships
Lubricating oil - Used as a lubricant
Wax - Making candles
- Making shoe and floor polishes
Bitumen - Used for road surfacing
Table 13.0

Page | 47
Bitumen is the heaviest fraction because it contains the longest chain alkanes while natural gas contains
the shortest chain alkanes making it the lightest fraction.

13.3 Homologous series

Homologous series is a family of organic compounds which are represented by a specific formula and
have similar chemical properties. Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are examples of homologous series.

Properties of homologous series

(i) Members are represented by a specific formula.

(ii) Members have similar chemical properties.
(iii) Members have different physical properties.

13.4 Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are represented by a general formula CnH2n + 2.

First four alkanes

Name Chemical formula Structure

H
Methane CH4
H C H
H

H H

Ethane C2H6 H C C H
H H

H H H

Propane C3H8 H C C C H
H H H

H H H H

Butane C4H10 H C C C C H

H H H H

Table 13.1

Properties of alkanes

(i) Combustion reactions

All alkanes burn in plentiful supply of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
(a) Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Page | 48
 (b) Ethane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

When there is limited oxygen, incomplete combustion takes place producing carbon
(soot), carbon monoxide and water.
(a) Methane + oxygen carbon +carbon monoxide + water
4CH4 + 5O2 2C + 2CO + 8H2O

(ii) Substitution reaction

When an alkane reacts with a halogen, one hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen atom.
This is called substitution and it occurs in the presence of ultra violet light (uv).
(a) Methane + chlorine chloromethane + hydrogen chloride
uv
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
(b) Chloromethane + chlorine dichloromethane + hydrogen chloride

uv
CH3Cl+ Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
(c) Ethane + bromine bromoethane + hydrogen bromide

C2H6 + Br2 uv C2H5Br + HBr

(d) Bromoethane + bromine dibromoehane + hydrogen bromide

uv
C2H5Br + Br2 C2H4Br2 + HBr

(iii) Dehydrogenation
This is a reaction in which hydrogen atoms are removed from an alkane and the product is
an alkene.
(a) Ethane ethane + hygrogen
C2H6 C2H4 + H2
(b) Propane propene + hydrogen
C3H8 C3H6 + H2

(iv) Cracking
Cracking is a process in which long chain alkanes are broken down into short chain alkanes
and alkenes. There are two types of cracking, catalytic cracking which takes place in the
presence of a catalyst and thermal cracking which occurs in the presence of heat (about
450°C).
When alkanes are cracked an alkane and alkene are produced.

cracking
(a) Decane hexane + butane
cracking
C10H22 C6H14 + C2H8

Page | 49
13.5 Alkenes
Alkenes are saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula of CnH2n, where n ≥ 2.

First four alkenes

Name Chemical formula Structure

H H
Ethene C2H4
C C
H H

H H H
Propene C3H6 C C C H
H H

H H H H
Butane C4H8 C C C C H
H H H

H H H H H
Pentene C5H10 C C C C C H
H H H H
Table 13.2

Properties of alkenes

(1) Combustion reactions

All alkenes burn in plentiful supply of oxygen (complete combustion), carbon dioxide and
water are the products.
(c) Ethene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
(d) Propene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
2C3H6 + 9O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

When there is limited oxygen incomplete combustion takes place producing carbon (soot), carbon
monoxide and water.

(a) Ethene + oxygen carbon +carbon monoxide + water

2C2H4 + 3O2 2C + 2CO + 4H2O

Page | 50
 (2) Addition reaction
All alkenes undergo addition reaction in which atoms are added to the alkene breaking the
double bond.
(i) Addition reaction with steam
Alkenes react additionally with steam to produce an alcohol. In this reaction phosphoric
(V) acid is used as a catalyst.

H3PO4
(a) Ethene + steam ethanol

H3PO4
C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) C2H5OH (l)

H3PO4
(b) Propene + steam propanol

H3PO4
C3H6 (g) + H2O (g) C3H7OH (l)

(ii) Addition reaction with halogens

(a) Ethene + chlorine 1,2 – Dichloroethane
C2H4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2

(b) Propene + chlorine 1,2 – Dichloropropane

C3H6 + Cl2 C3H6Cl2

(c) Ethene + bromine 1,2 – Dibromoethane

C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2

(iii) Addition reaction with hydrogen (hydrogenation)

This is the addition of hydrogen to an alkene and the product is an alkane. This method
is also used in the manufacture of margarine using platinum, nickel or palladium as a
catalyst.
(a) Alkene + hydrogen alkane
C2H4 + H2 C2H6
(b) Propene + hydrogen propane
C3H6 + H2 C3H8

(3) Polymeristation
Alkene under polymerization to form polymers (macromolecules)
(a) Ethene polyethene
C2H4 (C2H4)n
(b) Propene polypropene
C3H6 (C3H6)n

Page | 51
 Identity test for an alkene (unsaturation)
When an alkene is bubbled through liquid bromine, bromine solution becomes colourless.

13.6 Alcohols
This is a family of organic compound which are represented by a general formula of CnH2n + 1OH, where
n ≥1 and -OH (hydroxyl group) is the functional group of alcohols.

First four alcohols

Name Chemical formula Structure

H
Methanol CH3OH
H C O H
H
H H
H C C O H
Ethanol C2H5OH
H H

H H H
H C C C O H
Propanol C3H7OH
H H H

H H H H
H C C C C O H
Butanol C4H9OH
H H H H

Table 13.3

Properties of alcohol

(i) Combustion
Alcohols are used as fuel. They undergo complete combustion to produce carbon dioxide and
water.
(a) Ethanol + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
2C2H5OH + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

(ii) Esterification

Alcohols react with carboxylic acids (organic acids) to produce sweet smelling compounds called
esters.
(a) Ethanol + ethanoic acid ethylethanoate + water
C2H5OH + CH2COOH C2H5OOCCH2 + H2O

Page | 52
 (b) Methanol + ethanoic acid methylethanoate + water
CH3OH + CH2COOH CH3OOCH2 + H2O
(c) Propanol + methanoic acid propylmethanoate + water
C3H7OH + HCOOH C3H7OOCH + H2O

(iii) Oxidation

Alcohols are oxidized into carboxylic acid in the presence of potassium permanganate as an
oxidizing agent.

KMnO4 (aq)
(a) Ethanol ethanoic acid
KMnO4 (aq)
C2H5OH CH3COOH

Uses of alcohol
 Used as a fuel.
 Used as a solvent (e.g. in perfumes).
 Used in the preservation of specimens laboratories.
 Used in the manufacture of methylated spirit.

13.7 Preparation of ethanol by fermentation

FERMENTATION APPARATUS

Figure 13.1

Page | 53
Alcohol is made from a carbohydrate called glucose. When glucose is not available another source of
glucose which is starch is used. Firstly, glucose in the flask is fermented in the presence of yeast at a
temperature of about 40°C. When fermentation has taken place the lime water in the arm turns milky
due to the release of carbon dioxide. The air lock prevents entry of oxygen in the flask but allows exit of
carbon dioxide.

Why oxygen should not be allowed to enter the flask.

(i) To prevent aerobic respiration from taking place.

(ii) To prevent oxidation of the alcohol formed to carboxylic acid.

Condition for fermentation

(i) Presence of yeast.

(ii) Absence of oxygen.
(iii) Temperature of about 40°C.

13.8 Carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids are organic acids which are represented by a general formula of CnH2n + 1COOH, where
n ≥0. COOH is called the carboxyl group and is the functional group of carboxylic acids.

First four carboxylic acids

Name Chemical formula Structure

O
Methanoic acid
HCOOH H C O H

H O
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH H C C O H
H

H H O
Propanoic acid C2H5COOH H C C C O H
H H

H H H O
Butanoic acid C3H7COOH H C C C C O H
H H H
Table 13.4

Page | 54
Properties of carboxylic acids

(i) They are weak acids

(ii) They turn blue litmus paper red
(iii) They have a pH of less than 7
(iv) Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to produce esters.

13.9 Esterification
Esterification is the name given to the reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols to produce esters.

Some common esters

Name Chemical formula Structure

H
O
Methylmethanoate CH3OOCH H C C O H

H
H H H
O
Ethylethanoate C2H5OOCCH3 H C C C C O H

H H H

H H
O
Methylethanoate CH3OOCCH3 H C C C O H

H H

Table 13.5

Uses of esters

 Because of their fragrant odour esters are used as a constituent in perfumes, essential oil and
food flavourings.
 Used as an organic solvent.
 Used to make surfactants like soap and detergents.

13.95 Polymerization
When two or more monomers combine they form a large molecule called polymer and the process is
called polymerization. Polymerization occurs in the absence of oxygen and there is no loss or gain in
material during the process.

Page | 55
Types of polymerization

(I) Addition polymerization

This is the type of polymerization in which the double bond of an alkene is broken down into
single bonds.
(a) Ethene polyethene
C2H4 (C2H4)n
(b) Propene polypropene
C3H6 (C3H6)n
(c) Chloroethene Polyvinychloride
C2H3Cl (C2H3Cl)n
Where n is the number of monomers. That is n ≥ 2
Some common addition polymers and their structures

Name Chemical Structure Uses

formula
- Making
H H carrier bags.
- For film
Polyethene (C2H4)n C C wrapping.
- Making
H H n plastic
bottles.
- For making
H H electrical
insulators.
Polyvinyl Chloride (C2H3Cl)n C C - For making
(PVC) PVC water
H Cl n pipes.

- Making
H H H ropes.
- Making
Polypropene (C3H6)n C C C carpets.
- Making
H H H n crates.

Table 13.6

Page | 56
 (II) Condensation polymerization
In condensation polymerization water molecules are produced as the monomers combine.
Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are natural condensation polymers while nylon and
terylene are artificial condensation polymers. Nylon is an artificial protein and has an amide
linkage while terylene is an artificial fat and has an ester linkage.

Structure of nylon
Amide linkage

O O O O
C C N N C C
H H

Repeating unit
Figure 13.2
Uses of nylon
(i) Used in making fishing nets and ropes because it is a high strength fibre.
(ii) Used for making fabrics in textile industry.
(iii) Crinkled nylon fibres are used for making elastic hosiery.
(iv) Used as plastic for making machine parts.

Structure of terylene

Ester linkage

O O O O
C C O O C C

Repeating unit

Figure 13.3

Uses of terylene

(i) In making plastic bottles and clothes

(ii) In making hose pipes

Page | 57
Structure of a carbohydrate (simple sugar)

O O O O
Figure 13.4

13.99 Plastics
There are two types of plastics namely, thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermoplastics are those that
can be remelted back into a liquid, whereas thermosets are those that cannot be remelted. Thermosets
always remain in a permanent solid state.

Sample of examination questions on organic chemistry

(1) Below is a list of some organic compounds represented by letters from A to E.

A CH4
B C4H10
C C4H9OH
D C4H8
E CH3COOH
(a) Give the name of compound A. [1]
(b) Identify the two compounds, from the list that belong to the same homologous series? [2]
(c) (i) State the compound which has the same functional group as ethanol. [1]

(ii) Draw the displayed molecular structure of ethanol. [1]

(iii) Construct a chemical equation for the hydration of ethane to form ethanol. [1]

(d) (i) Give one compound that is an unsaturated hydrocarbon from the list above. [1]

(ii) Describe a chemical test for an unsaturated hydrocarbon. [1]

(e) Compound E is acidic

(i) State the name of the compound E. [1]
(ii) Describe a test to show that compound E is acidic. [1]
(2) CH4, C2H6 and C3H8 are all members of the same homologous series.
(a) Give the general name for these three compounds and suggest a full structural formula for
the fifth member of the series. [2]
(b) State two general properties of a homologous series. [2]
(c) Write a balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of compound C2H6. [2]
(3) (a) Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons such as octane, which are obtained from crude oil. The
petrol is burned in the engine and the combustion products leave through the exhaust.
(i) Name two elements in a hydrocarbon. [1]
(ii) Octane is an alkane, name one other alkane and state its molecular formula. [1]

Page | 58
 (b) Seat covers are made from polymers. If the seat covers are placed on a rubbish dump, the
seat covers being non – biodegradable may cause problem.
(i) What is a polymer? [1]
(ii) What does the term non – biodegradable mean? [2]
(c) Increased amount of petrol in industries are produced by cracking of heavy oils.
(i) What do you understand by the term cracking? [1]
(ii) Given a molecule C16H34, give the two products when it is cracked. [2]
(4) Carefully study the reaction scheme below and use it to answer questions that follow.

Glucose

Fermentation

Dehydration

Ethane
Hydrogen and
Polymerization catalyst
Bromine

Q 1,2 – dibromoethane R

(a) Give the names of the substances and conditions required to ferment glucose. [4]
(b) Give the name of the gas that is also produced during fermentation of glucose. [1]
(c) Give the molecular formula and name of substance P. [2]
(d) Name Q and R. [2]
(e) Write a chemical equation for the addition reaction between bromine and ethane. [1]

Page | 59
14 WATER PURIFICATION AND WATER
POLLUTION

14.1 Main stages in water purification

(i) Filtration. This involves the removal of big particles from the water using sand/gravel filter
beds.
(ii) Sedimentation. This is the second stage where potassium sulphate is added to the water to
coagulate or flocculate smaller suspended solids to make a big solid that settles at the
bottom of the tank.
(iii) Chlorination. Chlorination is the final stage in water purification, and it involves the adding
of chlorine to the water to kill germs.

14.2 Water pollutants

These are substances that contaminate water. These include untreated sewer, domestic wastes and
industrial effluents.

14.3 Uses of water

(i) It is used as a coolant in power stations.
(ii) Water is a universal solvent.
(iii) Used in generating electricity in Hydro-Electric Power stations.
(iv) Home use (Drinking, washing, cooking e.t.c).

14.4 Water Pollution control measures

(i) Treatment of sewage.

(ii) Avoid using artificial fertilizers in farms that are near rivers and lakes.

(iii) Good drainage systems.

Sample examination question on water and water pollution

Water is an important raw material in the home and in industry

(a) State two uses of water in industry. [2]

(b) Outline the two main stages in the purification of water. [2]

Page | 60
15 AIR AND AIR POLLUTION

Air is a mixture of gases.

15.1 Composition of air

Gas % composition by volume
Oxygen 21%
Nitrogen 78%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Noble gases 1%
Water vapour Variable
Table 15.0

15.2 Air pollutants

These are substances (mostly gases) that contaminate clean air.

Pollutant Source(s) Effect on environment

Oxides of nitrogen
- Exhaust fumes
- Industrial fumes
- Dissolves in rain water causing
acid rain which corrodes and
damage buildings.
- Forms photochemical smog,
which reduces visibility leading to
road and traffic accidents.

Carbon monoxide - Incomplete - Causes suffocation of living

combustion of organisms.
fossil fuels and - Mothers who are frequently
organic matter. exposed to CO give birth to
babies with low birth weight.

Carbon dioxide - Burning organic - Promotes global warming

matter and fossil
fuels.
Sulphur dioxide - Burning fossil fuel - It dissolves in rain water forming
acid rain which kills trees and
other plants.
Table 15.1

15.3 Air Pollution control measures

Pollution can be controlled by applying the following measures:

(i) Catalytic chambers in car exhaust.

Page | 61
 (ii) Dust particles can be tapped using electrostatic precipitator.
(iii) Using incinerator when burning wastes.

15.4 Test for gases

(1) Oxygen relights a glowing splint. That is oxygen supports burning.

(2) Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky.

(3) Hydrogen gives a pop sound with a burning splint.

Sample of examination questions on air and air pollution

(1) (a) Explain what you understand by the term photosynthesis. [2]

(b) Name any two non – metallic oxides which cause pollution of the atmosphere. [2]

(c) Indicate the source of the pollutants in (b) above. [2]

(d) Mention one measure being taken to minimize the effect of each of these pollutants. [2]

(e) Compare the processes combustion as applied to fuels and respiration as applied to animals
[2]

Page | 62
16 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
The evolution of cheap and clean power (electricity) has brought tremendous change in ways most
industries function. Productivity has almost doubled as compared to 20 years, weapons of mass
destruction are been made and communication very easy and cheap. There is absolutely no doubt that
physics has been and is still playing a role in the evolution of better and well equipped machines.
Physics is simply the study of energy and its properties.

Page | 63
17 SI UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Systéme International (SI) is the international standard of units of measurements of seven base
quantities which are length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance and
luminous intensity.

17.1 Base quantities and their SI base units

Base quantity SI base unit
Length metre (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Electric current ampere (A)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
Luminous intensity candela (cd)
Table 17.0

Other quantities, called the derived quantities are defined in terms of the seven base units

17.2 Some derived quantities and their SI derived units

Derived quantity SI derived unit
Area Square metre (m2)
Volume Cubic metre (m3)
Speed and velocity Metre per second (m/s)
Acceleration Metre per second squared (m/s2)
Mass Density Kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3)
Amount of substance – concentration Mole per cubic metre (mol/m3)
Table 17.1

Some derived SI units have been given special names

Derived quantity Special name for unit

Pressure Pascal (Pa)
Force Newton (N)
Power Watt (W)
Energy Joule (J)
Table 17.2

Page | 64
17.3 Measuring length
Length can be measured using a meter rule or tape measure. For example the length of a book can be
measured by a metre rule and the waistline by a tape measure.

17.4 Vernier calipers

Vernier calipers are an instrument used to measure precisely the inner and outer diameters of hollow
objects like bottles or the width of rectangular glass.

Figure 17.1

How to read vernier calipers

(a) Main scale reading. Take the reading of the main scale immediately before the zero mark of the
vernier scale. For example the main scale reading of the vernier caliper above is 1.1 cm.
(b) Vernier scale reading. Take the vernier scale reading where the vernier and main scales
coincides. In the vernier caliper above the two scales coincide at 7. Since the vernier calipers
measures accurately to within 0.01 of an inch or 0.02 of a millimeter multiply this value by 0.01
to get the vernier scale reading = 0.07cm.
(c) Finally add main scale and vernier scale readings to get the final reading. That is the vernier
caliper above is reading 1.1cm + 0.07cm = 1.17cm.

Precautions to take when using vernier calipers

(i) Clean the vernier calipers and the object to be measured before using them.
(ii) Make sure the vernier calipers in zeroed before making any measurements.

Page | 65
17.5 Micrometer screw gauge
Micrometer screw gauze is used to measure precisely the thickness of very small objects like a thin wire
or piece of paper.

Figure 17.2

Reading a micrometer screw gauge

Figure 17.3

(a) Sleeve scale reading. Take the reading for sleeve scale immediately before the main scale. The
sleeve reading for the micrometer above is 3.5mm.
(b) Main scale reading. Take the reading on the main scale where it coincides with the scale line of
the sleeve. In the micrometer above this number is 11. Multiply this number by 0.01 to get main
scale reading. Thus main scale reading = 11mm X 0.01 = 0.11mm.
(c) Finally add the two scale readings to get the final reading. Final reading = 3.5mm + 0.11 = 3.61
mm.

Precaution to take when using the micrometer screw gauge

(i) Clean the instrument before using it.

(ii) Turn the thimble using the ratchet when clamping an object and stop when the click sound
is heard.
(iii) Make sure the instrument is zeroed before it is used to avoid errors.

Page | 66
17.6 Simple pendulum
A simple pendulum is made up of a bob (mass) suspended from a string or rod with negligible mass.

support

Length of pendulum

string

bob

Figure (17.5)
Figure (17.4)

The length of a pendulum is the distance from the point of attachment of the string (to the support) to
the centre of the bob. Refer to figure (b).

Period of a pendulum is the time taken for the pendulum to make one complete oscillation. From figure
(a) above one complete oscillation is made when the bob moves from A to C and back to A again.

()
( ) ( )

Sample of examination question

The pendulum in figure a above has length 20cm, it moves from A to C and back to B in 0.9 seconds.
What is the period of the pendulum?

Reasoning
Solution
Find n (no. of swings) since time has been
T=t÷n given and apply the formula.

T = 0.9 s ÷ 0.75 From A to C = ½ of an oscillation and from

T = 1.2 s C to B = ¼ of an oscillation therefore, n = ½
+ ¼ = ¾ = 0.75.

Page | 67
Experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum

Apparatus: metal bob, a string, clamp and stand, and stop clock.

Set the apparatus as shown below.

RIGID SUPPORT

STRING
CLAMP AND STAND

Figure (17.6)

Pull the bob by a small angle theta (Ѳ) and let go. Allow the pendulum to make five complete swings
before recording the time using a stopwatch. Record the time for twenty oscillations and calculate the
period using the formula below

Precautions for this experiment

(i) The apparatus should be set in a place where the wind is not blowing. Wind affects motion
of the bob.
(ii) Allow the bob to make 5 oscillations before timing. This allows the pendulum to stabilize.

Page | 68
18 MASS, VOLUME AND DENSITY
Mass in the amount of matter contained in a substance.

18.1 Differences between Mass and weight

Mass Weight
Is a scalar quantity Is a vector quantity
Is measured using a beam Is measured using a spring balance in
balance in kilograms (kg) Newton (N).
Is the same everywhere Differs from one place to another
Table 18.0

Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. A measuring cylinder is used to measure volume
of liquids.

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. Density is measured in kg/m3.

in symbols m
ρ=
V

Experiment to determine the density of stone

Apparatus: stone, string, measuring cylinder and beam balance.

Firstly, measure the mass of the stone using a beam balance.

Before After

Figure 18.0

Furthermore, pour enough water in the measuring cylinder that will make the stone submerge and
record it as the initial volume (V1). Tie the stone using a string and deep it steadily into the measuring

Page | 69
cylinder, making sure that the irregular object completely submerges as shown in the diagram above.
Record this new volume as V2. Subtract V1 from V2 (V2 – V1) to get the volume of the stone.

Finally, calculate density using the formula

Precautions for this experiment

(i) The volume should be read below the meniscus.

(ii) The irregular object should be insoluble in water.

Sample of examination question on mass, volume and density

(1) A measuring cylinder contains 30cm3 of liquid. When a stone of mass 92g is dropped into the
liquid, it sinks to the bottom and the liquid rises to the 70cm3 mark.
(a) What is the volume of the stone? [1]
(b) Calculate the density of the stone. [1]
(c) Explain why it would not be possible to use this method to determine the density of cork
which would float in the liquid. [1]
(2) A block of a certain material is 3.0cm long, 4.0cm wide and 5.0cm high. Its mass is 57g.
(a) What is the volume of the block? [1]
(b) Find the density of the materials from which the block is made. [2]
(c) What further information would you need to decide whether or not this block would float in
methylated spirit? [1]
(3) An experiment was carried out in order to measure the density of air, using a thick – walled
bottle fitted with a bung and a tap.
The following results were obtained
Mass of the bottle containing air = 410g
Mass of empty bottle = 409g
Mass of bottle filled with water = 1150g
The density of water is 1g/cm3
(a) What mass of water was needed to fill the bottle? [1]
(b) What is the volume of the bottle? [1]
(c) What mass of air filled the bottle? [1]
(d) What was the density of air? [2]
(e) Define density? [1]
(4) 360g of a liquid A of density 1.2g/cm3 were mixed with 100g of liquid of density 1.00g/cm3.
Calculate
(i) The volume of the mixture. [2]
(ii) The density of the mixture. [2]

Page | 70
19 MOMENT
Moment is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the pivot.
Moment is measured in Newton metre (Nm).

Moment (M) = force (F) X perpendicular distance (d)

19.1 The Principle of moment and stability

The Principle of moment

It states that a system is in equilibrium if the clockwise moment about the pivot is equal to the
anticlockwise moment about the same point (pivot).

F1d1 = F2d2 figure 19.0

Example of examination question

A uniform metre rule is balanced horizontally on the knife edge when 20N metal weight hung at 10cm
mark as shown below.

0cm 10cm 35cm 50cm

20N
W
Calculate the weight of the metre rule. [3]

Page | 71
Stability refers to the ability of an object not to topple over after it has been pushed slightly.

Types of equilibrium/stability

Figure 19.1

Conditions required for equilibrium or stability

(i) Lower centre of mass. The centre of mass should be as low as possible.
(ii) Large base area.

A bus carrying heavy load on top is more likely to topple over when rounding a bend because the load
raises it centre of mass making it unstable.

The centre of mass of an object is a point on an object where all its weight seems to act. For objects
with regular shapes (e.g. circle and square) the centre of mass is at the centre of the object. The centre
of mass is sometimes called the centre of gravity.

Experiment to determine the centre of an irregular object (e.g. thin sheet of card)

Figure 19.2

Drill four holes at different edges of the thin card as shown above. Attach the card on a cardboard using
a pin on one of the holes. Make a plumb by the pen and string. Tie the string on the pin and allow the
pen to swing freely. When the pen comes to rest draw the plumb line. Repeat the same procedure for
the other holes, where all the plumb lines intersect is the centre of mass of the card.

Page | 72
 20 MOTION
Motion means movement.

20.1 Speed, velocity and acceleration

Speed is the rate of change of distance. Speed in measured in metre per second (m/s).

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Velocity is also measured in metre per second (m/s).

The difference between speed and velocity is that speed is a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector
quantity.

A vector quantity is one which has both magnitude and direction. Examples of vector quantities are
force, acceleration, weight, displacement and velocity.

A scalar quantity is one which has magnitude (size) only. Mass, temperature, distance and speed are
scalar quantities.

Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is measured in metre per second squared (m/s2).

Describing motion on a velocity time graph

Velocity
(m/s) A B

C
O
Figure 20.0 Time (s)

In region OA a body is acceleration as velocity is increasing steadily. Region AB shows constant velocity,
at this point there is no acceleration. Put another way, constant velocity means zero acceleration.

Page | 73
Region BC shows a body slowing down, that is velocity is decreasing steadily. This is called retardation or
negative acceleration.

Note: To find the total distance covered by an object/body, calculate the area under the graph.

20.2 Equations of motion

(I) vf = vi + at
vf = final velocity
(II) S = vit + at2 vi = initial velocity

S = displacement
(III) vf = vi + 2aS
a = acceleration

t = time

Sample of examination questions on motion

(1) what do you understand by the following

(a) Vector quantity. [1]
(b) scalar quantity [1]
(2) Give two examples of vector quantities and one example of a scalar quantity. [3]
(3) Convert the following to metres per second (m/s)
(i) 36km/s [2]
(ii) 108km/s [2]
(4) (a) Define acceleration. [1]

(b) A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 20m/s in 4s.

(i) Calculate the acceleration of the car. [2]

(ii) Find the distance covered by the car in this time. [2]

(5) A train accelerates uniformly from rest at 0.2 m/s2 over a distance of 1km. Find the final
velocity. [1]
(6) The table below shows the readings obtained by a group of pupils performing an experiment to
determine variation of velocity with time for a car starting from rest.
Velocity (m/s) 0 10 20 20 20
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8

(a) Draw the velocity time graph on a graph paper. [2]

(b) Calculate the acceleration of the car for the first 4 seconds of the journey. [2]
(c) Determine the total distance travelled by the car. [2]

Page | 74
21 FORCE
Force is a pull or a push on an object. Force is measured in Newton (N).

Force = mass X acceleration

F = ma

A Newton is defined as a force applied on a mass of 1kg and causes it to acceleration 1 m/s2.

21.1 Newton’s laws of motion

(i) First law
It states that an object at rest or moving with constant velocity will continue in its state of
motion unless an external force acts on it.
(ii) Second law
It states that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.
F = ma
(iii) Third law
It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

21.2 Types of forces

(i) Friction (f) is a force that opposes motion. Friction occurs between two surfaces in contact.
When motion is to the left friction acts towards the right to retard motion.

Importance of friction
(a) Friction enables cars to move on the road. Without it cars would slip.
(b) Friction enables humans and other animals to walk and stand without slipping.
(c) Friction holds the bolt in a nut.

The disadvantage of friction is that it causes wear and tear.

(ii) Weight is a force exerted on an object due to the pull of gravity. Weight varies from place to
place because it depends on the pull of gravity.

Weight = mass X gravity

We = mg

Page | 75
21.3 Addition of forces
Consider the forces acting on an object below

y
20 N

10 N 30 N
x
15 N
Figure 21.0

To find the resultant force take all the forces acting in the positive x-axis direction to be positive and
add them, that is 20 N + 30 N = 50 N. All the force acting in the negative x – direction are taken to be
negative that is -10-15 = -25. Finally add the two forces 50N + (-25) = 25 N in the positive x-axis direction.

Sample of examination questions on force

(1) The velocity of a toy car of mass 2kg increased from 5m/s to 10m/s in 2 seconds. What force
was exerted on the car? [2]
(2) A force of 35N acts on a 5kg mass. Calculate its acceleration. [1]
(3) A toy car of mass 50kg is swung in a vertical circular path on the end of a string of length 100cm
so that it moves with a constant speed of 5m/s. Comment on the motion of the toy car. [2]
(4) The figure below shows a block of mass 5kg being pulled along a horizontal bench by a force of
200N and is being opposed by a frictional force of 50N.

5kg 200N
50N

Calculate the acceleration of the block. [2]

Page | 76
22 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
22.1 Work
Work is the product of a force and the distance moved in the direction of the force. It is measured in
Newton meter (Nm).

Work is done when the force applied is parallel to the direction of motion.

Work done is positive if the force is acting in the direction of motion. Examples of positive work done is
kicking a ball, pulling or pushing an object.

Work done is negative if the force is acting in the opposite direction to motion. Friction is a force that
does negative work.

Work done = force applied X distance moved in the force direction

W = Fd

When the force is acting at right angle to direction of motion the work done is zero. No work is done by
person carrying a bucket on the head because the weight of the bucket and motion are at right angle to
each other.

22.2 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done. Power is measured in watts.

Work done For power to be in

Power (Ƥ) =
Time taken watts, Work done
should be in Newton
meter and time in
W seconds.
Ƥ=
t

22.3 Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy is measured in Joules (J).

Potential energy

Potential energy (PE) is the energy an object possesses due to its position in the gravitational field.

Potential energy = mass X acceleration due to gravity X height

PE = mgh

Page | 77
Acceleration due to gravity (g) is a constant and is taken to be 10 m/s2.

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy a body possesses due to motion.

KE = mV2 Where m = mass of a body

2
V = velocity/speed

Internal energy

Internal energy is the sum of all the microscopic potential and kinetic energies of atoms in a body.

Energy in a ball was thrown upwards

Before the body is thrown it possesses internal energy at A. we assume that the ball has 1000 J of
energy at point A. As it rises to point B its potential energy increases and it is equal to the Kinetic energy
at the mid – way. At the greatest height(C) the ball has maximum potential energy and minimum kinetic
energy because there is no motion at this point. As the ball falls it gains kinetic energy which is greatest
at point E immediately before striking the ground. Kinetic energy is greatest at point E because the
speed of the ball is fastest there.

22.4 The law of conservation of energy

It states that energy can neither be destroyed nor made but only converted from one form to another.
In other words the total energy of a closed system is constant.

Page | 78
22.5 Energy changes
(i) Production of electricity.
Potential energy kinetic energy electrical energy
(ii) Lighting a bulb using a cell
Chemical energy electrical energy light heat
(iii) Lighting a bulb using electricity.
Electrical energy light heat
(iv) Lifting a box from the floor to the platform using an electric motor.
Electrical energy mechanical energy potential energy

22.6 Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

A renewable source of energy is one which can be replenished once used up. Example of renewable
sources of energy includes solar energy from the sun, wind, geothermal and Hydro Electric Power.

Non - renewable sources of energy are not replenished once used up. Petroleum and coal are good
examples of non-renewable sources of energy.

Sample of examination questions on work, energy and power

(1) A man pushes a table of mass 20kg across a floor at a constant speed by applying a force of 80N.
(a) How big is the force of friction which acts on the table? [2]
(b) Assuming the table is pushed through a distance of 4m in 8s; calculate the rate at which the
man is doing work. [2]
(c) Into what form of energy is the work done by the man being converted? [1]
4
(2) Eating a banana enables a person to perform about 4 x 10 J of work. To what vertical height
does eating a banana enable a 50kg woman to climb? (g =10m/s2) [2]
(3) A box of mass 8kg is pulled along a horizontal surface from position A to position B, a distance of
5m, by the application of 4000N for a period of 2 seconds. [2]
(4) A stone of mass 2kg is dropped from the top of a building 4m high. What is the landing velocity?
[2].

Page | 79
23 SIMPLE MACHINES
A tool that makes work easy is called a simple machine. A machine is any device that makes work to be
done with less effort (in put force).

23.1 Vocabulary
(i) Load is the weight been lifted by a simple machine.
(ii) Effort is the force applied on a simple machine to raise a load.
(iii) Mechanical advantage (M.A) is the ratio of the load to effort.

Load
M.A =
Effort

(iv) Velocity ratio (V.R) is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by
the load.

Distance moved by effort

V.R =
Distance moved by load

(v) Efficiency (Eff.) is the ratio of the mechanical advantage to velocity ratio multiplied by one
hundred percent.

M.A
Eff. = X 100%
V.R
23.2 Types of simple machines
Inclined plane

An inclined plane or a ramp is a simple machine that has a slanting surface that connects a higher level
to a lower level. It is used to move an object to a higher or lower level thereby making work easy.

Figure 23.0

Page | 80
Lever

A lever is a simple machine. It is a board or bar that rests on a turning point called the fulcrum or pivot.
To gain power with less effort when using a lever the position of the pivot is vital.

Types of lever

(i) First class lever. This is a type of lever which has the pivot in the centre. That is the
pivot/fulcrum is half way between the load and effort. See –saw, scissors and pliers are
examples of first class levers.

Figure 23.1

(ii) Second class lever. This lever has the load in the centre – between the fulcrum and the
applied force or effort. Wheelbarrow and nutcracker are second class levers.

Figure 23.2
(iii) Third class lever. In this type of lever the applied force is in the centre – between the load
and fulcrum. A bent arm and fishing rod are examples of third class levers.

Figure 23.3

Page | 81
Pulleys

A pulley is a wheel with a groove that a rope fits and is used to lift or move objects. A pulley makes work
easy because it changes the direction of motion to work with gravity. A pulley saves the most effort
when there is more than one pulley working together.

Figure 23.4

To find the mechanical advantage of the pulley simply count its number of wheels. For example the
pulley above has 2 wheels; its mechanical advantage is 2.

Gears

Gears are wheels with teeth. They mesh together and make things turn.

VR

6
9

=4

Page | 82
Sample of examination questions on machines

(1) The figure below shows how an inclined plane can be used as a simple machine to lift a box of
weight 480N by pushing it up 3.0m long on a lorry so that it is raised through a vertical height of
1.0m.

3.0m Box
1.0m

(a) State the meaning of a simple machine. [1]

(b) Find the mechanical advantage of the arrangement shown. [2]
(c) If the machine has an efficiency of 80%. Find the work done by the force. [2]
(2) The figure below shows a fixed pulley used to lift a load.

Rope

Effort, E

Load

(a) Indicate the direction of the tension in the rope on the side of the load. [1]
(b) If the pulley is frictionless, and the effort E applied is 8N, what is the value of the tension in
the rope? [1]
(c) What is the mechanical advantage of the system? [1]

Page | 83
24 HEAT TRANSFER
Why is it that a person feels cold when he/she touches ice? This is because heat has been transferred
from the hand to the ice. To hammer the nail on its head, heat is usually transferred from a high
temperature object to a low temperature object through conduction, convection or radiation.

Temperature is a value of energy for all the atoms and molecules in a given system.

24.1 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat by means of molecular vibrations within a material without motion of
the material as a whole. For example if a metal rod is heated at one end, particles on the hot side will
vibrate rapidly passing on the energy to next particles having low energy in the process. The process
continues until the whole rod is at the same temperature.

24.2 Convection
Convection is the heat transfer by mass motion of fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid is
caused to move away from the source of heat, carrying energy with it.

How water is heated in an electrical kettle

An electric kettle has a heating element at the bottom. When the kettle is switched on, the water
molecules at the bottom of the kettle are heated first. These warmer water molecules become less
dense and rise to the top. Since the cooler water molecules on top are denser they descend to the heat
source. This creates convectional currents within the liquid and all the water becomes heated.

Figure 24.0

24.3 Radiation
Radiation refers to the transfer of heat from hot surfaces of objects. This method does not rely upon any
contact between the heat source and the heated object. Heat travels in the vacuum by radiation. The
heat from the sun or the heat released from the filament of a light bulb is a good example of radiation.

Page | 84
24.4 Black and white surfaces
It is common knowledge that black or dull surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of heat while
white or shiny surfaces are poor emitters and poor absorbers of heat.

Experiment to prove that black surfaces are good absorbers of heat and white surfaces are
poor absorbers of heat

Figure 24.1

Two cans filled with water at the same temperature are placed equidistant from a heater, then a
thermometer is placed inside each can and the heater is turned on. After a few minutes the
thermometers are read and the one in the dull black can gives a higher reading. This proves that black
surfaces are good absorbers of heat.

Experiment to prove that black surfaces are good emitter of heat and shiny surfaces are poor
emitters of heat

Figure 24.2

Page | 85
 Hot water is poured in a rectangular tank with two of its side one painted black and the other white. On
each of these two faces a thermometer is placed at a certain distance (d). Since the thermometers are
placed at equal distances and the tank is a metal made of the same material we expect the
thermometers to give the same reading but the thermometer on the black surface side gives a high
reading. This proves that black surfaces are good emitters of heat.

24.5 The vacuum flask

The vacuum flask is a vessel that is used to keep liquids hot for a period of time. It consists of a double -
walled glass vessel with a vacuum space between the walls. Conduction or convection cannot take place
between the walls. The inside of the outer wall and outside of the outer wall is silvered to minimize heat
loss through radiation. Likewise convection in the air over the liquid is reduced by a cork in the neck of
the flask.

Figure 24.3

24.6 Good and bad conductors of heat

A good conductor is a material that transfers heat well. Good conductors are usually metals like copper.

Bad conductors are materials that do not transfer heat well, they are usually insulators. An insulator in a
material in which heat or electricity cannot pass easily. Examples of insulators are cotton wool, air,
plastic, glass fibre, expanded polystyrene and cork.

Uses of bad conductors

(i) Lagging water pipes to prevent them from freezing in winter. This (lagging) is the technique
of surrounding something with a bad conductor in order to prevent heat from getting in or
out of it.
(ii) Insulation. We wear woolen clothing to keep our bodies warm in winter. Woolen clothing
have small openings that trap a layer of air, since air is an insulator it prevent heat loss from
the body thereby keeping it warm.

Page | 86
 Experiment to prove that water is a poor conductor of heat

Figure 24.4

Place an ice cube in a test tube with water in it and use a metal ring to keep the ice at the bottom of
the tube. Slant the test tube and heat the water from the top using a Bunsen burner as shown
above. After some time the water at the top will start boiling but the ice at the bottom will not melt,
this proves that water is a poor conductor of heat.

24.7 Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature.

Liquids in glass thermometer

Mercury or alcohol is used in glass thermometers. Alcohol and mercury thermometers are commonly
found in the school library or in clinics. Moreover, these thermometers cannot measure very high
temperatures.

Figure 24.5

Page | 87
Features of a thermometer and why it has these features.

Feature Reason for this feature

Thin capillary tube It increases sensitivity of the thermometer. Any
change in temperature is easily noticed
Constriction in the capillary tube Prevent backflow of mercury or alcohol
Small and thin bulb wall Enables the thermometer to quickly respond to
temperature changes
Glass stem For easy reading of the scale
Expansion bulb Allow for more expansion of mercury or alcohol
Table 24.0

Properties of mercury and alcohol

Mercury Alcohol
Mercury is easy to see because it is Alcohol is colourless making it difficult to see
coloured
Mercury has a high freezing point (-39°C) Has a low freezing point (-114°C) and can be used
hence cannot be used in very cold places in very cold places
Has a high boiling point (357°C) Has a low boiling point (80°C)
Is expensive Is cheap
Table 24.1

Experiment to calibrate a laboratory thermometer

Figure 24.6

Take the thermometer to be calibrated and put it in melting ice, the temperature it will record
is marked as the lower fixed point (0°C). Then remove the thermometer from melting ice and
place it in boiling water as shown in figure 24.4 above, the temperature it will record is marked
as the upper fixed point (100°C). Having found the upper and lower fixed points of the
thermometer, we divide the space upper and lower fixed point in small equal parts to calibrate
it.

Page | 88
The upper fixed point is the temperature of boiling water (100°C) while the lower fixed point is
the temperature of melting ice (0°C).

24.8 Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a mass of 1kg
by 1°C.

Thermocouple thermometer

This is a thermometer that is used to measure very high temperatures like those in the blast furnace. A
thermocouple is made up of two wires made from different metals usually copper and iron. The wires
are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where temperature is measured.
When there is a difference between the two ends of the wire a current is created. The current is then
recorded by the ammeter and then interpreted to temperature.

Figure 24.7

Sample of examination questions on heat transfer

(1) State two advantages of mercury – in – glass thermometer and two advantages of a
thermocouple thermometer. [4]
(2) State briefly how energy is transferred in the processes of;
(a) Conduction [2]
(b) Convection [2]
(c) Radiation [2]
(3) Explain why a shiny metal kettle loses energy more quickly when it becomes dirty. [1]
(4) Explain:
(a) How a food warmer is able to keep food warm for a long period of time. [3]
(b) Why woolen clothes acts as keep the human body warm. [2]

Page | 89
25 HOOKE’S LAW AND ELASTICITY
An elastic material is one that retains its original shape after been stretched. A spring is an example of
an elastic object. When stretched a spring exerts a restoring force which tends to bring it back to its
original position.

When a load is attached to a hanging spring, the spring is stretched a certain length called the extension.
As more weights are added the spring will reach a point where it will be deformed (unable to restore its
original shape) this point is called the elastic limit.

25.1 Hooke’s law

It states that the extension of a loaded spring is directly proportional to the load provided that the
elastic limit is not exceeded.

Experiment to investigate Hooke’s law of elasticity

Apparatus: metre rule, spring, pan and weights.

Figure 25.0

Set the apparatus as show above. To the pan add weights and record the extension in a table like the
one shown below.

Weight(Load) in 0 10 20 30 40
Newton (N)
Extension (m) 0 0.2 0.4 0.45 0.45
Table 25.0

Plot a graph of Extension against Load

Page | 90
 Extension against Load graph
0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35
Elastic limit
0.3
Extension (m)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Load (N)

Figure 25.1

The elastic limit on the graph is the point where the proportionality ceases.

Sample of examination questions on Hooke’s law and elasticity

The results shown in the table below were obtained during an experiment

Load (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extension (mm) 0 10 21 31 40 42 44 46

(a) Plot a graph of extension (y-axis) against load (a-axis) to show the behavior of the rubber band
when being stretched. [3]
(b) Use the graph to find what load would extend the rubber band by 15mm. [1]
(c) Use the graph to find what the extension of the rubber band would be if a mass of 0.25kg was
hung from it. [1]
(d) Define elastic limit. [1]

Page | 91
26 THE GAS LAWS
The gas laws studies the relationships between pressure, volume and temperature of gas particles.

Pressure is measured in Pascal (Pa) or atmospheres.

1 atm = 101,325 Pa
Force
Pressure =
Area
Pascal is the name given to Newton per meter squared. Thus 1 Pa = 1N/m2.

26.1 Boyle’s law

Boyle studied the relationship between volume and pressure at constant temperature.

Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of a dry gas at constant temperature, pressure is inversely
proportional to volume. That is if the pressure is increased volume decreases and if volume is increased
pressure decreases.

Pressure X Volume = constant

PV = k

(Pressure X Volume) initial = (Pressure X Volume) final

P1V1 = P2V2

600
Pressure against Volume graph

500

400
Pressure/ Pascal

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Volume/ cubic meter
Figure 26.0

Page | 92
26.2 Charles’ law
Charles law states that for a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional
to the Kelvin (K) temperature. 0K =273°C
Initial Volume Final Volume
=
Initial temperature Final temperature

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

Volume against temperature graph

600

500
Volume (cubic meter)

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (K)
Figure 26.1

26.3 The idea gas equation

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2

Sample of examination questions on gas laws

(1) A bicycle pump of volume 72cm3 is filled with air at a pressure of 0.100Pa. The volume is
reduced to 30cm3. No air leaks from the pump and the temperature stays constant. Calculate
the pressure of the compressed air. [2]
(2) A container has 140cm3 of air at 200 Pa and 14°C. What is the final pressure when air is
compressed to 60cm3 at 54°C? [2]

Page | 93
27 WAVE MOTION
Wave refers to any disturbance travelling through a medium. Waves are caused by vibrating objects.

27.1 Terminologies
(i) Wave length (ƛ) is the distance between two successive crests that are in the same phase. It
is measured in metre (m).
(ii) Wave velocity (c) is the rate of change of the wave’s displacement. Wave velocity is
measured in metre per second (m/s).
(iii) Frequency (ƒ) is the total number of waves passing a point in one second. It is measured in
Hertz (Hz).
(iv) Period (T) refers to the time taken for the wave to make one complete oscillation (one
complete wave). Period is measured in seconds (s)
(v) Amplitude (A) is the maximum height of the wave from the disturbed region to the
undisturbed region. Amplitude is measured in metre (m)

27.2 Types of waves

(i) Longitudinal waves
This is a type of wave whose individual particles vibrate parallel to the wave direction.
Sound is a good example of a longitudinal wave.

Wavelength
Compression Rarefaction

Amplitude

Figure 27.0
Properties of longitudinal waves
(a) They are made up of compressions and rarefactions.
(b) Individual particles move parallel to the wave direction.
(c) Pressure in maximum on compressions and minimum on rarefactions.
(d) Travel in solids, liquids and gasses.

(ii) Transverse waves

These are waves whose individual particles vibrate perpendicular to the wave direction.
Gamma, infrared, microwaves, ripples on water and radio waves are good examples of
transverse waves.

Page | 94
 Figure 27.1

Properties of transverse waves

(a) Made up of crests and troughs.

(b) Individual particles move perpendicular to the wave direction.
(c) They can travel in the vacuum.

27.3 Electromagnetic waves

These are waves that travel at the speed of light (3 X 108 m/s) in the vacuum.

Properties of electromagnetic waves

(a) They are transverse in nature.

(b) They travel at the speed of light (3X108 m/s) in the vacuum.
(c) They are affected by electric or magnetic fields.
(d) They obey the wave equation.

The electromagnetic spectrum

Increasing wavelength

Gamma X Ultra Visible Infrared Microwaves Radio

ray violet light waves

Increasing frequency

In the electromagnetic spectrum radio waves have the longest wavelength while gamma rays have the
shortest wave length. When it comes to frequency gamma rays have the highest frequency while radio
waves have the lowest frequency.

Page | 95
27.4 The wave equation
Wave speed = wavelength X frequency

c = ƛƒ

Other important formulae

(a)

(b)

27.5 Sound
Sound is a longitudinal wave that is produced by anything vibrating and it needs a medium to travel
from one place to another.

Structure of a sound wave

Wavelength

Compression Rarefaction
Figure 27.2

Properties of sound

(i) Pitch. Pitch is the highness or lowness of sound. Pitch depends on frequency such that the
higher the frequency the high the pitch.
(ii) Loudness. Loudness of sound is proportional to the amplitude of a sound wave. In short the
higher the amplitude the louder the sound.
(iii) Timbre. Timber refers to the quality of sound.
(iv) Speed. Sound travels faster in liquids than gases and fastest in solids. But light travels faster
than sound.

Experiment to prove that sound requires a medium to travel from one place to another.

Apparatus: vacuum pump and bell jar.

Page | 96
 Figure 27.3

When the power supply is turned on the hammer strikes the gong and sound is heard. Then the vacuum
pump is turned on to remove air slowly from the bell jar and sound decreases gradually until no more
sound is heard when all the air has been sucked out. Likewise when air is pumped back into the bell jar
sound is heard again. This proves that sound requires a medium for transmission.

Experiment to determine the speed of sound in air

Apparatus: stop watch, starting pistol or fireworks.

Figure 27.4

Position two experimenters in an open field at a distance d apart, one experimenter to record time and
the other to fire the pistol. When all is set, the person with the pistol signals to the other that firing is
about to start then fires. Immediately the person with a stopwatch watch sees the flash he/she starts
recording time and stops immediately the sound is heard. Finally the speed of sound is calculated from
the formula

( )

Page | 97
Echo-sounding

When sound strikes a wall it is reflected. The reflected sound has the same wavelength and speed as the
original sound but its amplitude is less than the incident sound. To calculate speed of sound after an
echo is heard, use the formula

The normal range of audible frequency for humans is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz (20 kHz).

Sample of examination questions on wave motion

(1) State the wave equation and use it to calculate the speed of a wave with wavelength 2cm, if 10
complete waves pass through a certain point in 1 second. [3]
(2) The figure below shows the variation of the wave displacement with time

(a) State the time for one complete cycle. [1]

(b) State the frequency of the wave. [1]
(c) State the amplitude of the wave. [1]
(d) Calculate the speed of the wave. [2]
(3) A dolphin emits an ultrasonic wave in water with a frequency of 150 000 Hz. If the wavelength is
0.01, what is the speed of this wave in water? [1]
8
(4) The speed of light in air is 3 X 10 m/s. the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. an observer is
5000m away from a lightning discharge.
(a) Calculate the travel time, to the observer, of
(i) Light from the lightning flash. [2]
(ii) Sound from thunder. [2]
(b) What is the interval between the observer seeing the lightning and hearing the thunder? [2]
(5) Mary hears a sound of a lightning flash, 6.0 seconds after the flash. How far was she from the
lightning source? Take the speed of sound in air to be 320m/s. [2]
(6) John was standing a certain distance from a wall. He decides to shout and after 0.25 second he
hears an echo. How far was John from the wall if the speed of sound in air is 340m/s? [2]

Page | 98
28 OPTICS
Light travels in a straight line.

28.1 Reflection of light

Reflection is the bouncing back of light after striking the surface of an object like a plane mirror.

The ray that strikes the surface is called the incident ray while the ray that bounces off the surface is
called the reflected ray. The normal is the line drawn between the incident ray and reflected ray.

Incident ray Normal

Reflected ray
i = angle of incidence

r = angle of reflection
i r
Plain mirror
Figure 28.0

Law of reflection

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

28.2 The image formed in a plain mirror

Light rays play a vital role in as much as seeing object is concerned. Moreover images formed in a mirror
cannot be formed on the screen and are called virtual images while real images are those that can be
formed on the screen.

Viewing an object in a mirror

Object Image

Properties of the image formed

(i) It is virtual.
(ii) Same size as the object.
(iii) The distance of the image from
the mirror is equal to the
Observer Figure 28.1 Mirror distance of the object from the
mirror.

Page | 99
28.3 A periscope
A periscope is an instrument used to look over the top of obstacles. A mirror periscope uses the
principles of reflection to function.

Mirror

Tree
Brick wall
Observer
Mirror
Figure 28.2

28.4 Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light after striking a surface.

Incident ray Normal

Angle of incidence

i
Mirror

r Angle of refraction

Refracted ray

Figure 28.3

Page | 100
Laws of refraction

(i) The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant. This
is also known as Snell’s law.

The constant is called the refractive index of a substance. For example a glass block has a
Refractive index of 1.5 while water has1.33.

(ii) The refracted ray lies in the same plane as the incident ray and the normal.

Experiment to determine the refractive index of a glass block

P

Q
i
A

B
R

Observer
Figure 28.4

Place a rectangular glass block on a sheet of drawing paper on a drawing board and mark its outline.
Place two pins P and Q as shown above to define a ray of light falling on the block and view through it.
Move the eye until the two pins seen through the block seem in line and stick two pins, R and S so that
all four pins appear to be in a straight line. Remove the pins and join PQ and RS and mark the points A
and B respectively, where lines touch the side of the block. Join the points A and B and draw the normal
at A and at B. PQ is the incident ray, AB the refracted ray and RS is the emergent ray. Furthermore,
measure the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of refraction (r) with a protractor. Finally calculate the
refractive index using Snell’s law

Repeat the steps above at least four more times and calculate the average refractive index.

Page | 101
28.5 Lenses
A lens in a transparent material that refracts light rays in such a way as to form an image

Types of lenses

(i) Convex lens is one which is thick in the middle and thin at the edges and it converge light
rays at one point.
(ii) Concave lens is one which is thin in the middle and thick at the edges. Concave diverges light
rays.

Figure 28.5

28.6 Rules for drawing Ray diagrams

(1) Any incident ray travelling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the focal point (F) on the opposite side of the lens.
(2) An incident ray travelling through the focal point (F) on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principle axis.
(3) An incident ray that passes through the centre of the lens will in effect continue in the same
direction that it had when it entered the lens.

(a) Object beyond 2F Lens

Object Image
Principal axis
2F F 2F

Properties of the image formed

(i) Image is between F and 2F on the other side of the lens.

(ii) It is literally inverted (upside down).
(iii) Image is smaller than the object.
(iv) The image is real.

Page | 102
 (b) Object at 2F

Object

2F F F 2F
Image
Properties of image

(i) Image is upside down.

(ii) Image is real.
(iii) Image has the same size as the object.
(iv) Image is at 2F on the other side the lens.

(c) Object between F and 2F

Object

2F F F 2F

Properties of image Image

(i) Image is formed beyond 2F on the other side of the lens.
(ii) Image is bigger than the object.
(iii) Image in upside down.
(iv) Image is real.

(d) Object at F

Object

The image is at infinity.

Page | 103
 (e) Object between F and the centre of the lens

Image

Object

2F F F

Properties of image

(i) Virtual
(ii) Magnified
(iii) Upright
(iv) Between 2F and F on the same side of the lens.

28.7 Water waves

When water waves are moving from a deep region to a shallow region their wavelength and speed
decreases but frequency increases.

Sample of examination questions on optics

(1) The figure below represents a ray of light been reflected in a plane mirror.

Normal

50°

(a) Find the angle of incidence and angle of reflection. [2]

(b) State the law of reflection. [1]
(2) The diagram below represents a ray of light passing from air to glass.
Normal

40°
60°

(a) Calculate the angle of incidence and angle of refraction. [2]

(b) Calculate the refractive index of the glass. [2]

Page | 104
29 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Current electricity is the flow of an electric current in a circuit. Electricity can also be defined as the flow
of electrons in a circuit.

29.1 Terminologies
(i) Complete Circuit is a complete path through which an electric current flows.

- +

Direction of Direction of flow of current

flow of electrons
Figure 29.0
Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal while electrons flow from
the negative terminal going to the positive terminal.

(ii) Coulomb is the quantity of electricity passing a point in one second.

(iii) Electromotive force (emf) is the total work done in moving one coulomb of charge
throughout the circuit. Electromotive force is measured in volts (V).
(iv) Potential difference is the work done in moving one coulomb of charge between two points
in a circuit. Pd is measured in volts (V).
(v) Resistor is a component that opposes the flow of an electric current in a circuit. Resistance
is measured in ohms (Ω).
(a) Fixed resistor is one that has a fixed resistance.

Or
Figure 29.1
(b) Variable resistor is one that has variable resistance.

Or

Figure 29.2
(vi) Direct current (DC) is one that flows in one direction only.
(vii) Alternating current (AC) is one that changes direction of flow many times in a second.

Page | 105
29.2 Series connection of resistors

R1 R2

Symbol for cell Symbol for battery

+ -

V Figure 29.3
Properties of series connection
(i) The same current passes through each resistor.
(ii) Different amounts of voltage pass through each resistors provided the resistors are
not equal.

To calculate the Total Resistances (TR) use the formula below

TR = R1 + R2 + ………

For example if R1 = 3Ω and R2 = 4Ω in figure 29.3 above. The combined resistance of

the resistors is equal to 3Ω + 4Ω = 7Ω.

29.3 Parallel connection of resistors

R1

R2

- +

V Figure 29.4

Properties of parallel connection of resistors

(i) The same quantity of voltage passes through each resistor.

(ii) Different quantities of current pass through each resistor provided that the resistors are not
equal.
To calculate Total Resistance (TR) use the formula below
1 1 1
= + + ………….
TR R1 R2

For example if R1 = 2Ω and R2 = 4Ω, we calculate the combined resistance of the resistors
1/TR = ½ + ¼ = ¾. Therefore TR = 4/3 Ω.

Page | 106
29.4 Ammeter and voltmeter connection in a circuit
An ammeter is an instrument that records current and is always connected in series with resistor(s)
because it has a very low resistance. The voltmeter records voltage and is connected in parallel with the
resistor(s).

- +
Voltmeter
V
Ammeter
A R
Figure 29.5

Important formulae used

Quantity Unit Formula

Voltage (V) Volt (V) Voltage = current X resistance

( V = IR)

Voltage
Current = Resistance
Current (I) Amps (A)
V
(I = )
R

Voltage
Resistance (R) Ohm (Ω) Resistance =
Current
V
(R = I )

Power (P) Watt (W) Power = voltage X Current

(P = VI)

Energy (E) Joules (J) Energy = power X time

(E = Pt)

Energy = voltage X current X time

(E = VIt)
Note : time should be in seconds

Charge (Q) Coulomb (c) Charge = current X time

(Q = It)
Note : time should be in seconds
Table 29.0

Page | 107
29.5 Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current through it
provided that temperature remains constant. That is

Voltage = Resistance X Current where the constant =resistance

(V = RI)

Experiment to determine values of voltage across a metallic conductor and the

corresponding values of the current through the conductor

Apparatus: metallic conductor (e.g. copper wire), ammeter, voltmeter and power supply (e.g. battery
with a variable resistor inside).

Figure 29.6
Power supply with
variable resistor inside to
vary voltage

The circuit is set as shown above. With the initial reading of the ammeter and voltmeter zero, increase
the voltage and read the ammeter and voltmeter to obtain the values for current and voltage
respectively. Do not leave the power supply on for too long in order to maintain a constant
temperature. Increase the voltage of the power supply again recording the corresponding values of
current and voltage. Repeat the procedure above four more times varying voltage each time and record
the results in a table like the one shown below.

Pd/ v 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

I/ A 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Table 29.1

Plot a graph of voltage (Pd) against current and calculate the gradient of the curve (line) to find the
resistance of the conductor.

Page | 108
 Voltage against current graph
7

6 (3, 6)

5
Voltage (V)

3
(1, 2)
2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Current (A)

Figure 29.7

(R)

=2Ω

29.6 Cost of electricity

To calculate the cost of electricity use the formula

Cost = power X time X cost per unit Power should be in kilowatts (kW), 1kW = 1000W

Time should be in hours (hr), 1hr = 60 minutes

Example

An electric appliance is rated 4,000W, 250V. What is the cost of using this appliance for 8 hours if
electrical energy costs K2, 000.00 per unit?

Cost = 4kW X 8hrs X K2000.00

Note 4000W = 4kW
= K64, 000.00

Page | 109
29.7 Electrical wiring and safety in homes
The three pin plug

Figure 29.8

A fuse, earth wire, live wire and the neutral wire are the main components of the three pin plug.

A fuse in an electrical device that protects an electric appliance against damage by blowing and melting
when there is too much current in the circuit. When the fuse blows the circuit is incomplete and the
electrical appliance is disconnected from the power supply thereby protecting it against damage.

It is important to buy a fuse with a rating slightly higher than the current the appliance will be receiving.
For example if an electric appliance requires 2A of current, a fuse with a rating of 2.5A of 3A should be
used. This protects the fuse, but in case it blows a new one can be purchased.

The live wire has a brown insulation; it carries a very high and dangerous voltage. For this reason the
live wire is connected to the fuse.

The neutral wire has a blue insulation; it carries voltage but this voltage is not dangerous. The neutral
and live wires carry equal voltage.

The earth wire has a green and yellow insulation; the earth wire is connected to the metal casing of the
electric appliance so that it protects the user of the appliance against electrical shock.

Page | 110
Sample of examination questions on current electricity

(1) The figure below shows a circuit diagram connected to a battery of e.m.f 3.0 volts.
3.0v
S

A
Lamp

(a) Calculate the charge that flows in 5s if the ammeter reading is 2A. [1]
(b) What is the resistance of the lamp in the circuit? [1]
(c) Calculate the power consumption of the lamp. [2]
(d) Describe the energy conversions which take place in the lamp when the lamp is working. [1]
(2) An electric lamp has a power rating of 60W when used on a 240V supply. Calculate
(a) The electrical energy used by the lamp in 2 minutes. [2]
(b) The current taken by the lamp. [2]
(c) The charge passing through the lamp in 2 minutes. [2]
(3) The figure below shows an electric circuit.
A 12c
D B 18c
36c
C

2V
(a) What is the amount of charge that flowed through resistor C in 6 seconds? [2]
(b) How are the resistors A and C connected? [1]
(c) What amount of current in amperes (A) flowed through C in 6 seconds? [2]
(d) What is the voltage across A, B and C? [1]

Page | 111
30 STATIC ELECTRICITY
The electricity at rest which is in form of electric charges is called static electricity. When materials like
glass are rubbed with silk they will attract light objects, this is an example of static electricity. The
crackling sound from nylon garments is another example.

30.1 First law of electrostatics

It states that like charges repel and unlike changes attract.

+ -
+ + - -

Repulsion Repulsion Attraction

Figure 30.0

30.2 Induction
Induction is the imparting of an electric charge to an uncharged object when a charged object is brought
near it.

Experiment: charging two metal spheres A and B by induction using a negatively charged rod.

(a) Arrange the sphere as shown below and the charges are distributed as below after the
negatively charged rod is brought near sphere A.

A B
+
+ Metal sphere
+
+
Rod
Support

Figure 30.1

(b) Separate the two spheres without removing the rod. When the spheres are separated the
charge distribution on the spheres is unchanged.

Page | 112
 A B
+
+
+
+

Figure 30.2

(c) Finally remove the charged rod. The charges are distributed as shown below. Note how the
charges rearrange.

A B
+
+
+
+

Figure 30.3

The nature of the material for the support should be an insulator like wood or plastic.

Sample of examination question on static electricity

The figure below illustrates some of the stages in the charging of a metal sphere mounted on a stand
made of an insulator.
- + - + A
- +- + - + + - +
+ + + - + + - +
-
+ +
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 1

(a) Briefly describe the reasons why the charges rearrange themselves as shown in the diagram in
stage 2. [1]
(b) What is the direction of movement of negative charges in stage 3 when a connection is made
between the ground and point A.? [1]
(c) State the first law of electrostatics. [1]

Page | 113
31 MAGNETISM
This is the branch of physics that deals with the study of magnetic, their properties and uses.

31.1 Structure of a magnet

Magnetic field line

Figure 31.0

A magnet has two poles, the North Pole and the South Pole. Furthermore, there are magnetic field lines
that run from the North Pole to the South Pole. These magnetic field lines make up the magnetic field
and they never cross each other.

A magnetic field is a region around a magnet where the magnetic effect can be detected and a measure
of the strength of this magnetic field over a given area is called magnetic flux.

31.2 The law of magnetism

The law of magnetism states that like poles repel while unlike poles attract.

N N S S S N
N N N N N N

Repulsion Repulsion Attraction

Figure 31.1

31.3 Magnetic materials

Iron and steel are the most common magnetic materials.

Page | 114
Experiment to investigate the magnetic properties of iron and steel

N Permanent magnet S

Steel
Soft iron

Iron nails

Figure 31.2

When iron and steel are attached to the permanent magnet as shown above magnetism is induced in
them and they can attract iron nails from plastic dish as shown above. Moreover, it will be noticed that
iron will attract more iron nails almost immediately it is brought near the permanent magnet and loses
them immediately the magnet is removed. As for steel it takes some time to attract iron nails and it will
attract only a few; however iron nails will still be attracted to steel for some time after the magnet has
been removed.

This shows that iron is easy to magnetize and demagnetize while steel is difficult to magnetize and
demagnetize.

Properties of iron and steel

Soft iron Steel

Easy to magnetize and demagnetize.
Soft magnetic material and is used to
make electromagnets.
Table 31.0
Difficult to magnetize and
demagnetize.
Hard magnetic material and is used
to make permanent magnets.

31.4 Nonmagnetic materials

These include copper, wood, rubber and plastic

Page | 115
31.5 Methods of making a magnetic
(a) Double Stroking method

Figure 31.3

(b) Magnetic induction

When a piece of an unmagnetized magnetic material (e.g. iron and steel) is brought near a
magnetic t, it is attracted and become a magnetic itself.

S N S N

Magnet Soft iron

Figure 31.4
A magnet always induces an opposite pole to every magnetic material brought near one of its
poles (N or S). This is what causes attraction.

(c) Electromagnetic induction (using direct current)

In this method the material be magnetized is place in a solenoid as shown below. Then direct
current (DC) is allowed to flow throw the coil and magnetism is induced in the material. If the
material is iron it loses all its magnetism immediately the switch is turned off.
To identify the North Pole use right hand rule. That is placing the four fingers in the direction of
the current, the direction in which the thumb points is the North Pole as shown in figure 31.5 (b).

Figure 31.5 (a) Figure 31.5 (b)

Page | 116
31.6 Ways to demagnetize a magnet
(a) By hammering the magnet.
(b) By heating the magnet.
(c) By placing the magnetic in a solenoid in which an alternating current is flowing.

31.7 Plotting magnetic field lines using a compass needle

A compass needle is an instrument used to show the direction in which the magnetic field lines are
running. Place the magnet in the middle of a plane paper and sprinkle iron fillings around it. The iron
fillings rearrange themselves in the direction of the magnetic field lines. Then use a compass needle to
identify the North or South Pole of the magnet as shown below.

Figure 31.6

31.8 The principle of magnetic induction

When the magnetic field lines are cut by the coil of a conductor, current is induced in the conductor. To
determine the direction in which the current will flow a galvanometer is used. Better still, Lenz’s law
serves a similar purpose.

31.9Lenz’s law
It states that the direction of flow of the induced current is such that it opposes the change causing it.

Page | 117
 Figures 31.7

Key for the diagrams above

(a) A stationary magnet

When the magnet is stationary the galvanometer shows no deflection (points at zero).
(b) Moving the north pole of the magnet into a solenoid
(c) Removing the north pole of the magnet from a solenoid
(d) Moving the south pole into a solenoid
(e) Removing the south pole from a solenoid

How to increase the induced current

(i) By increasing the number of turns of the coil.

(ii) By moving the magnet faster into the coil.
(iii) By using a stronger magnet.

31.91 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

First law

It states that whenever a conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field voltage (emf) is induced and is
called induced voltage, if the conductor circuit is complete current is also induced and is called induced
current.

Second law

It states that the quantity of induced voltage (emf) is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkages. Flux linkages are the number of turns of the coil and the magnetic flux associated
with it.

Page | 118
31.92 Current and magnetic fields
A wire carrying current experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field, to find the direction of the
force Fleming’s left hand rule is used. Fleming’s left hand rule states that ‘if the thumb, first and second
fingers are placed mutually at right angles to each other, the first finger pointing in the direction of the
magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of the current, the thumb will indicate the direction
of the motion of the conductor’.

Figure 31.8 (a)

Fleming’s left hand rule

Figure 31.8 (b)

31.93 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is an electric device that changes alternating voltage in a circuit. There are two types of
transformers these are step down and step up transformers.

Page | 119
31.94 Step down transformer
This is a type of transformer which has more turns on the primary coil (input) than on the secondary coil.

Figure 31.9 (a)

31.95 Step up transformer

A step up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil (output) than primary coil. A transformer
only works with alternating current (AC).

Figure 31.9 (b)

31.96 How a transformer works

When alternating current flows through the primary coil it induces an alternating magnetic flux which
flows around the iron core. This changing magnetic flux in turn induces an alternating current in each of
the secondary coils.

31.97 Why soft iron is used as the core of a transformer

Iron is easy to magnetize and demagnetize and it makes a strong electromagnet.

Page | 120
Important formulae

(i)

Np Vp
Ns =
Vs

Example
A transformer operating from a 240V supply gives out 24V supply. If there is 4000 turns on
the primary coil, how many turns should be there on the secondary coil?

Solution Reasoning
N X V Np = 4000
N Vp = 240 V
V
Vs = 24 V
X V Ns = ?
V Apply formula

= 400
(ii) Power input = power output

Voltage X current (on primary coil) = voltage X current (on the secondary coil)

Vp X Ip = Vs X Is

Example
A 6V, 24W lamp shines to full brightness when it is connected to the output of a mains transformer.
Assuming the transformer is 100% efficient, what current flows in the mains cable?

Solution
Reasoning
V X I note: power input has been
I given (Vp X Is) = 24W
V
Vs = 6V
W
Is =?
6V
Apply formula
= 4.0 A

Page | 121
32 ELECTRIC MOTORS AND
GENERATORS
An electric motor is a machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy

An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil mounted on an axle in a magnetic field. When current
flows in the coil it will experience a force that will cause it to turn. To ensure that the rotation is
continues the coil is supplied with current by way of a pair of carbon brushes and split ring commutator.
When split rings are replaced with slip rings the machine is called a generator.

Sample of examination questions on magnetism

(1) (a) State the magnetic properties of iron and steel. [2]

(b) Explain how you would magnetize an iron rod using direct current. [3]

(c) State two ways in which the emf is affected if the coil is rotated faster between the poles of
the magnet.

(2) (a) Explain how a transformer works. [3]

(b) Why is soft iron used as core of a transformer? [2]

(3) State Lenz’s law of magnetic induction. [2]

Page | 122
33 RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by atoms that have unstable nuclei. Atoms of the
same element having the same proton number but different mass numbers and emit radiations are
called radioactive isotopes.

33.1 Radioactive particles

Gamma, alpha and beta are radioactive particles that are released by radioactive substances every now
and again.

Properties of Gamma, Beta and Alpha particles

Particle Symbol Ionization effect Penetration power Nature

Gamma Γ Low Very high Electromagnetic waves

Beta Β High High

-
Fast moving electrons (Oe)

Alpha Α Very high Low

The helium atom,42He

Table 33.0

33.2 Alpha decay

When an atom decays by emitting an alpha particle (helium atom) subtract 4 from the mass number and
2 from the proton number to get the nucleus of the new atom.

Example

Thorium ( 234
90
Th ) emits an alpha particle . What is the symbol for the nucleus resulting atom X?
234 Th 230 4
88
X + 2 He
90

33.3 Beta decay

When a particle decays by emitting a beta particle, add one to mass number of the resulting atom which
should have the same proton number as the parent atom.

Example
234
Thorium ( Th ) emits a beta particle . What is the symbol for the nucleus resulting atom Q?
90

234 235 -1
Th Q + 0e
90 90

Page | 123
33.4 Gamma decay
There is no effect on the mass and proton numbers of an atom that decays by emitting gamma rays.

Example
234
Thorium ( Th ) emits a gamma particle . What is the symbol for the nucleus resulting atom?
90
234 234
Th Th + γ
90 90

33.5 Half life

Half-life is the time taken for half the mass of a radioactive substance to decay.

Determining half-life using the graphical method

Example

A sample of radioactive material produced the following results when its emission was measured at a
fixed distance.

Count rate / minute 490 310 190 118 82

Time/ minute 0 15 30 45 60

Count rate against Time graph

600

500

400
count rate/minute

300

200

100

0 HL
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time/minute

To find the half-life halve maximum value the count rate recorded and draw a line from that value then descend to the time
axis at the point it touches the curve. This value on the time axis is the half-life.

In the example above the half-life of the sample is 22 minutes.

Page | 124
Calculating mass of radioactive substance
Unchanged 1
= X original mass where n is the number of half-lives.
mass 2n

Example 1

The element thorium is radioactive. It decays by emitting beta particles and has a half-life of 24 days.
What time is taken for 1g of thorium to decay leaving 1/8 g of thorium unchanged.

Solution
2n = original mass ÷ unchanged mass
2n = 1 g ÷ 1/8 g
2n = 1 X 8
2n = 23
n =3
Therefore time taken for 1/8 g of 1g to remain unchanged = n X half-life = 3 X 24days = 64days.

Example 2

If 25g of a radioactive substance is present at the beginning of an experiment, what mass of this
substance remains unchanged after 6 hours if it has a half – life of 2 hours?

Solution

Unchanged mass = 1/2n X original mass note: n = 6 ÷2 = 3

= 1/23 X 25g

= 3.125g

33.6 The Geiger Muller Tube

This is a tube that is used to detect radiation.

Figure 33.0

Page | 125
33.7 Fission and fusion
Fission is a reaction in which an atom splits into two with the release of much energy.

Fusion is a reaction in which small light nuclei join up to form heavier nuclei releasing energy in the
process.

33.8 Uses of radiations

(i) Used in medicine to detect internal bleeding in patients.
(ii) Used to treat cancer
(iii) Sterilization of substances such as blood.
(iv) Used to detect leakages in underground water pipes.
(v) Used in carbon dating.
(vi) Density gauging, to determine ground density for road construction.

33.9 Harmful effects of radiation

(i) Causes cancer.
(ii) Causes mutations.
(iii) Causes skin reddening and blistering.
(iv) Can cause cataracts and loss of hair for the section of the body that has hair.

33.91 Precautions to take when handling radioactive substances

(i) Always wear protective clothes when handling radioactive substances.
(ii) Never point the radioactive source at any person.
(iii) Radioactive substances should be lifted using tongs.
(iv) Radioactive substances should be stored in places out of the public reach.
(v) They should always be a screen between the radioactive source and the person handling it.

Sample of examination questions on radioactivity

16
(1) The nuclide 7 N decays to become an oxygen nuclide by emitting an electron. Write down an
equation to show this process. [2]
(2) (a) State three safety precautions which should be taken when dealing with a radioactive
source. [3]

(b) State four uses of radioactive substances in industry. [4]

Page | 126
34 THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode ray oscilloscope is a device used for studying wave shapes of alternating currents and
voltages in electric and electronic circuits.

The cathode ray oscilloscope has three main components.

(i) Electron gun

(ii) Deflecting system
(iii) Fluorescent screen

Figure 34.0

The electron gun is composed of the heater, cathode and anode. The heater heats the cathode to a
certain temperature, the cathode emits electrons and this process is called thermionic emission. The
anode focuses the emitted electrons into a narrow beam. The y – plates and the X – plates making up
the deflection system deflects electron vertically and horizontally respectively. Finally the spot is formed
on the fluorescent screen.

Page | 127