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Brief Contents
1 Introducing Sport and Exercise 8 Leadership in Sport and Exercise 157
Psychology1 Mark R. Beauchamp, Mark Eys
Peter R. E. Crocker, David Scott,
Melanie Gregg, Erica Bennett 9 Group Cohesion in Sport and
Exercise179
2 Personality in Sport and Exercise 22 Kevin S. Spink
Peter R. E. Crocker, Whitney A.
Sedgwick, Ryan E. Rhodes 10 Youth Involvement and Positive
Development in Sport 200
3 Motivation and Behavioural
Jean Côté, Jessica Fraser-Thomas
Change42
Diane E. Mack, Catherine M. Sabiston, 11 Coaching Psychology 225
Meghan H. McDonough, Philip M. Wilson,
Gordon A. Bloom
David M. Paskevich
12 Aging and Involvement in Sport
4 Stress, Emotion, and Coping and Physical Activity 247
in Sport and Exercise 66
Patricia L. Weir, Paula M. van Wyk, Kristy L.
Katherine A. Tamminen, Amber D. Mosewich, Smith, Jordan Deneau, Sean Horton
Kent C. Kowalski, Patrick Gaudreau
13 Physical Activity and Mental
5 Anxiety in Sport and Exercise 91 Health269
Kimberley L. Gammage, Guy E. Faulkner, Linda Trinh,
Sharleen D. Hoar Kelly Arbour-Nicitopoulos

6 Aggression and Moral Behaviour 14 Body Image in Sport and Exercise 293
in Sport 110 Catherine M. Sabiston, Jennifer
Todd M. Loughead, Kim D. Dorsch Brunet

7 Sport Psychology Interventions 133 15 Physical Activity Interventions 315

Krista Munroe-Chandler, Kimberley A. Dawson, Jennifer
Craig Hall Robertson-Wilson

v
 xii About the Editors
Meghan McDonough
Dr. Meghan McDonough
is an associate professor in
the Faculty of Kinesiology
at the University of
Calgary. Her research
examines social relation-
Photo courtesy of Jodi Oosterlee
ships, self-perceptions,
motivation, stress and
emotion, and psycho-
logical well-being. Her
current work focuses on
social support, social rela-
tionships, and interper-
sonal barriers in physical
activity among older adults,
vulnerable populations, and physical activity for clinical
populations, including cancer survivors and people with
Parkinson’s disease.
Dr. McDonough is an Associate Editor for the
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, and she is on
the editorial boards for the journal Sport, Exercise, and
Performance Psychology and the International Journal of
Sport Psychology. She is an active reviewer for many
journals and was recognized as reviewer of the year for
Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology in 2016. She
received the Franklin Henry Young Scientist Award from
the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and
Sport Psychology and has received a number of awards
for teaching and mentoring.
Dr. McDonough completed her undergraduate
degree in kinesiology at the University of Saskatchewan.
She completed her master’s and PhD degrees in the
School of Human Kinetics at the University of British
Columbia, supervised by Dr. Peter Crocker. Her disser-
tation focused on the role of relatedness, autonomy, and
competence in motivation, physical activity behaviour,
and psychological well-being among adult recreational
sport participants. She was previously a faculty member
at Purdue University (2006–2016). Dr. McDonough was a
member of Canada’s junior national flatwater kayak team
in her youth. She spends her free time riding bicycles,
paddling canoes and kayaks, skiing, running, and playing
in the mountains. She lives in Calgary, Alberta, with her
partner, Hersh.
About the Contributors
Dr. Kelly Arbour-Nicitopoulos is an assistant profes-
sor in the Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education
at the University of Toronto and an adjunct scientist at
the Bloorview Research Institute. She teaches courses in
adapted physical activity, exercise psychology, knowl-
edge translation, and research methodology. Her research
focuses on promoting community-based physical activity
and sport participation across the lifespan for persons liv-
ing with chronic disabilities.
Dr. Mark R. Beauchamp is a professor in the School of
Kinesiology at the University of British Columbia. He
is a Chartered Psychologist and Associate Fellow of the
British Psychological Society. He teaches courses in sport
and exercise psychology, with his research primarily
focusing on group processes within health, exercise, and
sport settings.
Dr. Erica V. Bennett is an instructor at Douglas College
in the Department of Sport Science and affiliate faculty
member in the School of Kinesiology at the University of
British Columbia. She teaches courses in the areas of qual-
itative research methods, sport and exercise psychology,
and sociocultural aspects of health and physical activity.
Dr. Bennett’s research focuses on the role that physical
(in)activity and cultural body norms play in shaping the
body image of individuals across the lifespan.
Dr. Gordon A. Bloom is a professor and director of the
Sport Psychology Research Laboratory (sportpsych.
mcgill.ca) in the Department of Kinesiology & Physical
Education at McGill University. Dr. Bloom has devel-
oped an internationally recognized coaching research
program related to the knowledge, strategies, and
behaviours employed by coaches in terms of leader-
ship practices, mentoring, and team building that are
designed to develop successful and well-balanced ath-
letes. Dr. Bloom has also received numerous invitations
from academic and sport coaching associations to pres-
ent his research and practical experiences to scientists,
administrators, and coaches at various levels of sport
around the world.
Dr. Jennifer Brunet is an associate professor in the School
of Human Kinetics at the University of Ottawa and
holds an appointment as an affiliate investigator within
the Cancer Therapeutic Program of the Ottawa Hospital
Research Institute. Her research is focused on identifying
and understanding determinants of physical activity to
better inform interventions to address physical inactiv-
ity in Canada. In addition, she is working to develop and
evaluate evidence-based interventions aimed at increas-
ing physical activity levels.
Dr. Jean Côté is a professor in the School of Kinesiology
and Health Studies at Queen’s University. His research
interests are in the areas of children in sport, athlete
development, and coaching. Dr. Côté serves on the scien-
tific committee of the International Council for Coaching
Excellence. He enjoys spending time with his family and
playing ice hockey, tennis, and squash.
Dr. Kimberley A. Dawson is a professor in the
Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education at
Wilfrid Laurier University, specializing in psychological
factors associated with participation in physical activity.
She teaches courses in research design, sport and exercise
psychology, behaviour modification, and children and
sport. Dr. Dawson is a member of the Canadian Sport
Psychology Association and promotes physical activity
for disadvantaged youth within the Waterloo Region as
the director of the Sun Life Financial Centre for Physically
Active Communities. Her research interests focus on exer-
cise adherence, sport performance, and injury rehabilita-
tion factors, as well as using physical activity as a coping
mechanism for dealing with chronic disease.
Jordan Deneau (M.H.K.) is a research assistant in the
Department of Kinesiology at the University of Windsor.
His master’s research explored the perspectives of older
adults on matters related to successful aging and physi-
cally active leisure. He also serves as a fitness and health
coach to individuals of all ages and abilities.
Dr. Kim D. Dorsch is a professor in the Faculty of
Kinesiology and Health Studies at the University of
Regina. Her current research interests include examining
attentional processes and their impact on the perfor-
mance of officials and athletes. She is also a mental per-
formance consultant with the Canadian Sport Psychology
Association and has roles as a mental training consultant
and board member with the Saskatchewan Sport Science
and Medicine Council and the Canadian Sport Centre in
Saskatchewan.
Dr. Mark Eys is a professor and Canada Research Chair in
the Departments of Kinesiology/Physical Education and
Psychology at Wilfrid Laurier University. His research
examines group dynamics in physical activity with a
specific focus on role perceptions and cohesion in sport
teams. He was named Canadian Interuniversity Sport
Women’s Soccer Coach of the Year in 2001.
xiii
xiv About the Contributors
Dr. Guy Faulkner is currently a professor in the School
of Kinesiology at the University of British Columbia and
a Canadian Institutes of Health Research–Public Health
Agency of Canada Chair in Applied Public Health. His
research has focused on two interrelated themes: the
effectiveness of physical activity promotion interventions,
and physical activity and mental health. He is the found-
ing co-editor of the Elsevier journal Mental Health and
Physical Activity and co-editor of the book Exercise, Health
and Mental Health.
Dr. Jessica Fraser-Thomas is an associate professor in
the School of Kinesiology and Health Science at York
University. Her research focuses on children and youths’
development through sport, with a particular interest in
positive youth development, psychosocial influences, and
sport trajectories. Currently, she is working on a SSHRC-
funded project exploring young children’s earliest intro-
ductions to organized sport and characteristics of sport
programs that facilitate optimal youth development. She
is a recipient of the Canadian Society for Psychomotor
Learning and Sport Psychology Young Scientist Award
(2007), the Province of Ontario Volunteer Service Award
(2012), and recently (2017) served as the chair of the
YMCA Strong Kids Campaign (Northumberland).
Dr. Kimberley L. Gammage is an associate professor in
the Department of Kinesiology at Brock University and
the director of the Brock SeniorFit Exercise Program. Her
research focuses on social–psychological factors related
to exercise and health behaviours across the lifespan and
in diverse populations, with a focus on body image. In
particular, her lab is currently conducting a series of stud-
ies examining the relationship between physical activity
and positive body image. In addition, her lab investigates
shame and cortisol responses to social-evaluative body
image threats.
Dr. Patrick Gaudreau is a full professor in the School
of Psychology at the University of Ottawa. His research
interests are in the self-regulation of achievement-related
behaviours, with research projects on coping, goal man-
agement, and motivation in sport, education, and exer-
cise. The overarching goal of his research program is
to uncover the role of self-regulatory processes in goal
attainment and psychological adjustment of individu-
als in performance-related activities. In his spare time,
he enjoys coaching baseball for the teams of Olivier and
Antoine, and offers workshops and training to coaches,
parents, and sport administrators.
Dr. Melanie Gregg is a professor in the Department of
Kinesiology and Applied Health at the University of
Winnipeg. Her research interests focus on athletes’ moti-
vational imagery ability, psychological skill use by ath-
letes with intellectual disability, and recently has become
involved in research related to children’s development of
physical literacy. She also does applied work with athletes
from a variety of sports and coaches track and field.
Dr. Craig Hall is a professor in the School of Kinesiology
at Western University. His research primarily focuses on
imagery use in sport, exercise, and athletic injury reha-
bilitation. He has also investigated other topics, includ-
ing self-efficacy, self-talk, motivation, and observational
learning. He is a co-author of Psychological Interventions in
Sport, Exercise & Injury Rehabilitation. Family and squash
take up most of his non-academic time.
Dr. Sharleen Hoar is a performance psychology consul-
tant with the Canadian Sport Institute, working with high-
performance athletes, coaches, and support staff within
the sports of mountain bike/cross country, para-triathlon,
and swimming. A former competitive figure skater, she is
also an adjunct associate professor with the Department
of Kinesiology and Physical Education at the University of
Lethbridge and has published research on stress, coping,
and emotional control in sport.
Dr. Sean Horton is a professor in the Department of
Kinesiology at the University of Windsor. His research
focus is on skill acquisition and expert performance
throughout the lifespan, as well as how stereotypes of
aging affect seniors’ participation in exercise.
Dr. Kent C. Kowalski is a professor at the College of
Kinesiology at the University of Saskatchewan. His gen-
eral area of interest includes exploring the role of self-
compassion in the lives of athletes, as well as coping with
stress and emotion in sport and physical activity. He is
also currently an assistant coach with the University of
Saskatchewan Huskie Men’s soccer program.
Dr. Todd M. Loughead is a professor in the Department
of Kinesiology at the University of Windsor. His current
research interests include group dynamics in sport with
a personal interest in aggression. Specifically, his interests
are the development of athlete leadership skills in all ath-
letes, the importance of developing cohesion in sport, and
the influence of peer-to-peer mentoring in sport and its
impact on team functioning. As a coach in several sports,
he understands the importance of reducing aggression to
ensure not only player safety but continued enjoyment of
sport. Dr. Loughead teaches courses in group dynamics,
leadership, and applied sport psychology.
Dr. Diane E. Mack is a professor in the Department of
Kinesiology at Brock University. Her research interests
include the role of health-enhancing physical activity as a
mechanism to promote well-being.
Dr. Amber Mosewich is an assistant professor in the
Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation at the
University of Alberta. Her research interests focus on

the examination of stress, coping, emotion, and resultant
cognitive and behavioural responses within the sport
domain. A key directive of her work is to understand the
psychological skills and resources necessary to facilitate
successful and positive sport experiences and how best to
foster their development.
Dr. Krista Munroe-Chandler is recognized for her work
in the psychology of sport and exercise. She is a profes-
sor in the Faculty of Human Kinetics at the University of
Windsor. Her research interests include imagery use by
performers (sport, exercise, dance) as well as youth sport
development. She works with able-bodied athletes as well
as athletes with a disability of all ages, levels, and sports,
helping them achieve their personal performance goals.
Dr. David Paskevich is an associate professor and associ-
ate dean (academic) in the Faculty of Kinesiology at the
University of Calgary. His research interests centre on
the integration of the science–practitioner model, bring-
ing the science of sport psychology into practical/applied
settings, particularly in regard to the leadership, mental
skills, and toughness required for “performance con-
sistency” and “performance on demand” competitions.
Dr. Paskevich has worked with Canadian athletes at
a number of Olympic Games and has also consulted
with professional and other high-performance athletes
in a variety of sports, including hockey, football, soccer,
lacrosse, golf, rodeo, and volleyball.
Dr. Ryan E. Rhodes is a professor in the School of Exercise
Science, Physical & Health Education at the University of
Victoria and is director of the UVic Behavioural Medicine
Laboratory. He has research expertise in physical activ-
ity and social cognition theories, personality theory,
psychometric measurement, analysis, and design, with
an applied focus on physical activity and early family
development.
Dr. Jennifer Robertson-Wilson is an associate professor
in the Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education
at Wilfrid Laurier University. Her academic interests per-
tain to the psychology of physical activity. Her research
applies a social ecological lens to understand individual,
environmental (social and physical), and policy influences
on physical activity across a variety of settings, including
schools.
Dr. David Scott is an associate professor of sport psy-
chology in the Faculty of Kinesiology at the University of
New Brunswick in Fredericton. He teaches and researches
in the area of sport and exercise psychology, focusing
primarily on performance enhancement, and physical
activity and mental health. He has been a psychological
consultant with a number of national teams in addition to
working with teams in the National Hockey League.
About the Contributors  xv
Dr. Whitney A. Sedgwick is a registered psychologist at
the University of British Columbia’s Counselling Services
as well as the mental performance lead for UBC varsity
athletes. She has taught undergraduate and graduate
sport psychology courses at three Canadian universities
and has co-authored a mental training book for triath-
letes. Dr. Sedgwick has also been consulting with ath-
letes/coaches/sport organizations for the past 20 years,
including a year in Paris, France, where she worked with
national and Olympic athletes.
Kristy Smith is a PhD candidate in the Department of
Kinesiology at the University of Windsor. Her previous
research has focused on sport and physical activity par-
ticipation for children, adolescents, and older adults. Her
current work examines the impact of relative age on sport
participation and factors contributing to positive sport
experiences for young females.
Dr. Kevin S. Spink is a professor in the College of
Kinesiology at the University of Saskatchewan, specializ-
ing in group dynamics, specifically cohesion. He teaches
courses involving the application of social psychology to
exercise and sport behaviour. One focus of his research
involves examining the effect of social norms on the
behaviours of exercisers/athletes. Other research inter-
ests include examining the effects of group factors such as
groupness, cohesion, and psychological climate on exer-
cise/sport outcomes.
Dr. Katherine A. Tamminen is an associate professor
in the Faculty of Kinesiology and Physical Education at
the University of Toronto. Her areas of research include
stress, coping, and emotion in sport, psychosocial aspects
of youth sport participation, and interpersonal processes
and social psychology in sport.
Dr. Linda Trinh is an assistant professor in the Faculty of
Kinesiology and Physical Education at the University of
Toronto. Her research interests are focused on the devel-
opment of evidence-based and theoretically driven physi-
cal activity and sedentary behaviour interventions for
cancer control and survivorship.
Dr. Paula M. van Wyk is an assistant professor in the
Department of Kinesiology at the University of Windsor.
Her research focuses on using motor control, physiology,
and ergonomics/biomechanics as tools to enable popula-
tions such as individuals with a disability or older adults
to be physically active. More recently, she has been inves-
tigating the roles that physical literacy and health literacy
play in motivation among older adults to remain physi-
cally active, and how older adults understand informa-
tion related to their various potential interactions with the
health care system. Her passions are drawn from her own
athletic achievements in ballet and track, as well as her
xvi About the Contributors

family members who have proven that (dis)ability is in Dr. Philip M. Wilson is a professor in the Department
the eye of the beholder. of Kinesiology at Brock University. His research interests
focus on the interplay between measurement and theory
Dr. Patricia Weir is a professor of Kinesiology and Dean
for understanding motivational processes responsible
of the Faculty of Graduate Studies at the University of
for health behaviours. In his spare time, Dr. Wilson can
Windsor. Her research focuses on the development and
be found enjoying active living with Diane (and Portia)
maintenance of skilled performance across the lifespan
while finding time to follow his two favourite football
and factors influencing patterns of engagement in older
teams (Liverpool F.C. and England) and spoiling a good
adults. Dr. Weir enjoys spending time with family, a great
outdoor walk by “trying” to play golf.
book, and a long walk.
Preface
M
ost people are familiar with the term sport psy-
chology from popular media, which frequently
refer to elite athletes working with sport psy-
chologists to enhance performance. However, this is only
a small part of sport and exercise psychology. Involving
the study of psychological factors in physical activity set-
tings, this field includes diverse areas, such as the men-
tal health benefits of physical activity, motivation, aging
well, group dynamics, leadership, the benefits of youth
sport, effective coaching, emotional and self-regulation,
and body image, just to name a few.
Research and practice has a significant impact on the
lives of exercisers, athletes, coaches, health professionals,
and scholars in the field. Today, many Canadian schol-
ars are recognized as world leaders in this research and
practice, and their important work influences the lives of
many involved in physical activity in Canada.
Developed for an introductory undergraduate course
in sport and exercise psychology taught at Canadian insti-
tutions, the Fourth Edition of Sport and Exercise Psychology:
A Canadian Perspective presents an overview of the disci-
pline while building a solid foundation in core concepts.
Approach and Philosophy
Three unique features characterize this resource. First,
Canadian scholars who are all active teachers of under-
graduate sport and exercise psychology courses have
written the chapters. Second, this resource illustrates
important concepts by showcasing many Canadian ex-
amples. Third, the text not only highlights research by
Canadian scholars, but also recognizes the contributions
of distinguished academics around the world.
New to the Fourth Edition
Based on feedback from peer reviewers, educators, and
authors, we made several changes to the Fourth Edition:
• Incorporated a new chapter on aging and physical ac-
tivity behaviour
• Updated all chapters to reflect the latest develop-
ments in theory, research, and practice
• Increased the number of case studies
Organization
The 15 chapters of this text present the key topics cov-
ered in a typical introductory course. While educators
may wish to vary the sequence of coverage, we recom-
mend covering the first six foundational chapters in
order. Depending on the needs of specific courses, some
educators may wish to cover psychological interven-
tions (Chapter 7) before covering the chapters on group
processes, leadership, aging, exercise and mental health,
body image, and physical activity interventions.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the field. Topics in-
clude the diverse nature of sport and exercise psychology,
positive psychology in sport and exercise psychology, dif-
ferences in career orientations and educational training
opportunities, a brief history of sport and exercise psy-
chology in Canada and the world, ethics in sport and ex-
ercise psychology, and a basic primer in research methods
and the importance of evidence-based practice.
Chapter 2 examines personality perspectives in sport and
exercise. It covers conceptions of personality, ethics related
to measuring personality, and the limitations of personal-
ity in explaining athletic behaviour and performance as
well as exercise behaviour. The chapter also emphasizes
contemporary topics in sport and exercise personality, in-
cluding the five-factor model, competitiveness, sensation
seeking, passion, perfectionism, and mental toughness.
Chapter 3 focuses on models and principles of motivation
and behavioural change in sport and exercise. It provides
students with a brief review of behavioural, cognitive,
and cognitive–behavioural principles. Understanding
motivation within the context of sport and exercise spans
cognitive (the transtheoretical model, theory of planned
behaviour, social cognitive theory), humanistic (self-
determination theory), and non-conscious models.
Chapter 4 discusses stress, emotion, and coping in sport
and exercise. The chapter emphasizes types of cognitive
evaluations, types of coping, individual and group (team)
level coping, and the relationship between appraisal,
stress, and diverse emotions, such as anger, happiness,
anxiety, and fear. Major modifications include increased
emphasis on individual and interpersonal emotional reg-
ulation, neurophysiological effects of stress, coping effec-
tiveness and outcomes, and intervention strategies.
Chapter 5 concentrates on anxiety in sport and exercise. It
defines types and dimensions of anxiety, personal sources
of anxiety in sport and exercise settings, the specificity
of anxiety to competitive and exercise settings, and how
anxiety affects exercise and sport behaviour. Changes to
this chapter include increased coverage of factors in the
exercise environment contributing to anxiety and the phe-
nomenon of choking in sport. It also explains mechanisms
underlying the effects of anxiety and arousal on performance.
Chapter 6 focuses on moral development and aggres-
sion in sport. Important additions to this chapter include
bullying and hazing, as well as fan violence. It reviews
xvii
xviii Preface
various perspectives on how youth learn moral behaviour
in sport and the role of the environment and personal-
ity factors, such as motivational climate, team and sport
norms, and motivational orientation. Discussing key the-
ories useful for understanding why athletes (and specta-
tors) behave aggressively, this chapter also explores how
personal, situational, and group factors influence aggres-
sive behaviour while also examining ways to reduce this
type of conduct in sport.
Chapter 7 discusses how to enhance performance and
well-being in sporting populations. Addressing specific in-
tervention techniques for arousal, cognitive, and emotional
self-regulation, this chapter features many applied examples
and exercises. Specific topics include relaxation procedures,
psyching strategies, attention control, self-talk, imagery,
performance profiling, goal setting, and mindfulness.
Chapter 8 explores the factors associated with leadership
in sport and exercise settings. The chapter covers the vari-
ous ways to study leadership, including personality, situ-
ational, and interactional approaches. Highlighting key
processes of effective leadership within sport and exercise,
this chapter focuses on transactional and transformational
leadership styles and their application to various physical
activity settings. It concludes with a list of best practices.
Chapter 9 offers a comprehensive review of group cohe-
sion in sport and exercise. Students will learn about group
dynamics, group cohesion and its measurement, how and
why cohesion affects behaviour in both sport and exercise
settings, a conceptual model of cohesion, and team-building
concepts. The chapter also covers the relationship between
cohesion and correlates such as group size, activity setting
type, leader behaviours, hazing, adherence, effort, social
loafing, sacrifice, collective efficacy, psychological momen-
tum, and team success.
Chapter 10 describes the health and developmental ben-
efits of youth sport participation. The chapter explains the
potential outcomes of youth sport participation, principles
of positive youth development, and how youth sport pro-
grams and types of activities lead to positive sport expe-
riences. This edition includes greater emphasis on how
parents and peers can influence the development of a
child’s competence, confidence, connection, and character.
Chapter 11 discusses the complexity of coaching psychol-
ogy. Beginning with a description of the structure and
process of coaching education in Canada, the chapter
discusses the steps to becoming an elite coach, the five
bodies of literature that explain the psychological factors
involved in coaching, and the common characteristics and
coaching principles of youth sport coaches.
Chapter 12 provides an overview of factors related to
sport and exercise in older adults. We included this chap-
ter to acknowledge that many “older” Canadians are,
and should be, involved in physical activity. Highlighting
a wide range of issues—including the activity patterns
of older adults, factors influencing sport and exercise
involvement in this group, the proliferation of masters
athletes, and the impact of societal perceptions of aging
on physical and cognitive performance—this chapter of-
fers strategies for increasing sport and exercise involve-
ment in older adult populations.
Chapter 13 explores the relationship between exercise
and mental health. The chapter has been rewritten to
distinguish between mental health and mental illness.
Examining how and why physical activity might be an
effective mental health promotion strategy, this chapter
showcases evidence about how physical activity may per-
form a preventive function, a treatment function, a qual-
ity of life function, and a feel-good function for emotional
well-being among healthy populations and those with ex-
isting mental or chronic illness. It also covers the different
mechanisms that could explain the relationship between
exercise and mental health, while providing a framework
for understanding physical activity and mental health
relationships. A new focus considers the relationship be-
tween sedentary behaviour and mental health.
Chapter 14 details the multidimensional nature of body
image and its link to motivated behaviour in sport and
exercise. The chapter discusses key factors in the devel-
opment of body image and the association between body
image and mental health, emotions, stress, and cardio-
metabolic outcomes. Practical strategies are identified
to help reduce negative body image or enhance positive
body image in sport and exercise settings.
Chapter 15 outlines exercise interventions and builds
upon concepts from previous chapters related to exercise
psychology while highlighting the means by which to in-
crease physical activity in all populations. It describes how
specific theories can be used to understand and enhance
physical activity interventions, non-theoretical approaches
to exercise intervention, the key components to increase
the success rate of exercise interventions, and how exercise
can enhance the lives of both non-clinical and clinical pop-
ulations. The chapter includes many practical guidelines
about interventions to increase physical activity.
Pedagogical Features
We continue to employ many pedagogical features that
facilitate learning and enhance understanding.
• Learning Objectives. A set of four to seven learning
objectives provide a road map at the beginning of
each chapter to help students read the material more
effectively.
• Vignette. Each chapter begins with a scenario that
raises issues and topics to be addressed in the chap-
ter; many of the vignettes present actual, real-world
situations.
• Common Myths. Each chapter includes three to five
common myths about the chapter’s subject. We clar-
ify and dispel each myth by presenting clear evidence
to the contrary.

• Key Terms in Margins. Key terms are boldfaced where
they are introduced in the text and appear in the mar-
gins with definitions, providing an effective way for
students to engage with important terms and concepts.
• Case Studies. Case studies illustrate and exemplify
key ideas and concepts.
• Reflections Boxes. Each chapter contains Reflections
boxes that require students to consider how key con-
cepts and ideas apply to their personal knowledge
and experiences.
• Canadian Examples. Numerous Canadian examples
support concepts, making the material more relevant
to students studying at Canadian institutions.
• Figures and Tables. Diagrams, graphs, and tables il-
lustrate and clarify important points.
Preface  xix
• Photos. New and timely colour photos throughout
the book feature athletes and participants in physical
activity.
• Weblinks. References to many useful websites for
sport and exercise psychology, advanced papers,
scholarly organizations, and scholarly journals are
included.
• Chapter Summary. A summary of the main points
appears near the end of each chapter.
• Suggested Readings. A list of readings for the inter-
ested student is presented at the end of the text, orga-
nized by chapter.
• Glossary. All the key terms are presented at the end
of the text, organized by chapter, with full definitions.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge all the contributors to this
text. These individuals represent many of the scholars in
sport and exercise psychology in Canada, and they have
all made a special contribution. We would also like to
recognize those instructors who provided us with formal
reviews of parts of the manuscript. Their observations,
ideas, and comments greatly improved the quality of all
chapters.
List of Reviewers
• Rebecca Bassett-Gunter, York University
• Jennifer Brunet, University of Ottawa
• Krista Chandler, University of Windsor
• Tanya Forneris, University of British Columbia
• Amy M. Gayman, Wilfrid Laurier University
xx
• Carly Priebe, University of Saskatchewan
• Jill Tracey, Wilfrid Laurier University
• Wade Wilson, University of Waterloo
We would also like to thank all of the individuals involved
at Pearson Canada who supported the text through de-
velopment and production: Cathleen Sullivan, executive
portfolio manager; Madhu Ranadive, content manager;
Kathryn O’Handley, content developer; Andrea Falken-
berg, manager, project management; Ainsley Somerville,
project manager; Kimberly Teska, senior marketing man-
ager; Meaghan Lloyd, permissions project manager; and
Leanne Rancourt, copy editor.
Peter R.E. Crocker
Catherine Sabiston
Meghan McDonough
Chapter 1
Introducing Sport and
Exercise Psychology
Peter R. E. Crocker
David Scott
Melanie Gregg
Erica Bennett

Gilbert Iundt/Corbis/VCG via Getty Images

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1.1 Explain key features of the field of sport and exercise psychology
and describe the career paths and educational orientations of
specialists.
1.2 Identify the basic standards of conduct and service in sport and
exercise psychology.

1
2 Chapter 1

1.3 Identify key moments in the history of sport and exercise

psychology in Canada and the world.
1.4 Identify key research concepts and describe qualitative and
quantitative approaches to sport and exercise psychology
research.

Shelley and Jeff are siblings who are both high-performance youth athletes. Shelley is a gifted
15-year-old provincial basketball player. Sports have always come easy for her, and she was a star
player in multiple sports growing up. She loves to hang out with her teammates, and they constantly
talk about how they can work together to improve as a team. At a personal level, Shelley sets high
sport performance goals but also feels that basketball is just one part of her life. Her coaches love
her because she is highly motivated to learn new skills and puts full effort into every practice and
game. She embraces challenge, is task focused, and accepts mistakes as a necessary part of
learning. Constantly striving for achievement, Shelley believes that developing better psychological
and emotional control skills will help her not only be a better athlete, but also a better person.
Jeff, a 17-year-old lacrosse player, has always had to work harder than others to be successful.
Known as an aggressive player, he desperately wants to be better than others and highly values the
social status of being a star. Specializing early as a lacrosse player, Jeff is willing to play through in-
juries to impress his teammates and is extremely proud to wear the captain’s C on his Salmonbellies
jersey. His teammates, coaches, and friends all believe he will get a big college scholarship. But Jeff
is increasingly worried about his mental health. Coaching pressures and his own high aspirations
frequently lead him to be overly self-critical about small mistakes. He is often consumed with being
perfect. Lately he is having trouble coping with stress, often experiencing debilitating anxiety during
games. The inability to control stress and emotions has also spilled over into his schooling, and he is
having trouble concentrating on assignments. Jeff is uncertain about how to manage these problems.
Shelley and Jeff’s mother has also been facing her own physical activity challenges. Having
recently turned 50, Christine would like to become more active to improve her health and fitness.
She was recently diagnosed with atrial fibrillation, an irregular heartbeat that can lead to many heart-
related complications. Given that both of her parents died in their 60s of heart attacks, Christine is
worried about her health. Although she was very active in her youth, the pressures of career building
and motherhood created many barriers to remaining physically active. Since she has long known
about the benefits of exercise, Christine feels guilt and shame over the condition and shape of her
body. She knows, despite how unpleasant exercise is now, that a regular exercise program will help
improve her fitness and her emotional state. Some of Christine’s older friends tell her to “chill out”
about her size, since women put on weight as they age, and that exercise is for the young. Christine
has identified several key barriers to exercise, including lack of time and difficulty in getting to a gym,
as well as anxiety about showing off her body in exercise settings. She has a good friend, Janice,
who would also like to become healthier. Both women have been thinking about exercising for the
last few months but just cannot get started. However, they both agree that they must start soon.
After reading an online article on the benefits of sport and exercise and consulting with her chil-
dren, Christine decides they could all benefit from professional help. Through a registry established
by the provincial sport medicine council, Christine contacts Dr. Sedgeway, a registered psychologist
who specializes in sport. Dr. Sedgeway also uses the services of Dr. Guy, a well-known expert in
exercise psychology and older adults.
The above vignette illustrates common situations that capture many elements of sport and exer-
cise psychology. Shelley’s and Jeff’s experiences involve personality, motivation, stress and coping,
emotion regulation and performance, aggression, group cohesion, coaching and parental leader-
ship, and issues surrounding early specialization in sport. Christine’s story reflects issues involving
motivation, aging and aging stereotypes, body image, mental health and exercise, and physical
activity interventions.
The vignette also highlights the potential services of qualified sport and exercise psychology
consultants. To help Christine and her family, a sport and exercise psychology consultant must
have expertise in a number of areas informed by strong research. These areas include knowledge
of how psychological factors can influence performance and motivation; knowledge about exercise
adoption and adherence in older adults; knowledge of the technical, physical, and psychological
demands of competitive sport; knowledge of assessment to determine the psychological skills of
the athlete; knowledge related to motivational factors in exercise; and intervention skills to design
and implement an effective intervention. Indeed, sport and exercise psychology consultants require
knowledge and skills in many areas.
When many students think about sport and exercise psychology, they commonly believe that
professionals work primarily with high-performance athletes or maybe work in specialized exercise
 Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology 3

settings. But this viewpoint is far from reality. In this chapter, we will discuss the various roles and train-
ing in sport and exercise psychology. As you will discover, sport and exercise psychology specialists
work in a variety of settings, have a multiplicity of educational training opportunities, and possess vary-
ing competencies. But how does one become a sport and exercise psychology specialist? How does
research help us understand the interrelationship between psychological factors and involvement in
physical activity, as well as inform the evidence-based practices of practitioners? There are also ethi-
cal standards that govern the application of sport and exercise psychology principles. Many of the
practices and controversies in sport and exercise psychology were shaped by its history—a history
unlike that of other fields in psychology. In this chapter, we will address many of these issues. We will
also provide a primer on basic research issues that can help students understand the role of research
in providing insight into how personal and environmental factors influence participants’ thoughts, emo-
tions, and performance. But before we go any further, it is important to identify a few common myths
about sport and exercise psychology. We will address these myths at the end of the chapter.

Common Myths about Sport and Exercise Psychology

MYTH: Only athletes or exercisers with serious mental problems MYTH: All sport psychology specialists work with elite athletes
need a sport or exercise psychology specialist. to enhance their performance.

Canada has a great sporting history, with numerous athletes reaching the peak of per-
formance in world championships, Olympics, Paralympics, and professional champi-
onships. Today, millions of Canadians are involved in organized sport. Beyond sport,
there is scientific and social recognition that participation in regular physical activity
across the lifespan is important for both physical and mental health. Sport and exercise
are important elements of Canadian life. Physical activity experiences might involve
snowshoeing in the mountains of British Columbia, playing hockey on an outdoor
rink in the Prairies, canoeing the waterways of the Yukon or Quebec, doing an aerobic
exercise class in Manitoba, engaging in a specialized activity session for people with
spinal cord injuries in Ontario, kayaking with whales in Newfoundland–Labrador, or
hiking in the highlands of Cape Breton Island.
Understanding sport and exercise involves many subdisciplines in the sport sci-
ences, including sport and exercise psychology. Reflect on your own experiences of
participating in and watching sports or exercise. How do we make sense of why some
athletes make unforced errors in crucial situations whereas others seem to play their
best in clutch situations? Of acts of violence by parents at a children’s sporting event?
Of athletes’ feelings of joy or shame after events? What are the characteristics and
behaviours of effective coaches? Why do some people seem to find it easy to be physi-
cally active, whereas others cannot even get started despite their best intentions? One
of the most perplexing questions is why is it so difficult to get people to change their
health behaviour when they know it will lead to healthier outcomes. It is little wonder
that people are interested in sport and exercise psychology.

The Nature of Sport and Exercise

Psychology
1.1 Explain key features of the field of sport and exercise psychology and
describe the career paths and educational orientations of specialists.
Sport and exercise psychology is a legitimate scientific and applied discipline through-
out the world and is an important component of the sport sciences in Canada. The
term sport and exercise psychology means different things to various people in an array
4 Chapter 1
Sport and exercise
psychology
An interdisciplinary scientific
and applied field that em-
braces the integration of sport
science and psychological
knowledge.
of situations. If you entered “definition of sport and exercise psychology” into an in-
ternet search engine, the results would reveal numerous definitions. Some definitions
would emphasize sport and exercise science, some would emphasize performance
enhancement, and still others would address psychological principles applied to
physical activity settings. The reason for this inconsistency is that sport and exercise
psychology has been shaped by theoretical and methodological influences of both
kinesiology and psychology (Vealey, 2006; Eklund & Crocker, 2018). However, much
of the research and practice in sport and exercise psychology is heavily dominated
by theoretical perspectives that were developed in the general field of psychology. In
Canada, students can take sport and exercise psychology courses in most sport sci-
ence programs (kinesiology, human kinetics, and exercise and health sciences). The
study of sport and/or exercise psychology has more often been nurtured in academic
units focused on kinesiology (see Eklund & Crocker, 2018). Nevertheless, an increasing
number of psychology programs are offering sport and exercise psychology courses at
the undergraduate level, and sport and exercise psychology is recognized within the
Canadian Psychological Association (CPA). Thus, we believe that sport and exercise
psychology is an interdisciplinary scientific and applied field that embraces the inte-
gration of sport science and psychological knowledge.
Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Multidimensional
Perspective
Students might ask what makes sport and exercise psychology unique as a field of
study and practice from other areas of psychology. Not only does it integrate both
sport science and psychological knowledge, but it integrates many areas of psychol-
ogy (Anshel, 2012). Many traditional and emerging disciplines within psychology con-
tinue to have an impact on sport and exercise psychology, and you will recognize the
impact of these various areas of psychology throughout this resource. These include,
but are not restricted to, cognitive psychology, clinical and counselling psychology,
behavioural neuroscience, social psychology, developmental psychology, and health
psychology.
It should be recognized that all areas of psychology are influenced by develop-
ments in other academic disciplines, including computer science, sociology, medicine,
education, family studies, and gender studies, to name a few. The search for knowl-
edge regarding human challenges goes beyond arbitrarily defined academic boundar-
ies. Think about a person trying to recover physical and social functioning following
a stroke. Recovering, rediscovering, and redefining oneself will require integrating
knowledge from many disciplines, including neurophysiology, exercise physiology
and rehabilitation, exercise motivation, stress and emotion, social psychology, and
counselling. Canadian researchers and practitioners are aware that many human
health and wellness challenges require a transdisciplinary approach. Sport and exer-
cise psychology specialists are well positioned to make a positive contribution to
Canadian society.
Positive Psychology in Sport and Exercise
There is a common belief that sport and exercise psychology focuses on abnormal or
problematic behaviour—that is, that the field is driven by a medical model to reduce or
eliminate pathological mental behaviours. Indeed, much has been made of how sport
and exercise can be employed as an effective intervention with respect to psychological
challenges such as depression and anxiety. There can be little doubt that this has had
important and positive consequences with regard to the growth of sport and exercise as
a vehicle for bringing about improvements in quality of life. However, the question of
what makes life worth living remains more elusive. What role does sport and exercise
 Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology 5

play with regard to general satisfaction and happiness with life? For example, does
­supporting a particular team or playing a specific sport allow people to thrive? Can sport
and exercise contribute to an individual’s self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in
life, and positive social relationships? What kinds of sporting and/or physical activities
do people who are contented, satisfied, and fulfilled with everyday life participate in?
Recent years have seen renewed interest in the field of positive psychology, an Positive psychology
area of psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes that enable An area of psychology con-
people and groups to thrive. Seligman (2002) criticized psychology (and much of his cerned primarily with under-
own earlier work) for focusing too much on mental illness and repair and not enough standing the processes that
on the human side of strength and personal growth. This is not to say that studying phe- enable people and groups to
thrive.
nomena such as anxiety or fear is not worthwhile; however, much can be learned from
the positive aspects of life. Kobau and colleagues (2011), for example, have proposed
that positive psychology be thought of as focusing on the more favourable attributes or
strengths that an individual may possess, and Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000)
have suggested that positive psychology can be thought of as an examination of the
subjective experiences of well-being, satisfaction, fulfilment, pleasure, and happiness.
So how does positive psychology relate to sport and exercise? Much of the research
in sport and exercise psychology is directed toward enhancing performance, social and
physical well-being, and positive emotion. For example, adopting a positive psychology
approach may have many benefits in the world of performance enhancement. Often,
skill development and performance improvement is a slow, frustrating, and sometimes
deflating process. The adoption of a mindset that encourages satisfaction, pleasure,
and happiness often leads to resiliency and perseverance. Resiliency can be thought
of as the process of positive adaptation in the context of adversity or risk (Masten &
Reed, 2005), and positive psychology can strengthen psychological resilience through
the development of skills based on avoiding thinking traps, staying calm and focused,
and putting things in perspective (Lorig et al., 2000). The development of resiliency is
important in the sport and exercise environment. It has been suggested by Ericsson
and colleagues (1993) that it takes approximately 10,000 hours of deliberate practice to
develop expert ability. This cannot be achieved without resiliency. Similarly, many of
the benefits of exercise only occur over a sustained period of activity.
Positive psychology in sport and exercise can include emotional, cognitive, and
behavioural intervention approaches (Park-Perin, 2013). Emotional methods can focus
on fostering positive emotional states such as joy, happiness, relaxation, and satisfac-
tion. Such states are important for motivation and well-being. Cognitive methods
include examining how factors such as optimism influence emotional experience,
motivation, health, and performance (Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Park-Perin, 2013).
Behavioural methods involve enhancing behavioural self-regulation strategies. One
specific example is nurturing psychological strengths. Rather than trying to reduce
weaknesses, this approach gets athletes to focus on their strengths to improve confi-
dence and facilitate developing mental toughness (Gordon, 2012).
Many studies in sport and exercise psychology research are rooted in positive
psychology. Research has focused on such topics as intrinsic motivation, confidence,
enjoyment, satisfaction, positive psychological growth, team cohesion, effective lead-
ership, mental well-being, goal setting, self-compassion, challenge, and success. Even
when exercise psychologists work with clinical conditions, such as spinal cord injuries,
cancer, and cardiac rehabilitation, a major focus is related to enhancing well-being by
increasing positive qualities like confidence, independence, social and physical func-
tioning, and life satisfaction (Vallance et al., 2013; Motl, 2013).
A frequent criticism of positive psychology is that it has been dominated by psy-
chological theory and is therefore difficult to apply in the area of sport enhancement.
However, positive psychology and coaching psychology share the common founda-
tion of optimal functioning (Green et al., 2012), and positive psychology can contribute
to performance enhancement coaching by expanding our understanding of the link
6 Chapter 1

Positive psychology in sport and

exercise focuses on understanding
issues such as why people strive,
thrive, and grow as individuals in
these contexts.

David Pereiras Villagrá/123RF

between positive traits, states, and performance (Mouton, 2016). The role and influ-
ence of positive psychology in the area of coaching has grown steadily in importance,
and Kauffman and colleagues (2010) have referred to positive psychology as being the
science at the heart of coaching. A key foundation of positive psychology in coaching
is the idea that athletes will perform better if they use and develop their strengths
rather than focusing on their weaknesses. This approach is referred to as strengths-
based coaching (Gordon et al., 2017), and it has been suggested that this approach can
enhance athletes’ mental toughness and consequently their on-field performance.

Careers in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Many students want to know what career options are available in sport and exercise
psychology, and what are the best academic pathways to these careers. These career
options can be classified into three major areas: teaching, research, and consulting. We
will briefly discuss each of these roles below.

TEACHING In Canada and the United States, most sport and exercise psychology
specialists are employed in universities and colleges and have a primary responsi-
bility for teaching undergraduate and graduate courses. Courses may range from
introductory sport and exercise psychology to more specialized courses, such as
applied sport psychology, mental training, motivational counselling, developmental
and lifespan sport and exercise psychology, and behavioural medicine. Some sport
and exercise psychologists also provide educational services to community and
sport organizations. These teaching situations may involve increasing the aware-
ness of sport and exercise psychology; teaching basic principles of sport and exercise
psychology; helping athletes to develop, modify, and apply psychological skills to
enhance performance; or working with clients to enhance exercise behaviour and
well-being (Cox, 1998).

RESEARCH A primary responsibility of sport and exercise psychology special-

ists working in universities is to advance knowledge. Through specialized train-
ing, researchers are able to design, conduct, and evaluate many research questions.
Researchers in the areas of personality, motivation, anxiety, stress and coping, group
 Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology 7

Table 1.1 Selected Sport and Exercise Psychology Professional Organizations

Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport
Psychology/Société Canadienne d’Apprentissage Psychomoteur www.scapps.org
et de Psychologie du Sport (SCAPPS)
Canadian Sport Psychology Association (CSPA) www.cspa-acps.ca
International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) www.issponline.org
European Federation of Sport Psychology/Fédération Européenne
www.fepsac.com
de Psychologie des Sports et des Activités Corporelles (FEPSAC)
Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) www.appliedsportpsych.org
American Psychological Association Division 47: Society for
www.apadivisions.org/division-47
Sport, Exercise and Performance Psychology
North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical
www.naspspa.org
Activity (NASPSPA)
Australian Psychological Society: College of Sport and Exercise
www.groups.psychology.org.au/csep
Psychologists

cohesion, aggression and moral behaviour, youth sport, aging and physical activ-
ity, leadership and coaching, body image, exercise and mental health, and physical
activity and sport psychology interventions seek to describe, predict, explain, and
sometimes change cognition, emotion, and behaviour in physical activity settings.
Research findings are presented at conferences and in refereed journals and books
(see Tables 1.1 and 1.2 for lists of professional organizations and journals, respec-
tively). These presentations and publications allow scholars to engage in discussions
and debates about the strengths and limitations of various theories, methods, and
paradigms.

CONSULTING A third major role of the sport and exercise psychology specialist is
to help individuals, teams, and organizations improve performance; change physi-
cal activity behaviour; manage sport and life demands; and enhance personal well-
being. These specialists might be licensed sport psychologists or individuals who
have a strong knowledge of educational and psychological skills but are not formally
licensed. The issues concerning who can provide sport and exercise psychology ser-
vices and who can call themselves sport and exercise psychologists are discussed later
in this chapter.
In Canada, many professional sport teams and national sport organizations
employ sport psychology consultants. In the United States, many major universi-
ties have full-time consultants, but this is not the case in Canada. However, an
increasing number of Canadian universities do use sport psychology consultants

Table 1.2 Representative Sport and Exercise Psychology Journals

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology www.humankinetics.com/JSEP
www.tandfonline.com/toc/
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology
uasp20/.U40-5Jj0gUU
The Sport Psychologist www.humankinetics.com/TSP
www.tandfonline.com/toc/
International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
rijs20/.U40-kJj0gUU
International Journal of Sport Psychology www.ijsp-online.com
www.sciencedirect.com/
Psychology of Sport and Exercise
journal/psychology-of-sport-and-exercise
www.appliedsportpsych.org/
Journal of Sport Psychology in Action publications/journal-of-sport-psychology-
in-action
www.bps.org.uk/publications/
Sport and Exercise Psychology Review
sport-and-exercise-psychology-review
8 Chapter 1

An increasing role of sport psy-

chology specialists is as a consul-
tant to athletes.

Ostill/123RF

on a limited basis. There are also consultants working in the fitness industry, in
rehabilitation settings, in the military, and in the business community (Anshel,
2012). In Canada, very few individuals make their living as full-time sport and
exercise psychology consultants, however. Most sport and exercise psychology
specialists combine sport consulting with university or college careers or psycho-
logical consulting in other areas.
Sport and exercise psychology consultants tend to play three general roles.
Educational consultants typically teach people psychological skills to facilitate
performance, increase exercise, and enhance well-being. Counselling consultants
help people with developmental concerns, adjustment, and challenges (Petitpas,
1996). Clinical psychology consultants can assist clients in educational and coun-
selling areas, but they also have special training in psychopathology. Of course,
both counselling and clinical psychologists might also provide educational ser-
vices in physical activity settings. We will discuss the specialized training required
in the next section.

Training to Be a Sport and Exercise

Psychology Specialist
Since sport and exercise psychology is an interdisciplinary field, there are multiple
­career pathways. The training required to be a sport and exercise psychology specialist,
however, is contentious and a source of constant debate. Silva (2002) noted that there
was little controversy in the 1960s and 1970s, since most sport and exercise psychology
specialists were academically oriented. Now, an increasing number of students and
academics are interested in applied sport and exercise psychology. However, work-
ing in applied settings requires a set of competencies different from that required in
academic settings.
 Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology 9

So what kind of training is required? Unfortunately, there is no easy answer! To a

large extent, educational training depends on what career path a person chooses. There
are multiple career tracks that combine teaching, research, performance enhancement,
and the provision of clinical or counselling services. The American Psychological
Association provides some guidance on graduate training and career possibilities in
exercise and sport psychology (www.apadivisions.org/division-47/index.aspx). For
simplicity, we will briefly describe two general training orientations: (1) sport science
education and (2) clinical and counselling sport and exercise psychology.

SPORT SCIENCE EDUCATION In Canada, most sport and exercise psychology

specialists work in university and college settings and thus require strong teaching
and research skills. Typically, they are extensively trained in the sport sciences and
in research methods and take additional courses in psychology and/or counselling.
Nevertheless, there are trends toward more interdisciplinary training that combines
the sport sciences and psychology. Currently, a wide range of academic programs
that provide varied learning experiences are available to students. Interested stu-
dents can find relevant information in an Association for Applied Sport Psychology
directory of graduate programs in Canada, the United States, Australia, and Great
Britain.

CLINICAL AND COUNSELLING SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY Clinical

psychology and counselling psychology are closely related fields. Clinical psychology
training typically focuses on the assessment and rehabilitation of serious psychologi-
cal dysfunctions. Counselling training tends to focus more on helping people with
adjustment or development problems. However, there is significant overlap in the
training of clinical and counselling psychologists (see Petitpas, 1996).
The training of clinical and counselling psychologists is well grounded in psy-
chological theory, assessment, intervention, research methods, and ethics and often
requires a supervised internship. Clinical and counselling psychologists who work as
sport psychologists usually have completed graduate courses or supplementary train-
ing in the sport sciences. The specific training for clinical psychologists is linked to
the registration (licensing) standards of individual provincial and territorial regula-
tory bodies. Students interested in the specific requirements and accredited academic
programs can visit the CPA website (www.cpa.ca) for appropriate links.

LICENSING OF SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGISTS Many individuals pro-

viding performance enhancement services to athletes are called sport psychologists
by the media. However, is this appropriate? In Canada, provincial and territorial laws
regulate the use of the term psychologist. These laws were enacted to protect people Psychologist
from being exploited, possibly by untrained individuals. In most cases, psychologists A term that is defined and
must complete specific types of educational training and pass examinations set by regulated by provincial and
psychological licensing boards. The specific rules for the use of the title psychologist territorial boards in Canada.
vary across provinces and territories.
There are a number of professionals who are well trained in sport sciences,
exercise motivation counselling, psychology, and performance enhancement tech-
niques but who are not licensed sport psychologists. In applied settings, people
have used such designations as mental skills trainer, sport and exercise psychology
consultant, and sport science consultant. Regardless of which title practitioners
adopt, they are responsible for meeting standards of conduct when providing
sport and exercise psychology services. The CPA, the Canadian Sport Psychology
Association (CSPA), and the AASP have been proactive in identifying the necessary
standards and competencies required for providing sport and exercise psychology
services to athletes (see Table 1.3). The next section discusses these standards and
competencies.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of John
Tincroft, bachelor and benedict
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: John Tincroft, bachelor and benedict

or, Without intending it

Author: George E. Sargent

Release date: March 18, 2024 [eBook #73193]

Language: English

Original publication: London: The Religious Tract Society, 1891

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN

TINCROFT, BACHELOR AND BENEDICT ***
 Transcriber's note: Unusual and inconsistent spelling is
as printed.
 JOHN TINCROFT

BACHELOR AND BENEDICT

OR

WITHOUT INTENDING IT

BY

GEORGE E. SARGENT

AUTHOR OF

"THE STORY OF A CITY ARAB," "THE STORY OF A POCKET BIBLE,"

ETC., ETC.

LONDON

THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY

 56 PATERNOSTER ROW, 65 ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD

AND 164 PICCADILLY

MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.

CONTENTS.

CHAP.

I. AT LIBERTY HALL

II. THE LOVERS' WALK

III. THE PICNIC

IV. IN THE GROTTO

V. THE MAELSTROM
 VI. JOHN TINCROFT'S RESOLUTION

VII. TWO FRIENDS—TWO LETTERS

VIII. WHO'S WHO?

IX. A RIFT IN THE CLOUD

X. IN THE FILBERT ALLEY

XI. SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT

XII. THE LION'S MOUTH

XIII. MR. RUBRIC'S LETTER

XIV. JOHN TINCROFT'S BOLD STROKE

XV. FIREWORKS

XVI. JOHN TINCROFT STILL UNDER A CLOUD

XVII. HELEN

XVIII. AN ADVENTURE

XIX. WHAT HAPPENED AT LOW BEECH FARM

XX. HOW TOM GRIGSON SPED IN HIS WOOING

XXI. JOHN TINCROFT AT HOME; AND THE SKELETON

THERE

XXII. A LETTER FROM AUSTRALIA

XXIII. A MONTH OF WONDERS

XXIV. "COALS OF FIRE"

XXV. HIGH AND LOW BEECH

XXVI. SARAH'S CONFESSION

XXVII. ELIZABETH'S GRIEVANCES

XXVIII. THE LAST OF THE HOLLY ARBOUR

XXIX. "BLESSED ARE THE PEACEMAKERS"

XXX. A TERRIBLE TEMPTATION

XXXI. YOUNG TOM GRIGSON

XXXII. IN THE FLOWER GARDEN

XXXIII. MORE PANICS THAN ONE

JOHN TINCROFT.

CHAPTER I.
 AT LIBERTY HALL.

SO many years ago that those who are old now were
young then, and so few years ago that deeds then
transacted are fresh in the memory of many who are living
now, John Tincroft, an undergraduate of Oxford, was invited
to spend the long vacation with a college friend.

And the invitation came very opportunely, John thought.

For one reason, he had no home of his own. His parents

had been long dead, and a distant relative—a London
merchant—who had charge of his orphanhood, was not
particularly, certainly not passionately, fond of him. This
gentleman took care to explain, however, to all whom it
might concern, that he had always done his duty towards
the lad. But, as regards this duty, whatever else it might
include, it possibly had not occurred to Mr. Rackstraw that
the providing a happy home should have formed a
component part of it.

In the next place, John Tincroft was comparatively poor,

and he was becoming poorer. His patrimony, a small one at
first, had been woefully diminished by his three years' term-
keeping, and still more so by carrying on a Chancery suit;
that is, by paying his lawyer to carry it on for him. He was
not in debt, however, which was something in his favour—or
perhaps in his disfavour with college tradesmen.

But he was much nearer the bottom of his purse than

he cared to be, when the offer of a three months' residence
in a hospitable home was placed before him. He had only
one or two more terms to keep, and he wisely thought that
he could not employ this last long vacation better than in
reading with young Grigson (if he would be read with) as
was proposed. So the invitation was accepted.

In another year, Tincroft would be far-away from

England. He was going to India in the Civil Service. This
much his guardian, who had no sons of his own to step into
the appointment, had done for him, without much cost or
trouble to himself.

"It will be the making of you, if you mind what you are
about John," said Mr. Rackstraw; "and as to that plaguey
Chancery suit and the Tincroft estate, it isn't worth your
while staying in England to be the winner—or the loser,
which is the more likely of the two."

He did not add audibly, "And I shall be well rid of you

into the bargain," though probably, he thought it within
himself.

John Tincroft had already commenced making

preparations in a small way for his expatriation, as well as
for his future duties; that is, he had plunged head foremost
into certain Oriental histories, under a misty idea that they
would be useful to him when he got to Calcutta.

John Tincroft, though an Oxford "gownsman," was a shy

and awkward youth, of about two or three and twenty. He
had never had the advantage of society—ladies' society, of
course, is meant; and this deprivation had been hurtful, for
it had made almost a misanthrope of him. In this respect,
however, he had been the victim of circumstances.

His mother he had never known: he had no sister nor

aunt nor fair cousin to initiate him into the mysteries of
easy intercourse with his species. His school breeding, and,
after that, his college training, together with his guardian's
want of sympathy, had had the further effect of
monasticising his young life. And this effect, which had
grown into a habit, had been intensified by his narrow
circumstances. Everybody knew that John Tincroft was
under the cloud of straitened means, and who does not
know, or cannot understand, how this evil reputation
(according to worldly maxims) inexorably closes one door
after another against those who lie under it?

Tincroft, at any rate, had felt it keenly, and it had

increased his natural shyness.

The isolation of which we have spoken had favoured

him in one respect, however: it had made a hard student of
him, which, perhaps, he might not otherwise have been.
For, to tell the truth, John Tincroft was not over-bright,
though, under the circumstances, which otherwise were in
his disfavour, he had thus far, and almost to the end,
passed through his college course creditably.

More than this, he had happened to be of some use to

Tom Grigson, the hospitalities of whose home he was about
to experience. How the young freshman in his first term
managed to get into trouble with the authorities of the
university, and how the older and remarkably quiet fellow-
collegian was accidentally, but fortunately, able to help him
out of it; how the two thereafter formed a kind of friendly
acquaintance; how Tincroft aided Grigson in his attempts at
scaling some of the lower heights of Parnassus; how, in
return, the younger occasionally enticed the elder to the
Minor dissipations of a boating trip to Nuneham, a scamper
to Woodstock on hired hacks, a stroll to Wytham strawberry
gardens—(are they there still, I wonder?)—or a cricket
match on Bullingdon Green, must be left to another pen or
another time.
 Once, I grieve to say, the volatile Tom induced the sober
John to a surreptitious badger-draw in Bagley Wood, where
they had "capital sport," as Tom averred; and on another
occasion—but this is a secret—the two started off, under
shelter of a winter evening, to the neighbouring town of
Abingdon to witness the débût of a young actress at a
temporary theatre there, the severe morality of Oxford
forbidding stage-plays within the precincts of the sacred
university town; and once, only once, the recluse was
entrapped by his tempter into the revelries of a wine-party
—once was enough, for, as the due punishment of his sin,
poor Tincroft had a splitting headache which lasted him
three days. All this, in more minute detail, must remain
untold.

To compensate for these occasional outbreaks, it is only

fair to say that the influence of the steadier gownsman was
often exerted in keeping his more mercurial friend from
mischief, and in prompting him to a decent attention to his
studies. An assurance of this fact from Tom Grigson himself
had been the procuring cause of invitation to Grigson Manor
House, which was presided over by the head of the family—
Tom's elder brother.

Portmanteaus, trunks, boxes, and carpet bags were

heaped on the roof of the Tally-ho. There was a huge
mountain of them, for some dozen or two gownsman were
"going down" that day on this particular coach, and dozens
more would follow on the morrow, and more morrows after
that. And so with all other coaches going out of the
university city on those days and every succeeding day till
the old colleges were empty.

From the Angel, up the High Street, by Carfax, along

the New Road, over the Botley bridges, on and on the coach
rattled merrily, with John Tincroft and Tom Grigson among
its passengers. It was early morning when they started
from Oxford; evening was drawing on when they were
safely deposited with their luggage at the town on the old
coach road nearest to their destination. There the dog-cart
from the Manor House received them, and in another hour
they were safely landed, had performed their ablutions,
changed their dusty travelling attire, and were doing justice
to the late dinner specially prepared for their benefit.

The shy, awkward gownsman had no reason to complain

of his reception. His host was a bluff, good-natured
bachelor, older than his brother Tom by a dozen years or
more. He prided himself on being a country gentleman of
the good old school, without any nonsense about him
(which, however, sometimes implies a good deal of that
commodity); and the hearty welcome he gave to the invited
guest was none the less agreeable, perhaps, for being
rough and homely as well as sincere.

"You'll have to take us as we are," said Mr. Richard

Grigson: "all I can say is that this is Liberty Hall."

And so it was Liberty Hall. It was a pleasant change for

John Tincroft, who, as we have said, had never known what
it was to have a comfortable home of his own. The Manor
House was a large, rambling old place, something between
a mansion and a farmhouse, with plenty of rooms in it, well
furnished with old-fashioned furniture. There was one room
with a cheerful aspect, overlooking a pretty flower garden,
and bookcases lining its walls: it was the library of the old
house. Tincroft sat there from day to day—one hour with
Tom Grigson reading, and as many hours as he pleased by
himself, studying for his vocation in the East, till he almost
forgot that he was "under a cloud."
 Richard Grigson was a good specimen of his class, and a
good match for his house. He was half farmer, half idler. He
was rich, so he had no need to work; was strong in
constitution and active in habits, so he was a sportsman. He
shot in shooting season, hunted in hunting season, and
thought it a waste of time to read much beyond the daily
and weekly papers and a sporting magazine. Add to this,
Richard Grigson was reckoned a fair sort of landlord by his
numerous tenants—small farmers mostly—so long as they
paid their rents with tolerable punctuality. We shall,
however, know more about him by-and-by.

As to Tom Grigson, the collegian, he would very well

have liked to be as idle and active as his brother; but the
fates were against him, as he would have said. He was a
younger brother, with only a younger brother's portion—a
very small one; and needs must that he would have to work
for his living, in some respectable and gentlemanly way, of
course, but still to work. So he had consented to go to
college, to learn how to do it, or how not to do it, as the
case might be.

To tell the truth, Tom was not much more studiously

inclined than his elder brother. At any rate, he did not see
the fun of poring over books in vacation time, when he
could be on horseback half the day, and lounging the other
half of it to his heart's content. Very soon, therefore, John
Tincroft had the library to himself, and worked away with
his Oriental studies.

"This will never do, Tincroft," said his host to him one
day, two or three weeks after his arrival; "you are positively
wearing yourself to skin and bone with your books and all
the rest of it."
 "Am I?" said John, glancing nervously at his nether
extremities, and feeling his arm above the elbow. "No, I
don't think I am, though," he added, in so serious a tone
that his friend laughed.

"I didn't mean to alarm you, old fellow; and now I look
at you again, you have some muscle left, though none too
much. But come, you must follow Tom's example—the idle
scamp—and lay aside your books for a while. They'll wait
for you; they won't run away from you, I'll warrant."

"But I shall have to run away from them soon,"

returned John, gravely.

"So much the better, for anything I can see to the

contrary. A jolly time you will have of it when you get out to
India; tiger-hunting, elephant-riding, and all that sort of
thing. Do you know, I half envy you!"

"You forget fever and sunstroke and snakes, and all that
sort of thing," retorted the guest. "And even the tigers you
speak of—supposing such a thing as a tiger-hunt for me,
which isn't likely—but even they have claws and teeth."

"I must give up India, then," said Grigson. "But

seriously, friend, your shutting yourself up in this room all
day—" they were in the library—"when you might be
enjoying yourself out and about, is good neither for body
nor mind."

"I must work, you know, Mr. Grigson," returned John.

"No doubt: so must we all, I suppose. But that doesn't

mean that we are never to do anything else. 'All work and
no play,' you know, 'makes Jack a—' I beg your pardon,
though; I didn't mean that you are 'a dull boy,' though you
are Jack. But come, you must shut up for once. We are
going to drive over to the Mumbles. I have some business
to do with Elliston; and Tom wants to introduce you to the
ladies there—Jane and Kitty. By the way, if you could get
hold of one of them, Tincroft, you might burn your books
and stop in England. And why shouldn't you?"

"I shall never marry. I have no vocation that way. If I

were independent, I might; but what's the use of talking?
No, thank you, Grigson, I would rather be excused the
Mumbles."

"You must do something of the sort, or where is the use

of having a holiday? By the way, next week, Tuesday, we
have our summer picnic; all the tenants that like to come,
and their families; wives, daughters, sons, lovers, and all
the rest of that sort of thing. You'll join us there, at any
rate?"

"What do you mean? I mean, what do you do? Where

do you go?" John Tincroft asked dreamily.

"Oh, as to the going, we shan't have to go far. They

come to us. We have tables, forms, and chairs out on the
lawn; and there's eating and drinking, you may make sure
of that; and after that—but you'll see enough of it before it
is over. And you must put your books away for that day, at
any rate."

"Are your tenants a very noisy set?" asked quiet John.

"Oh, they are not as still as mice, and they don't roar
quite so loud as lions. They are a decent set altogether; and
with two Oxford men to keep them in order, we shall do. It
will be something to amuse you, I dare say."

"I am afraid not," said John, wearily; "but I suppose I

must do what you bid me."
 "Of course you must," said Richard Grigson.

CHAPTER II.
THE LOVERS' WALK.

LEAVING Tincroft for the present to the hospitalities of

the Manor House, we introduce two other actors in our
domestic drama. The time is evening; the place, an old-
fashioned garden; the date, a year or thereabouts before
that of our previous chapter, for necessity is laid upon us to
take a retrograde step or two before fairly starting off in our
history.
 There was a shaded walk in the garden just referred to,
which, from time immemorial, had been known as "the
lovers' walk." True to this designation, the grass-path was,
on the evening of a summer's day, trodden by two lovers,
who paced up and down it side by side.

"I don't like this going away from you, Sarah dear, any
better than you like it yourself," he said, in a tone half-
sorrowful, half-remonstrative.

"What occasion is there for your going away then,

Walter?"

She was a fair-haired, blue-eyed girl of eighteen, who

asked this question. Her eyes were filled with tears as she
looked up into her lover's face. It was hard to withstand
such a pleading look—so Walter doubtless felt.

"You know the reason why, Sarah," he replied,

tremulously; "I have told you, over and over again, that
father says there are too many of us at home, eating up all
the profits of his small farm, and that one of us boys ought
to be getting on at something else, and earning a living for
himself."

"I know all that, Walter; but there is no occasion for you
to be the one. You are the oldest, and ought to be at home.
And we going to be married, too; and that will have to be
put off—with such a home as you know I have got! Oh,
Walter, Walter, it does not seem as if you loved me much!"
Saying this, the now weeping girl threw herself on a rustic
seat and sobbed sadly.

What could the lover do but seat himself close by her

side and speak soothing words, comforting words,
encouraging words, very gently, very lovingly?
 But she would not hear him.

"I know why it is; you want to be rid of me now you

know that there's nothing to be got by me—that father has
no money, and can't pay back what your father lent him,
and it's all an excuse your going away to make more room
for the rest. Why couldn't George go if somebody must—or
Alfred, or James?"

"Sarah, you don't mean what you say—you can't mean

what you say."

The words were spoken very gravely, we may be sure,

yet not sternly. Walter Wilson was a commonplace man
enough—a rough farmerly young man, without much
education; but he was tender-hearted and true-hearted,
and his love for his cousin was strong. For they were
cousins, these two, as well as lovers—the children of two
brothers.

Matthew Wilson (Walter's father) and Mark Wilson

(Sarah's father) were both farmers in a small way, but they
were widely different in character, different also in regard to
their home surroundings. Matthew, for instance, had a large
family; Mark had but one child, the Sarah of our narrative.

Matthew was hard-working and sober; Mark was idle

and dissipated. In spite of his large family, Matthew had
prospered, while Mark—who, by the way, had the better
farm of the two—had managed to go down in the world,
sinking lower and lower, as time went on, into debt and
despondency. So it came to pass that, in one particular
strait, and with promises of stricter attention to business in
future, Mark had been saved from absolute or immediate
ruin by the generosity and confidence of his brother, who