Module I:

Types of research: Exploratory, Conclusive (Descriptive and Causal), Research process and steps in
conducting research; Approaches of research: deductive, Inductive, qualitative and quantitative; Planning a
research project: Problem identification and formulation. Research Design: Exploratory, Descriptive and
Experimental.

What is research?
Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research
problem using scientific methods. Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge
and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new
concepts, methodologies and understandings. Research in common refers to search for
knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for
information on a specific topic.
Objective: - The purpose of research is to discover answers to question through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is find out the truth, which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Each research study has its own purpose.

What is basic research?

Basic Research or otherwise called as pure or fundamental research. It is used in the
scientific field to understand and extend our knowledge about a specific topic or certain
phenomenon. It is all about information-gathering and answering What, why, and How
research questions. Information obtained from basic research often creates a foundation for
applied studies.

Example: Studying the Behaviour of Subatomic Particles

 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH: Exploratory research is a type of research method
that aims to gain insights and understanding of a phenomenon or problem that is not
well-defined or has limited existing information. It is important for researchers to
clearly understand their research problem before trying to answer it so that they can
determine whether or not the topic is worth time investigating. Exploratory research is
not used to obtain data to answer a research question, but instead to provide a deeper
context to a research question. It is often conducted at the initial stages of a research
project. Exploratory research is often qualitative and primary in nature.

 Primary research- Primary research is information gathered directly from the

subject. It can be through a group of people or even an individual. Primary
research is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which requires
an in-depth study.
1. Interviews: One-on-one interviews conducted between an interviewer and
a subject can provide the researcher with in-depth qualitative information
on the research problem. These interviews can be structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured, depending on the level of flexibility needed to
explore the topic.

2. Focus Groups: Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of

individuals who share certain characteristics or experiences related to the
research topic. Their reactions, responses, and conversations are studied
to get an in-depth understanding of a research problem. . Focus groups
can provide a rich source of qualitative data and help identify patterns or
themes.

3. Observations: Observational research involves Collecting data by directly

observing and documenting behaviours, activities, or phenomena Of
subject without doing anything to Influence their behaviour.
Observational research can be qualitative observation or quantitative
observation.it can be structured, unstructured, or participant-based.

4. Surveys: Surveys are a common tool in exploratory research, providing a

structured approach to collect data from a large number of respondents.
Surveys can be conducted through online questionnaires, phone
interviews, or face-to-face interactions. Open-ended questions can be
included to gather qualitative data and explore participants' perspectives
in more detail.

 Secondary research: -Secondary research is gathering information from

previously published primary research. In such research you gather information
from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.
1. Case Studies: A case study is a detailed examination of a particular case
within a real-world context. This source of secondary data allows
researchers to analyse existing cases regarding the research problem they
are studying. Case studies often involve multiple data collection methods,
such as interviews, observations, and document analysis.

2. Online Sources: The internet has a vast amount of information available

on almost any topic. It is one of the fastest ways to gather information in
a cost-effective way. It can, however, contain an abundance of unreliable
 information as well. Hence, when using this method of data collection,
researchers must verify the authenticity and reliability of the sources they
are referring to.
3. Literature Review: A literature review involves examining existing
studies, articles, books, and other relevant sources to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the topic. It helps identify gaps in
current knowledge, potential research questions, and areas that need
further exploration.

Example- A juice bar owner decides to do exploratory research to find out if expanding their
juices verity will enable him to get more customers or if there is a better idea.

What is applied research?

Applied research is a non-systematic way of finding solutions to specific research
problems or issues. It is called “non-systematic” because it goes straight to finding solutions.
Unlike basic research, which seeks to expand knowledge for its own sake, applied research
focuses on the direct application of existing knowledge to real-world issues. It helps
improve the human condition by finding practical solutions for existing problems. Solutions
derived from applied research are used in situations ranging from medical treatments or
product development to new laws or regulations. Developing a New Drug for Cancer Treatment:

 Conclusive Research- As the term suggests, conclusive research is meant to provide

information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision-making. It tends to be
quantitative in nature, that is to say in the form of numbers that can be quantified and
summarized. Unlike exploratory research, which focuses on generating ideas and
exploring new areas, conclusive research is conducted when researchers have well-
defined research objectives and seek to validate or test specific hypotheses. Conclusive
research is more structured and formal process. Conclusive research can be sub-
divided into two major categories:

1. Descriptive Research: - Descriptive research is a research method describing

the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied without
manipulating variables. Its primary goal is to provide an accurate depiction of
what is being studied. It can help answer what, where, when and how questions,
but not why questions.
In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not
seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Descriptive research plays a
vital role in many fields, including market research, social sciences, public
health, and education. It helps in understanding the current state of a population,
identifying patterns and trends, and informing decision-making processes. The
two most commonly types of descriptive research designs are
 Observation and
 Surveys
 2. Causal Research: - Causal research is also known as explanatory research.
Causal research is a method of conclusive research that aims to establish cause-
and-effect relationships between two variables. It seeks to determine whether
changes in one variable cause changes in another variable and identifies the
underlying mechanisms of those relationships. This type of research examines a
condition or a research problem to explain the patterns of interactions between
variables. There are two research methods for exploring the cause-and-effect
relationship between variables:
 Experimentation, and
 Simulation

The research process

The research process involves a systematic and structured approach to conducting research. It
consists of several key steps that guide researchers from identifying the research problem to
drawing conclusions and communicating the findings. While the specific steps may vary
depending on the research discipline and methodology, here is a general overview of the
research process:

1. Management Dilemma Basic vs Applied

Determine the overarching issue or challenge faced by the organization or stakeholders that
requires solution or improvement. Determine whether the research will focus on fundamental
theoretical questions (basic) or practical solutions to specific problems (applied).
2. Defining the Research Problem
Clearly define the specific issue or question that the research aims to address. Review
existing literature research to understand what is already known about the topic and identify
gaps or areas requiring further investigation.
3. Formulating the Research Hypothesis
Based on the research problem and literature review, specific research objectives and
hypothesis are developed. Research objectives outline the specific goals of the study, while
hypotheses propose expected relationships between variables. Depending on the nature of
the research (basic or applied), hypotheses may be exploratory, explanatory, or predictive.
4. Developing the Research Proposal
Detail the proposed methodology, including research design, data collection methods, and
analysis techniques. Provide rationale for why the research is important, relevant, and
feasible. Estimate the resources (e.g., budget, personnel) required and establish a timeline for
completing the research.
5. The Research Framework: Research Design
Select an right research type (e.g., experimental, descriptive, qualitative, quantitative) based
on the research objectives and hypotheses. data collection methods, sampling techniques, and
data analysis procedures.
6. The Research Framework: Research Design
 Data Collection Plan: Define how data will be collected, including the sources,
procedures, and instruments to be used.
 Instrument Design: Develop or select appropriate tools (e.g., surveys, interviews,
observation protocols) for collecting data.
 Pilot Testing: Conduct a small-scale test of the data collection instruments and
procedures to identify and address any issues before full implementation.
 Sampling Plan: Determine the target population and sampling technique to ensure the
sample is representative of the population of interest.
10. Data Collection
Implement the data collection plan, following the established procedures and protocols.
Protect participant confidentiality and adhere to ethical guidelines throughout the data
collection process.
11. Data Refining and Preparation
Prepare the collected data for analysis by checking for errors, inconsistencies, and missing
values. Convert raw data into a format suitable for analysis, such as coding categorical
variables or aggregating data.
12. Data Analysis & Interpretation
Apply appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques to examine the data and test
the research hypotheses. Interpret the results of the analysis in relation to the research
problem and hypotheses, considering their implications and significance.
13. Research Reporting
Summarize the research process, findings, and conclusions in a comprehensive report.
Communicate the research findings to stakeholders through presentations, reports, or other
formats tailored to the audience's needs.
14. Management / Research Decision
Based on the research findings and analysis, provide recommendations for addressing the
management dilemma or solving the research problem. Translate the research findings into
actionable decisions or strategies that can be implemented by management or stakeholders.

Approaches of research: deductive, Inductive, qualitative and quantitative

 Inductive Approach - In an inductive approach to research, a researcher
begins by collecting data that is relevant to his or her topic of interest. Once
a considerable amount of data has been collected, the researcher will then
take a time out from data collection, stepping back to get a bird's eye view
of their data. At this stage, the researcher looks for patterns in the data,
working to develop a theory that could explain those patterns.

 Deductive approach- The deductive approach is when a hypothesis is

developed from an already existing theory and then tests it through
observations and data collection. It uses a top-down method in which the
researcher starts with a general idea and then tests it through specific
observations. Deductive research is often used to confirm a theory or test a
well-known hypothesis.

 QUALITATIVE APPROACH: The qualitative approach is a research

methodology that aims to understand and interpret social phenomena
through in-depth exploration and analysis of textual or verbal data. Unlike
quantitative research that focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis,
qualitative research seeks to capture the richness, complexity, and
subjective experiences of individuals and groups. For example, examining the effects of
sleep deprivation on mood.

 QUANTITATIVE APPROACH: The quantitative approach is a research

methodology that focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical data to
examine relationships, patterns, and trends. It seeks to generate objective
and statistically significant findings to answer research questions or test
 hypotheses. The quantitative approach emphasizes measurement, statistical
analysis, and generalization of results to a larger population.

Problem identification and formulation

A research problem is a question that a researcher wants a answer, or a problem that a
researcher wants to solve. Planning a research project begins with problem identification and
formulation, which involves identifying a research problem or gap in knowledge and
formulating it into a clear and focused research question or objective. This step sets the
foundation for the entire research process and determines the direction and scope of the
study.

Management decision problem: The process typically begins with identifying a

management decision problem, which is a broad issue or challenge faced by an
organization that requires decision-making.
 Discussion with Experts: Engaging in discussions with subject matter experts, industry
professionals, or stakeholders can provide valuable insights into the management decision
problem.
 Review of Literature: Conducting a thorough review of existing literature related to the
management decision problem, identify gaps.
 Organizational Analysis: Analyzing the internal workings and dynamics of the organization
helps researchers understand how the management decision problem is situated within the
organizational context.
 Qualitative Analysis: Qualitative analysis techniques, such as interviews, focus groups, or
case studies, can provide rich insights into the management decision problem.

Management research problem: Based on the insights gained from

discussions with experts, literature review, organizational analysis, and
qualitative analysis, researchers can refine the management decision
problem into a specific management research problem.

Research Framework: Developing a research framework involves

conceptualizing the relationships between key variables or factors identified in
the management research problem.

Statement of Research Objectives: Research objectives specify the goals or aims of the
research study and define what the researcher intends to accomplish.

Formulation of Research Hypotheses: Research hypotheses are tentative statements or

propositions that express the expected relationships between variables identified in the
research framework.

Research Design: Exploratory, Descriptive and Experimental

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to conduct a
study. It vary depending on the type of study, research question, variables, and
hypothesis.

1) Exploratory research design- Exploratory research design is a type of research methodology

that aims to explore and gain preliminary insights into a research problem or phenomenon. It is often
used in situations where the topic is relatively unexplored, lacks existing theories or frameworks, or
when the researcher has limited knowledge about the subject. Exploratory research is characterized
by its flexibility, openness, and qualitative nature, allowing for the discovery of new ideas, patterns,
or relationships.
2) DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN: Descriptive research design is a type of research
methodology that aims to describe and depict the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a
particular population or situation. It seeks to provide a detailed and accurate portrayal of the subject
of study by collecting and analyzing quantitative or qualitative data. Descriptive research is
commonly used to answer questions such as "What is happening?" or "What is the current state?"
3) Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a
situation. It is a causal research design where one observes the impact caused by the independent
variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an independent
variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is
an efficient research method as it contributes to solving a problem.

Applications of Research in Business

Decisions
Research plays a crucial role in various functional areas of business, contributing to informed decision-
making, innovation, problem-solving, and competitive advantage. The evolution of research in these areas
reflects changes in business practices, technology, and societal trends.

1. Marketing Research:
 Role: Marketing research helps businesses understand customer needs, preferences,
and behavior, enabling them to develop effective marketing strategies, product
innovations, and promotional campaigns.
  Evolution: Marketing research has evolved from traditional methods such as surveys
and focus groups to incorporate advanced techniques like big data analytics, social
media monitoring, and artificial intelligence. This evolution allows for deeper insights
into consumer behavior and market trends.
2. Operations Management:
 Role: Research in operations management focuses on optimizing processes,
improving efficiency, and enhancing quality in manufacturing, supply chain
management, and service delivery.
 Evolution: With advancements in technology and automation, operations research
has expanded to include areas such as lean manufacturing, Six Sigma, and predictive
analytics. These approaches help businesses streamline operations, reduce costs, and
increase productivity.
3. Human Resource Management:
 Role: Research in human resource management (HRM) addresses issues related to
recruitment, training, performance management, employee engagement, and
organizational culture.
 Evolution: HR research has evolved to include topics such as diversity and inclusion,
talent analytics, and employee well-being. Additionally, advancements in HR
technology have led to the adoption of tools like applicant tracking systems, learning
management systems, and employee feedback platforms to support data-driven
decision-making in HRM.
4. Finance and Accounting:
 Role: Research in finance and accounting involves analyzing financial markets,
investment opportunities, risk management, and financial reporting practices.
 Evolution: The evolution of finance and accounting research has seen a shift towards
quantitative methods, financial modeling, and algorithmic trading in finance. In
accounting, research has focused on topics such as corporate governance, financial
regulation, and sustainability reporting, reflecting changing regulatory and
stakeholder demands.
5. Strategic Management:
 Role: Research in strategic management explores how organizations formulate and
implement strategies to achieve competitive advantage and long-term success.
 Evolution: Strategic management research has evolved to address emerging
challenges such as digital disruption, globalization, sustainability, and corporate
social responsibility. It incorporates concepts from fields like innovation
management, entrepreneurship, and organizational behavior to inform strategic
decision-making.

Module II:
Research modelling: Types, and Stages; Data collection methods: Survey, Observation and
Questionnaire; Questionnaire Design: Steps in constructing a questionnaire, Types of questions,
Attitude measurement; Scaling techniques: Ratio, interval, ordinal and nominal ; Sampling Plan:
Sampling frame, sample selection methods- Probability and non- probability, sample size;
Sampling and non-sampling errors; Editing, tabulating and validating of data.

I. Research modelling: Types, and Stages

Research Modelling: Research modelling is an important technique used in various fields
such as economics, finance, and social sciences to analyze and predict trends, behaviors,
and phenomena. It involves creating a mathematical representation of a system or process
to test hypotheses, generate insights, and develop evidence-based policies.

What is a Questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of prompts that aims to
collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is typically a mix of close-ended
questions and open-ended questions.

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A QUESTIONNAIRE: Constructing a questionnaire

involves several important steps to ensure that the questions are well-designed, clear, and
aligned with the research objectives. Here are the key steps in constructing a questionnaire:

 Define Research Objectives: Clearly articulate the research objectives and the specific
information you aim to gather through the questionnaire. Identify the target population, the
scope of the study, and the variables or constructs you want to measure.
 Define the Target Respondent: At the very outset, the researcher must
identify the target respondent from whom the information is to be collected.
The questions must be designed keeping in mind the type of respondents
under study.
 Determine Question Types: Determine the appropriate question types for your research
objectives. Common question types include multiple-choice, Likert scale, open-ended,
ranking, or demographic questions. Each question type serves a specific purpose and provides
different types of data.

Write Clear and Concise Questions:

• Avoid jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to respondents.
• Use simple and straightforward language that is easily understood.
• Keep questions concise and focused on a single idea or concept.
• Avoid leading or biased language that may influence respondents' answers.
• Ensure that questions are neutral and do not assume a particular stance.
• Be specific and avoid ambiguity by providing clear instructions and context.

Order Questions Appropriately: Arrange the questions in a logical and coherent order.
Start with general or introductory questions before moving to more specific or sensitive
topics. Group related questions together to maintain flow and continuity. Consider the
respondents' cognitive load and attention span when sequencing questions.

7. Provide Response Options:

• Multiple-Choice Questions: Include all relevant response choices and an "other" option
if necessary. Ensure that response options cover the full range of possible answers.
• Likert Scale Questions: Define the scale anchors clearly and consistently. Use an odd numbered scale to
allow for a neutral midpoint if applicable.
• Open-Ended Questions: Provide enough space for respondents to provide detailed
responses. Consider including prompts or examples to guide respondents when needed.

8. Pretest the Questionnaire: Conduct a pilot test or pretest of the questionnaire with a
small sample of participants. This helps identify any issues or improvements needed in
the questionnaire design. Observe how participants interpret and respond to the
questions, and gather feedback on clarity, comprehension, and relevance.

Revise and Finalize: Based on the pretest results and feedback, revise and refine the
questionnaire as needed. Administer the finalized questionnaire to the target
population using the chosen data collection method, such as face-to-face interviews,
telephone interviews, online surveys, or mailed questionnaires.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Your questionnaire can include open-ended or closed-ended questions or a combination of both.

Using closed-ended questions limits your responses, while open-ended questions enable a broad
range of answers.

Closed-ended questions
Closed-ended, or restricted-choice, questions offer respondents a fixed set of choices to select
from. Closed-ended questions are best for collecting data on categorical or quantitative variables.
Categorical variables can be nominal or ordinal. Quantitative variables can be interval or ratio.

Open-ended questions
Open-ended, or long-form, questions allow respondents to give answers in their own words.
Because there are no restrictions on their choices, respondents can answer in ways that
researchers may not have otherwise considered.

There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the four scales. The
four types of scales are:

 Nominal Scale: - A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags”
or “labels” to classify or identify the objects. It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects. It
is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects. Any object which is assigned a higher number is in
no way superior to the one which is assigned a lower number. The only arithmetic operations that can be carried out
are the count of each category.
Example:
• Are you married?
(a) Yes (b) No

 ORDINAL: - The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data
without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.” Ordinal data is known as
qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and also ranked. It allows for the comparison of
values in terms of their order or rank, but does not provide information about the magnitude of differences between
values. Respondents are asked to rank items or options based on their preference.

Sampling Plan

A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population. It’s a

complete list of everyone or everything you want to study. The
difference between a population and a sampling frame is that the
population is general and the frame is specific.
Sample selection methods: Probability and non-
probability:

What is probability sampling?

Probability sampling is a sampling technique that involves randomly selecting a small group
of people (a sample) from a larger population were each member of the population has an
equal chance of being chosen. This method is more time consuming and expensive than the
non-probability sampling method.
I. Simple Random Sampling: - In simple random sampling technique, every item in the
population has an equal and likely chance of being selected in the sample. techniques
such as lottery or random number generators are used to ensure an unbiased selection
process.
II. Systematic Sampling: - Each member of the population is assigned a number, then
selected at regular intervals to form a sample. (Systematic sampling is also known as
interval sampling.) Or, to put it another way, every “nth” individual in the population
is selected to be part of the sample. For example, if the population size is N and the
sample size is n, every N/nth individual is selected.
III. Stratified Sampling: - Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, geographic
location) and then randomly selecting individuals from each stratum. This method
ensures representation from different subgroups in the population.
IV. Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters or
groups and randomly selecting entire clusters as the sampling units. This approach is
useful when the population is geographically dispersed, and it is more practical to
sample groups rather than individuals.

What is Non-Probability Sampling?

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample based on
subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the members of the population
have a chance to participate in the study. Non-probability sampling methods are often used in exploratory
research, qualitative studies or when it is challenging to obtain a representative sample from the target
population.

I. Convenience sampling: - Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling

technique where samples are selected from the population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher. This method is convenient and easy to
 implement, but it may introduce selection bias and may not represent the entire
population.

II. Judgmental or Purposive sampling: - In the judgmental sampling method, researchers

select the samples based purely on the researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other
words, researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to participate in
the research study.

III. Snowball Sampling: - Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling

technique. In this method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So after
selecting initial participants who then refer other potential participants, creating a
snowball effect.

IV. Quota Sampling: - In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that
involves the individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or
qualities.

Module III :
Data Analysis: Introduction to statistical softwares
Analysis on Statistical Software’s: Descriptive statistics, Review of hypothesis testing procedures:
Parametric tests (z-test, t-test, and F-test, One-way and two- way ANOVA and Non-parametric
test (Chi-square test)
Associative and Predictive analysis: Correlation and Regression- bivariate and multivariate
(ordinary Least Square and logistic regression)
Multivariate Techniques: Multi-Dimensional scaling, Data reduction: Factor analysis and cluster
analysis.

Distinguish between parametric statistics and non-parametric statistics. Indicate their uses in different types of
data or research.

In the field of statistics, parametric and nonparametric tests are two different approaches
used to analyze data and draw conclusions. These tests have distinct characteristics and are
applicable in various scenarios.
What is a Parametric Test? Parametric tests are statistical tests that assume that the data
follows a specific distribution. The most common assumption is that the data follows a
normal distribution. Examples of parametric tests include t-tests, analysis of variance
(ANOVA), and linear regression. These tests use the sample data to estimate population
parameters and make inferences based on these estimates. It is used When the sample size is
sufficiently large, typically n > 30. Commonly used in fields such as biology, psychology,
and social sciences

Definition of Non-parametric Test Nonparametric tests, also known as distribution-free

tests, do not rely on specific distributional assumptions. They are used when the data does
not meet the assumptions required by parametric tests. Nonparametric tests make fewer
assumptions about the population and are based on ranking or ordering the data. Examples of
nonparametric tests include the Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal-Wallis test, and Wilcoxon
signed-rank test.

Differentiate between descriptive statistical analysis and inferential statistical analysis. Describe the
important statistical measures often used to summaries the survey/research data.

Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses are two fundamental approaches used to analyse and interpret
data, each serving distinct purposes:

 Descriptive analysis: - Descriptive statistics is a fundamental component of data analysis that aims
to summarize and describe the main characteristics of a dataset. It involves organizing, summarizing,
and presenting data in a meaningful way, without making inferences beyond the dataset itself.
Descriptive statistics is very important to present our raw data in meaningful way using numerical
calculations or graphs or tables.
Types of Descriptive Statistics:
A. Measure of Central Tendency (mean, median, mode)
B. Measure of Variability (range, variance [Variance measures the spread or dispersion of
data around the mean], Standard Deviation [The standard deviation is the square root of
the variance and provides a measure of the average distance between each data point and
the mean])
C. graphical representations (box plots, bar charts, pie charts, etc.)

 Inferential Statistics: In inferential statistics, predictions are made by taking any group of
data in which you are interested. It can be defined as a random sample of data taken from a
population to describe and make inferences about the population. Any group of data that
includes all the data you are interested in is known as population. It basically allows you to
make predictions by taking a small sample instead of working on the whole population.
Inferential statistics allow researchers to draw conclusions, test hypotheses, and make
predictions about populations, even when it is impractical or impossible to study the entire
population directly.

Key methods in inferential statistics include hypothesis testing, where researchers test
hypotheses about population parameters using sample data; regression analysis, where
relationships between variables are examined and used to make predictions
S.No. Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

It makes inferences about the

It gives information about raw data which
population using data drawn from the
describes the data in some manner.
1. population.

It helps in organizing, analyzing, and to It allows us to compare data, and make

2. present data in a meaningful manner. hypotheses and predictions.

It is used to explain the chance of

It is used to describe a situation.
3. occurrence of an event.

It explains already known data and is

It attempts to reach the conclusion
limited to a sample or population having a
about the population.
4. small size.

It can be achieved with the help of charts,

It can be achieved by probability.
5. graphs, tables, etc.

Discuss in detail the procedure of hypothesis testing with example of one and two tailed test.

A statistical hypothesis is an unproven statement which can be tested. Hypothesis Testing is a

type of statistical analysis in which you put your assumptions about a population parameter
to the test. It is used to estimate the relationship between 2 statistical variables. A hypothesis
test is used to test whether this statement is true.

Null hypothesis suggests that there is no relationship between the two variables. Null hypothesis is
represented as H0. If the null hypothesis is true, it suggests that any changes
witnessed in an experiment are because of random chance and not because of
changes made to variables in the experiment.

The Alternate Hypothesis is the logical opposite of the null hypothesis. The
acceptance of the alternative hypothesis follows the rejection of the null
hypothesis. H1 is the symbol for it. theory that the observations are related (not
independent) in some way.

A type I error appears when the null hypothesis (H0) of an experiment is true, but still, it is rejected. It is
represented by Greek letter α (alpha) . A type II error appears when the null hypothesis is false but
mistakenly fails to be refused. represented by the Greek letter β (beta). The expression 1 – β is called power
of test.

One-tailed tests are used when the alternative hypothesis states that the parameter of interest is either bigger
or smaller than the value stated in the null hypothesis. For example, the null hypothesis might state that the
average weight of chocolate bars produced by a chocolate factory is 35g, while the alternative hypothesis
might state that the average weight of the chocolate bars is in fact lower than 35g.

Two-tailed tests are used when the hypothesis states that the parameter of interest differs from the null
hypothesis but does not specify in which direction. In the above example, a Two-tailed alternative
hypothesis would be that the average weight of the chocolate bars is not equal to 35g.
There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:

1. State your research hypothesis as a null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis (Ho) and (Ha or H1).
2. Collect data in a way designed to test the hypothesis.
3. Perform an appropriate statistical test.
4. Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.
5. Present the findings in your results and discussion section.

Functions of Hypothesis
 Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.
 It becomes the start point for the investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
 It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction

Explain the Bivariate and multivariate statistical techniques in detail.

Bivariate Analysis: - Bivariate analysis is the simultaneous analysis of two variables. It explores the concept
of the relationship between two variables: one dependent variable and one independent variable. Here are
some common bivariate statistical techniques: Correlation Analysis, Simple Linear Regression, T-Test, Chi-
Square Test,

Multivariate Statistical Techniques: Multivariate statistical techniques involve the analysis of relationships
among multiple variables simultaneously. These techniques are used when studying complex relationships,
patterns, and interactions among several variables. Here are some common multivariate statistical
techniques: Multiple Regression Analysis, Cluster analysis, Factor analysis

Aspect Bivariate Techniques Multivariate Techniques

Definition Analyze the relationship between two Analyze the relationship between three or
variables. more variables simultaneously.
Number of Considers only two variables at a time. Simultaneously considers three or more
Variables variables.
Examples Correlation analysis, Simple linear Multiple linear regression, Factor analysis,
regression. Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Cluster
analysis.
Purpose Used to understand the relationship Used to explore complex relationships
between two variables and predict between multiple variables, identify
outcomes based on one variable's value. patterns, and make predictions considering
several factors.
Complexity Less complex as it deals with fewer More complex due to the consideration of
variables. multiple variables and their interactions.
Interpretation Focuses on the strength and direction of Examines how multiple variables interact
the relationship between two variables. with each other to influence outcomes.
Output Typically produces scatter plots, Generates regression equations, factor
correlation coefficients, or regression loading matrices, or cluster memberships.
equations.

Write a note on factor analysis and cluster analysis.

Factor Analysis:
• Factor analysis is a statistical method used to identify underlying factors or latent
variables that explain the interrelationships among a set of observed variables.

• It aims to reduce a large number of variables into a smaller number of factors that
capture the common variance among them.

• Factor analysis assumes that each observed variable is associated with one or more
underlying factors, and the goal is to uncover the relationships between the observed
variables and the underlying factors.

• It helps in understanding the underlying structure of the data, identifying important

dimensions, and reducing redundancy in the variables.

• The output of factor analysis includes factor loadings (indicating the strength of the
relationship between variables and factors), eigenvalues (representing the amount of variance
explained by each factor), and factor scores (estimates of the individual's position on each
factor).

Cluster Analysis:

• Cluster analysis is a technique used to group similar objects or cases based on their
characteristics or attributes.

• It aims to identify clusters or segments in the data by maximizing the similarity within
clusters and maximizing the dissimilarity between clusters.

• Cluster analysis does not assume any predefined groupings; it is an exploratory

method that allows the data to form natural groupings based on their similarities.

It helps in understanding the structure of the data, identifying homogeneous subgroups, and
segmenting the population into distinct clusters.

• The output of cluster analysis includes the cluster assignments for each object and
various measures of cluster quality, such as within-cluster sum of squares or silhouette
coefficients.

Both factor analysis and cluster analysis serve different purposes in data reduction:

• Factor analysis aims to identify the underlying dimensions or constructs that explain the common variance in
a set of observed variables. It helps in reducing the dimensionality of the data and identifying the most
important factors driving the observed patterns.
• Cluster analysis, on the other hand, focuses on grouping similar objects or cases based on their attributes or
characteristics. It helps in identifying homogeneous subgroups within the data, allowing for a more targeted
analysis or decision-making.
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Z-TEST: The z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether the means of two
populations are significantly different from each other, based on the assumption that the data
follows a normal distribution. It is often used when the sample size is large, and the
population standard deviation is known.

T-Test: - A T-test is a parametric test applied to identify how the average of two data sets
differs when variance is not given. When the sample size is small, and the population
standard deviation is unknown, the T-test is used in conjunction with the t-distribution.

F-TEST: The F-test is a parametric statistical test used to compare the variances of two or
more populations or groups. It is commonly employed when analysing the equality of
variances among multiple groups or when comparing the variability of a single variable
across different conditions. The F-test assumes that the data follow a normal distribution.

One-way and two-way ANOVA: Parametric tests such as one-way ANOVA (Analysis of
Variance) and two-way ANOVA are statistical methods used to analyze and compare means
across multiple groups or factors. These tests are based on the assumption of normality and
homogeneity of variances. Here's an overview of one-way ANOVA and two-way ANOVA:

i. One-way ANOVA:
• One-way ANOVA is used when comparing the means of three or more independent
groups.
• The null hypothesis (H₀) assumes that the means of all groups are equal, while the
alternative hypothesis (H₁) states that at least one mean is significantly different.
• The test calculates the F statistic by comparing the variability between groups
(explained variance) to the variability within groups (unexplained variance).
• Statistical software computes the F statistic, p-value, and effect size measures such as
eta-squared (η²) or partial eta-squared (η²p).

ii. Two-way ANOVA:

• Two-way ANOVA is an extension of one-way ANOVA that considers the effects of
two independent categorical factors (or variables) on a dependent variable.
• It allows for investigating the main effects of each factor as well as their interaction
effect.
• The null hypothesis assumes that there are no significant main effects or interaction
effects, while the alternative hypothesis suggests the presence of significant effects.
• The F statistic is calculated to assess the significance of each factor and their
interaction. Statistical software provides p-values and effect size measures like eta-squared
(η²) or partial eta-squared (η²p).

Chi-Square Test: The chi-square test is a non-parametric statistical test used to examine the
association between two categorical variables. It is commonly used with categorical data
arranged in contingency tables to determine if there is a significant relationship or
dependency between the variables. The test calculates an expected frequency based on the
null hypothesis of independence and compares it with the observed frequency to assess the
degree of association.

CORRELATION: Correlation analysis is a statistical technique used to measure the degree

of relationship between two variables. It measures the extent to which two variables are
linearly related. It falls under the category of associative predictive analysis as it helps in
understanding how changes in one variable is related to changes in another variable.
There are three types of correlation:

 Positive Correlation: A positive correlation means that this linear relationship is

positive, and the two variables increase or decrease in the same direction.
 Negative Correlation: A negative correlation is just the opposite. The relationship line
has a negative slope, and the variables change in opposite directions, i.e., one variable
decreases while the other increases.
 No Correlation: No correlation simply means that the variables behave very differently
and thus, have no linear relationship.

REGRESSION: Regression analysis is a statistical technique used in associative predictive

analysis to examine the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables. It helps in understanding how changes in the independent variables
are associated with changes in the dependent variable. Regression analysis is widely used for
prediction, forecasting, and understanding the impact of variables on outcomes.

BIVARIATE AND MULTIVARIATE (ORDINARY LEAST SQUARE AND

LOGISTIC
Bivariate and multivariate regression refer to the number of independent variables used in a
regression analysis. Bivariate regression involves the analysis of the relationship between
two variables, while multivariate regression involves the analysis of the relationship between
a dependent variable and two or more independent variables. The two common types of
regression used for bivariate and multivariate analysis are Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)
regression and Logistic regression.

Pre-Writing considerations, Research report components, Common Problems encountered

when preparing the Research Report. Presenting research report.