RESEARCH GUIDE 1
Introduction to academic research
A basic guide to improving your research and critical thinking skills.
1. Introduction
This guide introduces you to the world of academic
research. It outlines basic concepts and discusses research
methodology and methods, types of sources, marks of
quality researchers, and what makes research outstanding.
It provides advice on the need to acquire skills in other
languages for research. The guide is intended as a basis for
other guides on various aspects of theological research and
writing.
Whether you are engaged in undergraduate or
postgraduate studies, this guide is for you. You may think
you have heard all this before, but there is always room for
growth and change. Browse this guide and you may find
2. The nature of academic research
The basic purpose of academic research is to seek truth and
new knowledge. This may be undertaken for its own sake,
or to counter falsehood and ignorance, or to contribute to a
cause such as constructive theology, spiritual growth,
historical understanding, or social development.
For those engaged in a research degree, such as an MTh
or PhD, your experience of study will probably be far
more individual and isolated than a typical undergraduate
educational experience. It may also have been some time
since you last accessed tertiary education. Your new
experience will require some adjustment.
A research degree requires a high degree of self-
management, information literacy, analytical skills, and
communication skills. It also gives you significant
help in solving a practical problem, inspiring a new idea,
avoiding pitfalls, and generally enhancing your learning
experience. Reading it along with other Moore College
Research Guides and Writing Guides, and advice from Moore
College faculty, should provide a good basis for successful
and fruitful academic research and writing. Guides are
available here. You will also find a range of excellent books
on study skills and research design in the Library.
If you have questions regarding academic research and
writing, critical thinking, or information literacy, or
suggestions for improving this Guide, we’d love to hear
from you – email rod.benson@moore.edu.au.
independence in your choice of topic, methodology,
research strategy, and application of critical thinking and
reasoning skills.
As a beginning undergraduate student, you may feel like a
spectator at the academic game. But as your studies
progress, you have increasing opportunities to become a
genuine participant. A research degree further prepares
you to be an active participant in an international
academic community, and in a global community of
evangelical scholars. Such an opportunity is rare, and
comes with attendant privileges and responsibilities.
Your research degree is just the start of this new
dimension to professional life. It’s up to you to make the
most of it. The skills you acquire now will last a lifetime.
Research methodology
To analyse and evaluate a research document, begin by
examining the degree to which an author’s research
methodology and methods, and the structure of their
argument, persuade you to accept their conclusions.
Similarly, in planning your own research, the choice of
methodology determines the ways in which you collect,
analyse and evaluate data, which in turn influences the
kind of argument you employ and the conclusions you
draw based on your findings.
Philosophical ideas usually remain hidden in research,
but they do influence research practice. Your choice of
research methodology, and research methods, will
depend not only on your thesis or research question but
on your prior philosophical and theological commitments
– or lack thereof.
Methodology is a way of thinking about the theoretical
basis and overall design of a research project, whereas
method is the way in which one goes about doing the
research. No methodology is theoretically comprehensive
or value-free. Each methodology applies certain
principles and theoretical frameworks, and privileges
some principles and theories to the exclusion of others.
Methodologies are shaped by paradigms, theoretical
worldviews defining the categories and concepts through
which one constructs and understands the world. In
1962, Thomas Kuhn coined the term “paradigm shift” to
describe a fundamental change in the basic concepts and
experimental practices of an academic discipline.1 A
paradigm, from the Greek paradeigma (“unchanging
model”), is the word we use to describe the fundamental
way we think about the world and, by implication, the
way we conduct research. Old paradigms tend to give way
to new ones which are better, more accurate frameworks
for thinking about the world and the problems and issues
that are the subject of research.
An academic article or research report will not usually
include discussion of paradigms. As Gary Thomas notes,
It is taken as ‘given’ that there are different ways of
looking and thinking about the social world and that
these will have structured the research. However, in
a dissertation or thesis from a research project at
university you will have to show that you
understand the broad principles that guide the way
that social research is conducted – the ways that
questions are answered and data are gathered and
analysed. This does not mean that you should have a
section on positivism or interpretivism, but it does
1 2
Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1996).
mean that you should explain the principles that are
guiding your research.2
This applies also to research in biblical, theological and
historical studies. Related principles include ontology (the
study of the nature of reality) and epistemology (the study
of how we obtain knowledge of the world). Among other
things, ontology helps us understand why there is more
than one paradigm; and epistemology helps us
understand what lies behind the analytical strategies we
employ to draw knowledge from data and information.
One way to categorise research methodologies is to
distinguish between quantitative and qualitative
approaches to research, although this applies more
clearly to science and social science research than to the
humanities. Projects that apply aspects of both paradigms
are known as mixed methods research.
Quantitative research deals with things that can be
measured, and generally answers the “how?” questions. It
seeks to remain independent of the phenomena or data
being studied in order to generalize findings.
Quantitative research methodologies may be informed by
positivist, empiricist and experimental philosophical
perspectives, advanced by theorists such as Newton,
Locke, Compte, Mill, and Durkheim.
Quantitative research is used to investigate attitudes,
opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables, often
through large-scale data collected in surveys, interviews,
and longitudinal studies. A key research method is the use
of closed-ended questions.
Qualitative research is often linked to detailed exploratory
studies and answers the “why?” questions. It emphasises
the study of phenomena or data from the perspective of
insiders, viewing meaning as context-specific and time-
specific rather than generalizable.
Qualitative research methodologies may be informed by
constructivist, naturalistic, interpretive, postpositivist,
and postmodern philosophical perspectives, advanced by
theorists such as Dithey, Kant, Wittgenstein, and Foucault.
Qualitative research tends to be inductive and subjective,
collecting data through case studies, qualitative surveys
and interviews, and detailed document analysis. It seeks
to examine underlying beliefs, reasons, opinions, feelings,
and motivations from the point of view of the subject or
the author of the document. A key research method is the
use of open-ended questions.
Gary Thomas, How to Do Your Research Project: A Guide for Students
(3rd edn; Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017), 2.
2
Research methods

Research is interesting and important when it fills gaps in
existing knowledge, offers new knowledge, solves a well-
defined problem, questions or refutes established beliefs,
highlights a previously unrecognized problem, and/or
contributes toward progress in one’s chosen discipline. A
research method is the set of tools and techniques used to
gather and analyse data to serve these ends.
There are three main types of research:
• Exploratory: research investigating a problem or
issue about which little is known, seeking to discover
new knowledge.
• Testing: research examining the limits of a
previously proposed generalization, seeking to show
the inadequacy of a hypothesis.
• Problem-solving: research aimed at finding a valid
solution to a theoretical or practical problem.
Tools may include textual exegesis; reading, summarising
and comparing academic articles on a given topic; and
gathering information through interviews, surveys or
focus groups.
For more information on research methods see Research
Guide 3.

Table 1 – Key differences between Qualitative and quantitative approaches to research methodology 3

3 Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy, The Practice of Qualitative Research (3rd edn; Los Angeles: Sage, 2017), 12.

3
Types of sources
Researchers deal with three main source types:
Primary sources: original, non-interpreted or non-
evaluated information. These may include almost any
documents depending on your field of research – for
example, historical documents such as the Bible, the
works of the Church Fathers, records of Church Councils,
denominational minutes and publications, biblical
commentaries, letters, photographs, newspapers. Consult
primary sources for evidence to support your claims.
Secondary sources: analyses, evaluations or interpretations
of information contained in one or more primary source.
These include most books, articles and other scholarly
works. It is often advisable to start with the most recent
publications and work back, as these have the benefit of
access to earlier research and commentary. Consult
Marks of quality research
Four related principles undergird quality research and help
to strengthen the research community:
Academic freedom. Good research is marked by a radical
openness to academic enquiry. Phillips and Pugh write:
You are entitled to think anything. There are no
hidden agendas, no closed systems … The key to the
approach is to keep firmly in mind that the classic
position of a researcher is not that of one who knows
the right answers but of one who is struggling to find
out what the right questions might be!4
What are your initial responses to these claims? Do they
apply to your situation? Why or why not?
Validity. Research is valid when it is acceptable to the
standards of the research community in your academic
discipline. Valid research is based on established and well
executed strategies and techniques for data collection and
analysis. It should display rational persuasiveness. It
should align with ethical codes of conduct.
Reliability. It is possible to produce valid but unreliable
research. Trustworthy research aims for quality and
transparency. Do your research as though someone is
looking over your shoulder, and explain the steps you
took. Take care to minimize bias.
Originality. Most doctoral research explicitly requires an
original contribution to knowledge. Originality may be
indicated by one or more of the following:
4 Estelle Phillips & Derek S. Pugh, How to Get a PhD (6th edition; Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press, 2015), 55.
5 Barry White, Mapping Your Thesis: The Comprehensive Manual of Theory and Techniques for Masters and Doctoral Research (Camberwell, Vic.: ACER Press, 2011), 73.
secondary sources to learn from other researchers, to keep
up with current research, to find other points of view, and
to identify models for your own research and analysis.
Reference or tertiary sources: works that compile, analyse
or digest secondary sources, often providing summaries
of complex subjects. These include encyclopedias and
dictionaries. Consult tertiary sources for introductory
overviews and suggestions for further reading. Online
encyclopedias such as Wikipedia may provide ideas for
further reading but should never be cited as authoritative
sources.
In addition, there is your own first-hand research such as
information gathered from archival research, surveys,
case studies, observations, interviews and literature
reviews.
• The method or its application is unique.
• A new synthesis of existing material has been
provided.
• Research has been done in unique circumstances.
• The work is uniquely interdisciplinary or the
findings are unique.
• Another researcher’s original insight has been
extended.
• An original contribution has been made to an
ongoing debate.
• An established interpretation has been challenged.5
Quality research depends on the availability of sources,
which should be evaluated for credibility and quality. As
you conduct your research, ask: Is the document from a
scholarly source? Is it genuine? How recent is the source?
Is the publisher well-known? Is the author respected in
their field? Does the author accurately cite their sources?
Is the author presenting one perspective on a problem or
issue, or claiming to give an objective and neutral view?
Avoid asking useless or unanswerable questions. A
useless question is one where the subject is too trivial to
warrant serious research; where the scope is too small to
warrant generalizability, relevance, or interest to others;
or where the answer lacks clear and practical
implications. An unanswerable question may be
important, but is usually too abstract or elusive, or the
cost of doing the research is prohibitive.
4
Marks of quality researchers

Apart from discussing research ethics, few guides give
space to this aspect of academic research practice. One
exception is Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley, who identify
four “primary values” of a critical thinker:6
Autonomy The drive to form one’s own conclusions should
encourage a desire to seek and listen to alternative views;
“otherwise, we may miss the one decision or option that we
would have chosen if only we had not paid attention to only
those who shared our value priorities.”
Curiosity Related to autonomy, this quality emphasizes
the need for careful listening and reading of the insights
and understanding of others. “Other people have the
power to move you forward, to liberate you from your
current condition of partial knowledge.”
Humility Some of us have insights that others do not
have, but we all make mistakes and each of us is very
limited in what we can do. As we accept this reality, we
are better placed to recognise that our experiences with
other people can fill in at least a few of the gaps in our
present understanding.
Respect It is important to respect and listen to other
voices, while recognizing that all conclusions and
opinions are not equally worthwhile. When you find
compelling reasoning, regardless of the ethnicity, age,
gender or wealth of the speaker or writer, rely on it until
a better set of reasoning comes along.
The authors suggest that living by these values will lead
to “justifiable satisfaction about the beliefs you possess”;
and the likelihood that “you will keep searching for
additional evidence that strengthens these beliefs, as well
as for new reasons and evidence that might alter your
beliefs.”
What additional distinctive qualities ought to mark a
postgraduate researcher engaged in theological studies?

What makes research outstanding?

Superior academic writing does not have to feature long

sentences, exotic vocabulary, or impenetrable denseness of
style. It does typically demonstrate clarity, coherence and
confidence; and it consistently engages the reader.
A distinctive sense of style and originality will often
elevate academic writing, along with attention to
professional practice and compliance with academic
conventions. Margaret Kiley and Gerry Mullins point out:
When describing outstanding theses, examiners use
phrases such as ‘style and sophistication,’ ‘elegance
of design, of synthesis and execution,’ ‘cohesiveness
and clarity,’ ‘the candidate made the ideas her own,’
‘sparkle,’ ‘élan and a sense of confidence.’ So, if you
want your thesis to be set apart from the rest, you
may have to take risks.7
A poor thesis or research project, by contrast, may show
sloppy presentation, poor referencing, and misuse of
technical terms. It may present work that is plagiarized or
otherwise unoriginal. It may be lacking in coherence,
lacking an understanding of the theory or methodology
employed, or lacking in confidence. It may fail to address
the problem it set out to address, or it may fail to explain
in the conclusion what was argued in the introduction or
explained and analysed in the body of the work.8 Used by permission.

6 Browne, M. Neil & Keeley, Stuart M., Asking the Right Questions: A Carey Denholm & Terry Evans (eds), Doctorates Downunder: Keys to
Guide to Critical Thinking (9th edn; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Successful Doctoral Study in Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand (2nd
2010, 13-14. edn; Camberwell, Vic.: ACER Press, 2012), 233.
7 Margaret Kiley & Gerry Mullins, “How examiners assess theses,” in 8 Kiley & Mullins, “How examiners assess theses,” 234.

5
Languages other than English
Theologian James Eslington argues that
it would be unthinkable that I could do a PhD on the
word ‘righteousness’ in the Pauline corpus, or the
structure of Amos, or the role of particular ideas in
the Pentateuch, without learning to read Greek or
Hebrew: I would be utterly dependent on the
interpretation of other scholars in their translation
of the text, and would not be able to justify my choice
of a particular English translation of the texts in
question. I would unwittingly perpetuate errors in
their translations. Indeed, I would not even be aware
of those errors.9
The same principle applies for reading the works of major
biblical and theological scholars writing in languages other
Online language resources
Short courses and apps
• Babbel (UK)
https://uk.babbel.com/
• BBC Languages (UK)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/learn/
index.shtml
• Macquarie Ancient Languages
School
https://www.mq.edu.au/about_us/facul
ties_and_departments/faculty_of_arts/de
partment_of_ancient_history/macquarie_
ancient_languages_school/
• Sydney Language Solutions
https://sydneylanguagesolutions.com.au
/courses/
• Centre for Continuing Education
(University of Sydney)
https://cce.sydney.edu.au/language-
short-training-courses-sydney
• UNSW Institute of Languages
https://www.languages.unsw.edu.au/co
urses/other-languages/
• Selection of mobile apps
https://www.thebalance.com/the-7-
best-free-language-learning-apps-
1357060
© 2020 Moore Theological College. Written by Rod Benson, January 2020. Moore | Library | Facebook
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
9 James Eglington, “On theology and language learning,” https://jameseglinton.wordpress.com/2015/04/22/on-theology-and-language-learning/. The full quote is worth reading.
than English. At least a reading knowledge of a language
other than English is recommended for advanced PhD
research at Moore College, and doctoral students should
devote time in the first year to learning German or Latin,
and possibly French. Depending on the nature of research,
other relevant languages may include Dutch, Modern
Hebrew and Spanish. For biblical studies students, ancient
languages such as Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Aramaic, Ugaritic or
Akkadian may also be relevant. It is the supervisor’s
responsibility in consultation with the student to determine
which, if any, of these languages would be useful.
The list below offers a brief selection of language providers
in or near Sydney, and selected online providers. For more
information, or to report obsolete URL links, contact
Research Support Officer Rod.Benson@moore.edu.au.
University diploma courses Language-specific institutions
• Diploma in Language Studies • Alliance Française de Sydney
(UNSW) https://www.afsydney.com.au/french-
https://www.arts.unsw.edu.au/future- courses/adult-courses/
students/undergraduate/diplomas/
• Dutch lessons in Sydney
• Diploma in Languages (University of https://www.listenandlearnaustralia.co
Newcastle) m.au/dutch/sydney
https://www.newcastle.edu.au/degrees
/diploma-in-languages/handbook
• Goethe Institut (Sydney) – German
https://www.goethe.de/ins/au/en/sta/
• Diploma in Languages (University of syd/kur.html
Wollongong)
• Theological German
https://coursefinder.uow.edu.au/inform
http://theologicalgerman.com/
ation/index.html?course=diploma-in-
languages
• Hebrew Online Language Academy
http://eteacherhebrew.com/
• Diploma of Language Studies
(University of Sydney) • Institutio Cervantes – Spanish
https://sydney.edu.au/courses/courses http://sidney.cervantes.es/en/courses_s
/uc/diploma-of-language-studies.html
panish/learn_spanish.htm
• Diploma of Languages
https://courses.mq.edu.au/2017/domes
tic/undergraduate/diploma-of-
languages
Language tutors
• Tutorfinder
https://www.tutorfinder.com.au/subject
s/english.php
• Search online for “foreign language
tutors Sydney,” etc.