DISASTERS

Natural / Man-made
Definitions
Disaster: Any occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and
health services on a scale, sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or
area”.
– A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread
human, material, economic or environmental loss and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own resources.
Disaster management: the creation of plans through which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope
with disasters.
– Disaster management does not avert or eliminate the threats; instead, it focuses on creating plans to
decrease the effect of disasters. Disasters can be natural or human made.
Natural hazards: severe and extreme weather and climate events that occur naturally in all parts of the world,
although some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards than others.
– Natural hazards become natural disasters when people's lives and livelihoods are destroyed.
Natural disasters: the consequences of events triggered by natural hazards that overwhelm local response capacity
and seriously affect the social and economic development of a region.
Risk: The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses resulting from the interactions between hazards
and vulnerable conditions e.g. deaths, injuries, property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environmental
damages.
Adaptation: refers to changes in natural and human systems to reduce risks to the lives and livelihoods of people.
Adaptation actions can reduce many unavoidable impacts in the near term, although they cannot reduce them to zero.
Risk Assessment : The process of determining the nature and extent of risk by analyzing potential hazards and
evaluating existing condition of vulnerability and capacity.
– Risk assessment consists of the following steps:
– Hazard Assessment
– Vulnerability Assessment
– Capacity Assessment
Vulnerability: the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the
impact of a natural or man-made hazard.
Resilience: Capacity of a community to resist, absorb, adjust to and recover from the negative impacts of a disaster
in a timely and efficient manner.
– The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or
changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure - learning from
earlier disasters
– The strengthening of coping capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and
human-induced hazards
Mitigation: Structural and non-structural measures taken to reduce the adverse effects of a disaster, if it occurs e.g.
construction of retaining walls, widening of water channels, building codes, early warning systems,
– Adaptation refers to the responsive adjustment to an environmental condition
– Mitigation refers to the actions taken to reduce the severity of a disaster
– Adaptation and mitigation are not alternative strategies but complementary ones that need to be pursued
together.
– Failure to mitigate will eventually lead to failure of adaptation because the magnitude of the impacts is
predicted to become too large to manage even with considerable investment
Natural & Human-caused Disasters
Introduction
 Natural disasters are the consequences of events triggered by natural hazards that overwhelm local response
capacity and seriously affect the social and economic development of a region.
 Natural and human-caused disasters affect thousands of people each year.
 Disasters are often unexpected and have the potential to cause catastrophic loss of life and physical destruction.
They leave whole communities in shock.
 People who live through a disaster can experience:
 – emotional distress
– feelings of anxiety,
– constant worrying,
– trouble sleeping,
 Other depression-like symptoms are common responses to disasters before, during, and after the event.
 Many people are able to “bounce back” from disasters with help from family and the community, but others may
need additional support to cope and move forward on the path of recovery. In a matter of 24 hours, a natural
disaster can inflict widespread destruction to cities, states, and entire regions.
 Disasters are commonly categorized by their origin; natural or man-made. Most disasters investigated in the
literature are natural disasters.
Causes of Natural Disasters
 Natural disasters are caused due to different reasons like:
o soil erosion,
o seismic activity,
o tectonic movements,
o air pressure,
o Ocean currents etc.
 The imbalance created in our environment - in the form of:
o air pollution,
o noise pollution
o water pollution
 The collective effect of these imbalances result into natural disasters such as:
o earthquake,
o floods etc, have also occurred in past era when the human was far away from modernization.
o Natural activities taking place in the earth’s crust, as well as on the surface:
– Seismic activity caused by earthquakes is the root cause of volcanoes erupting and typhoons.
– Continents sit on huge plates that occasionally shift and cause an increase in pressure underneath
the earth’s surface which is also a cause of natural disasters.
– Tectonic movements in the earth’s crust are responsible for the earthquakes, which at times can get
really dangerous and may lead to some heavy loss of life and property.
– In areas where volcanoes have formed by solidified magma, pressure from gasses and magma can
explode or erupt to send tons of volcanic ash into the atmosphere.
 The activity of the moon - ocean waves get really high during the full moon and at times these can be really
dangerous.
• Changing ocean currents are also dangerous at times:
– result in changes in water temperature which kills fish and ocean plant life.
– adversely affect the intensity as well as the frequency of storms - tornadoes which are really dangerous
are often formed by the interaction of high and low-pressure air and these have proved to be really
dangerous.
– Flooding and high winds are caused by the crashing together of low and high-pressure air. Damage
caused by flooding and hurricanes along coastal cities and towns can be really difficult to overcome for
their victims.
• Rapid modernization and growth, man's increased knowledge and technology have served to trigger for some
natural disasters.
– Flooding and erosion are prone to the areas where mining, deforestation, and manufacturing have
taken place.
– Global warming, which could eventually affect the ocean currents, has its roots in modern man's overuse
of fossil fuels.
– Earthquakes can also be triggered by drilling, bombing, mining, and construction.
The Impact of Human Activities on Natural Disasters
• Rapidly growing modernization is neglecting environmental laws for personal gains.
• Human activities transform earthquakes and hurricanes into natural disasters, resulting in heavy losses of life
and property.
• Hydro-meteorological disasters are attributed to both natural and human-caused factors.
 • Global warming increases the temperatures of Earth's oceans and atmosphere, leading to hurricanes and
floods.
• Urbanization is at its peak causing environmental risks when everyone is busy making money.
• Constructions in flood-prone regions - flash floods and coastal floods.
• Rapid industrialization growth leads to air and water pollution, despite the environmental laws.
• Rapid construction leaves large land areas covered with cement- the runoff from the water can't get absorbed
by the soil anymore, hence the flow of water becomes very strong, keeps collecting and rushing down,
getting heavier and faster(floods).
– Natural disasters can lead to outbreaks of infectious disease.
– Once a disaster strikes it leaves behind a lot of destruction and loss of life.
– a large number of people are displaced
– After the disaster, there are a lot of causalities also.
Prevention and Control On Natural Disaster
• We cannot stop these natural disasters but what is in our hands is to be prepared for these. Ways through
which we can minimize the damage caused due to natural disasters:
• Majority of deaths after a natural disaster is due to blunt trauma, crash-related injuries and burn injuries.
• Infectious disease outbreaks in the aftermath of natural disasters lead to panic, confusion and unnecessary
public health activities.
• After a disaster there is great risk of epidemic – control of causalities and disposal of the dead (animals/
human bodies before an outbreak.
• Increased infectious diseases transmission and outbreaks from the after-effects of the disasters(displacement
of populations, environmental changes and increased vector breeding sites).
• Unplanned and overcrowded shelters, poor water and sanitation, poor nutrition, insufficient personal
hygiene cause diarrhea and other water-borne diseases.
• Low levels of immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases, or insufficient vaccination coverage and limited
access to health care
• It is very important to deal with these problems which in turn can pose a greater threat.
• It is very important to be prepared with a proper disaster management team who can take charge as soon a
disaster strikes.
Types Of Disasters
1. Water and Climate Related Disasters
– FIoods
– Cyclones,
– Tornadoes
– Hurricanes,
– Hailstorm,
– Cloud Burst,
– Heat Wave
– Cold Wave,
– Snow
– Avalanches,
– Droughts,
– Sea Erosion
– Thunderstorm and Lightning
– Billzards
2. Geologically related disasters
– Landslides and Mudflows,
– Earthquakes,
– Dam Failures
Dam Bursts (reference: Google images)
Mine Fires (reference: Google images)
3. Chemical Industrial & Nuclear related disasters:
Chemical hazard (reference: Google images)
Industrial hazard (reference: Google images)
Nuclear hazard (reference: Google images)
4. Accident related disasters (reference: Google images)
Air, Rail, Road and Ship
Forest Fires,
Urban Fires,
Mines Flooding
Oil Spill,
Major Building Collapses,
Serial Bomb Blasts,
Festival related disasters,
Electrical disasters and Fires
5. Biological lyre late disasters (reference: Google images)
Epidemics,
Pest Attacks,
Cattle epidemics
Food poisoning.
Floods, Tidal Waves
Flood: an overflow of water that submerges land, may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a
river or lake, in which the water overtops, resulting in some of that water escaping it’s usual boundaries or it may
occur due to accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an area. Floods often cause damage to livelihood &
structures.
Flash floods: those floods that follow within a few hours of heavy or excessive rain, a dam or levee failure or a
sudden release of water impounded by an ice or log jam.
Heavy Rains
Hurricanes, tropical storms, and summer thunderstorms, have the potential to unload heavy rainfall, which backs up
drainage systems and causes flooding.
Storm Surge
Water that is pushed toward the shore by the strong storm winds, can cause severe flooding in coastal areas.
Hurricane Wilma (2005) caused significant damage in the Keys.
Flash Flooding
Flash flooding is caused by sudden heavy rainfall and can occur in just a few hours or less. Moving water from flash
floods can lift rocks and debris and damage homes and buildings.
Flood Dams
• A dam in Njoro suffered a catastrophic failure in late July, emptying a two-mile-long reservoir and flooding
nearby communities.
• The dam bursts reflect a lack of adequate safety measures on both public and private dams
• most dams were built with little or no regard for environmental impacts and dam safety
27 dead, 36 hospitalized in Kenya as dam in Solai bursts after heavy rains; rescue operations on
Tide
• Flash floods are the result of intense local thunderstorm activity. Some occur in conjunction with tropical
cyclones.
• Flash floods usually involve atmospheric conditions that influence the continuation and intensity of rainfall.
– steepness of slopes (mountain terrain),
– absence of vegetation,
– lack of infiltration capability of the soil,
– floating debris and ice jams,
– rapid snow melt,
– dam and levee failures,
– rupture of a glacial lake,
– volcanic disturbances
• A lot of human practices, and the rapidly growing developmental activities cause floods.
• Global warming has sparked debate analyzing what the effects may be. There is an increasing number of natural
disasters and disaster preparedness is an area still to develop.
• A vehicle drives through a damaged bridge at Ortum in West Pokot. Weiwei and Sebit bridges were washed
away by floods, cutting off transport between Kitale and Lodwar. Disaster coordination is still a challenge for
Government agencies.
Factors Influencing Morbidity And Mortality
• Floods account for 40% of all the world’s disasters -they do the greatest amount of damage.
 A sudden flood in January 1967 in Rio de Janeiro killed 1,500 people.
 In 1974 heavy rains flooded Bangladesh and caused 2,500 deaths.
 In 1963 heavy rains caused an enormous landslide that fell into the Dam in Northern Italy, killing 2,075
deaths.
 In 1985 rain fell in a ten-hour period in Puerto Rico, killing 180 people
• Flash flood’s increase in recent years is attributed to increased and more urbanized populations on sites that are
ready targets for flash floods.
• Fast-flowing water accompanied by debris, boulders and fallen trees account for the primary flood-related
morbidity and mortality.
 A high proportion of car-related drowning in floods, due to people driving into low-lying areas or across
a flooded bridge.
• A consistent pattern of psychological problems - hypertension, cardiovascular disease, lymphoma and leukaemia
in flood victims.
• Potential for increased exposure to biological and chemical agents when floods cause:
 disruption of water purification and sewage-disposal systems,
 rupture of underground storage tanks,
 overflowing of toxic waste sites,
 enhancement of vector-breeding conditions
 dislodgement of chemicals stored above ground
 Underground workers, particularly those in confined places, may be trapped during flash floods.
 Truck drivers and other transportation workers are at high risk from vehicle-related flood mortality.
 Fire-fighters, police and emergency medical personnel are also at high risk.
Prevention and control measures
• Prevention of death and injury from floods can be accomplished by:
• identifying flood-prone areas,
• making the public aware of these areas
• advising people on appropriate prevention actions,
• conducting dam inspections
• issuing dam safety certification,
• identifying meteorological conditions that will contribute to heavy precipitation and runoff,
• Issuing early warnings of floods for a specific geographic area within a specific time frame.
• Morbidity and mortality from secondary exposures can be prevented by assuring that water and food supplies are
safe to consume and are not contaminated with biological and chemical agents, and by instituting safe human
waste disposal practices.
• Soil surrounding toxic waste sites and storage lagoons should be inspected to determine if there has been
contamination from overflowing storage areas.
• Mass vaccination programs are counter-productive.
• Clean-up and sanitation workers should be properly immunized and instructed in appropriate hygienic practices.
• A need to improve technology so that early warnings for flash floods can be more specific in terms of time and
place.
• Conditions should be assessed to determine whether evacuation should be by car or on foot.
Tidal Wave
• A tidal wave is quite a predictable event impacted by the atmosphere.
• It is a result of the daily tides caused by the imbalanced gravitational influences of the Moon, Sun, and planets.
• Tidal waves are most pronounced in narrow bays or in rivers along the coast. Due to this fact, water levels may
raise by several feet in a matter of hours.
• It is also possible that a tidal wave will burn out before it reaches the coast.
• As a rule, tidal waves follow the currents and are unlikely to cause a landfall in areas of temperate climates or
northern countries.
Hurricanes, Cyclones, Typhoons
Hurricane: a rotating wind system that whirls counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere, forms over tropical
water, and has sustained wind speeds of at least 74 miles per hour (118.4 km/h).
This whirling accumulation of energy is formed when circumstances involving heat and pressure nourish and nudge
the winds over a large area of ocean to wrap themselves around an atmospheric low-pressure zone.
• They are usually accompanied by treacherous thunderstorms.
• They are severe ‘tropical storms’ ‘monster storms’ that can reach winds speeds up to 160 miles per hour
and can also unleash a whopping 2.4 trillion gallons of rain a day.
Cyclone: A cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is
usually characterized by inward circular winds that rotate clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth.
– Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure.
– Ideal extra tropical cyclones famously look like giant white apostrophes hovering over land.
• Low pressure systems, also called "cyclones," spin counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere
Ideal extra tropical cyclones famously look like giant white apostrophes hovering over land.
Typhoon: comparable to a hurricane but forms over Pacific waters.
• It is presently thought that many tropical cyclones originate over Africa, in the region just south of the
Sahara. They start as instability in a narrow east to west jet stream that forms in that area between June and
December, as a result of the great temperature contrast between the hot desert and the cooler, more humid
region to the south.
• The disturbances generated over Africa have long lifetimes, many of them cross the Atlantic.
• In the 20th century an average of ten tropical cyclones each year whirl out across the Atlantic;
• six of these become hurricanes.
• As the hurricane (or typhoon) reaches its peak intensity, air currents formed by the Bermuda or Pacific high-
pressure areas shift its course northward. Here the ocean waters are cooler. There is less evaporation, less
water vapour and energy to feed the storm. If the storm hits land, the supply of water vapour is cut off
entirely. As the hurricane or typhoon continues to move north, its winds begin to diminish. Topographical
features such as mountains may also contribute to the breakup of the storm.
• Aside from slightly different wind speeds, there is no difference between a hurricane, a typhoon, and a
cyclone. They are all different names for the same kind of intense low pressure system. See next slide
• Hurricane is the term used for tropical cyclones that occur in the Northern Hemisphere running from the
Greenwich Meridian all the way to the International Date Line.
• Typhoons refer to tropical cyclones that occur in the Pacific, north of the equator running west of the
International Date Line.
• If a storm forms in one place and crosses over the International Date Line, it will change names.
The dangers of Hurricanes
• cause catastrophic damages to the coastlines and several miles inland. T
• The high winds so powerful and destructive-can pull entire buildings out of the ground and relocate them to
several miles away from where they were originally found.
• create and form heavy storm around the coastal areas that can cause heavy damage due to heavy rainfall.
• floods and flying debris from the extreme winds.
• heavy rains especially moving to mountainous regions which results in mudslides and landslides.
• Nonstop heavy rainfall can also causes flash flooding.
• Strong tropical cyclones at sea can cause high winds, heavy rain and large waves that causes shipwrecks
and disrupt shipping.
• turn debris into deadly objects in a matter of seconds.
• The wide rotation of the land falling tropical cyclones and wind forms tornadoes. Tornadoes can also be
produced as a result of eye wall
• Cyclones turn counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere -
follows the rotational movement of the earth.
• The biggest cyclone recorded is the Bhola cyclone on Bangladesh coast in 1970 - death toll of about 500,000.
Tornadoes and Severe Storms
• A tornado (Twisters or cyclones) is a violently rotating column of air that is touching both the ground and a
cumulonimbus cloud.
• Tornado conditions are caused when different temperatures and humidity meet to form thunder clouds
• Tornadoes tend to come in many different shapes and sizes, but most of the time they look like a condensation
funnel, with a narrow end that touches earth’s surface and gets wider as it goes higher up.
• Containing mostly debris and dust, most tornadoes usually have a wind speed of 110 miles per hour or less and
are about 250 feet in width, traveling usually a few miles before they deplete.
• The worst tornadoes can exceed wind speeds of 300 miles per hour and move for more than 100 kilometers
before dissipating.
• The thunder storms, mixing up of cold, moist air with hot air makes instability and violent tornadoes form.
• Tornadoes have enough power to destroy the entire city and uproot trees. Such violent storm can be found within
all continents except Antarctica. Region covering North Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska is world’s most
tornado-prone area in the world.
• The deadliest tornado recorded occurred in Bangladesh 1989 - 1300 recorded dead and 12,000 injured.
Volcanic Eruptions
• Volcanic Eruption A volcano is an opening in a planet’s surface which allows hotq magma to escape from below
the surface.
• A volcano is an opening in the ground where magma forces its way to the surface.
• Magma which reaches the earth's surface is called lava.
• Volcanoes can be active (erupting), dormant (sleeping) or extinct (no eruption for 10,000 years and unlikely to
erupt again). You need to know about two different types of volcano - composite volcanoes and shield (basic)
volcanoes.
How are volcanoes formed?
• Volcanoes are formed by eruptions of lava and ash when magma rises through cracks or weak-spots in the
Earth's crust.
• A build up of pressure in the earth is released, by things such as a plate movement which forces molten rock to
exploded into the air causing a volcanic eruption.
• The lava from the eruption then cools to form a new crust.
• Over time, generally several eruptions, the rock builds up and forms a volcano.
• The biggest volcanic eruption was Mount Tambora on April 10, 1815, it was heard over 2000 km away and had a
death toll of around 71,000.
• Due to the explosion 1816 became known as “The Year Without Summer”.
• The largest volcano known to humans is Olympus Mons onq Mars. Olympus Mons means Mount Olympus and
is bigger than Mount Everest.
Volcanic Ash
• Volcanic ash consists of powder-size to sand-size particles of igneous rock material that have been blown into
the air by an erupting volcano. The term is used for the material while it is in the air, after it falls to the ground,
and sometimes after it has been lithified into rock
• At first glance, volcanic ash looks like a soft, harmless powder.
• Volcanic ash particles are very small in size and have a vesicular structure with numerous cavities. This gives
them a relatively low density for a rock material. This low density, combined with the very small particle size,
allows volcanic ash to be carried high into the atmosphere by an eruption and carried long distances by the wind.
Volcanic ash can cause problems a long distance from the erupting volcano
Hazards Of Volcanic Ash
• As a result of its fine-grained abrasive character and widespread distribution by wind, ashfall and
volcanic ash clouds are a major hazard to aviation.
• The primary hazard is ash clouds impacting aviation and ash fall reaching areas downwind, owing to
widespread dispersal by wind.
• fine grained ash, when ingested can cause health impacts to humans and animals.
• A general term for all the ash and debris that falls to earth (also known as ashfall) from an eruption cloud.
• Ash fallout to the ground can pose significant disruption and damage to:
– buildings,
– transportation,
– water and wastewater,
– power supply,
– communications equipment,
– agriculture, and
– primary production leading to potentially substantial societal impacts and costs
• A braded windscreen from the Boeing 747 damaged in the December 15, 1989 eruption of Redoubt Volcano
ash
Tsunami
  A Tsunami is a series of gigantic water waves that causes a surge of water onto land. These surges can reach
heights up to 100 feet.
 Tsunami means harbor wave and is caused by the displacement of a large body of water normally an ocean
or a large lake.
 Tsunami waves are caused by large underwater earthquakes where there are tectonic plate boundaries. They
can also be caused by volcano eruption under the ocean or lake.
 Giant landslides have also been known to cause large tidal waves or tsunamis in the past.
 The biggest tsunami ever happened at Lituya Bay, Alaska on July 9, 1958 - was around 150 meters tall.
 The tsunami caused by 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake,recorded a death toll of 230,210 – 280,000
 When the pressure of the tectonic plate at the ocean floor releases pressure, it causes the water above to
create a series of rolling waves which will build up to cause more turbulent and fast moving waves. These
waves will turn into one large wave and will eventually result in a tsunami.
 Tsunamis do not appear as a breaking wave. Initially it may resemble a tide that is rising rapidly. Tsunamis
generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in what can be
called a “wave train”.
• The massive height of the surges can lead to devastating effects when it crashes over land. It can occur in
large lakes but mainly occurs in seas.
Some terms that are associated with tsunamis:
• Tide: the alternate rising and falling of the sea level at shores.
• Seismic waves: waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s crust layers or plates, and are a result of an
earthquake or a volcano eruption which can lead to causing tsunamis.
• Surge: a strong swelling volume of water.
• Earthquake: A sudden and violent movement of a portion of the earth’s crust, and the series of vibrations
that follow.
• Earth’s crust: the solid thin layer that covers the outside of the earth. Its the solid layer upon which we live
(like the skin on the outside of an apple).
• Plate: A plate is a section of the earths crust. Plates slide along either beside, over or under each other,
causing friction and pressure between the plates.
• Tectonic plates: sections of the earth’s crust that move against each other
• Teletsunami: a tsunami that causes damage a long distance away from the source. These types of tsunamis
are not produced by horizontal motions, but by vertical motions in the seabed.
Earthquakes
 An earthquake, the sudden and disruptive shaking of the earth, is a result of the Earth's tectonic plates
moving (this is also what causes volcanic activity). Tsunamis are massive waves most often caused by
earthquakes occurring out in the ocean. Earthquakes occur everywhere, but are most common (and most
devastating) in coastal regions
 It is the result of a sudden release of energy from the earth’sq crust that creates seismic waves. They are
measured using seismographs.q The Valdivia earthquake also known as the great Chileanq earthquake is the
biggest earthquake ever recorded. It hit
 Even minor earthquakes that cause little damage and destruction can cause people to experience emotional
distress (especially in areas not accustomed to these events).
 Aftershocks can continue to occur for months afterwards and can be just as stressful.
 It’s normal for people to experience emotional distress during an earthquake.
 Anticipating the possibility of what could be lost or destroyed during the event can cause people to
experience overwhelming anxiety or lose sleep.
 Other signs of emotional distress related to earthquakes include:
 Being easily startled
• Having difficulty sleeping or sleeping too much
• Having thoughts and memories related to the earthquake that you can’t get out of your head
A magnitude-7.8 earthquake rocked Ecuador’s coast April 16 — leveling homes, schools and infrastructure, and
killing almost 700 people.
Thunderstorm
• Thunderstorms are storms that produce thunder and lightning. Severe thunderstorms may also produce:
 – Rain
– High winds
– Sleet or snow
• A thunderstorm can be known as a lightning storm, or even an electrical storm.
• Lightning and the noise of thunder creates the thunderstorms and if there are certain types of clouds in the sky
(cumulonimbus), then it could result in thunderstorms.
• A storm in which you see lightning and hear thunder but never feel a drop of water is known as a “dry”
thunderstorm.
• Thunderstorms that produce hail and tornadoes are known as “supercell” storms.
• Storms occur either in clusters or lines; therefore, they may present as a single thunderstorm or as multiple
thunderstorms hitting one after the other.
Causes
• Thunderstorms are caused when moisture from the lower or mid-level part of the atmosphere mixes with warm,
unstable air from the ground. As the warm and moist air moves upwards into the air, it will cool down and
condense. The condensed air will form new cumulonimbus clouds and lightning, as well as potential
precipitation.
• Thunderstorms must also be lifted to begin their formation. Some sources of lift include:
– More heat on the ground than in the air
– Changes in atmospheric conditions near mountains
– Weather front changes caused by clashing cold and hot air
– Drylines, or when moist and dry air clash
– Land or sea breezes
• These cumulonimbus clouds can in fact reach huge heights of almost 20 kilometres, sometimes much more than
that.
• Any of these situations can immediately create a thunderstorm without warning, even in the middle of a clear
blue day. In many cases, these storms will also be accompanied by lightning.
• Most storms will not come with hail or tornadoes, unless they occur in tornado-prone states such as Kansas,
Oklahoma, Texas and Missouri.
Lightning
Lightning: a natural phenomenon that occurs when electricity is discharged between rain clouds and the earth or
between two or more rain clouds.
Lightning is natural formation of electricity and flows through air like a flash. Due to the collision between ice
gained cloud formation of charges will take place at beneath of clouds, once charge concentrate at any point on earth
a sudden flow of electricity will pass. It can be mountains, trees, animals or humans.
Lightning have temperature up to 54000 degree Fahrenheit, approximately six times hotter than surface of Sun.
• There are 100 lightning strikes in every second on Earth that have enough power to destroy everything within no
time. The presence of dark clouds in the sky is the indication of lightning, thunders also sounds this disaster.
• Lightning mainly hits in the areas where instability of environment, variation of temperate or pressure occurs.
• Lightning becomes a disaster when it strikes the earth and causes destruction to mankind, buildings and all living
things.
• When a cumulonimbus cloud grows into a thunderstorm, different sections of the cloud accumulate positive and
negative electric charges. When the charges have built up, the negative charges flow toward the positive charges
in a lightning flash that travels within the cloud or between the cloud and the ground. Most lightning travels from
cloud to cloud, but 20% travels from cloud to ground.
• A lightning flash between a cloud and the ground can be either positive or negative. Positive lightning is more
powerful and is more likely to start forest fires. A lightning strike will not start a fire unless it meets easily
ignitable fuel like pine needles, grass and pitch. If the fire hits decaying wood, it can burn unnoticed for a long
period of time.
• Lightning ignites fires more often when it touches the ground and the rain within the thunder cloud evaporates
before it reaches the ground. This is called dry lightning. It is estimated that in dry, rural areas forest fires are
caused by lightning.

Hail
• Hail is something that occurs in most parts of the world. This does cause a lot of damage at times and it can be
very troublesome also but what is hail?
• Hail is a variety of differently shaped ice balls or lumps. These are mostly referred to as hailstones and in most
occasions, are not harmful but in some instances, they can be very dangerous.
• Hail or hailstones are made up of water ice and can be any size; it can be measured anything from five
millimetres and two hundred millimetres.
• Most hail are produced during thunderstorms and heavy rains and aren’t worrying.
How Is Hail Created?
• Hail can be created with strong and upward motions of air but a lower freeze level.
• Some formations might gather more pressure and create larger balls or lumps of ice water.
• In some instances, the hail forms inside the interiors of continents but in climates with higher temperatures such
as in the tropics, the formation stays at a high elevation level.
• Hail and hailstorms can be created in any continent and can occur in any country around the world, even the
countries which have good weather.
Blizzard
 A blizzard is an extended, severe snowstorm. In order to qualify as a blizzard, winds have to be at least 35mph
and rage for a longer period of time—at least three hours or more. The amount of snowfall has little to do with a
storm qualifying as a snowstorm, but rather the intensity of the wind and length of time. There are two other
classifications for blizzards:
–Severe blizzard: winds over 45mph, temperatures at 10 Fahrenheit or lower, near zero visibility.
–Ground blizzard: no falling snow, snow from the ground is blown by the strong winds.
What causes blizzards?
• Blizzards are usually formed when the jet stream pitches very far south. This allows the cold air that comes from
the north to collide with warm air coming from the south. This creates a strong storm system, usually developing
on the northwest side of such storm systems.
• Any area which is mostly flat is susceptible to blizzards, though there are some areas in the US, Australia, and
the UK that suffer from blizzards more than others. However, the deadliest blizzard in recorded history occurred
in Iran in 1972.
Dangers of blizzards
• Blizzards are one of nature’s deadlier storms, as the conditions make travel and movement hazardous.
Snowstorms disrupt traffic, but blizzards make any kind of travel nearly impossible. Almost every blizzard
results in at least a few deaths, with some of the bigger ones resulting in hundreds of people dying.
• Visibility is drastically reduced, in some cases to as little as 3 meters or what is called zero visibility. In a ground
blizzard, though no new snow is falling, the snow already on the ground is whipped up and around by the winds
to where visibility is also close to zero.
• Travel under these conditions is close to impossible. Cars have to come to a complete standstill as they can drive
off the road. Because blizzards rage for so long, people can get trapped in their cars, freezing to death as they
wait for it to clear. Once the storm is over, cars are often buried under mounds of snow, making it difficult for
rescue teams to find them. Hypothermia sets in as people trapped outdoors try to find shelter and warmth.
• Blizzards have been known to come suddenly and while it is possible to be warned in advance, it’s not always
possible to be entirely prepared for the intensity of the blizzard. Clearing roads is not possible until after the
blizzard has passed and then takes a long time due to the intensity of the build up. The aftermath of the blizzard
can be almost as dangerous as the storm itself, as people trapped inside vehicles, unheated buildings, or outdoors
take longer to be found and brought to warmth and safety.
Dust storm
 This resultant Dust Bowl, as it became labeled, affected over one million acres of land. When thousands of
people in places such as Oklahoma and Texas could no longer grow food, they moved west to states such as
California, a story as dramatized in such novels as John Steinbeck’s Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men.

Heatwave
 Heat Wave: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather accompanied by high humidity,
especially in oceanic climate countries, a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area &
relative to normal temperatures for the season, heat wave is considered extreme weather & a danger because heat
& sunlight may damage the Human body.
 Heat kills by pushing the human body beyond its limits. In extreme heat and high humidity, which is common
during the summertime in the Florida Keys, the body must work extra hard to maintain a normal temperature and
keep the body comfortable.
 A heat wave is an extended period of extreme heat, and there is often high humidity. These conditions can be
dangerous for people who don't take precautions and know the danger signs of heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
 A heat wave, by definition is a period of time in which the temperatures are higher than normal for that region at
that time of year. What might be considered normal temperatures in tropical or warmer regions can be considered
a heat wave in areas which normally doesn’t experience that type of heat. High humidity is often associated with
a heat wave, though not a requirement.
What causes heat waves to occur
• When high pressure from aloft—10,000-25,000ft remains strong over an area for several days to weeks, heat
waves occur. This happens both in the Northern and Southern
• Hemispheres during the summer as the jet stream follows the path of the sun. On the equator side of the jet
stream, high pressure builds up in the middle layers of the atmosphere.
• Because summertime weather patterns tend to be slower than wintertime patterns, the mid-level pressure also
moves very slowly. The air sinks towards the surface under high pressure and then acts as a cap holding in
the hot air. Because the air cannot lift, cumulus clouds are less likely to form, making rain unlikely. The
build up of heat on the surface then becomes a heat wave.
Wildfire
• Wildfires are some of the worst types of natural disasters to hit any part of the world.
• The wildfires are uncontrollable and usually start up in areas which are in the wilderness
• Whatever they are referred as, they are dangerous and unpredictable also.
• Every fire is deadly but a wildfire is extremely dangerous and is another step up from other types of fire.
• The size of a wildfire can be extraordinary and is very difficult to control also even with dozens of fire fighters
working on the fires.
• The speed of a fire can be quite fast; and it does even have the ability to jump gaps such as rivers and even roads
• Australia does have regular occurrences of wildfires and it is due to the summers being extremely hot and longer
than most other countries.
Fire Triggering Risks
• Lightning is a huge cause of fires starting
• spontaneous combustion,
• sparks from rock falls
• volcano eruption.
• arsonists
• accidents .
Asteroid
• Asteroids are something that many are worried about.
• Asteroids live in space and orbit the earth and solar system every single day and for the most, the asteroid is not
going to be something to worry about. Asteroids have been known to collide with earth and come into contact
with populated areas. They can create utter devastation and no one knows what one single or even small asteroid
could do to the world.
• Asteroids are actually very small planets, minor planets. They can be known as dwarf planets or even small solar
system bodies; they are not in a sense comets but they are still just as dangerous and unpredictable.
• An asteroid can orbit the sun and even the earth for hundreds of years but not make any contact what so ever.
However, any little shift by either the asteroid or solar system can send the asteroid onto a collision path to the
earth. Even a nice from an object from space can send an asteroid towards the earth. There are in fact millions of
asteroids in space.
• Most of the asteroids are very small and are really shattered remains from space objects. Asteroids orbiting
space will stay in the asteroid belt which sits between Jupiter and Mars. This isn’t always the case which is why
many asteroids are orbiting close to the earth. All asteroids however are put into one of three categories. These
are: M-Type, C-Type, S-Type
The reason why these categories are named this way is because of carbon rich, stony and metallic compositions
or materials found
• The reason why these categories are named this way is because of carbon rich, stony and metallic
compositions or materials found contained within the asteroids. However, there might be a lot of asteroids
 orbiting the earth; there have not been many that have reached the earth’s surface with such force. Most are
not visible to the naked eye and can only be seen via a telescope; however, 4 Vesta is an asteroid which can
be seen via the naked eye. This is because of its surface; it has a reflective surface.
• Though, the asteroid can usually only been seen when the sky is very dark and it has to be of course
positioned perfectly in the right location. There might be one or two smaller asteroids which can be seen by
the naked eye when they are closely passing the earth though the time frame for this is very small indeed.
Landslide
Landslide: A landslide is a geological phenomenon that includes a wide range of ground movements, such as rock
falls, deep failure of slopes & shallow debris flows.
Landslides can occur in offshore, coastal & onshore environments. Gravity is the primary driving force for a
landslide to occur, but it often requires a trigger before being initiated.
• Landslides can vary in size but usually they always involve a large ground movement (debris and rock
failing).
• A landslide can occur on shore or off shore and usually at coastal lines but it is the gravity that forces the
debris and rocks to fall and for a total landslide to occur.
The Causes of a Landslide
• When the stability of a slope decreases or changes, even just slightly, it can make the slope unstable. This
means that with a large or even a small change, can cause a landslide. However, there are many things that
contribute to a landslides including;
• Erosion – if this occurs even just slightly, can make the slope to fall in to oceans or rivers
• Glaciers can also have a landslide – there is not much of a difference from a cliff top. Instead the melts or
subject to heavy rain and causes a slight shift from a glacier.
• Earthquake – this brings about a sharp change in the slope and makes it unstable
• Ground water can destabilize the slope putting pressure on it greatly
• Volcanoesss erupting – this can cause thhhe slope to become unstable
• Soil structure can chaange
• However, these are all natural causes for a landslide to occur but human activities can contribute to cause a
landslide.
• Heavy machine vibrations in the ground
• Deforestation can make fragile slopes unstable.
What Happens During a Landslide?
• When the cliff or slope’s soil has become saturated with water, it will mean there is a potential for a landslide
to occur. This can create debris or even a full on mud slide; but this can be very dangerous because it can
product a surge or rock and mud. This can cause houses, cars, trees and everything else in its path can be
moved along within the landslide.
• Some landslides can block bridges and create a flood at the same time. However, there are times when the
debris can be thought of as a flash flood. Mud and debris combined landslides can cause a lot of damage to
properties as well as human life. With landslides, it could cause blockage of water flowing through
normally.
•
• The death toll of the devastating West Pokot’s landslide has risen to 52 people with rescue teams continuing
on Monday to pull out bodies trapped in avalanche.
Avalanches
• Avalanche: a rapid flow of masses of snow, ice and rocks down a sloping surface. Avalanche is typically
triggered in a starting zone from a mechanical failure in the snowpack (slab avalanche).
• When the mountains are covered with several feet of snow in winter, under certain conditions, a mass of
snow lying like a thick blanket on the steep slopes or mountain tops. Can become detached from the ground
underneath and slide downhill under its own weight, resulting in huge quantities of snow hurtling down the
most direct route and settling into the valleys below.
• The kinetic energy released produces dangerous avalanches, which sweep away, crush or bury everything in
their path.
• Avalanches are divided into two categories;
• dry snow or “dust” avalanches
• wet snow or “ground” avalanches.
– Dry snow is dangerous because of the shock waves they set off
 – Wey snow - because of their sheer volume, due to the added moisture in the wet snow, flattens
everything as the avalanche rolls downhill, often at high speeds, and sometimes carrying away
sections of the subsoil.
• Most dangerous when the snow on large, exposed slopes on the windward side of the mountain is compacted
by the wind.
• If a “cut” is made in such a cover (e.g., if a skier leaves a track across the slope), or if for any reason, this
very thin cover is torn apart (e.g., by its own weight), then the whole expanse of snow can slide downhill like
a board, usually developing into an avalanche as it progresses.
• In the interior of the avalanche, enormous pressure build up, which can carry off, smash or crush locomotives
or entire buildings as though they were toys.
• Human beings have very little chance of surviving in such an inferno is obvious - anyone who is not crushed
to death is likely to die from suffocation or exposure.
• Where people have been buried in avalanches, even if they are found immediately, about 20% of them are
already dead.
• The topography and vegetation of the area defines the cause of snow flow. People living in the region know
this from observation and tradition, and therefore keep away from these danger zones in the winter. People
even avoided the mountain areas altogether during the danger period.
• Forests on the upper slopes afford considerable protection against such natural disasters, as they support the
masses of snow in the threatened areas and can curb, halt or divert avalanches that have already started.

Protective Measures
• Cross-frontier warning services, barriers and even the artificial triggering-off of avalanches by blasting
or firing guns over the snow fields.
• stability of the snow cover-determined by the ratio of mechanical stress to density
• Permanent measures include
• effective and durable structures,
• support barriers in the areas where the avalanche might start,
• diversionary or braking barriers on the avalanche path,
• Blocking barriers in the avalanche outlet area.
 Falling masses of snow and ice, avalanches pose a threat to anyone on snowy mountainsides. They can be
deadly because of their intensity and seeming unpredictability.
 Humans trigger 90 percent of avalanche disasters, with as many as 40 deaths in North America each year.
Most are climbers, skiers, and snowmobilers. Learning about avalanches, and the conditions that cause them,
can help people recreate more safely in the backcountry.
 Avalanches do occur naturally, but when you add humans into the mix, they can be deadly.
 Disastrous avalanches occur when massive slabs of snow break loose from a mountainside. The mass of
snow shatters like broken glass as it races downhill. These hazards can travel as fast as cars on a freeway, up
to 100 miles per hour.
 Although avalanches need a slope to start, large avalanches accelerate downhill with sufficient momentum to
 Human-triggered avalanches start when somebody walks or rides over a slab with an underlying weak layer.
The weak layer collapses, causing the overlaying mass of snow to fracture and start to slide.
 Once the avalanche stops, it settles like concrete, making body movement nearly impossible
 Avalanches kill an average of 200 people each year, mostly the snow-mobilers, snow-boarders, and skiers.
Sinkholes
 Sinkholes (Karst) is a landform type that results when circulating groundwater dissolves soluble bedrock.
 On rare occasions, that solid ground can simply open up without warning, dropping whatever it was
supporting into an unpredictably deep hole.
 An undiscovered cavern or abandoned mine might collapse, or a broken water main or heavy storm might
cause erosion, until the surface becomes a thin shell that drops away all at once.
 Sinkholes can be anywhere from a few feet wide and deep, to 2,000 feet in diameter and depth. Collected
below are images of some of these sinkholes, both man-made and natural, around the world.
 Sinkholes many go in different names:
• cenote,
 • sink,
• sink-hole,
• swallet,
• swallow hole,
• doline are a few examples.
• The causes of sinkholes can be broken down into two broad categories: natural or man-made.
Natural Sinkholes
 Naturally-occurring sinkholes can be attributed to erosion or the presence of underground water.
 The ground underneath your feet isn’t as solid as you think. It’s comprised of dirt, rocks, and minerals that
are continuously loosened as water seeps its way down to underground water reservoirs.
 This process slowly erodes the rocks and minerals packed within the dirt, sometimes weakening its structure
significantly. When the ground can no longer support the earth’s surface, it then collapses and opens up a
sinkhole.
 Rainwater passing through decaying plant debris can also be to blame, since this acidic water can further
erode these materials. But It’s not just mother nature that causes sinkholes.
Man-made Sinkholes
• Construction, mining, drilling, and other excavation practices compromise the structure of dirt, furthering
corrosion and causing sinkholes to form.
• The same can be said for broken water and drain pipes. The excessive amount of water that passes through
rocks, minerals, and dirt can cause it to erode quickly, resulting in the formation of a sinkhole.
• Heavy traffic can also result in a sinkhole, with mass amounts of vehicles or heavy machinery putting too
much pressure on the earth’s surface and causing a collapse.

Different Types of Sinkholes

• Solution: You’ll most often see these sinkholes in areas that have a very thin layer of soil covering the
surface. This exposes the layer of bedrock below, making it vulnerable to water erosion. As water erodes the
bedrock, it begins to carry away small pieces of rock until a small depression forms. A sinkhole will then
form.
• Cover Collapse: In contrast, these types of sinkholes take place when the bedrock is deep below the surface
and covered by a significant layer of soil. As the bedrock erodes, cracks will begin to form in the rocky areas
surrounding it. This significantly weakens its structure until the bedrock can no longer support surface
weight. This can cause a collapse to occur suddenly, creating a massive hole in just minutes.
• Cover Subsidence: These kinds of holes form over a period of time. Unlike the sudden collapse of Solution
and Cover Collapse sinkholes, the bedrock in these areas is covered by soil and materials that are not well-
formed to begin with. As erosion occurs, this material begins to filter through the cracks and settle into its
crevices, eventually creating a well-formed cavity.
Sinkhole Warning Signs
Warning signs of a sinkhole normally appear during the final stages. Keep an eye out for impending disaster by
looking for the following signs on your property:
• New cracks in your foundation, interior walls, or ground outside
• Depressions in the ground
• Doors or windows that are suddenly difficult to open or close
• Trees or fences that appear to be tilting or fall down completely
• A hole in the ground that appears suddenly

Drought
• A drought is a normal, reoccurring weather event that can vary in intensity and duration by region of the country
and even by location within a state. Drought occurs when there is lower than average precipitation over a
significant period of time, usually a season or more. Other causes of drought can be a delay in the rainy season or
the timing of rain in relation to crop growth.
• Drought is a slow-moving hazardous event, so the psychological effects of living through this type of disaster are
more subtle and last longer than with other natural disasters. Low water availability creates shortages in water
supplies that impact various activities and the environment. The impact is even greater as humans place demands
 on water supplies. Additionally, drought conditions increase the risk of other natural disasters, such as wildfires,
and landslides.
• A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in its
water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or
may be declared after as few as 15 days Lasting three years from 1958 to 1961, the Great Chineseq Famine is
the worst on record, 15 to 43 million were killed as a result USA has been hit by a huge drought in 2012
decreasing cornq income by 12%
• A drought is a lengthy period of time, stretching months or even years in which time; land has a decrease in
water supply.
• A drought can have a massive impact on agriculture and the ecosystem also. Though, some droughts can last
only a small period of time, sometimes, less than a month. However, there are also severe droughts which can
last years and can have a significant effect on the land which holds the drought. It does a lot of damage to the
local economy as well as further regions also.
The Damage?
• The effect of a drought can have a huge impact on many areas because both wildlife and plant life can die.
These can happen in the most extreme droughts; though for short droughts, most wildlife can be saved,
plants are another matter. However, the land in which the plant life is growing can be badly damage and start
to show a huge decline including cracking and breaking up.
• However, fruits and vegetables growing in the ground can stop growing and entire crops can be destroyed.
There have been several droughts which have caused a lot of damage to plants and crops which have caused
vegetable prices to increase in stores. This is just one of the many effects which can occur because of a
drought.
• There are some plants and species of plants can actually survive and adapt during a drought. Plants such as
Cacti can adapt during a drought because it can reduce its leaf areas in order for it to tolerate the change in
condition. Any drought, no matter the length, can have a huge impact on any agriculture. In regions such as
Africa, it has been a crisis that frequently occurs.
The Impact
• There are a huge amount of consequences which come from droughts.
• Agricultural health
• Environmental
• Social and economic consequences
• Some effects are not going to be as severe as others however; it differs from how long the drought lasts and
the severity also. Some farmers find that they cannot use their land and have to look elsewhere to ensure a
livelihood and have to look for other alternative sources of food. However, it’s not just farmland that suffers
or is impacted by droughts. Major populated areas in towns and cities can be affected by droughts also.
• Drought however, can reduce water quality and with a decrease in water, it could mean the risk of
contamination is higher. Here are some of the damages droughts can bring.
• Shortage of water – this can be for both residential areas and industrial areas.
• Dust bowls – this is a severe sign of erosion of land.
• Diminished crops and growth. In some circumstances, an entire crop can occur an entire yield in production
and growth. This has a huge impact on livestock also.
• Cause dust storms – these dust storms can hit areas which have complete erosion.
• Famines. This occurs because there is a lack of water.
• Hunger. This is brought on because of diminished water and because crops for food are gone also.
• Dehydration and malnutrition
• Damage to wildlife of all kinds
• Wildfires.
• Snake migration
• Unrest for human and wildlife
• War
• Warning signs for emotional distress related to drought may include:
• Feelings of overwhelming anxiety
• Constant worrying
• Trouble sleeping and other depression-like symptoms
• Disputes between people over limited water supplies
 • Health concerns related to dust, low water flow, or poor water and air quality
• Financial concerns related to crop failures, low supply and demand of agricultural-related products, or rising
food prices
Health
• People of all ages can suffer the effects of a heat wave, but the ill, very young, elderly, or overweight tend to be
affected more severely. When the human body sweats in large amounts, salt and other minerals are lost which
have to be replaced. Exercising during a heat wave is never a good idea; but even with regular exertion, it’s
advised to replenish the body’s supply of electrolytes.
• Heat ex haustion, which shows itself in symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, headache, nausea, etc. can lead to
dehydration if not taken care of right away. Generally a patient must have their fluids replenished along with salt.
Rest is needed and patients are advised to stay out of the heat. Heat stroke can be fatal if not treated immediately.
• Heat rash, heat cramps and heat syncope are other results of heat waves. heat waves are considered one of the
most fatal. Deaths related to heat are often hard to count because it affects those already run down, elderly, or
sick. Those who can’t afford air conditioning or other cooling devices are more likely to suffer. Psychological
damage should not be underestimated; violence often increases during these periods of time.
Effect Of Natural Disasters
• Volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, wildfires and›1)Environment mudslides often permanently alter an areas
landscape, leading in some cases to the destruction of a local species.
• Economic Concerns Even› a minor storm can cause considerable damage. At the very least, the local economy
must be able to absorb the cost of cleanup and repairs.According to the National Hurricane Center,Hurricane
Katrina cost the U.S. $75 billion when itslammed into New Orleans in August 2005. Thatdoesnt include the
damage caused in the Floridacounties of Miami-Dade and Broward by the samestorm.
• Natural›3)Indirect Effects disasters almost always lead to a disruption in utility services around the area
impacted. Medical assistance is often slowed. Banks and other businesses might be closed, affecting a familys
ability to withdraw money to pay bills and buy groceries. People have to move.
• Buildings›4)Physical Destruction are collapsing and swept away, posessions destroyed – all this leads to leaving
families homeless, shutting down businesses.
• The emotional toll of natural disasters is much›5)Emotional toll more devastating. The death of a loved one,
whole communities may be displaced, separating friends and neighbors, victims face anxiety and depression as
they wonder if it could happen again. In extreme cases, they may experience post traumatic stress disorder.
• Peopleare washed away, drowning, left under the collapsed buildings and so on.›6)Human losses
• Going through a naturaldisaster is not understandablefor people, who haven´t gonethrough these kind
oftragedies. But those peoplecan always help the victims bydonating clothes, money andother things that are
needed.
• Impact of Natural Disasters Individual Impact • Can be felt physically, mentally and emotionally • Destruction of
property, loss of financial resources and personal injury or illness • Develop severe post-traumatic stress
disorders or withdraw into states of depression • Lead to significant population migrations
• Community Impact • Loss of economic resources that recovery becomes difficult, if not almost impossible •
Opportunity in the aftermath of a disaster to rebuild better and stronger communities than before • Population,
demographic and cultural shifts are also result of the impact
• Economic Impact • Reduced tax revenue • Loss of infrastructure • Expense of reclamation efforts • Loss of
normal revenue • Huge sums of federal assistance were necessary to held jump start recovery efforts
• Environment • Our ecosystems can be dramatically damaged • Global climate changes • Sea level increases that
will completely swamp some island nations • Edible fish supply decreases • Loss of coral reefs
• Solution Not all natural disasters can be prevented. Each natural disaster has its own factors and complications.
Understanding the basic principles of ecology can provide keys to lessening their effects. Nature evolved with
natural disasters and disturbance. The best prevention is looking at strategies found in nature.
MAN – MADE DISASTERS
Human-caused Disasters
• Disasters having elements of human intent, negligence, error, failure of human-made systems. Such events result
in huge losses of life & property along with damage to people’s mental, physical & social well-being.
• Examples include industrial accidents, crime, arson, civil disorder, terrorism, war, biological / chemical threat,
cyber attacks, shootings, and incidents of mass violence.
• These types of traumatic events may cause loss of life and property, prompt evacuations from certain areas and
overwhelm behavioral health resources in the affected communities.
• Extreme weather can lead to disastrous consequences.
• train derailments
• nuclear disasters
• The toxic cloud from the explosion
• In November the thirteenth, 2005, a petrochemical plant in Jilin, China was the site of series of explosions.
• Poor handling of the operating systems led to blasts which shattered windows up to 200 metres away. Six people
died, dozens were injured and thousands were forced to evacuate the region.
• the most tragic man-made disasters stem from war
• Military personnel and civilians alike face exposure to chemicals which later leave a legacy of contamination that
may be related to illness, birth defects and unbalanced natural ecosystems for decades after a war has ended.
War - Israel vs Gaza
• Syrian conflict worst man-made disaster since World War II
Terrorism
• Terrorism is the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the criminal laws of the
United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion or ransom.
• Terrorism is the use of intentional violence for political or religious purposes.
• It is used in this regard primarily to refer to violence during peacetime or in the context of war against non-
combatants (mostly civilians and neutral military personnel)
• Acts of terror stick out from the rest of this page as they are the result of deliberate, politically-motivated
aggression and violence.
• Terrorists often use threats to create fear among the public to try to convince citizens that their government is
powerless to prevent terrorism, and to get immediate publicity for their causes.
• Acts of terrorism range from threats of terrorism, assassinations, kidnappings, hijackings, bomb scares and
bombings, and cyber attacks (computer-based), to the use of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons.
• High-risk targets include military and civilian government facilities, international airports, large cities and high-
profile landmarks. Terrorists might also target large public gatherings, water and food supplies, utilities and
corporate centers. Further, they are capable of spreading fear by sending explosives or chemical and biological
agents through the mail.
• In the immediate area of a terrorist event, you would need to rely on police, fire and other officials for
instructions. However, you can prepare in much the same way you would prepare for other crisis events.
United Airlines Flight 175 hits the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks of
2001 in New York City.
Bomb Threats
• A communicated threat, anonymous or otherwise, which suggests, or infers, whether true or false, that the safety
of an aircraft in flight or on the ground, or any airport or civil aviation facility or any person may be in danger
from an explosive device.
• A threat to detonate an explosive or incendiary device to cause property damage, death, or injuries, whether or
not such a device actually exists.
• All bomb threats are to be taken seriously. Upon receiving a threat, the question is not whether it is real – after
all, it is a threat and, thus, real.
• If you receive a bomb threat, get as much information from the caller as possible.
• Keep the caller on the line and record everything that is said.
• Notify the police and the building management if applicable.
• If you are notified of a bomb threat, do not touch any suspicious packages.
• Clear the area around suspicious packages and notify the police immediately.
• In evacuating a building, don't stand in front of windows, glass doors or other potentially hazardous areas.
• Do not block sidewalk or streets to be used by emergency officials or others still exiting the building.
• The positive target identification (PTI) methodology guides the bomb threat assessors and leads them towards
one of these conclusions: the threat is specific, non-specific or a hoax. Usually this is expressed in terms of
colour: RED for specific, AMBER (or yellow) for non-specific, and GREEN for hoax.
• A woman walks through the aftermath of the Gikomba bombings. Image: International Business Times
The twin blasts that occurred at the Gikomba Market in Nairobi on Friday, May 16, 2015 killed at least
ten people and injured dozens more. The al Shabaab militia claimed responsibility for the attack.
 • An Israeli victim of the bombings is airlifted out of Kenya in November of 2002, a bomb exploded at the
Israeli owned Paradise Hotel in Mombasa. 13 people were killed and more than 80 injured in the attack.
• There was also an attempted attack on an Israeli plane with missiles, however the missiles missed their
mark.
• 2014 Mandera bus shooting – worst terrorist attacks in Kenya's History.
• Dusit attack
Suspicious Parcels & Letters
• Be wary of suspicious packages and letters. They can contain explosives, chemical or biological agents. Be
particularly cautious at your place of employment. Some typical characteristics postal inspectors have detected
over the years, which ought to trigger suspicion, include parcels that:
• Are unexpected or from someone unfamiliar to you
• Are marked with restrictive endorsements, such as "Personal," "Confidential" or "Do not x-ray"
• Have protruding wires or aluminum foil, strange odors, or stains
• Show a city or state in the postmark that doesn't match the return address
• Are of unusual weight, given their size, or are lopsided or oddly shaped
• Are marked with any threatening language
• Have inappropriate or unusual labeling
• Have excessive postage or excessive packaging material such as masking tape and string
• Have misspellings of common words
• Are addressed to someone no longer with your organization or are otherwise outdated
• Have incorrect titles or title without a name
• Are not addressed to a specific person
• Have handwritten or poorly typed addresses
Chemical and Radioactive Disasters
• A Chemical Disaster is the unintentional release of hazardous substances which could harm Human health or the
environment, these occur under certain circumstances such as fires, explosions, leakages or releases of toxic
materials.
• Gas can directly and indirectly poison people and the environment — spreading rapidly, being unobserved,
potentially igniting, causing death. Unfortunately, gas leaks are preventable man-made disasters that stem from
the world’s expanding reliance on gas.
• Potential harm to humans:
 illness,
 injury,
 Disability
 death
 explosives,
 flammable gases,
 toxic gases,
 highly flammable liquids,
 flammable liquids,
 flammable solids,
 substances which become dangerous when wet,
 oxidizing substances
 toxic liquids.
 Cattlegate PBB Contamination
 In the state of Michigan in the 1973, instead of a nutritional supplement, polybrominated biphenyls
(PBB) was accidentally fed to 1.5 million chickens, 30,000 cattle and other livestock. PBB is an
industrial chemical frequently used as a flame retardant for plastics used in the manufacture of electrical
appliances, textiles, televisions, computers and plastic foams.
 Studies show that exposure to PBB in humans can cause serious health problems including skin disorders,
nervous and immune system effects, as well as deleterious effects on the liver, kidney and thyroid gland; it may
also cause malignancies, particularly breast cancer in women, according to the International Agency for the
Research of Cancer.
 Six to eight million Michigan residents may have been exposed to PBB by eating the contaminated meat, milk or
eggs before it was removed from the market one year after the accidental feeding.
 A registry of 7,500 people exposed to PBB—either by producing it, using it or eating it—is kept so that the long-
term effects of PBB contamination can be documented. Unfortunately, researchers say that PBB may be
transmitted by DNA through many generations, so the scientific investigation of PBB contamination, particularly
in Michigan, may continue for quite some time.Middle West Dust Bowl (Dirty Thirties)
The Kingston Fossil Fuel Power Plant - produced fly coal ash as a by product of the coal combustion.
Storage required the ash to be mixed with water and the mixture stored in dredge cells. However, due to poor
management, the mixture was stored in dangerously high amounts on the slope of a hill. After a powerful rain storm,
in 2008, the slurry gave weight and stormed down the hill in a massive landslide of mud and ash.
Three hundred acres of land were buried under the filth and a lot of properties in Kingston were destroyed.
An estimate of 675 million dollars of damage was caused to the residents and national land with another 975 million
needed to clean up the slurry.
Biological Disaster:
Biological Disasters are also known as biohazards (biological substances that pose a threat to the health of living
organisms, primarily that of humans).
– medical waste or samples of micro-organisms,
– viruses or toxins that may affect or alter human health
– other living organisms as well.
• The most severe accidents are industrial accidents, involving major chemical manufacturing and storage
facilities. The first sensations due to the gasses were – suffocation, burning eyes, cough, vomiting and blur
vision.
 Bhopal Disaster or the Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) - Often considered the world's worst industrial disaster,
 Gas leak incident at the Union Carbide India pesticide plant in Bhopal India. Over 500,000 people n and
around the nearby shanty towns were exposed to toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other chemicals. .
The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the small towns located near the plant
 In 2008, the government of Madhya Pradesh had paid compensation to the family members of 3,787 victims
killed in the gas release, and to 574,366 injured victims
• Another gas leak occurred recently in 2015, at the Aliso Canyon Facility near Los Angeles.
• There were no immediate deaths but it released a concerning amount of methane.
 Bhopal Disaster Gas Leak
• between 3,000 and 4,000 fatalities in the wake of the leak from the Union Carbide pesticide factory, with around
50,000 people treated for illnesses related to the leak, including blindness and liver and kidney failure.
• At least 20,000 deaths since the leak can be attributed directly to the chemical accident.
• Lack of safety valves to prevent the mixing of water into the Methyl isocyanate tanks which started the evolution
of the toxic gas, and the failure of scrubbers to treat the gas leak--apparently they were out of service for repair.
• Union Carbide, now a subsidiary of Dow, paid the Indian government $470 million in a 1989 settlement of a
lawsuit claiming $3 billion.
 Bhopal Gas Leak
Oil Spills
• Oil spills are some of the most familiar man-made disasters, devastating to people, the environment, animals and
global socioeconomics.
• The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico began after the accidental explosion and sinking of the
Deepwater Horizon oil rig, a sea-floor oil gusher flowed for 87 days, until it was capped on July 15, 2010.
• A sudden explosion on a BP oilrig not only ruptured a pipe, but left the well unregulated. The explosion killed 11
workers and injured 17 others.
• The underwater well leaked 40,000 to 162,000 barrels of oil a day into the Gulf until it was capped a full 89 days
later. A disaster of this proportion makes it difficult to measure the amount of environmental damage, but it can
be assumed to be quite extensive.
• Gulf fishing has not rebounded, large amounts of oil are still present, the surrounding environments have been
choked to death, and at least 3,500 volunteers suffered liver and kidney damage from prolonged contact with the
oil.
Besides the Deepwater spill, there have been 44 other oil spills globally since 1969.
2010 Gulf Oil Disaster
• Oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill approaches the coast of Mobile, Ala.on May 6, 2010. BOTTOM:
Concept diagram of the underwater oil containment domes originally planned to cover the 2 remaining oil
leaks from the fallen pipeline [public domain].
  Gulf War Oil Spill
 Nuclear Power Plants
 Chernobyl
• A Nuclear Radiation Disaster is an event that leads to significant consequences to people, the environment or the
facility such as lethal effects to individuals both living & unborn. Excessive radioactivity release to the
environment leads to unstable environment, deadly effects on all living organisms(including plants).
• The capture of heat energy emitted by atomic fission is the basis for the production of electricity from nuclear
energy. Schematically, nuclear power plants can be thought of as comprising:
(1) a core, containing the fissile material (for pressurized-water reactors, 80 to 120 tonnes of uranium oxide);
(2) heat-transfer equipment incorporating heat-transfer fluids;
(3) equipment capable of transforming heat energy into electricity, similar to that found in power plants that are
not nuclear.
• Strong, sudden power surges capable of causing core meltdown with emission of radioactive products are the
primary hazards at these installations.
Chernobyl, the worst nuclear disaster, which triggered up to 60,000 premature cancer deaths. The considerable
amount of nuclear radiations which ended up in the atmosphere made that region forget about biodiversity, as it
used to know it.
• Three Mile Island Accident (1979) - resulted from a nuclear reactor's partial core meltdown at 3MI's Unit 2
Nuclear Generation Station, in Dauphin County near Harrisburg, PA on March 28, 1979.
• The Chernobyl accident was what is known as a criticality accident—that is, a sudden (within the space of a
few seconds) increase in fission leading to a loss of process control. In this case, the reactor core was
completely destroyed and massive amounts of radioactive materials were emitted (table 39.19). The
emissions reached a height of 2 km, favouring their dispersion over long distances (for all intents and
purposes, the entire Northern hemisphere).
• Health Effects:Health effects of ionizing radiation are well known and depend on the dose level received and
the dose rate.
 Hajj Stampede Of 2015
• Sometimes nothing but a big crowd is needed to inadvertently kill hundreds.
• In 2015, over 2,000 people were killed in a stampede in Mina, Mecca, as they were making their Hajj.
• It was the latest and the deadliest in a series of similar deadly incidents in the Saudi Arabia-controlled holy
city of Islam, its cause remaining unclear.
• The incident further ignited the long-time enmity between Riyadh and Tehran, as Iranian nationals were
among the mostumerous casualties.
Dirty Thirties
• Dirty Thirties also known as dust Bowl was a period of severe dust storms in North America, that
significantly damaged the economy of both U.S.A and Canada during 1930s.
• Some parts suffered the horrifying conditions for as long as eight years.
• The disaster was man made, following a brutal drought, a failure to apply dryland farming methods to
prevent wind erosion (the Aeolian processes) caused the phenomenon. Thousands of families abandoned
their homes, resulting a large scale migration from one part of the U.S.A to the other, only to find great
depression.
Transportation Accidents
 Anyone who's driven a car knows that getting from point A to point B can sometimes be dangerous. Errors in
judgement, minor technical malfunctions, and even the interference of animals can cause serious problems.
When these problems occur with mass transit vehicles like trains, those problems can be disastrous.
 An Accidental Disaster is an unforeseen & unplanned event or circumstance, often with lack of intention or
necessity. It usually implies a generally negative outcome which might have been avoided or prevented if the
circumstances leading up to the accident had been recognized & acted upon prior to it’s occurrence.
 A dance at a Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City, Missouri, turned into a catastrophe, costing 114 people their
lives, and injuring another 200. Folks had gathered at the hotel for a dance contest when the structure collapsed,
trapping people under the concrete. The suspended walkway’s beam wasn’t built to support the weight of
hundreds of people, causing the disaster. Back in the early 1980’s this was the largest construction disaster at the
time.
Pandemic Disasters
 • A pandemic is an infectious disease that is spreading through human populations across a large region; for
instance a continent, or even worldwide. A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many
people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic. Further, flu pandemics exclude seasonal flu, unless the flu
of the season is a pandemic. Throughout history there have been a number of pandemics, such as smallpox
and tuberculosis.
• More recent pandemics include Corona, Ebola, HIV pandemic and the 2009 flu “near” pandemic called
H1N1 or the Swine Flu by some.
Corona Virus
• A coronavirus is a virus that is found in animals and, rarely, can be transmitted from animals to humans and
then spread person to person. In addition to COVID-19, other human coronaviruses have included:
• The MERS virus, or Middle East respiratory syndrome.
• The SARS virus, or severe acute respiratory syndrome, which first occurred in the Guangdong province in
southern China.
• Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus. It came
from a seafood and meat market in Wuhan, China, in December. It has since spread to other countries,
including the United State
• Most people infected with the COVID-19 virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and
recover without requiring special treatment. Older people, and those with underlying medical problems like
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious
illness.
• The best way to prevent and slow down transmission is be well informed about the COVID-19 virus, the
disease it causes and how it spreads. Protect yourself and others from infection by washing your hands or
using an alcohol based rub frequently and not touching your face.
• The COVID-19 virus spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or discharge from the nose when an
infected person coughs or sneezes, so it’s important that you also practice respiratory etiquette (for example,
by coughing into a flexed elbow).
• At this time, there are no specific vaccines or treatments for COVID-19. However, there are many ongoing
clinical trials evaluating potential treatments. WHO will continue to provide updated information as soon as
clinical findings become available.
What are the symptoms of a coronavirus?
• COVID-19 symptoms range from mild to severe. It takes 2-14 days after exposure for symptoms to develop.
Symptoms may include:
• fever
• cough
• shortness of breath
• Those with weakened immune systems may develop more serious symptoms, like pneumonia or bronchitis.
You may never develop symptoms after being exposed to COVID-19. So far, most confirmed cases are in
adults, but some children have been infected. There is no evidence that children are at greater risk for getting
the virus.
What are the symptoms of a coronavirus?
• COVID-19 symptoms range from mild to severe. It takes 2-14 days after exposure for symptoms to develop.
Symptoms may include:
• fever
• cough
• shortness of breath
• Those with weakened immune systems may develop more serious symptoms, like pneumonia or bronchitis.
You may never develop symptoms after being exposed to COVID-19. So far, most confirmed cases are in
adults, but some children have been infected. There is no evidence that children are at greater risk for getting
the virus.
Desert locusts
The climate factor
• Climate experts have pointed to unusually heavy rains, aided by a powerful cyclone off Somalia in
December, as a major factor in the outbreak. Niklas Hagelberg, senior program coordinator at the UN
Environment Programme, told DW that scientific data did not yet directly link the current events with
climate change, even if he "personally” believes in the possibility. ''What we can say is that the likelihood for
 increasing rainfall, increasing heat, increasing winds, has gone up due to climate change," Hagelberg said.
"So the likelihood for a swarm like this has increased."
• This is the worst infestation that Kenya has seen in 70 years. Many farmers in the affected regions have lost
their crops. Some have started planting again, but they don't know what they will do if the locusts return,
which at this point looks very likely, according to environmental experts.
• A second generation of the insects is already threatening to swarm Kenya and other parts of the region,
including Ethiopia, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda and South Sudan.
Famine
• An extreme crisis of access to adequate food, manifested in widespread malnutrition and loss of life due to
starvation and infectious disease.
• Famine is a hazard that is induced by over-population. You may define famine as the shortage of food and
clean drinking water. Famine leads to human and animal deaths. The main cause of famine is crop failure
due to lack of rain or untimely rain. Other causes could be natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, and
so on.
Causes of famine
• Military actions and exclusionary,
• Authoritarian politics conducted without regard to the wellbeing or even the survival of people.
• Conflict between armed groups
• Civil war
• Violations of international humanitarian law
• Obstruction of relief aid
Solution
• Clean water for drinking, cooking, and bathing
• Proper sanitation and hygiene
• Food
• Help supply farm products, seeds, tools, and other assistance so people can grow their own food.
• help farmers raise livestock with veterinary services, animal feed,
• Distribute animals to farmers to help restock their herds .
• network with local partners to help farmers improve and insure their harvests,
• create drought early-warning systems,
• Help people find other ways of earning money for food when crops fail.
Other Incidents of Mass Trauma
 Infectious disease outbreaks, incidents of community unrest, and other types of traumatic events can also bring
out strong emotions in people.
 The outbreak of Ebola affecting several countries in West Africa, with limited reported cases in the United States
and other countries, may lead to feelings of anxiety and confusion, even to the point where it can interfere with
one’s regular routine. Community upheaval, such as that seen in Ferguson, Mo., can also impact emotional
health. News reports and the 24-hour news cycle can make people even more anxious when these kinds of events
occur.
 The Disaster Distress Helpline provides immediate crisis counseling to people affected by traumatic events.
SAMHSA also has a number of resources for people affected by the Ebola outbreak and incidents of community
unrest, including:
• Coping with Grief After Community Violence – 2014
• Coping with Stress During Infectious Disease Outbreaks – 2014
• Disaster Behavioral Health Information Series Collection: Ebola Outbreak
• Talking with Children: Tips for Caregivers, Parents, and Teachers During Infectious Disease Outbreaks –
2014
Incidents of Mass Violence
 Incidents of mass violence are human-caused tragedies that can impact whole communities and the country at
large. These types of disasters, which include shootings and acts of terrorism, often occur without warning and
can happen anywhere, as shown by the Sandy Hook Elementary School tragedy of 2012 and the events of
September 11, 2001.
 These violent acts typically target defenseless citizens with the intent to harm or kill. They can instill feelings of
confusion, fear, and helplessness in survivors. Incidents of mass violence disturb our collective sense of order
and safety, and may even impact those with no personal connections to the event.
 Because of the unpredictable nature of these types of disasters, it’s normal for people to experience emotional
distress. Feelings such as overwhelming anxiety, trouble sleeping, and other depression-like symptoms are
common responses to incidents of mass violence. Other signs of emotional distress related to incidents of mass
violence may include:
o Feeling numb or like nothing matters
o Feeling helpless or hopeless
o Worrying a lot of the time; feeling guilty but not sure why
o Feeling like you have to keep busy
o Excessive smoking, drinking, or using drugs (including prescription medication)
Social Media and Disasters
 The rapid rise of social media activity after major disasters has not only grabbed the attention of federal and local
government officials, but led to an increase in social media training efforts among emergency management staffs
nationwide.
 Shortly after Hurricane Sandy in 2012, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) reported more than
20 million Sandy-related Twitter posts (Tweets) were sent despite cell phone outages during the peak of the
storm.

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
The following four phases are the components of a comprehensive hazard management plan which can be applied to
all types of natural and technological disasters:
· pre-disaster planning
· emergency preparedness
· emergency response
· post-impact recovery and reconstruction.
• The aim of disaster preparedness is to develop disaster prevention or risk reduction measures in parallel with
emergency preparedness and response capabilities.
Disaster Prevention
• A disaster is any disruption of the human ecology that exceeds the capacity of the community to function
normally. It is a state which is not merely a quantitative difference in the functioning of the health or
emergency services—for example, as caused by a large influx of casualties. It is a qualitative difference in
that the demands cannot be adequately met by a society without help from unaffected areas of the same or
another country.
• The health objectives of disaster management, which include:
 prevention or reduction of mortality due to the impact, to a delay in rescue and to lack of appropriate
care
 provision of care for casualties such as immediate post-impact trauma, burns and psychological
problems
 management of adverse climatic and environmental conditions (exposure, lack of food and drinking
water)
• prevention of short-term and long-term disaster-related morbidity (e.g., outbreaks of communicable diseases
due to disruption of sanitation, living in temporary shelters, overcrowding and communal feeding; epidemics
such as malaria due to interruption of control measures; rise of morbidity and mortality due to disruption of
the health care system; mental and emotional problems)
· ensuring restoration of normal health by preventing long-term malnutrition due to disruption of food supplies
and agriculture.
Hazard Assessment
• The different types of natural disaster and their impacts need to be assessed in terms of their likelihood in all
countries.
• Each hazard requires a scientific evaluation which will include at least the following aspects:
· its cause or causes
· its geographical distribution, magnitude or severity and probable frequency of occurrence
· the physical mechanisms of destruction
· the elements and activities most vulnerable to destruction
· possible social and economic consequences of a disaster.
Risk Assessment
• After evaluating a hazard and its likely impacts, the next step is to undertake a risk assessment. Hazard may
be defined as the possibility of harm, and risk is the probability of lives being lost, persons injured or
property damaged due to a given type and magnitude of natural hazard. Risk can be quantitatively defined as:
• In addition to building structures, the other important aspect of vulnerability is infrastructure (lifelines) such
as:
· transport
· telecommunications
· water supplies
· sewer systems
· electricity supplies
· health care facilities.
Risk Reduction
• New buildings should be made seismic resistant if built in a seismic zone, or old buildings can be retrofitted
so that they are less likely to collapse.
• Hospitals may need resisting or “hardening” against hazards such as windstorms, for example.
• The need for good roads as evacuation routes must never be forgotten in land developments in areas at risk
of windstorms or volcanic eruptions and a host of other civil engineering measures can be enacted depending
upon the situation.
• In the longer term the most important measure is the regulation of land use to prevent the development of
settlements in hazardous areas, such as flood plains, the slopes of active volcanoes or around major chemical
plants.
• Over-reliance on engineering solutions can bring false reassurance in at-risk areas, or be counterproductive,
increasing the risk of rare catastrophic events (e.g., building levees along major rivers prone to severe
flooding).
Emergency Preparedness
• The planning and organization of emergency preparedness should be a task for a multidisciplinary planning
team involved at the community level, and one which should be integrated into hazard assessment, risk
reduction and emergency response.
• It is at the local level that emergency preparedness should be focused, so that the community itself has the
means to begin rescue and relief actions immediately after an event.
• Providing adequate information to the public in the planning phase should therefore be a key aspect of
emergency preparation.
Information and communication needs
• On the basis of the hazard and risk analyses, the means of providing early warning will be essential.
• a system for evacuating people from areas of high risk should an emergency arise.
• Pre-planning of communications systems between the different emergency services at the local and national
levels is necessary and for the effective provision and dissemination of information in a disaster a formal
chain of communication will have to be established.
• Stockpiling emergency food and water supplies in households may be included.
• A community near a hazardous installation needs to be aware of the warning it may receive in an emergency
(e.g., a siren if there is a gas release) and the protective measures people should adopt (e.g., immediately go
inside houses and close windows until advised to come out).
• The need to be able to rapidly define the health hazard posed by a toxic release, which means identifying the
chemical or chemicals involved, having access to knowledge of their acute or long-term effects and
determining who, if anyone, in the general population has been exposed.
Command and control and emergency communications
• The designation of the emergency service in charge, and the constitution of a disaster coordinating team, will
vary from country to country and with the type of disaster, but it needs to be pre-planned. At the scene a
specific vehicle may be designated as the command and control, or onsite coordinating centre. For example,
emergency services cannot rely on telephone communications, as these may become overloaded, and so
radio links will be needed.
The hospital major incident plan
• The capability of hospitals in terms of staff, physical reserves (theatres, beds and so on) and treatment
(medicines and equipment) for dealing with any major incident will be assessed.
• Specific plans for dealing with a sudden large influx of casualties
 • Restoring or supporting devastated health services may therefore be necessary. For chemical incidents,
hospitals should have established links with poison information centres.
• Planning should also include the means for the rapid sending of emergency medical equipment and drugs.
Emergency equipment
• The types of search and rescue equipment needed for a specific disaster should be identified at the planning
stage along with where it will be stored, as it will need to be rapidly deployed in the first 24 hours, when the
most lives can be saved.
• Key medicines and medical equipment need to be available for rapid deployment, along with personal
protective equipment for emergency crews, including health workers at the disaster scene.
• Engineers skilled in urgently restoring water, electricity, communications and roads can have a major role in
alleviating the worst effects of disasters.
Emergency response plan
• The emergency services (public health, occupational health and environmental health practitioners), should
each have plans for dealing with disasters.
• Health planning should include detailed response plans for different types of disaster, as part of disaster
preparedness.
• Treatment protocols should be drawn up for the specific types of injury that each disaster may produce.
• A range of traumas, including crush syndrome, should be anticipated from the collapse of buildings in
earthquakes, whereas body burns and inhalational injuries are a feature of volcanic eruptions.
• In chemical disasters, triage, decontamination procedures, the administration of antidotes where applicable
and emergency treatment of acute pulmonary injury from irritant toxic gases should all be planned for.
• The emergency management of physical and chemical trauma in disasters is a vital area of health care
planning and one which requires training of hospital staff in disaster medicine.
• The management of evacuees, the location of evacuation centres and the appropriate preventive health
measures should be included.
• The need for emergency stress management to prevent stress disorders in victims and emergency workers
should also be
Training and education
• Medical staff and other health care professionals at the hospital and primary care level are likely to be
unfamiliar with working in disasters. Training exercises involving the health sector and the emergency
services are a necessary part of emergency preparedness. Table-top exercises are invaluable and should be
made as realistic as possible, since large-scale physical exercises are likely to be held very infrequently
because of their high cost.
Post-impact recovery
• This phase is the returning of the affected area to its pre-disaster state. Pre-planning should include post-
emergency social, economic and psychological care and rehabilitation of the environment. For chemical
incidents the latter also includes environmental assessments for contaminants of water and crops, and
remedial actions, if needed, such as decontamination of soils and buildings and restoration of potable water
supplies.
Conclusion
• Relatively little international effort has been put into disaster preparedness compared to relief measures in
the past; however, although investment in disaster protection is costly, there is now a large body of scientific
and technical knowledge available which if applied correctly would make a substantial difference to the
health and economic impacts of disasters in all countries.