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McGRAW-HILL’S

OF I N D I V I D UA L S

E D I T I O N

SPILKER • AYERS • BARRICK

OUTSLAY • ROBINSON • WEAVER • WORSHAM
 About the Authors vii

Connie Weaver (PhD, Arizona State University, 1997) is the KPMG Professor of Accounting
at Texas A&M University. She received a PhD from Arizona State University, an MPA from
the University of Texas at Arlington, and a BS (chemical engineering) from the University
of Texas at Austin. Prior to entering the PhD Program, Connie was a tax manager at
Ernst & Young in Dallas, Texas, where she became licensed to practice as a CPA. She teaches
taxation in the Professional Program in Accounting and the Executive MBA program at Texas
A&M University. She has also taught undergraduate and graduate students at the University
of Wisconsin–Madison and the University of Texas at Austin. She is the recipient of several
teaching awards, including the 2006 American Taxation Association/Deloitte Teaching
Innovations award, the David and Denise Baggett Teaching award, and the college and university
level Association of Former Students Distinguished Achievement award in teaching. Connie’s
Courtesy Connie Weaver
current research interests include the effects of tax and financial incentives on corporate
decisions and reporting. She has published articles in journals such as The Accounting Review,
Contemporary Accounting Research, Journal of the American Taxation Association, National
Tax Journal, Accounting Horizons, Journal of Corporate Finance, and Tax Notes. Connie is
the senior editor of The Journal of the American Taxation Association and she serves on the
editorial board of Contemporary Accounting Research.

Ron Worsham (PhD, University of Florida, 1994) is an associate professor in the School of
Accountancy at Brigham Young University. He teaches taxation in the graduate, undergradu-
ate, MBA, and Executive MBA programs at Brigham Young University. He has also taught as
a visiting professor at the University of Chicago. He received both BS and MAcc (tax empha-
sis) degrees from Brigham Young University before working as a tax consultant for Arthur
Young & Co. (now Ernst & Young) in Dallas, Texas. While in Texas, he became licensed to
practice as a CPA. After his professional work experience, Ron earned his PhD at the Univer-
sity of Florida. He has been honored for outstanding innovation in the classroom at Brigham
Young University. Ron has published academic research in the areas of taxpayer compliance
and professional tax judgment. He has also published legal research in a variety of areas. His
work has been published in journals such as Journal of the American Taxation Association,
The Journal of International Taxation, The Tax Executive, Tax Notes, The Journal of Accoun-
Courtesy Ron Worsham
tancy, and Practical Tax Strategies.
TEACHING THE CODE IN CONTEXT

The bold innovative approach used by McGraw-Hill’s Taxation series is

quickly becoming the most popular choice of course materials among in-
structors and students. It’s apparent why the clear, organized, and engaging
delivery of content, paired with the most current and robust tax code
updates, has been adopted by more than 650 schools across the country.
McGraw-Hill’s Taxation is designed to provide
“Do you want the best tax text? This is the one
a unique, innovative, and engaging learning ex-
to use. It has a storyline in each chapter that can
perience for students studying taxation. The
relate to real life issues.”
breadth of the topical coverage, the storyline
approach to presenting the material, the em- Leslie A. Mostow
phasis on the tax and nontax consequences of – University of Maryland, College Park
multiple parties involved in transactions, and
the integration of financial and tax accounting
topics make this book ideal for the modern tax
curriculum.

Since the first manuscript was written in 2005,

“This text provides broad coverage of important
topics and does so in a manner that is easy for
students to understand. The material is very
accessible for students.”
Kyle Post
– Tarleton State University
450 professors have contributed 500 book reviews,
in addition to 30 focus groups and symposia.
Throughout this preface, their comments on the
book’s organization, pedagogy, and unique
features are a testament to the market-driven
nature of Taxation’s development.

“I think this is the best book available for introductory and intermediate courses in taxation.”
Shane Stinson
– University of Alabama

viii
A MODERN APPROACH FOR
TODAY’S STUDENT
McGraw-Hill’s Taxation series was built around the following five core precepts:

1
Storyline Approach: Each chapter begins with a storyline that introduces a set of characters or
a business entity facing specific tax-related situations. Each chapter’s examples are related to
the storyline, providing students with opportunities to learn the code in context.

2
Integrated Examples: In addition to providing examples in-context, we provide “What if ”
scenarios within many examples to illustrate how variations in the facts might or might
not change the answers.

3
Conversational Writing Style: The authors took special care to write McGraw-Hill’s Taxation in
a way that fosters a friendly dialogue between the content and each individual student. The
tone of the presentation is intentionally conversational—creating the impression of speaking
with the student, as opposed to lecturing to the student.

4
Superior Organization of Related Topics: McGraw-Hill’s Taxation provides two alternative
topic sequences. In the McGraw-Hill’s Taxation of Individuals and Business Entities
volume, the individual topics generally follow the tax form sequence, with an individual
overview chapter and then chapters on income, deductions, investment-related issues, and
the tax liability computation. The topics then transition into business-related topics that
apply to individuals. This volume then provides a group of specialty chapters dealing
with topics of particular interest to individuals (including students), including separate
chapters on home ownership, compensation, and retirement savings and deferred compen-
sation. This volume concludes with a chapter covering the taxation of business entities.
Alternatively, in the Essentials of Federal Taxation volume, the topics follow a more
traditional sequence, with topics streamlined (no specialty chapters) and presented in more of
a life-cycle approach.

5
Real-World Focus: Students learn best when they see how concepts are applied in the real
world. For that reason, real-world examples and articles are included in “Taxes in the Real
World” boxes throughout the book. These vignettes demonstrate current issues in taxation
and show the relevance of tax issues in all areas of business.

“The in-text examples of how to complete tax returns (is a strength of this text). These help students improve
their overall understanding of the material as it moves from something abstract to something tangible the
student can produce.”
Christine Cheng
– Louisiana State University

ix
A STORYLINE APPROACH THAT
RESONATES WITH STUDENTS
Each chapter begins with a storyline
that introduces a set of characters facing
Storyline Summary
specific tax-related situations. This rev-
Taxpayers: Courtney Wilson, age 40, and Courtney’s
mother Dorothy “Gram” Weiss, age 70
olutionary approach to teaching tax
Family
description:
Courtney is divorced with a son, Deron,
age 10, and a daughter, Ellen, age 20. emphasizes real people facing real tax
dilemmas. Students learn to apply practical
Gram is currently residing with Courtney.

Location: Kansas City, Missouri

©Drazen_/E+/Getty Images
Employment
status:
Courtney works as an architect for EWD.
Gram is retired. tax information to specific business and

C
ourtney has already determined her
Filing status:
taxable income. Now she’s working
Current
situation:
on computing her tax liability. She
knows she owes a significant amount of regu-
lar income tax on her employment and busi-
ness activities. However, she’s not sure how to
compute the tax on the qualified dividends she re-
ceived from General Electric and is worried that she
may be subject to the alternative minimum tax this
year. Finally, Courtney knows she owes some self-
employment taxes on her business income. Courtney
would like to determine whether she is eligible to
claim any tax credits, such as the child tax credit for
her two children and education credits, because she
paid for a portion of her daughter Ellen’s tuition
at the University of Missouri–Kansas City this year.
Courtney is hoping that she has paid enough in taxes
during the year to avoid underpayment penalties.
Courtney is head of household. Gram is
single. personal situations. As their situations
evolve, the characters are brought further
Courtney and Gram have computed their
taxable income. Now they are trying to
determine their tax liability, tax refund, or
additional taxes due and whether they owe
any payment-related penalties. to life.
She’s planning on filing her tax return and paying
her taxes on time.
Gram’s tax situation is much more straightfor-
ward. She needs to determine the regular income tax
on her taxable income. Her income is so low she
knows she need not worry about the alternative mini- “Excellent text! Very readable, easy for
mum tax, and she believes she doesn’t owe any self-
employment tax. Gram didn’t prepay any taxes this
students to read and understand. Storyline
year, so she is concerned that she might be required
to pay an underpayment penalty. She plans to file her
approach and integrated examples make it
tax return and pay her taxes by the looming due date. easy for students to relate to taxpayers and
to be continued . . .
their tax situations.”

Examples Sandra Owen

– Indiana State University, Bloomington
Examples are the cornerstone of
any textbook covering taxation.
For this reason, McGraw-Hill’s 2-4 CHAPTER 2 Tax Compliance, the IRS, and Tax Authorities
Taxation authors took special care 8-1

The statute of limitations for IRS assessment can be extended in certain circumstances.
to create clear and helpful exam- For example, the original three-year statute of limitations for IRS assessments is extended
to six years if the taxpayer omits items of gross income that exceed 25 percent of the gross
ples that relate to the storyline
spi69614_ch08_000-051.indd 1
income reported on the tax return. For fraudulent returns, or if the taxpayer fails to file a tax
11/02/19 9:30 PM

return, the news is understandably worse. The statute of limitations remains open indefi-
of the chapter. Students learn to nitely in these cases. The statute of limitations can also be voluntarily extended by the
taxpayer at the request of the IRS to allow both sides sufficient time to resolve issues.
refer to the facts presented in the
storyline and apply them to other Example 2-1

scenarios—in this way, they build Bill and Mercedes file their 2015 federal tax return on September 6, 2016, after receiving an auto-
matic extension to file their return by October 15, 2016. In 2019, the IRS selects their 2015 tax return

a greater base of knowledge for audit. When does the statute of limitations end for Bill and Mercedes’s 2015 tax return?
Answer: Assuming the six-year and “unlimited” statute of limitation rules do not apply, the statute of

through application. Many exam- limitations ends on September 6, 2019 (three years after the later of the actual filing date and the
original due date).

ples also include “What if?” sce- What if: When would the statute of limitations end for Bill and Mercedes for their 2015 tax return if the
couple filed the return on March 22, 2016 (before the original due date of April 15, 2016)?

narios that add more complexity Answer: In this scenario the statute of limitations would end on April 15, 2019, because the later of
the actual filing date and the original due date is April 15, 2016.

to the example or explore related

Taxpayers should prepare for the possibility of an audit by retaining all supporting
tax concepts. documents (receipts, canceled checks, etc.) for a tax return until the statute of limitations
expires. After the statute of limitations expires, taxpayers can discard the majority of sup-
porting documents but should still keep a copy of the tax return itself, as well as any docu-
ments that may have ongoing significance, such as those establishing the taxpayer’s basis or
original investment in existing assets like personal residences and long-term investments.
“I enjoy teaching from the McGraw-Hill Spilker taxation textbook. Students too have commented that they
prefer it over other texts they have learned taxation from.IRSThe
LO 2-2 ancillaries,
AUDIT SELECTION LearnSmart and Connect help in
my mission to present the material in a logical, reader-friendly manner.”
Why me? This is a recurring question in life and definitely a common taxpayer question after
receiving an IRS audit notice. The answer, in general, is that a taxpayer’s return is selected
for audit because the IRS has data suggesting the taxpayer’s tax return has a high probability
Cheryl Crespi
of a significant – Central
understated tax liability.Connecticut State
Budget constraints limit University
the IRS’s ability to audit a
majority or even a large minority of tax returns. Currently, fewer than 1 percent of all tax
returns are audited. Thus, the IRS must be strategic in selecting returns for audit in an effort
to promote the highest level of voluntary taxpayer compliance and increase tax revenues.
Specifically, how does the IRS select tax returns for audit? The IRS uses a number of
x computer programs and outside data sources (newspapers, financial statement disclosures,
informants, and other public and private sources) to identify tax returns that may have an un-
derstated tax liability. Common computer initiatives include the DIF (Discriminant Func-
tion) system, the document perfection program, and the information matching program.
The most important of these initiatives is the DIF system. The DIF system assigns a score to
each tax return that represents the probability the tax liability on the return has been underre-
 CHAPTER 6 Individual Deductions 6-15

THE PEDAGOGY YOUR STUDENTS NEED Answer: $8,620 ($6,700 withholding + $420 overpayment applied to 2019 + $1,500 real estate
taxes). The treatment of the overpayment is the same as if Courtney had received the refund in 2019
and then remitted it to the state as payment of 2019 taxes. Because she paid the tax in 2019, she is

TO PUT THE CODE IN CONTEXT

allowed to deduct the tax in 2019. Recall that under the tax benefit rule (see the Gross Income and
Exclusions chapter), Courtney was required to include the $420 in her 2019 gross income.

TAXES IN THE REAL WORLD Is It a Deductible State Tax Payment,

Taxes in the Real World Charitable Contribution, or Neither?

Taxes in the Real World are short boxes used In recent years, it has become popular for state
and local governments to provide state or local
As you might expect, the IRS’s laissez-faire
stance changed in 2018 with the enactment of the

throughout the book to demonstrate the real-world tax credits for contributions to certain qualified
charities (for example, local hospitals, certain
$10,000 limit on the itemized deduction for state,
local, and foreign taxes. Specifically, the IRS revis-

use of tax concepts. Current articles on tax issues, scholarship funds, etc.). While there was no “of-
ficial” IRS guidance on the federal tax treatment
ited the federal tax consequences of state and lo-
cal tax credit programs out of concern that

the real-world application of chapter-specific tax of these contributions, in “unofficial” guidance,

the IRS Office of Chief Counsel (see Chief
taxpayers may use these programs to bypass the
$10,000 limit on state, local, and foreign tax de-

rules, and short vignettes on popular news about tax

Counsel Advice Memorandum 201105010)
advised that a payment to a state agency or
charitable organization in return for a tax credit
are some of the issues covered in Taxes in the Real might be characterized as either a deductible
charitable contribution or a deductible state tax
ductions. After further review, the news was not
favorable for taxpayers. In Prop. Reg. §1.170A-1(h)
(3), the IRS stated that, effective for contributions
after August 27, 2018, taxpayers making pay-
ments or transferring property to an entity eligible

World boxes. payment. The 2010 CCA advised that taxpay-

ers could take a charitable deduction for the
full amount of the contribution without subtract-
ing the value of the state tax credit received.
Hence, for federal tax purposes, the taxpayer
could take a charitable contribution deduction
“This is the best text I have found for both my students for an amount that otherwise was used to re-
duce the taxpayer’s state tax liability. Because
and myself. Easier to read than other textbooks I have individuals deduct both state taxes and chari-
table contributions as itemized deductions, the
looked at, good examples, and, as mentioned before, IRS was not too concerned with these types of
state tax credit programs.
to receive tax-deductible contributions will have to
reduce their charitable contribution deductions by
the amount of any state or local tax credit received
(or expected to be received). Thus, after August
27, 2018, if a taxpayer receives a dollar-for-dollar
state tax credit for a contribution to a qualified
charity, the charitable contribution deduction is
reduced to zero for federal tax purposes (i.e., the
contribution is neither a deductible state tax
payment or deductible charitable contribution).
Sources: Prop. Reg. §1.170A-1(h)(3); REG-112176-18.

I appreciate the instructor resources.” CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Tax 1-5

Interest
– Esther Ehrlich, CPA, The HOW
University
TO of Texas at El Paso
CALCULATE A TAX LO 1-3
There are two itemized deductions for interest expense.26 First, subject to limitations
described in more detail in the Tax Consequences of Home Ownership chapter, individu-
In its simplest form, the amount of tax equals the
alstax
can base
deductmultiplied byacquisition
interest paid on the tax rate:
indebtedness secured by a qualified residence
(the taxpayer’s principal residence and one other residence).27 Acquisition indebtedness
is any debt secured by a qualified residence that is incurred in acquiring, constructing, or
Eq. 1-1 Tax = Tax Base × Tax Rate
substantially improving the residence.28
The home mortgage interest deduction is limited by a cap on acquisition indebted-
The Key Facts The tax base defines what is actually taxed nessand
that is
varies based expressed
usually upon when theinindebtedness
monetary originated. For acquisition indebt-
The Key Facts pro- edness incurred after December 15, 2017, taxpayers may only
terms, whereas the tax rate determines the level of taxes imposed on the tax base and is THEdeduct
KEYmortgage
FACTSinterest
usually expressed as a percentage. For example, 26aInterest salespaidtax ratewhere
of 6thepercent onused a purchase
in a trade or business isHow to Calculate a Tax
vide quick synopses
on loans proceeds are fully deductible as a business
of $30 yields a tax of $1.80 ($1.80 = $30 × .06). expense deduction for AGI.
• Tax = Tax base × Tax rate
27
Prior to 2018, taxpayers could also deduct premiums paid or accrued on mortgage insurance (insurance
of the critical pieces Federal, state, and local jurisdictions use apremiums
Some common tax bases (and related taxes) include
large paid variety
taxable
residence interest
of taxtobases
by the borrower
income
expense. At press time,
tolender
protect the
(federal
collect
the deduction
againsttax.
andforstate
• defaulting
the borrower The tax base
mortgage insurance
on the
whatpremiums
defines
loan) as qualified
is actuallyhas not been
taxed and
of information pre- income taxes), purchases (sales tax), real estate
extended beyond 2017.
28 values
Subject to rules(real estate
discussed in the Tax tax), and personal
Consequences
is usually expressed in
of Home Ownership chapter, points paid on indebtedness
monetary terms.
property values (personal property tax).
sented throughout
incurred in acquiring a home are also generally deductible as mortgage interest expense in the year the loan
originates and points to refinance a home mortgage are typically amortized • and
Thededucted
tax rateover the life of the
determines
Different portions of a tax base may be taxed at different
loan (but rates.
see research memo in theA Taxsingle
Compliance, taxtheapplied
IRS, and Tax Authorities chapter for animposed
exception).
each chapter.
the level of taxes
to an entire base constitutes a flat tax. In the case of graduated taxes, the base is divided on the tax base and is
into a series of monetary amounts, or brackets, and each successive CHAPTER 2 bracket
Tax Compliance, is taxed
the IRS, at a 2-7 usually expressed as a
and Tax Authorities

different (gradually higher or gradually lower) percentage rate. percentage.

Exhibits Calculating some taxes—income taxes for individuals or corporations, for example—
EXHIBIT 2-2 IRS Appeals/Litigation Process • Different portions of a tax
can be quite complex. Advocates ofspi69614_ch06_000-043.indd
and the text,flat taxes argue 15 that IRSthe
Exam process
1b. Disagreeshould be simpler. base may be taxed at
Today’s students are visual learners,
But as we’ll see throughout
1a. Agree with proposed

most of the difficulty in calculating a tax rests in

adjustment
with
proposed adjustment different rates.

McGraw-Hill’s Taxation understands this

determining the tax base, not the tax rate. Indeed,
Pay Taxes Due
there are only three basic tax rate
30-Day Letter
struc-
tures (proportional, progressive, and regressive), and each can be mastered without much
student need by making use of
difficulty. clear and
engaging charts, diagrams, and tabular 3a. Agree with proposed
adjustment
2a. Request appeals
2b. No

demonstrations of key material.

Appeals Conference taxpayer

DIFFERENT WAYS TO MEASURE TAX RATES

response
3b. Disagree with proposed adjustment

File Suit in U.S. District

File Claim for
Court or U.S. Court of 5. IRS denies 90-Day Letter
Before we discuss the alternative tax rate structures,
refund claim let’s first define
4b. Pay taxthree different tax
Refund with the IRS
Federal Claims

rates that will be useful in contrasting the different tax rate structures: the marginal, aver-
age, and effective tax rates. 4a. Do not pay tax;

The marginal tax rate is the tax rate that applies to the next additional increment of
Petition Tax Court

a taxpayer’s taxable income (or deductions). Specifically,

Tax Court

Marginal Tax Rate = (IRS Exam): ©Imageroller/Alamy Stock Photo; (Supreme Court): ©McGraw-Hill Education/Jill Braaten, photographer

(New
ΔTax* to interpret and rule differently Total Tax − Old Total Tax)
taxpayer=
on the same basic tax issue. Given a choice of courts, the
Eq. 1-2 should prefer the court most likely to rule favorably on his or her particular is-
ΔTaxable Income (New
sues. The courts Taxable
also differ in other ways.Income
For example, − Old
the U.S. Taxable
District Court is theIncome)
only
court that provides for a jury trial; the U.S. Tax Court is the only court that allows tax
“It is easily accessible to students as*Δitmeans
is written
change in.in easy-to-understand language, and contains sufficient
cases to be heard before the taxpayer pays the disputed liability and the only court with a
small claims division (hearing claims involving disputed liabilities of $50,000 or less);

examples to illustrate complicated tax concepts and calculations.” and the U.S. Tax Court judges are tax experts, whereas the U.S. District Court and U.S.
Court of Federal Claims judges are generalists. The taxpayer should consider each of
these factors in choosing a trial court. For example, if the taxpayer feels very confident in
where “old” refers to the current tax and “new” refers to the revised tax after incorporat-
her tax return position but does not have sufficient funds to pay the disputed liability, she

ing the additional income (or deductions) in question. In graduated income tax systems,Machiavelli Chao
will prefer the U.S. Tax Court. If, instead, the taxpayer is litigating a tax return position
that is low on technical merit but high on emotional appeal, a jury trial in the local U.S.
District Court may be the best option.
additional income (deductions) can push a taxpayer into a higher (lower) tax bracket, thus
– University of California, Irvine: The Paul Merage School of Business
changing the marginal tax rate.
What happens after the taxpayer’s case has been decided in a trial court? The process
may not be quite finished. After the trial court’s verdict, the losing party has the right to
request one of the 13 U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals to hear the case. Exhibit 2-3 de-
picts the specific appellant courts for each lower-level court. Both the U.S. Tax Court and
local U.S. District Court cases are appealed to the specific U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
based on the taxpayer’s residence.9 Cases litigated in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, for
9
Decisions rendered by the U.S. Tax Court Small Claims Division cannot be appealed by the taxpayer or the IRS.
Example 1-3
xi
Margaret’s parents, Bill and Mercedes, file a joint tax return. They have $160,000 of taxable income
this year (after all tax deductions). Assuming the following federal tax rate schedule applies, how much
federal income tax will they owe this year?4
spi69614_ch02_000-035.indd 7 (continued on page 1-6) 1/23/19 9:56 PM
 conference.
In this chapter we discussed several of the fundamentals of tax practice and proce-
dure: taxpayer filing requirements, the statute of limitations, the IRS audit process, the
primary tax authorities, tax research, tax professional standards, and taxpayer and tax
practitioner penalties. For the tax accountant, these fundamentals form the basis for much
of her work. Likewise, tax research forms the basis of much of a tax professional’s com-
pliance and planning services. Even for the accountant who doesn’t specialize in tax
accounting, gaining a basic understanding of tax practice and procedure is important.
Assisting clients with the IRS audit process is a valued service that accountants provide,

PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT WITH A WIDE

and clients expect all accountants to understand basic tax procedure issues and how to
research basic tax issues.

Summary
Summary
LO 2-1 Identify the filing requirements for income tax returns and the statute of limitations for
A unique feature of McGraw-Hill’s
assessment.
• All corporations must file a tax return annually regardless of their taxable income. Estates
Taxation is the end-of-chapter sum-
and trusts are required to file annual income tax returns if their gross income exceeds
$600. The filing requirements for individual taxpayers depend on the taxpayer’s filing
mary organized around learning ob-
status, age, and gross income.
• Individual and C corporation tax returns (except for C corporations with a June
jectives. Each objective has a brief,
30 year-end) are due on the fifteenth day of the fourth month following year-end.
For C corporations with a June 30 year-end, partnerships, and S corporations, tax
bullet-point summary that covers
returns must be filed by the fifteenth day of the third month following the entity’s fiscal
year-end. Any taxpayer unable to file a tax return by the original due date can request
the major topics and concepts for
an extension to file.
that chapter, including references to
2-30 CHAPTER 2 • For
Tax Compliance, the IRS,
both
chapter and Tax
amended
Tax Compliance,
taxAuthorities
returns filed by a taxpayer and proposed tax assessments by the
critical exhibits and examples. All
2
IRS, the statute of limitations generally ends three years from the later of (1) the date the tax

the IRS, and Tax

return was actually filed or (2) the tax return’s original due date.
KEY TERMS LO 2-2 Outline the IRS audit process, how returns are selected, the different types of audits, and what end-of-chapter material is tied to
•
happens after the audit.
The IRS
Authorities
uses a number matching
of computer programs and outside data sources to identify tax
learning objectives.
30-day letter (2-6) information stare decisis (2-15)
returns that may have an understated tax liability. Common computer initiatives include the
90-day letter (2-6) program
DIF (Discriminant (2-4)
Function) Statements
system, the document perfection program, on Standards for
and the information Tax
acquiescence (2-17) Internal
matching program.Revenue Services (SSTS) (2-23)
• The three types of IRS audits consist of correspondence, office, and field examinations.
action on decision (2-17) Code of 1986 (2-11) statute of limitations (2-3)
annotated tax service (2-18) interpretative regulations (2-16)
Learning Objectives substantial authority (2-24)
Circular 230 (2-24) legislative regulations (2-16) tax treaties (2-14)
citator (2-21) nonacquiescence (2-17)
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:
technical advice memorandum (2-16)
LO 2-1office
Identify examination
the filing requirements(2-6)for income tax returns and the statutetemporary
of limitations for regulations (2-15)
civil penalties (2-26) assessment.
spi69614_ch02_000-035.indd 28
correspondence examination (2-5) primary authorities (2-9) topical tax service (2-19) 1/23/19 9:56 PM
LO 2-2 Outline the IRS audit process, how returns are selected, the different types of audits, and

criminal penalties (2-26) private

what happensletter
after therulings
audit. (2-16) U.S. Circuit Courts
determination letters (2-16) LO 2-3procedural regulations
Evaluate the relative (2-16)
weights of the various tax law sources. of Appeals (2-7)
DIF (Discriminant Function) LO 2-4proposed regulations
Describe the legislative process as it(2-15)
pertains to taxation. U.S. Constitution (2-11)
system (2-4) LO 2-5question of fact
Perform the basic steps in(2-19)
tax research. U.S. Court of Federal Claims (2-6)
document perfection LO 2-6question of law (2-19)
Describe tax professional responsibilities in providing tax advice. U.S. District Court (2-6)

program (2-4) LO 2-7regulations (2-15)

Identify taxpayer and tax professional penalties. U.S. Supreme Court (2-8)
field examination (2-6) revenue procedures (2-16) U.S. Tax Court (2-6)
final regulations (2-15) revenue rulings (2-16) writ of certiorari (2-8)
Golsen rule (2-15) secondary authorities (2-9)

Discussion
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Questions
Discussion Questions are available in Connect®. Discussion questions,
LO 2-1 1. Name three factors that determine whether a taxpayer is required to file a tax return.
spi69614_ch02_000-035.indd 1 1/23/19 9:55 PM
now available in Con-
LO 2-1 2. Benita is concerned that she will not be able to complete her tax return by April 15. nect, are provided for
Can she request an extension to file her return? By what date must she do so?
Assuming she requests an extension, what is the latest date that she could file her
each of the major con-
return this year without penalty? cepts in each chapter,
LO 2-1 3. Agua Linda Inc. is a calendar-year corporation. What is the original due date for the providing students
corporate tax return? What happens if the original due date falls on a Saturday?
LO 2-2 4. Approximately what percentage of tax returns does the IRS audit? What are the with an opportunity to
implications of this number for the IRS’s strategy in selecting returns for audit? review key parts of the
LO 2-2 5. Explain the difference between the DIF system and the National Research Program. chapter and answer
How do they relate to each other?
LO 2-2 6. Describe the differences between the three types of audits in terms of their scope evocative questions
and taxpayer type. about what they have
LO 2-2 7. Simon just received a 30-day letter from the IRS indicating a proposed assessment. learned.
Does he have to pay the additional tax? What are his options?
LO 2-2 8. Compare and contrast the three trial-level courts.
LO 2-3 9. Compare and contrast the three types of tax law sources and give examples of each.
LO 2-3 10. The U.S. Constitution is the highest tax authority but provides very little in the way
of tax laws. What are the next highest tax authorities beneath the U.S. Constitution?
LO 2-3 11. Jackie has just opened her copy of the Code for the first time. She looks at the table
of contents and wonders why it is organized the way it is. She questions whether it
makes sense to try and understand the Code’s organization. What are some reasons
why understanding the organization of the Internal Revenue Code may prove useful?
LO 2-3 12. Laura Li, a U.S. resident, worked for three months this summer in China. What type
xii of tax authority may be especially useful in determining the tax consequences of her
foreign income?
 6-34 CHAPTER 6 Individual Deductions

allocable to Don Juan as the sole shareholder. Assume that the $600,000 loss is
not limited by the basis, at-risk, or passive loss rules, and that Don Juan has no
other business income or business losses. How much of the $600,000 loss will
Don Juan be able to deduct this year? What happens to any loss not deducted
this year?
2-32 CHAPTER 2 Tax Compliance, the IRS, and Tax Authorities
LO 6-1 26. Smithers is a self-employed individual who earns $30,000 per year in self-
LO 2-7 employment
39. What areincome. Smithers
the basic pays $2,200
differences betweenin civil
annual health
and insurance
criminal premiums
tax penalties?

VARIETY OF ASSIGNMENT MATERIAL

(not through an exchange) for his own medical care. In each of the following
LO 2-7 40. What are some of the most common civil penalties imposed on taxpayers?
situations, determine the amount of the deductible health insurance premium for
LO 2-7 41. Whatbefore
Smithers are the taxpayer’s
any standards to avoid the substantial understatement of tax
AGI limitation.
penalty?
a) Smithers is single and the self-employment income is his only source of
LO 2-7 42.income.
What are the tax practitioner’s standards to avoid a penalty for recommending a tax
return position?
b) Smithers is single, but besides being self-employed, Smithers is also employed
part-time by SF Power Corporation. This year Smithers elected not to participate
Problems in SF’s health plan.
PROBLEMS
c) Smithers is self-employed and he is also married. Smithers’s spouse, Samantha,
Problems are designed to test the is employed full-time by SF Power Corporation and is covered by SF’s health
Select problems are available in Connect®.
plan. Smithers is not eligible to participate in SF’s health plan.
comprehension of more complex LO 2-1 43.Smithers
d) Ahmedisdoes
is that
not have enough
self-employed
he canfull-time
employed request an
and hecash
by extension
onmarried.
is also hand to Smithers’s
to file his taxand
SF Power Corporation
pay his taxes.
return. Does by
is covered
He was
spouse,
thisSF’s
solve
excited to hear
Samantha,
his problem?
health
topics. Each problem at the end of 6-36 CHAPTER 6
What
plan. are theelected
Smithers ramifications if he doesn’t
not to participate pay his
in SF’s taxplan.
health liability by April 15?
44. Molto Stancha Corporation had zero earnings this fiscal year; in fact, it lost money.
LO 2-1 Deductions
Individual
27. Hardaway earned $100,000 of compensation this year. He also paid (or had paid for
the chapter is tied to one of that
LO 6-1
Must the corporation file a tax return?
him) $3,000 of health insurance (not through an exchange). What is Hardaway’s
LO 2-1 money.
45. The
AGI Penny
in each reported
estate
of the the following
of Monique
following Chablis income
situations?earned and expenses
$450
(Ignore ofeffects
the income from heryear.
ofthis
Socialnights at estate
Is the
Security and required
chapter’s learning objectives, with the self-employment
LO 2-1 Prize
track:
46.
to file an income
Jamarcus,
a) money a
taxes.)tax return?
full-time student, earned $2,500
Hardaway is an employee and his employer paid Hardaway’s $3,000 this year from a summer
$2,500 job.
of health in-He had
multiple problems for critical topics. no other
surance
Expenses:
$97,000
Transportation
forincome
His employer
of
him as athis
taxable
from her
year andfringe
nontaxable
withheld to$300
compensation
home
will have
ofand
the races federal
$3,000
zeroConsequently,
benefit.
income
federal income tax liability
Hardaway
tax fromcompensation.
of nontaxable his summer
1,000pay. Is
this year.
received

Jamarcus
b) Hardaway
Depreciation on is required
the a dirt-trackto file
self-employed car a taxpayer,
tax return? andShould
he paidJamarcus
$3,000 offile a tax
health return?
insurance
4,000
LO 2-1 Entry47.himself.
Shane He
fees hasisnever filed a to
not eligible taxparticipate
return despitein an earning excessive sums
employer-sponsored plan.of money as a
3,500
Tax Forms Problems LO 6-1
Oil, gas,gambler.
28. Bettyhas
supplies,When
operates
not filed
repairsdoes
a beauty
for the statute of car
the dirt-track limitations expire for the years
salon as a sole proprietorship. Betty also owns and rents an
a tax return?
in which Shane
2,050

Tax forms problems are a set of require- LO 2-1

tax forms
What are the tax
apartment effectsThis
building. of Penny’s
year Bettyracinghadincome and expenses
the following incomeassuming
48. Latoya filed her tax return on February 10 this year. When will the statute of
racing
mine activity
Betty’sisAGI
limitations
a hobby for Penny?
and complete
expire for this
page 2 (through line 7) and Schedule 1 of Form
tax return?
that the
and expenses. Deter-

ments included in the end-of-chapter LO 6-2 LO34.

1040 for Betty. You may assume that Betty will owe $2,502 in self-employment
2-1 Simpson,
49. on
tax
tion. This
age 45,
Using the isfacts
her salon
year Simpson
Latoya
a single
income,
understated
individual
fromwith
reports
the previous
heralso
whoproblem,
is employed
$1,251 representing
AGI of $50,000
income by that
how
and hasHow
40 percent?
full-time
the would
employer
incurred
would
by Duff
your answer
portion
theyour
Corpora-
of change
following
answer
the self-if
change if
employment tax. You may assume her divorce from Rocky was finalized
material of the 2020 edition. These medicalLatoya
in 2016.
expenses:
Dentist received
intentionally failed to report as taxable income any cash payments she
charges from her clients? $ 900
problems require students to complete a Interest income
LO 2-2 Physician
50. Paula
Salon
Optical just
charges not reach an agreement with the IRS at her appeals1,800
salescould
charges
and revenue
received a 90-day letter. If she wants to litigate
$11,255
the
86,360
issue but
conference and has
500 not have
does
Salaries paid to beauticians 45,250
tax form (or part of a tax form), provid- LO 2-2
Cost of sufficient
eyeglassescash to pay the proposed deficiency, what is her best court
Beauty salon supplies
Hospital charges
51. In choosing
Alimony paid to her a trial-level
ex-husband, court,
Rockyhow should a court’s previous
23,400
300 choice?
2,100
6,000 rulings influence the
ing students with valuable experience and practice with filling out these forms. These requirements— Prescription
Rental drugs
choice?
revenue
Over-the-counter
Depreciation
How from
ondrugs
level court?
should circuit
apartment
apartment building
court rulings influence the31,220
building taxpayer’s250
12,900
choice of a trial-
450
Medical insurance premiums (not through an exchange) 775
and their relevant forms—are also included in Connect. Each tax form problem includes an icon to LO 2-2 Real
Real the
a) Calculate
estate
estate
taxes
taxes
the
Supremeamount
paid
paid
Court
on
of
apartment
on medical
personalthe
denied
building
residence
expenses
writ ofthat will be included
certiorari. Should
11,100
52. Sophia recently won a tax case litigated in the 7th Circuit. She has just heard that
6,241
with
she beSimpson’s
happy or not, and
differentiate it from regular problems. b) Suppose that Simpson
53. Campbell’s was reimbursed
tax return was auditedfor $250 ofshe
because
Contributions
itemized
thefailed
LO 2-2 physician’s
to charity
why?deductions
charges
to report
after any applicable limitations.
andshe earned
interest
4,237

LO 6-1 29. Lionel

$1,200 isher
onfor an unmarried
the
taxhospital law student
costs.
return. What at State
Calculate
IRS audit the University
amount
selection Law School,
of medical
method expenses
identified a qualified
her thatreturn?
tax will
educational
be institution. Thisitemized
year Lionel borrowed $24,000 from County Bank
54.included
Yong’swith Simpson’s
tax return was audited deductions
because after any applicable
he calculated limitations.
his tax liability incorrectly.
Research Problems
LO 2-2
35. This yearWhat
TimIRS audit
is age procedure
45 and identified
is considering
LO 6-2 his tax in
enrolling return for audit?program that
an insurance
provides for long-term
deductedcare insurance.
level ofHeitemized
is curious about whether the insurance
Research problems are special
55. Randy a high LO 2-2 deductions two years ago relative to his
research premiums are deductible as a medical expense and, if
income level. He recently received an IRS notice requestingso, what the maximum
documentation for his
amount itemized
is that candeductions.
be deductedWhat in any year.
audit procedure likely identified his tax return for
problems throughout the end- audit? prescribed physical therapy in a pool to treat Jack’s broken back. In
36. Doctor Bones LO 6-2
56. Jackie
response to thishas a corporate
advice (and forclient thatreason),
no other has recently received
Jack built a 30-daypool
a swimming notice
in from
his the IRS
of-chapter assignment mate-
LO 2-2
research backyard with
andastrictly
$100,000 tax assessment.
limited use of the poolHertoclient is considering
physical requesting
therapy. Jack an appeals
paid $25,000
planning
to build conference
the pool, but tohe
contest
wondered
spi69614_ch06_000-043.indd 34 the assessment.
if this amount What factors
could should Jackie
be deducted advise her client to
as a medical 04/02/19 7:28 PM

rial. These require students to expense.consider

Determine if a requesting
before capital expenditure
qualifies for the medical expense deduction.
an appeals such as the cost of a swimming pool
conference?

do both basic and more complex research on topics 37.outside Charles has AGI ofof the $50,000scope
LO 6-1 and has madeof
LO 6-2 the book.
the following Each
payments related
(1) land he inherited from his deceased aunt and (2) a personal vacation taken last
to research
problem includes an icon to differentiate it from regular year. problems.
Calculate the amount of taxes Charles may include in his itemized deductions
for the year under the following circumstances:
2-33
State inheritance tax on the landCHAPTER 2 Tax Compliance, the IRS, and Tax Authorities
$1,200
Planning Problems County real estate tax on the land
57. The IRS recently completed an audit of Shea’s tax return and assessed $15,000 ad-
spi69614_ch02_000-035.indd 32
School district tax on the land
ditional tax. Shea requested an appeals conference but was unable to settle the case
1,500
690
LO 2-2 1/23/19 9:56 PM

Planning problems are another unique City special assessment on the land (new curbs and gutters) 700 planning
at the conference. She is contemplating which trial court to choose to hear her case.
State tax onbased
Provide a recommendation airline
on tickets (paid on
the following vacation)
alternative facts: 125
Local hotel tax (paid during vacation) 195
set of problems included in the end-of- a) Shea resides in the 2nd Circuit, and the 2nd Circuit has recently ruled against the
position Shea is litigating.
a) Suppose that Charles holds the land for appreciation.
chapter assignment material. These re-
b) The Federal b) Circuit
SupposeCourtthat
of Appeals
Charleshas recently
holds ruledfor
the land in favor
rent. of Shea’s
position. c) Suppose that Charles holds the land for appreciation and that the vacation was
c) The issue beingactually
litigated ainvolves a question
trip. of fact. Shea has a very appealing
quire students to test their tax planning business
4-38 CHAPTER 4 Individual Income Tax Overview, Dependents, and Filing Status
story to tell but little favorable case law to support her position.
d) The issue being litigated is highly technical, and Shea believes strongly in her
skills after covering the chapter topics. Each planning problem
ment for the tax yearincludes
interpretation of theseparate
anin theicon toreturn
differentiate
law. status. By changing his filing status, Doug sought a refund for an overpay-
2019 (he paid more tax original joint
e) Shea is a local elected official and would prefer to minimize any local publicity
than he
owed on a separate return). Is Doug allowed to change his filing status for the 2019
it
from regular problems. regarding the case.
tax year and receive a tax refund with his amended return?
58. Juanita, a Texas resident (5th Circuit), is researching a tax question and finds a 5th LO 2-3
Circuit case ruling that is favorable and a 9th Circuit case that is unfavorable. Which
circuit case has more “authoritative weight” and why? How would your answer

Comprehensive and Tax Return change if Juanita were a Kentucky resident (6th Circuit)?
spi69614_ch06_000-043.indd 36 04/02/19 7:28 PM

59. Faith, a resident ofCOMPREHENSIVE

Florida (11th Circuit), recentlyPROBLEMS
found a circuit court case that is LO 2-3
favorable to her research question. are
Which two circuits would she prefer to have
Problems 60.
issued the opinion?
Robert has found 54.
Select problems
Marc and authority
a “favorable”
available
Michelle directly
in Connect®.
are married and earned
on point for his salaries this year
tax question. of $64,000
If the LO 2-3
and

Comprehensive and tax return problems tax forms

authority $12,000,
is a court case,
from
whichrespectively.
court would In
municipal bonds
he addition
and
prefer toto
$500
Which court would he least prefer to have issued the opinion? from
their
have salaries,
issued
corporate
they received interest of $350
the opinion?
bonds. Marc contributed $2,500 to
an individual retirement account, and Marc paid alimony to a prior spouse in the
address multiple concepts in a single 61. Jamareo has found a “favorable” authority directly on point for his tax question. If
amount of $1,500. Marc and Michelle have a 10-year-old son, Matthew,
the authority is an administrative authority, which specific type of authority would
LO 2-3

with them throughout the entire year. Thus, Marc and Michelle are allowed to claim
who lived
he prefer to answer his question? Which administrative authority would he least
problem. Comprehensive problems are 62. For each of the following
a $2,000 child tax credit for Matthew. Marc and Michelle paid $6,000 of expendi-
prefer to answer his question?
tures that qualify as itemized deductions and they had a total of $3,500 in federal
citations, identify the type of authority
income taxes withheld from their paychecks(statutory,
during theadmin- LO year.
course of the 2-3

ideal for cumulative topics; for this rea- istrative, or judicial) and explain the citation.
a) Reg. Sec. 1.111-1(b)
a) What is Marc and Michelle’s gross income?
b) What is Marc and Michelle’s adjusted gross income?
son, they are located at the end of all b) IRC Sec. 469(c)(7)(B)(i)
c) What is the total amount of Marc and Michelle’s deductions from AGI?
c) Rev. Rul. 82-204, 1982-2 C.B. 192
d) What is Marc and Michelle’s taxable income?
chapters. In the end-of-book Appendix C, we include tax return problems that cover multiple d) Amdahl Corp., 108 TC 507 (1997)
e) PLR 9727004
e) What is Marc and Michelle’s taxes payable or refund due for the year? (Use the
tax rate schedules.)
­chapters. Additional tax return problems are 63. also available in Connect and Instructor Resource
f) Hills v. Comm., 50 f) AFTR2d
For each of the followingthe
Complete 82-6070
citations,
Marc (11th
most recent
Cir., 1982)Form 1040 pages 1 and 2, and Schedule 1 (use
and Michelle’s
identify
formtheavailable).
type of authority (statutory, admin- LO 2-3
istrative, or judicial) and explain the citation.
­Center. These problems range from simple to complex and cover individual taxation, corporate 55. Demarco and Janine Jackson have been married for 20 years and have four children
a) IRC Sec. 280A(c)(5)
tax forms who qualify as their dependents (Damarcus, Janine, Michael, and Candice). The
b) Rev. Proc. 2004-34,couple
2004-1received
C.B. 911
­taxation, partnership taxation, and S corporation taxation. c) Lakewood Associates, RIA TC
$10,000 fromMemo
salary income of $100,000 and qualified business income of
95-3566 in a partnership, and they sold their home this year.
an investment
d) TAM 200427004 They initially purchased the home three years ago for $200,000 and they sold it for
e) U.S. v. Muncy, 2008-2 $250,000.
USTC Thepar. gain on (E.D.,
50,449 the sale qualified
AR, 2008) for the exclusion from the sale of a princi-
64. pal residence.
Justine would like to clarify The Jacksons
her understanding of aincurred $16,500
code section of itemized
recently enacteddeductions,
by and they had
LO 2-4
Congress. What tax law $3,550 withheld
sources from their
are available paychecks
to assist for federal taxes. They are also allowed to
Justine?
65.
claim a child tax credit for each of their children. However, because Candice is
Aldina has identified conflicting authorities that address her research question. How LO 2-5
xiii
18 years of age, the Jacksons may claim a child tax credit for other qualifying
should she evaluate these authorities to make a conclusion?
dependents for Candice.
66. Georgette has identified a 1983 court case that appears to answer her research LO 2-5
a) What is the Jacksons’ taxable income, and what is their tax liability or (refund)?
question. What must she do to determine if the case still represents “current” law?
b) Complete page 1, page 2, and Schedule 1 of the Jacksons’ Form 1040 (use the
67. Sandy has determined that her research question depends upon the interpretation of LO 2-5
most recent form available).
the phrase “not compensated by insurance.” What type of research question is this?
c) What would their taxable income be if their itemized deductions totaled $28,000
instead of $16,500?
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xvi
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McGraw-Hill’s Taxation of Individuals is organized to empha-
size topics that are most important to undergraduates taking their
first tax course. The first three chapters provide an introduction
to taxation and then carefully guide students through tax research
and tax planning. Part II discusses the fundamental elements of
individual income tax, starting with the tax ­formula in Chapter 4
and then proceeding to more discussion on income, deductions,
investments, and computing tax liabilities in Chapters 5–8.
Part III then discusses tax issues associated with business-
related activities. Specifically, this part addresses business
income and deductions, accounting methods, and tax consequences
associated with purchasing assets and property dispositions
(sales, trades, or other dispositions). Part IV is unique among
tax textbooks; this section combines related tax issues for
compensation, retirement savings, and home ownership.
Part I: Introduction to Taxation
1. An Introduction to Tax
2. Tax Compliance, the IRS, and Tax Authorities
3. Tax Planning Strategies and Related Limitations
Part II: Basic Individual Taxation
4. Individual Income Tax Overview, Dependents, and Filing
Status
5. Gross Income and Exclusions
6. Individual Deductions
7. Investments
8. Individual Income Tax Computation and Tax Credits
Part III: Business-Related Transactions
9. Business Income, Deductions, and Accounting Methods
10. Property Acquisition and Cost Recovery
11. Property Dispositions
Part IV: Specialized Topics
12. Compensation
13. Retirement Savings and Deferred Compensation
14. Tax Consequences of Home Ownership
xviii
Four Volumes to Fit
McGraw-Hill’s Taxation of Business Entities begins with the
process for determining gross income and deductions for
businesses, and the tax consequences associated with purchasing
assets and property dispositions (sales, trades, or other disposi-
tions). Part II provides a comprehensive overview of entities and
the formation, reorganization, and liquidation of corporations.
Unique to this series is a complete chapter on accounting for
income taxes, which provides a primer on the basics of calculating
the income tax provision. Included in the narrative is a discussion
of temporary and permanent differences and their impact on a
company’s book “effective tax rate.” Part III provides a detailed
discussion of partnerships and S corporations. The last part of
the book covers state and local taxation, multinational taxation,
and transfer taxes and wealth planning.
Part I: Business-Related Transactions
1. Business Income, Deductions, and Accounting Methods
2. Property Acquisition and Cost Recovery
3. Property Dispositions
Part II: Entity Overview and Taxation of C Corporations
4. Entities Overview
5. Corporate Operations
6. Accounting for Income Taxes
7. Corporate Taxation: Nonliquidating Distributions
8. Corporate Formation, Reorganization, and Liquidation
Part III: Taxation of Flow-Through Entities
9. Forming and Operating Partnerships
10. Dispositions of Partnership Interests and Partnership
Distributions
11. S Corporations
Part IV: Multijurisdictional Taxation and Transfer Taxes
12. State and Local Taxes
13. The U.S. Taxation of Multinational Transactions
14. Transfer Taxes and Wealth Planning
Four Course Approaches
McGraw-Hill’s Taxation of Individuals and
Business Entities covers all chapters included
in the two split volumes in one convenient
volume. See Table of Contents.
Part I: Introduction to Taxation
1. An Introduction to Tax
2. Tax Compliance, the IRS, and Tax Authorities
3. Tax Planning Strategies and Related Limitations
Part II: Basic Individual Taxation
4. Individual Income Tax Overview, Dependents, and
Filing Status
5. Gross Income and Exclusions
6. Individual Deductions
7. Investments
8. Individual Income Tax Computation and Tax Credits
Part III: Business-Related Transactions
9. Business Income, Deductions, and Accounting Methods
10. Property Acquisition and Cost Recovery
11. Property Dispositions
Part IV: Specialized Topics
12. Compensation
13. Retirement Savings and Deferred Compensation
14. Tax Consequences of Home Ownership
Part V: Entity Overview and Taxation of C Corporations
15. Entities Overview
16. Corporate Operations
17. Accounting for Income Taxes
18. Corporate Taxation: Nonliquidating Distributions
19. Corporate Formation, Reorganization, and Liquidation
Part VI: Taxation of Flow-Through Entities
20. Forming and Operating Partnerships
21. Dispositions of Partnership Interests and Partnership
Distributions
22. S Corporations
Part VII: Multijurisdictional Taxation and Transfer Taxes
23. State and Local Taxes
24. The U.S. Taxation of Multinational Transactions
25. Transfer Taxes and Wealth Planning
McGraw-Hill’s Essentials of Federal Taxation is designed for a
one-semester course, covering the basics of taxation of individu-
als and business entities. To facilitate a one-semester course,
McGraw-Hill’s Essentials of Federal Taxation folds the key top-
ics from the investments, compensation, retirement savings, and
home ownership chapters in Taxation of Individuals into three
individual taxation chapters that discuss gross income and exclu-
sions, for AGI deductions, and from AGI deductions, respec-
tively. The essentials volume also includes a two-chapter C
corporation sequence that uses a life-cycle approach covering
corporate formations and then corporate operations in the first
chapter and nonliquidating and liquidating corporate distribu-
tions in the second chapter. This volume is perfect for those
teaching a one-semester course and for those who struggle to get
through the 25-chapter comprehensive volume.
Part I: Introduction to Taxation
1. An Introduction to Tax
2. Tax Compliance, the IRS, and Tax Authorities
3. Tax Planning Strategies and Related Limitations
Part II: Individual Taxation
4. Individual Income Tax Overview, Dependents, and Filing
Status
5. Gross Income and Exclusions
6. Individual For AGI Deductions
7. Individual From AGI Deductions
8. Individual Income Tax Computation and Tax Credits
Part III: Business-Related Transactions
9. Business Income, Deductions, and Accounting Methods
10. Property Acquisition and Cost Recovery
11. Property Dispositions
Part IV: Entity Overview and Taxation of C Corporations
12. Entities Overview
13. Corporate Formations and Operations
14. Corporate Nonliquidating and Liquidating Distributions
Part V: Taxation of Flow-Through Entities
15. Forming and Operating Partnerships
16. Dispositions of Partnership Interests and Partnership
Distributions
17. S Corporations
xix
SUPPLEMENTS FOR INSTRUCTORS
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dards. McGraw-Hill’s Taxation is designed
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solution.
Each chapter in the book begins with a list
of numbered learning objectives, which appear
throughout the chapter as well as in the end-of-
chapter assignments. Every test bank question
for McGraw-Hill’s Taxation maps to a specific
chapter learning objective in the textbook. Each
test bank question also identifies topic area,
level of difficulty, Bloom’s Taxonomy level,
and AICPA and AACSB skill area.
AACSB Statement
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standards for business accreditation by connect-
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bank to the general knowledge and skill guide-
lines in the revised AACSB standards.
A HEARTFELT THANKS TO THE MANY COLLEAGUES WHO SHAPED THIS BOOK
The version of the book you are reading would not be the same book without the valuable suggestions, keen insights,
and constructive criticisms of the list of reviewers below. Each professor listed here contributed in substantive ways
to the organization of chapters, coverage of topics, and use of pedagogy. We are grateful to them for taking the time
to read chapters or attend reviewer conferences, focus groups, and symposia in support of the development for
the book:
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xx
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bank, labeled selected questions according to
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Elizabeth Lyon, California State University–Sacramento
Narelle Mackenzie, San Diego State University, National University
Michael Malmfeldt, Shenandoah University
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Paul Mason, Baylor University
Lisa McKinney, University of Alabama at Birmingham
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Frank Messina, University of Alabama at Birmingham
R Miedaner, Lee University
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Karen Morris, Northeast Iowa Community College
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Edwin Pagan, Passaic County Community College
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xxi
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Zhen Zhang, Towson University
Mingjun Zhou, DePaul University

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the many talented people who made valuable contributions to the creation of this eleventh edition. William A.
Padley of Madison Area Technical College, Deanna Sharpe of the University of Missouri–Columbia, Troy Lewis of Brigham Young
University, and Dr. Jason Stanfield of Ball State University checked the page proofs and solutions manual for accuracy; we greatly
appreciate the hours they spent checking tax forms and double-checking our calculations throughout the book. Teressa Farough, Troy
Lewis, and David Chamberlain of Cal Poly–Orfalea accuracy checked the test bank. Thank you to Troy Lewis, Monika Turek, and
Jason Stanfield for your contributions to the Smartbook revision for this edition. Special thanks to Troy Lewis for his sharp eye and
valuable feedback throughout the revision process. Thanks as well to Helena Hunt from Agate Publishing for managing the supplement
process. Finally, Jason Stanfield, Deanna Sharpe, and Vivian Paige of Old Dominion University greatly contributed to the accuracy of
McGraw-Hill’s Connect for the 2020 edition.

We also appreciate the expert attention given to this project by the staff at McGraw-Hill Education, especially Tim Vertovec, Managing
Director; Kathleen Klehr, Executive Portfolio Manager; Danielle McLimore, Assessment Product Developer; Erin Quinones, Core
Product Developer; Lori Koetters, Brian Nacik, and Jill Eccher, Content Project Managers; Jessica Cuevas, Designer; Natalie King,
Marketing Director; Zach Rudin, Marketing Manager; and Sue Culbertson, Senior Buyer.

xxii
Changes in Taxation of Individuals,
2020 Edition
For the 2020 edition of McGraw-Hill’s Taxation of Individuals, many changes were made in
­response to feedback from reviewers and focus group participants:
∙ All tax forms have been updated for the latest
available tax form as of March 2019. In addition,
chapter content throughout the text has been updated
to reflect tax law changes through March 2019.
Other notable changes in the 2019 edition include:
Chapter 1
∙ Updated tax rates for 2019 and Examples 1-3
through 1-7.
∙ Updated Social Security Wage base for 2019.
∙ Updated unified Tax Credit for 2019.
∙ Updated Taxes in the Real World: National Debt for
current debt limit.
Chapter 2
∙ Updated gross income thresholds by filing status
for 2019.
∙ Enhanced discussion of statute of limitations.
∙ Updated penalty amounts for failure to file a tax
­return and failure to pay tax owed.
Chapter 3
∙ Updated tax rates for 2019.
∙ Updated Exhibit 3-3 for new tax rates post-TCJA.
∙ Modified Example 3-4 to clarify the solution.
Chapter 4
∙ Edited discussion of Form 1040 to match up with
revised tax forms.
∙ Updated Exhibit 4-7 to reflect standard deduction
amounts for 2019.
∙ Updated tax rates for 2019 rates.
∙ Clarified discussion on tiebreaker rules for qualifying
child.
∙ Revised discussion question 11.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
Chapter 5
∙ Updated for 2019 amounts for qualified transporta-
tion benefits.
∙ Updated for 2019 flexible spending account
contributions.
∙ Updated for 2019 foreign income exclusion amounts.
∙ Updated for annual gift tax exclusion and unified tax
credit for 2019.
∙ Updated U.S. Series EE Bond interest income
­exclusion for 2019.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
Chapter 6
∙ Updated excess business loss limitation for 2019.
∙ Updated discussion of deduction for interest on
­qualified education loan for 2019.
∙ Updated AGI floor for medical expense itemized
­deduction for 2019.
∙ Updated mileage rate for medical expense itemized
deduction for 2019.
∙ Added a Taxes in the Real World on state and local
tax credits and charitable contributions.
∙ Revised discussion of casualty and theft losses on
personal-use assets.
∙ Updated standard deduction amounts for 2019
amounts.
∙ Expanded discussion for deduction for qualified
­business income and updated for 2019.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
Chapter 7
∙ Updated tax rates in all examples and problems
for 2019.
∙ Updated Exhibit 7-3.
∙ Updated examples for changes in capital gains tax
rate thresholds.
∙ Revised the discussion of capital gains netting
­process to illustrate a simpler process for taxpayers
that only have 0/15/20 percent long-term capital
gains.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
Chapter 8
∙ Updated tax rate schedules for 2019.
∙ Moved discussion of net investment income tax to
­additional tax section.
∙ Updated discussion of kiddie tax for 2019.
∙ Updated AMT exemption and tax rate schedule
for 2019.
∙ Updated Social Security tax wage base and
self-­employment tax base for 2019.
∙ Updated lifetime learning credit phase-out
for 2019.
xxiii
 ∙ Updated earned income credit amounts for 2019.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
Chapter 9
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
∙ Updated definition of interest for the business
interest limitation to conform with proposed
regulations.
∙ Added a new Taxes in the Real World on the all-
events test for rebate payments.
∙ Added two new research problems.
∙ Added a description of the latest IRS position on the
deduction of business meals in conjunction with
­nondeductible entertainment.
∙ Added example and homework problems on the
­deduction of business meals.
∙ Revised examples and text discussion for updated
2018 mileage rates.
∙ Expanded description of accounting exceptions for
small businesses (average annual gross receipts of
$26 million or less in prior three years).
Chapter 10
∙ Updated Exhibit 10-2 for Weyerhaueser’s 2017
assets.
∙ Updated tax rates for 2019.
∙ Revised section on §179 amounts to reflect the
­inflation adjustments for 2019.
∙ Updated examples for 2019 §179 amounts.
∙ Clarified treatment of bonus depreciation for AMT
purposes.
∙ Updated discussion and Exhibit 10-10 relating to
­automobile depreciation limits.
∙ Updated §179 amount for SUVs for 2019 inflation
amount changes.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018.
∙ Updated and revised end-of-chapter problems for
§179 amounts and bonus depreciation rules.
Chapter 11
∙ Updated tax rates for 2019.
∙ Updated Exhibit 11-6 for changes to recapture.
∙ Clarified discussion of §1250 recapture as it applies
to qualified improvement property placed in service
prior to 2018.
∙ Modified discussion of §1239 gains.
∙ Modified discussion on like-kind exchanges to
clarify purpose of a third-party deferred like-kind
exchange.
∙ Updated discussion of boot given in like-kind
exchange.
xxiv
∙ Added definition of condemnation.
∙ Added clarification of amortization of foreign R&E
expenditures post-December 31, 2021.
∙ Updated tax forms from 2017 to 2018 forms.
Chapter 12
∙ Substantially revised discussion of salary and wages.
∙ Substantially revised discussion of equity-based
compensation.
∙ Updated qualified transportation fringe benefit
amounts for 2019.
∙ Updated tax forms to 2018.
∙ Updated Taxes in the Real World for 2018 proxy
statement information.
Chapter 13
∙ Updated footnote 1 to reflect the 2018 OASDI
Trustees report.
∙ Updated inflation adjusted limits for defined benefit
plans, defined contribution plans, and individually
managed plans.
∙ Removed old Exhibit from Coca-Cola proxy state-
ment (old Exhibit 13-6) and integrated a summary
description in the text.
∙ Inserted new footnote providing citation to
authority for exceptions to 10 percent early
­distribution penalty.
∙ Expanded discussion about making IRA contributions
for the prior year after year-end.
∙ Added discussion to footnote dealing with rollovers
from traditional IRAs to Roth IRAs.
∙ Updated modified AGI phase-out thresholds for
­deductible contributions to traditional IRAs and
­contributions to Roth IRAs.
∙ Updated calculations for limits on self-employed
­retirement accounts to reflect updated 2019 Social
Security wage base limitation.
∙ Updated saver’s credit information for 2019.
Chapter 14
∙ Updated Taxes in the Real World dealing with online
rental communities such as Airbnb.
∙ Added discussion and an example describing and
­illustrating when a loan called a “home equity loan”
by a bank is considered to be acquisition debt for tax
purposes.
∙ Revised LO 14-3 to emphasize home mortgage
­interest deduction.
∙ Revised discussion of the IRS method and the Tax
Court method to reflect the circumstances in which
each is more favorable given the new tax law.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
anche codardo colui, del quale fin allora aveano leccato la spada
insanguinata; tacciare i ministri d’aver rubato, massimamente Prina
e Fontanelli; mentre l’unica loro colpa era l’essersi creduti ministri del
re, anzichè del regno; e Luigi Giovio, gran napoleonista, aprendo i
collegi elettorali dicea: — Possano le Alpi, le une sopra le altre
ammassate, separarci per sempre da quella nazione, che sempre
portò l’infortunio e la desolazione nella patria nostra».
La reggenza provvisoria cercò popolarità coll’abrogare le istituzioni
che più offendevano; rimandò a casa i nuovi coscritti, chiese dalle
Potenze i prigionieri di guerra; abolì il blocco continentale, il registro,
le corti speciali, le caccie riservate; attenuò i dazj e le regalìe; e
soldati che rimpatriavano vivi, coscritti refrattarj che uscivano dai
boschi, prigionieri di Stato o per contravvenzione finanziaria che
rientravano nella società, pareano preludj d’un secol d’oro; si
gavazzavano i soliti carnevali sulle ruine, anzichè pensare alla
ricostruzione. Quella reggenza non avea fatta la rivoluzione nè la
intese; ed insufficiente ad ore piene di tanto dubbio avvenire,
credette suo unico uffizio il trasmettere il paese senza trambusti da
un padrone all’altro [141]; ai deputati dell’esercito di Mantova, venuti
ad offrirsi alla patria, il generale Pino rispondeva: — Fate torto alle
alte Potenze col dubitare non vogliano l’indipendenza italiana;
bisogna fidarsi interamente alla loro probità». Sempre gli stessi
inganni, le stesse lusinghe, fin le parole stesse!
Beauharnais, vedendo perduta la sua partita fra il popolo e sperando
ancora dai re, per dispetto rende a Bellegarde Mantova 1814 23
aprile e l’esercito che non era suo ma dell’Italia; e con molte
ricchezze traversato il paese non senza pericolo, massime nel Tirolo
indignato della perfida fucilazione di Hoffer, passa a Parigi a trescar
anch’egli sul tavoliere dove si biscazzavano le sorti del mondo e le
nostre.
Quando nel 1805 si ordì la terza coalizione fra i nemici di Francia,
nelle combinazioni preparate dalla Russia pel caso di vittoria era che
si costituisse pei reali di Savoja un regno subalpino, composto del
Piemonte, con Genova, la Lombardia ed il Veneto; Savoja colla
Valtellina e co’ Grigioni formerebbe un cantone svizzero; una
federazione di cui il papa sarebbe grancancelliere, unirebbe il regno
col pontefice, colle Due Sicilie, col regno d’Etruria e coi piccoli Stati
di Lucca, Ragusi, Malta, isole Jonie, alternandone l’egemonia fra i re
del Piemonte e delle Due Sicilie. Questi concetti poteano effettuarsi
adesso, quando in nome della nazionalità e delle istituzioni liberali si
erano mossi gli Alleati; ed Alessandro, graziosa personificazione del
regio liberalismo, inclinava a metter Eugenio a capo d’un regno
indipendente; gli ambasciatori esteri fomentavano le aspirazioni
nazionali nei nostri, e ai deputati della reggenza provvisoria [142] quel
d’Inghilterra diceva: — Vuolsi avere idee e sentimenti liberi;
manifestateli, e la grande mia nazione vi proteggerà». Ma allorchè
essi inviati presentaronsi a Francesco I d’Austria, questo rispose: —
Lor signori sapranno che la Lombardia m’era già assicurata nel
trattato di Chatillon; non v’è dunque a disputare d’indipendenza
italica nè di costituzione; Milano dovrà decadere, cessando d’esser
capitale; mia cura sarà che decada lentamente: del resto so non
convenire all’Italia le leggi austriache; chiamerò a Vienna gl’Italiani
più illuminati d’ogni classe per formolare l’ordinamento del paese».
Era un accertare che non poteasi più sperare se non nella clemenza
d’un vincitore; ch’era sfuggita un’altra di quelle occasioni, che, non
così rare come cianciano i poltroni, Iddio manda a questa bella parte
d’Italia, e ch’essa scialacqua.
Napoleone, al primo tornare di Russia, era corso a Fontainebleau, e
a Pio VII, vecchio, infermo, non cinto che da cardinali ligi
all’imperatore, timoroso per la Chiesa quant’era intrepido per se
medesimo, strappò la firma d’un concordato, in cui rinunziava al
dominio temporale, e se tardasse sei mesi l’istituzione ai vescovi
nominati, autorizzava a darla il metropolita o il vescovo anziano.
Napoleone ne esultò come d’un trionfo, e aperse le carceri ai
cardinali. Ma il rinunziare all’istituzione de’ vescovi importava ben più
che il ceder Roma, poichè toglieva al pontefice il diritto di escludere i
prevaricanti e servili: onde Pio VII, «pieno di pentimento e di
rimorso» [143], divulgò una protesta contro quest’atto di sua
debolezza. Ne infuriò Napoleone, ed espulse di nuovo o imprigionò i
cardinali: ma quando si vide perduto, ordinò che Pio fosse riportato a
Savona. Caduto lui, il nuovo Governo di Francia ordinava la
liberazione del papa, il quale allora s’avviò a’ suoi Stati in trionfo.
Murat, che li occupava militarmente, mandò insinuargli di non
avventurarsi in paesi troppo lieti d’essersi sottratti alla dominazione
pretina: ma egli procedette, e accolto dappertutto
festosissimamente, si fermò a Cesena sua patria, ove fece accordo
che il re tenesse le Marche promessegli dagli Alleati, restituisse
Roma, l’Umbria, la Campagna, Pesaro, Fano, Urbino.
L’entrar di Pio in Roma fu una delle più affettuose solennità, e gli
faceano corteggio i detronati reali di Spagna, di Sardegna, di Parma,
cardinali intrepidi e vacillanti, e truppe austriache e napoletane. Le
potenze convenivano di considerare il pontefice come non mai stato
in guerra, nè quindi conchiuso il trattato di Tolentino; restituivangli i
pristini Stati, neppur escludendo i disgiunti possessi di Benevento e
Pontecorvo; bensì la Francia si tenne Avignone e il contado
Venesino, e l’Austria il Polesine di Rovigo, e, malgrado le proteste
del pontefice, il diritto di guarnigione a Ferrara e Comacchio, che
privava lo Stato papale d’una linea militare e della padronanza del
Po.
Quanto al Napoletano, si propose di restituirlo ai Borboni di Sicilia;
ma vuolsi che Alessandro rispondesse, or che si trattava di popoli,
non potersi rendere lo scettro a re carnefice; e che Carolina se ne
accorasse tanto da morire improvviso. Veramente l’Austria amava
restasse a Murat, nemico naturale de’ nuovi padroni della Francia,
della quale era sempre gelosa; le altre potenze a vicenda
desideravano in Italia chi tenesse in bilico l’Austria: ma caduto
Napoleone, Murat era un’anomalia; l’Inghilterra volea mantener la
parola data ai Borboni di rimetterli nel regno, e il ministro
Castlereagh sottigliava a mostrare che Murat avesse fallito agli
obblighi, e trattato coll’imperatore. Murat confidava nelle promesse
degli Alleati, fin quando non si udì intimare di ceder le Marche al
papa. Mostrò egli farlo di buona grazia e per amor della pace
generale; ma vedendo a che s’avviassero, e il re siciliano chiedere
intero il regno avito, egli fece armi e rannodò intrighi, diede ascolto a
Paolina, a Girolamo, al cardinale Buonaparte venuti dall’Elba nel suo
paese, e credendo ostinati contro di lui i Borboni ristabiliti in Francia,
domanda all’Austria di dargli il passo con ottantamila uomini per
combatterli; onde quelli mettono un grosso esercito nel Delfinato.
Erasi intanto raccolto a Vienna, tra feste e gajezza d’arti e gioja di
piaceri, un congresso per rassettare l’Europa [144]; e coll’escluderne
le piccole potenze, chiarivasi di voler rimpastarla a senno delle
grandi. Quelle dunque si lamentavano, queste venivano a rissa nel
dividersi le prede inaspettate; e prevedeasi una rottura.
Buonaparte sta in orecchio dall’isola d’Elba, che avea ritenuta in
sovranità, e dove era giunto con Letizia e Paolina, cinquecento
soldati della guardia, e marescialli e generali. I Francesi, sempre
insofferenti di quel che hanno per desiderare quel che non hanno
più, poco tardarono a trovare tutti i torti ai Borboni, e singolarmente i
soldati che vedeansi tolti a quella febbre d’azione, a quell’anelito di
gloria, di promozioni. La ostentata devozione, i revocati emblemi di
nobiltà rincrudivano le dimenticate repugnanze religiose e
aristocratiche; e a Napoleone, dianzi detestato, restituivansi l’aureola
della gloria e la missione di liberatore. Ortensia a Parigi diffondeva
l’ammirazione di lui sotto il nome di libertà; Paolina correva a
suscitarne il culto fra gli Italiani, che trovandosi ancora sbranati e
ridotti al nulla, ricorrono al ripiego dei fiacchi, la cospirazione,
massime i soldati. Alcuni facendosi (come si usa nelle congiure)
espressione del voto nazionale, si rivolgono a Napoleone
rammentandogli le sue prime vittorie in Italia e le speranze di
rigenerazione che questa pose in lui e che porrebbe ancora nella
sua stella, la quale dall’Italia potrà illuminare di nuovo il mondo:
offrivangli perciò il braccio, purchè egli non pensasse a conquiste e
accettasse una costituzione, che rendesse l’Italia una e
indipendente; Napoleone imperatore de’ Romani e re d’Italia,
inviolabile, residente a Roma, con venti milioni di lista civile, dividerà
il potere legislativo con un Senato e con una Camera di
rappresentanti triennali, radunati alternamente a Roma, Milano,
Napoli, eletti secondo il censo ed incompatibili con impieghi
amovibili; liberi i culti e la stampa; proibita ogni ampliazione di
territorio o l’intervenire negli affari degli altri popoli; responsali i
ministri, inamovibili i giudici; guardia nazionale, giurati, nobiltà nuova
e senza privilegi; pubblicità delle Camere e de’ tribunali.
Napoleone non esitò ad accettare; ma d’altra parte Murat, divenuto
ingordo di tutta l’Italia da che si vedeva disputato fin il brano
rimastogli, accoglieva (1815) quanti veterani ricusavano servire ai
principi rimessi, spediva il Maghella suo ministro di polizia a chiedere
e promettere appoggio ai Carbonari, che molto diffusi a Milano, a
Bologna, ad Alessandria, nella terraferma veneta, si diedero mano
coi vecchi soldati del regno italico, fidenti nelle vittorie come chi le
sconfitte attribuisce soltanto a tradimenti. Il papa si accorgeva di
trovarsi fra due nemici l’uno più scoperto, l’altro più pericoloso; ma in
confidenza facea voti per l’Italia, professando di temere Murat, ma
non amare gli Austriaci. A Francia, Russia, Prussia, non dispiaceva
che l’Austria venisse inquietata nel possesso dell’Italia che ormai
artigliava; l’Austria invece e i Borboni di Sicilia speravano trarne
pretesto a spossessare Murat. Probabilmente è una delle troppo
solite dicerie, che Talleyrand, mutatosi in ministro dei Borboni, e che
voleali rimessi anche a Napoli, mettesse nella congiura un suo
fidato, dal quale saputa ogni particolarità, la rivelasse all’Austria. Il
fatto che Fontanelli, destinato attor primo della mossa, esitò; così il
Lechi; e Bellegarde, luogotenente austriaco in Lombardia, arrestò i
cospiratori [145].
In quello stante (1 marzo) Napoleone, fidato nelle trame e nella
propria stella, sbarca dall’Elba in Provenza; i battaglioni spediti a
rincacciarlo s’arruolano con esso, con esso quell’esercito raccolto
nel Delfinato; il vessillo tricolore ridesta l’entusiasmo de’ primi suoi
lampi; «l’aquila di campanile in campanile» fino a Parigi. Napoleone,
entratovi 20 marzo in voce di difendere l’indipendenza e felicità della
Francia, subito scioglie le Camere, abolisce la nobiltà, convoca
un’assemblea nazionale per istabilire i limiti del potere: ma la
maschera democratica non si attagliava al suo viso imperatorio.
Murat tosto gli scrisse che vedea giunto il tempo di «riparare i suoi
torti, e mostrargli la sua devozione»; e Napoleone gli rispose si
allestisse d’armi, ma attendesse gli ordini, e nulla avventurasse
contro l’Austria, colla quale era in trattati. Anche il Colletta, allora
consigliere di Stato, dissuadeva Gioachino dalla guerra; l’unione di
tutta l’Italia essere sogno d’un pugno di teste calde; il grosso della
nazione sentirsi stanco di venticinque anni di guerra, e desideroso
unicamente della propria conservazione, disingannato dai paroloni
simpatici, usati troppo e slealmente; nè potersene sperare la
cooperazione se non procurando beni stabili, e spiegando forze
rassicuranti. L’esercito napoletano si crederà mai più forte
dell’austriaco? il gabinetto reale più influente che il congresso di
Vienna? Gl’Italiani calcoleranno, e non vorranno partecipare a una
causa disgraziata. Quand’anche fossero veri i trionfi di Napoleone,
egli penerebbe tanto a ordinare in casa, tanto a difendersi sul Reno
e nel Belgio, che non potrebbe far mente alla frontiera d’Italia: anche
vincendo, non troverebbesi tanto in vantaggio da dettar patti agli
Alleati. Un movimento contemporaneo a quel di Napoleone parrebbe
agl’Italiani un accordo, e perciò offenderebbe il loro idolo,
l’indipendenza.
In fatto Murat aveva un esercito ch’era appena un quinto
dell’austriaco; e la nazione, scossa da partiti, era restìa a nuovi
patimenti dopo esausta di sangue e di denaro. Per vero, se egli si
fosse trincerato minaccioso fra gli Abruzzi, bastava a tenere in
soggezione gli Austriaci: ma ascoltando di quei consigli che
s’intitolano magnanimi se riescono, manda una colonna comandata
da Giuseppe Lechi sopra Roma, donde il papa fugge; egli con l’altra
invade le Marche, e, pur continuando proteste agli Alleati, affronta gli
Austriaci in Pesaro, e da Rimini proclama: — Italiani, la Provvidenza
vi chiama infine ad essere una nazione indipendente; dall’Alpi allo
stretto di Scilla odasi un grido solo, Indipendenza d’Italia! Questo
primo diritto e bene di ogni popolo, a qual diritto gli stranieri
intendono torvelo? a qual titolo signoreggiano essi le più belle
contrade, si appropriano le vostre ricchezze, vi strappano i figli per
servire, languire, morir lontano dalle tombe degli avi? Adunque
invano natura alzò per voi le barriere delle Alpi? vi cinse invano di
barriere più insormontabili ancora, la differenza dei linguaggi e dei
costumi, l’invincibile antipatia de’ caratteri? No, no; via ogni dominio
straniero; mari e monti inaccessibili siano i limiti vostri; non aspirate
mai ad oltrepassarli, ma respingete lo straniero che gli ha violati.
Ottantamila Italiani degli Stati di Napoli, comandati dal loro re,
marciano giurando non domandar riposo se non dopo la liberazione
d’Italia. Italiani delle altre contrade, secondate il magnanimo
disegno; torni all’arme deposte chi le usò; vi si addestri la gioventù
inesperta: chi ha cuore e ingegno ripeta una libera voce, e parli in
nome della patria ad ogni petto veramente italiano; tutta si spieghi ed
in tutte le forme l’energia nazionale. Oggi si deciderà se l’Italia deve
esser libera, o piegare ancora per secoli la fronte umiliata al
servaggio. Lacera ancora ed insanguinata, essa eccita tante avidità
straniere. Gli uomini illuminati d’ogni contrada, le nazioni degne d’un
governo liberale, i sovrani d’alto carattere godranno della vostra
impresa, applaudiranno al vostro trionfo. Stringetevi saldamente, ed
un governo di vostra scelta, una rappresentanza veramente
nazionale, una costituzione degna del secolo e di voi, vi
garantiscono la libertà, tostochè il vostro coraggio vi avrà garantita
l’indipendenza».
Noi riportiamo questi passi per coloro che credono tali idee e tali
parole zampillassero primamente nel 1848. Ma la proclamazione
dell’indipendenza non aveva aspetto che d’un ordigno da guerra; i
più la udivano indifferenti: i sommovitori prometteano immensi ajuti a
lui che millantava immensi soldati. Ingannavansi reciprocamente,
poichè in realtà egli contava trentaquattromila trecento uomini, con
cinquemila cavalli e cinque bocche da fuoco; ma cerniti alla peggio
dai trivj e dalle prigioni: ufficiali straboccavano, ma quali di libero,
quali di servile sentimento, quali affigliati alla Carboneria, quali
persecutori di quella, tutti poco riverenti al re, tutti gelosi de’
Francesi, de’ quali erano rimasti nove generali, tredici colonnelli e
Millet capo dello stato maggiore. Gli Austriaci, oltre aver arrestati i
suoi aderenti in Lombardia, gli opponeano cinquantamila fanti,
tremila cavalli, e sessantaquattro pezzi d’artiglieria: che se fremeasi,
cantavasi, correasi ad esibir consigli al re e vantarsi d’aver cospirato
per chiedergli onori ed impieghi, se a Bologna il cavaliere Pellegrino
Rossi abbattè le ripristinate insegne pontifizie, pochissimi
afferravano le armi, non cinquecento uomini gli si arrolarono in tutte
le Marche, e stentavansi i viveri all’esercito liberatore. Gli Austriaci,
guidati da Frimont, si raccolsero dietro al Po e al Panáro: e Murat
pensava tragittare ad Occhiobello per dar mano a’ Lombardi e
Veneziani, che sperava insorgessero; ma ecco lettere di sua moglie
il richiamano nel reame, minacciato dagl’Inglesi.
Conoscendosi tradito, perdette il coraggio e lo tolse a’ suoi;
ritirandosi a rotta, presso Macerata (2 maggio) cadeva prigioniero col
suo stato maggiore, se un battaglione di cerne delle Legazioni con
vecchi uffiziali non gli aprivano il passo. Il generale Bianchi lo
sconfigge a Tolentino; Nugent per la Toscana e per Terracina difila
sopra il regno: onde proteggere la ritirata, Murat cimentasi ancora a
Ceprano, ma colla peggio, e senza salmerie nè parco arriva a Napoli
(19 maggio). Quivi procura amicarsi gli animi col dare la costituzione,
ma troppo tardi; ogni sua domanda d’accomodamento è rejetta dagli
Alleati; il comodoro inglese Campbell minaccia bombardare la
capitale. Murat manda a rassegnar tutto, ma almeno nel trattato
conchiuso in Casa Lanza garantisce il debito pubblico, le rendite
dello Stato, la nuova nobiltà, i gradi, gli onori, le pensioni ai militari
che passassero al nuovo re, e amnistia per tutti. Tumulti destatisi in
Napoli fanno accelerare la chiamata degli Inglesi e degli Austriaci,
che con molto sangue chetano la plebaglia.
Carolina Buonaparte, che virilmente erasi condotta in que’ rovesci,
ottenne d’essere trasportata a Trieste coi figli, dopo sofferti gl’insulti
della plebaglia. Gioachino con pochi fedeli e poco denaro andò
fuggiasco, raccomandandosi al terzo, al quarto; dopo lungo
ascondersi e romanzesco vagare approdò in Corsica, e rifiutando
l’asilo offertogli come privato in Austria, raccolse un pugno di fidati
per imitare lo sbarco di Napoleone, e ravvivare in Calabria contro i
Borboni la guerra minuta ch’essi aveano alimentata contro di lui.
Sgominati da fortuna di mare, egli con solo ventotto raggiunge terra
a Pizzo, ed alza la bandiera; ma è preso, e da Napoli, che ad un
tempo intese il pericolo e la salvezza, viene ordine: — Il generale
Murat sarà tradotto avanti una commissione militare; non sarà
concessa al condannato che mezz’ora per adempiere ai doveri della
religione». Era dunque sentenziato prima che processato; ed egli
non rispose agl’interrogatorj se non — Sono Gioachino re delle Due
Sicilie; un re non può esser giudicato che da un altro re».
Aveva appena quarantott’anni, e sul punto di essere fucilato scrisse:
— Carolina mia, l’ultima mia ora è battuta, fra pochi istanti non avrai
più marito. Non dimenticarmi. La vita mia non fu contaminata da
veruna ingiustizia. Addio, Achille mio! addio, mia Letizia! addio, mio
Luciano! addio mia Luigia! mostratevi al mondo superiori alla
sventura e degni di me. Vi lascio senza regno, senza beni, in mezzo
a numerosi nemici: siate sempre uniti. Pensate cosa foste, e Dio vi
benedirà. Non maledite la mia memoria. Quel che più m’accora è di
morir lontano da’ miei figliuoli. Ricevete la mia benedizione paterna,
il mio amplesso e le mie lacrime: nè mai vi cada di memoria il vostro
povero padre».
È gemito d’uomo, quale non mai risuona nelle memorie di
Napoleone: ed egli veramente apparve il più eroico fra i soldati di
Napoleone, il solo cavalleresco. Intrepido in battaglia, fu povero ed
irresoluto di consigli, e colpa in parte la sua presunzione, in parte le
circostanze, ne trasse apparenza di menzognero: ma cuore mostrò;
e il popolaccio, sparando contro lui, puniva in esso le colpe
napoleoniche [146]. I suoi seguaci furono rimandati senza processo.
La morte di esso scioglieva da gravissimi imbarazzi l’Austria che
avevagli promesso un aumento di territorio nelle Marche, e gli altri
Alleati che aveano promesso un compenso a Ferdinando in Italia. Il
quale allora ricuperava anche la terraferma; ma non che ottenere
accrescimenti come gli altri principi tutti, fu scemato de’ Presidj di
Toscana, di Piombino, e di parte dell’Isola d’Elba, posseduti da tre
secoli, per darli al granduca austriaco [147].
Contro di Napoleone intanto si era confederata tutta Europa,
bandendo due milioni sulla testa di lui, come ai tempi barbari;
ricusando ogni accordo come d’uomo alla cui parola non si può
fidare. Tre eserciti avventatigli, d’Austriaci con Schwartzenberg,
d’Inglesi con Wellington, di Prussiani con Blücher, a Waterloo (18
giugno) riescono vincitori; il francese va sperperato; Napoleone
fuggendo traverso a morti e morenti, arriva a Rochefort per tragittarsi
agli Stati Uniti, e non trovando navi, rendesi agl’Inglesi, che
considerandolo prigioniero di guerra, lo portano a Sant’Elena, isola
perduta nell’immensità dell’Oceano, dove visse fino al 5 maggio
1821.
I sovrani alleati ripigliano il congresso per rassettare l’Europa. Vi
primeggiava fra i re Alessandro, che aveva potuto comandare
s’incendiasse la sua capitale e comandare si risparmiasse la capitale
del gran nemico: e secondo il tono di lui, liberali massime si
professavano; principi e popoli non dovere far guerra che per
indispensabile necessità; la schiavitù e il servaggio abolirsi,
qualunque ne sia la forma; connettersi religione, politica, morale; la
spada non conferire diritti; aver ognuno a rispettare l’indipendenza
dell’altro; ai Governi esser necessario fondarsi su canoni precisi ed
espressi; ai popoli competere il diritto di partecipare alla legislazione,
di determinare le imposte, di liberamente manifestare il pensiero
colla parola e colla stampa. Sciaguratamente fra le precedenti
combinazioni di difesa o di assalto nessuno erasi preparato all’opera
della restaurazione; e sbalorditi dalla rapidità degli avvenimenti,
quando uscirono trionfanti dal rinnovato tumulto operarono con
maggiore fretta e minori riguardi: non che ridurre in fatto quelle
intenzioni generose, nè tampoco seppero risolversi francamente tra
la scuola storica e la razionale, tra lo spirito teutonico e il liberale; e
tutti sentivano bisogno di riposo, d’una soluzione a tanti viluppi,
qualunque ella si fosse, comunque si sentisse non duratura. E
poichè ogni rivoluzione ed ogni riazione dee avere una parola
d’ordine, qui fu la legittimità, inventata da Talleyrand pel caso
speciale di salvare la Francia dalle minacciate sottrazioni, estesa
dagli Alleati a tutte le altre quistioni, talchè l’opera loro dovesse
parere un rintegramento del passato, una restituzione dei diritti che
l’usurpatore avea tolti ai principi.
L’Austria erasi mostrata la più pertinace, in una lotta quasi
incessante di ventidue anni non badando a sagrifizj, a spese, ad
affetti, a dignità; ultima sempre a ritirarsi dal campo, sempre nella
pace allestendosi alla guerra, e nell’alleanza col nemico spiando le
occasioni di dargli il colpo. Dritto parve dunque che, non solo
ricuperasse quanto avea perduto in tante guerre e paci, salvo i Paesi
Bassi, ma anche ringrandisse con comode comunicazioni verso
Italia, e con opportunità di tenere la briglia alla Francia. Se la
legittimità proclamata avesse riguardato i popoli, non soltanto i re,
Venezia, non rea d’avere favorito Napoleone, sarebbe dovuta
risorgere: invece fu assegnata all’Austria insieme colla Lombardia,
cresciuta della Valtellina, e col territorio dell’antica repubblica di
Ragusi.
Il Canton Ticino, sotto pretesto del contrabbando, era stato occupato
dalle truppe del regno d’Italia, e le brighe per unirlo a questo
venivano secondate da coloro che ambivano cariche e denaro, o
lasciavansi abbagliare dalle gemme del diadema napoleonico, senza
vedere che eranvi incastonate col sangue. Caduto l’imperatore,
anche i vecchi signori svizzeri ridomandavano i loro sudditi: ma il
congresso di Vienna riconobbe la libertà di tutti, e il Ticino formò un
cantone della Confederazione elvetica, che dovette darsi una
costituzione ristretta, secondo il volere di chi allora poteva, ma che
venne poi riformata nel 1830, indi ancora nel 1847 quando la
Svizzera abjurò le sue locali tradizioni per aspirare alla centralità
come i regni.
I Grigioni ridomandavano la Valtellina; dove in fatto il basso popolo
rimpiangeva l’antica tranquillità, e il non pagare, e il non militare, e il
sale buon a mercato, e il privilegio di commercio e di transito; e
Parravicini e Juvalta, capi della sollevazione del 1809 (pag. 191), ora
sollecitavano l’unione agli Svizzeri. Ma troppi ambivano tenersi uniti
alla ricca Lombardia, e ad una Corte che poteva dare pensioni, titoli,
impieghi; Diego Guicciardi, spedito a Vienna a invocare la fusione
colla Lombardia, ostentava le ragioni per cui la valle non potea
essere svizzera; e se Capodistria, rappresentante della Russia,
esaltava i vantaggi dello stato libero, Guicciardi rimbalzavali col
solito pretesto che i Valtellinesi non erano maturi per la libertà. Quasi
non potesse dirsi altrettanto de’ Ticinesi! L’Austria carezzò
quest’opportunità di congiungere a’ suoi dominj d’oltre alpe il
cisalpino; e l’ottenne allorchè lo sbarco di Napoleone fece sentire la
necessità di tenersela amica nel nuovo frangente; Guicciardi
ringraziò a nome del popolo, godendo di gridare egli primo — Viva
Francesco I nostro imperatore e re»; e la Valtellina rimase provincia
del regno lombardo-veneto.
Della cui istituzione Bellegarde pubblicando (16 aprile) la regia
patente, diceva: — Una tale determinazione conserva a ciascuna
città tutti i vantaggi che godeva, e ai sudditi di sua maestà quella
nazionalità che a ragione tanto apprezzano». Subito l’esercito
italiano fu sciolto, e molti uffiziali cercarono fortuna altrove, come
Ventura che andò a sistemare gli eserciti del re di Lahor nelle Indie,
Codazza che nelle repubbliche dell’America meridionale fece da
ingegnere, e colonizzò l’alta regione della Cordiliera marittima del
Venezuela, e così altri. A Venezia erano in costruzione sette grossi
legni francesi e quattro italiani, e molt’altri in armamento, e gran
cumulo di quanto occorre ad attrezzare: e furono interrotti i lavori,
legnami e boschi venduti agl’Inglesi, che li fecero spaccare.
Pertanto l’Austria che, nel secolo precedente, non teneva in Italia
che il Milanese, separato dagli altri suoi Stati ereditarj, trovossi un
regno di cinque milioni di abitanti e ottantaquattro milioni di rendita,
con Venezia e trecento miglia di litorale, e selve e uomini per una
forza marittima; da un lato aperti la Svizzera e il Piemonte, mal
guarnito dall’indifeso Ticino; dall’altro assicurato il tragitto del Po
colle guarnigioni di Ferrara, Piacenza e Comacchio; unite le sue
provincie alle transalpine mediante il Friuli e la Valtellina, potea
scendere per le valli tutte dall’Adda all’Isonzo; invece della sola
Mantova, fortezza poco rassicurante, coprivasi colle robustissime
linee del Mincio e dell’Adige; Legnago, perduta dapprima nelle basse
pianure, diveniva importante anello fra Mantova e Verona: vuole
offendere? può spingersi nella Romagna e nella Toscana,
dimezzando l’Italia; è costretta a difendersi? le si prestano le linee
del Po e del Ticino, dopo queste l’Adda, indi il Mincio, infine l’Adige,
dove Verona ridotta a campo trincerato di prim’ordine, tiene alle
spalle tutte le riserve e i depositi dello Stato, e per una serie di
fortalizj da monte a monte si connette fino colla metropoli.
Collocando parenti suoi sui troni di Toscana, di Modena, di Parma,
l’Austria teneva la mano sulla media Italia. Se non che nei paesi
italici si erano diffuse, durante la dominazione francese, idee mal
consonanti col sistema di essa, onde avrebbe a stentare nel
soddisfarle e nel reprimerle.
La dinastia toscana, quantunque compensata già con lauti possessi
in Germania, ricuperò l’antico granducato, aggiungendovi que’
Presidj e la porzione dell’isola d’Elba che tanto erano costati a
Napoli; nel principato di Piombino erano riservati i beni e i diritti
proprj della casa Ludovisi Buoncompagni, la quale poi ne fe
cessione per ottocentomila scudi romani.
La vedova del vivo Napoleone era figlia dell’imperatore d’Austria,
onde si volle fosse collocata in una reggia: e le assegnarono Parma,
Piacenza e Guastalla a vita, a scapito del Borbone già re d’Etruria, a
questo attribuendo la libera Lucca, che alla morte di Maria Luigia
lascerebbe alla Toscana per occupare Parma e Piacenza [148]:
intanto Austria e Toscana gli pagherebbero cinquecentomila lire. In
quel raffazzonamento nè tampoco si badò alle convenienze
geografiche: Benevento e Pontecorvo papali rimasero chiusi nel
regno; un distretto della Lombardia nella Svizzera; Castiglione e
Gallicano lucchesi nel Modenese: a un brano di Toscana non si
giungeva che traverso a Lucca, come i Modenesi doveano
attraversare Toscana per giungere a Massa e Carrara: la Corsica fu
tolta alla vicina Liguria, a’ cui padroni si lasciava invece la lontana
Sardegna: Sicilia perdea la sovranità sopra Malta e Gozzo, pur
conservando le smarrite isolette di Lampedusa e Pantelleria.
Il ristabilimento del re di Sardegna era sempre stato a cuore
agl’Inglesi, che pensavano anche invigorirlo perchè fosse barriera
alla Francia, attesochè soltanto per la debolezza del Piemonte era
Buonaparte potuto penetrare in Italia: anzi dei prigioni di guerra
aveano formato una legione reale piemontese. Al cadere di
Napoleone (1814 27 aprile), il principe Borghese stipulò con
Bellegarde e Bentinck che anche dal Piemonte si ritirassero le
truppe francesi, consegnando agli Alleati le cittadelle d’Alessandria,
Gavi, Savona, Fenestrelle, Torino; una dichiarazione del maresciallo
austriaco Schwartzenberg annunziò agli abitanti di terraferma e del
contado di Nizza: — I vostri desiderj sono appagati; voi vi troverete
di nuovo sotto il dominio di quei principi amati che hanno fatto la
felicità e la gloria vostra per tanti secoli»; prometteva oblìo del
passato, lodando chi, sotto al dominio straniero, avea conservato la
reputazione di valore e probità.
Tentata invano la Lombardia al momento della insurrezione di
Milano, il re e il suo ministro Agliè trescarono al congresso di Vienna
per spingere il dominio fino alla Magra e all’Adige; ciò tornar
opportuno ad impedire gl’incrementi eccessivi dell’Austria; nè potersi
considerare sicuro il Piemonte se non avesse Mantova e Peschiera.
Altre influenze impedirono la domanda.
Al ricomparire di Napoleone, il Piemonte improvvisò un esercito di
quindicimila uomini cogli avanzi del francese, e postosi in linea cogli
Alleati, occupò i dipartimenti delle alte e basse Alpi, e sperò ottenere
qualche brano che rendesse migliore questa frontiera, schiusa colle
strade del Ginevro e del Cenisio: e in fatto mediante reciproche
concessioni determinò i suoi limiti verso la Svizzera, e convenne che
le provincie del Ciablese, del Faucigny, della Savoja a settentrione di
Ugine godessero la neutralità elvetica, rimanendo sgombre di truppe
in evenienza di guerra, e il re potesse fortificare come voleva. Il
principato di Monaco fu conservato ai Matignoni, ma sotto la
protezione della Savoja.
Bentinck, avuta per capitolazione Genova, dove stavano
ducentonovantadue cannoni ma debolissima guarnigione, vedendo
«il desiderio generale della nazione genovese essere per l’antica
forma di governo, sotto cui ebbe libertà, prosperità, indipendenza, e
tale desiderio parendo conforme ai principj professati dalle Potenze
alleate di rendere a ciascuno gli antichi diritti e privilegi», ristabiliva lo
stato come nel 1797 «colle modificazioni che la volontà generale, il
bene pubblico, lo spirito dell’antica costituzione potessero
domandare». Ma il proposito d’opporre nel Piemonte una barriera
robusta alla Francia, fece che a quello si donasse Genova. Invano
quel Governo provvisorio protestò richiamandosi all’indipendenza
garantitale nel 1745 ad Aquisgrana; invano Mackintosh al
Parlamento di Londra mostrava il Genovesato essere un territorio
amico occupato da nemico, sicchè, espulso questo, rientra in
proprietà di se stesso.
Perduta la speranza dell’antico stato, volevano almeno formare un
principato indipendente, e si offrirono al duca di Modena, a Maria
Luigia di Spagna; poi vedendosi «dati a un principe forestiero»,
almeno chiedeano assumesse il titolo di re di Liguria, con una
costituzione garantita dalle Potenze. Non ottennero se non che agli
altri titoli di re di Sardegna unirebbe quel di duca di Genova: la città
avrebbe porto franco, senato, e Università, non imposte maggiori di
quelle che allora subivano gli Stati sardi; in ogni provincia un
consiglio di trenta possidenti ogn’anno si radunasse per trattare
dell’amministrazione comunale, e dovesse aversene il voto per
istabilire nuove imposte [149]. Così quella Casa che, contro il proprio
interesse, erasi mostrata avversissima alla rivoluzione, conservava
tutti i suoi dominj di qua e di là de’ monti, e veniva rinvigorita come
guardiana dell’Alpi contro i due colossi confinanti. Gli Austriaci, dopo
aver fatto saltare le mura di Alessandria e le opere esteriori in cui
Napoleone aveva speso venticinque milioni, la sgomberarono, e
divenne arcifinio verso la Lombardia l’indifeso Ticino.
Francesco IV d’Este, cugino e cognato dell’imperatore d’Austria,
avea sperato la corona d’Italia, o almeno il Piemonte, nel quale
intento aveva anche sposato Maria Beatrice figlia maggiore di
Vittorio Emanuele suo cognato; ma non ebbe che gli Stati di
Modena, nei quali sedutosi alla morte di sua madre, proclamò
ancora il codice del 1774 e le leggi vigenti prima del 97.
Si parlò di confederare gli Stati italiani fra loro; ma le gelosie degli
uni verso gli altri e di tutti contro della preponderante impedirono un
fatto, che gli avrebbe tolti dal rimanere zimbello della politica
esterna [150]. Sulle isole Jonie poteva ostentare qualche pretensione
la Russia; ma il disinteresse d’Alessandro o la gelosia de’ suoi amici
fecero riconoscerle repubblica sotto il protettorato dell’Inghilterra, la
quale vi teneva guarnigione e un lord commissario, e nominava il
presidente del senato.
Per debiti verso particolari nei paesi perduti, la Francia dovè pagare
ducenquaranta milioni, di cui toccarono cinque allo Stato pontifizio,
quattro e mezzo alla Toscana, uno a Parma, venticinque al
Piemonte; dei centrentasette impostile per costruire fortezze contro
di lei, dieci gli ebbe la Savoja per munire la frontiera. Riguardo ai
fiumi che lambono diversi Stati, fu convenuto che la loro navigazione
rimanesse libera, salvo i regolamenti di polizia; uniforme e invariabile
la tariffa dei diritti; ciascuno Stato provvedesse al mantenimento
delle sponde e del letto dalla sua parte.
Tutto ciò erasi fatto per mera utilità, senza riguardo a nazionalità, a
storia, a convenienze morali, a guisa d’un raffazzonamento
istantaneo, imposto dalla necessità, e contro cui reclamerebbero e
principi e popoli. Lord Castlereagh, plenipotente dell’Inghilterra,
reduce dal congresso di Vienna, interpellato dal Parlamento sopra il
«mercato de’ popoli fattosi colà», rispondeva che l’intento suo era
stato «di stabilire un sistema, sotto al quale i popoli potessero vivere
in pace tra loro; però non resuscitare quelli periti, il cui ristabilimento
ponesse in nuovi pericoli l’Europa. L’Italia che fece ella per iscuotere
il giogo francese? perciò non poteva essere considerata che come
paese conquistato: bisognava cederla all’Austria, affinchè questa
rimanesse strettamente unita a noi... I pregiudizj dei popoli non
meritano riflesso se non quando non si oppongono a uno scopo
prestabilito. Ora le potenze confederate essendosi obbligate a
garantire la sicurezza dell’Europa, questo obbligava a fare violenza
ai sentimenti degl’Italiani» [151].
Una rivoluzione cominciata in nome della democrazia, toglieva di
mezzo tutte le antiche repubbliche e gli Stati elettivi, mentre
assodava le monarchie: tante conquiste per l’incremento della
Francia erano riuscite a ingrandire solo i suoi nemici, poichè l’Austria
si trovò padrona dell’Adriatico e delle Alpi, del mar Ligure il
Piemonte, del Reno la Prussia, la Russia del Baltico; e l’Inghilterra
n’ebbe l’occasione o il pretesto di soperchiare ogni rivale.
Spogliati o mozzi i deboli, non restano che i colossi; ed Alessandro
stese l’atto della santa alleanza, in istile mistico come tutti i proclami
suoi, coi regnanti d’Austria e di Prussia, obbligandosi
diplomaticamente alle virtù evangeliche: singolare espressione della
politica in forma biblica, che rivela come fosse sentito generalmente
il bisogno di posarsi in qualche idea generale. Prometteano dunque,
«conforme al precetto evangelico, di restare legati indissolubilmente
d’amicizia fraterna, prestarsi mutua assistenza, governare i sudditi
da padri, mantenere sinceramente la religione, la pace la giustizia;
essi re si considerano membri d’una medesima nazione cristiana
che ha per unico sovrano Gesù Cristo verbo altissimo, e incaricati
ciascuno dalla Provvidenza di dirigere un ramo della famiglia
stessa».
Un accordo fatto nel nome di Dio e pel bene dell’umanità dava
lusinga alle menti: ma queste frasi che cose significavano? ch’essi
erano padri, i quali si univano per disporre da soli ciò che credessero
il meglio de’ loro figliuoli, senza questi ascoltare. E in fatto
l’ordinamento interno di ciascun paese si considerò come sacra
proprietà del principe, il quale dovesse provvedervi secondo la sua
buona volontà, senza riconoscere diritti di popoli.
Omaggio alle idee liberali fu il restituire i capi d’arte, adunati dalla
vittoria a Parigi nel museo Napoleone; e il non darli ai nuovi padroni,
bensì ai paesi stessi; al Belgio i quadri d’Anversa, benchè
assoggettato all’Olanda; a Venezia serva quelli tolti a Venezia libera.
Allorchè Denon a Pio VII mostrava quel museo, e compassionavalo
del rammarico che proverebbe in vedervi le opere tolte al suo paese,
il pontefice gli rispose: — La vittoria le avea portate in Italia; la
vittoria le depose qui; chi sa dove un giorno le riporterà?» Ed ecco la
profezia adempiuta: ma tanto più restavano scontenti i Francesi del
vedersene spogliati, e faceano pasquinate contro il Canova, non
imbasciatore ma imballatore, venuto a sovrintendere al ritorno delle
statue e de’ quadri italiani [152].
Un altro fatto onora quel congresso. L’Africa settentrionale fu sempre
strettamente congiunta alle vicende italiane. D’Italia, di Spagna, dalle
Baleari in ogni tempo v’affluì gente, trovandovi clima acconcio, terre
da lavorare, industria da esercitare: la pesca de’ coralli a Bona e alla
Calla v’era fatta da Siciliani e Napoletani. Nel 1520 i Turchi,
occupatala per opera del famoso corsaro Barbarossa, vi formarono
Stati, col nome di Barbareschi, che violano tutte le leggi della civiltà
insultando alle bandiere d’ogni potenza, e corseggiando le navi che
solcano il Mediterraneo, per rapirne robe e persone da rendere poi a
grossi riscatti o da tenere in servitù. L’Europa si rassegnò
lungamente a pagare loro un tributo per far rispettare questa o quella
bandiera; il reprimerli fu scopo ad imprese degli Spagnuoli, dei
Veneziani, dei cavalieri di Malta e di Santo Stefano; a volta a volta
qualche potenza vi recò guerra, ma non mai col proposito di
sterminarli.
Il blocco continentale crebbe baldanza ai Barbareschi; ma venuta la
pace, l’Inghilterra fu incaricata dal congresso di Vienna di procurare
s’abolisse la schiavitù de’ Cristiani. Essa contrattò riscatti a nome
della Sardegna e di Napoli, che s’obbligavano a un tributo e a pagar
centinaja di piastre per ogni liberato; poi vergognatasi, spedì lord
Exmouth a imporre fossero rilasciati i Cristiani senza riscatto, e
abolitane la servitù. Tunisi e Tripoli sbigottite si obbligarono a
rispettare la bandiera cristiana, e rilasciarono Tunisi
ducenquarantaquattro schiavi sardi e ottantatre romani, Tripoli molti
altri. Algeri ne rendè cinquantun sardi, trecencinquantasette
napoletani, ma al prezzo stipulato: poi tardando a dichiarare
l’abolizione, l’ammiraglio bombardò la città, che vistasi incendiare la
flotta, cassò la schiavitù de’ Cristiani, e restituì quanti ne teneva
cattivi. Trovaronsene quarantanovemila fra tutti gli Stati barbareschi,
e mille cinquecento ad Algeri, di cui settecentosette napoletani e
censettantanove romani.
Effimero riparo; e la pirateria continuò finchè l’ingiuria portata
all’eccesso non recò la bandiera francese sulle mura d’Algeri.
 LIBRO DECIMOSETTIMO

CAPITOLO CLXXXIII.
La restaurazione. Il liberalismo. Rivoluzioni del
1820 e 21.

Italia è dunque rimessa sul piede antico, almeno all’intendere di

coloro che nelle paci si appagano della firma dei sovrani, anzichè
cercare l’unico stabile fondamento, il rassetto delle idee. Le comuni
sventure aveano avvertito i re che, separati dai popoli, restavano
preda della prima bufera: i popoli da tante sciagurate prove aveano
attinto un vivissimo desiderio della quiete, fino ad immolarle parte
della dignità; sicchè con esultanza i principi furono accolti
dappertutto. Nessun di loro accompagnò il ristabilimento colle
vendette che la disonorarono quindici anni prima: sentivano d’aver
fallato ed essi e popoli; e in tal caso nulla s’ha meglio a desiderare
che la reciproca dimenticanza. Ma nell’improvvida loro bontà i
principi si davano a credere bastasse il dimenticare: quindi, dopo
aver tutti fomentato le idee liberali, e riconosciuta la sovranità dei
popoli coll’invitarli a ribellarsi, pretesero ridurli alla passiva
obbedienza, ad affidarsi nel cuor loro paterno. E poichè è natura di
tutte le riazioni di spingersi colle speranze più in là che non possano
giungere i fatti, non s’accorgeano che il tempo fa ruine cui nessuno
può ripristinare, e sciagurato chi vi si ostina invece di profittarne per
erigere edifizj nuovi. Se dunque i primi effetti della pace arrisero, se
la pace stessa rallentava l’oppressione togliendo o pretesto od
occasione agli arbitrj, ben presto rivisse l’attività della repressa ma
non tolta rivoluzione, e apparve quanto cambiati fossero i governanti
non meno che i governati.
Napoleone, coll’abbattere a voglia i re o tenerseli vassalli, ne offuscò
l’aureola; rotta la storia, ruppe anche la patria e la famiglia col render
l’uomo cosmopolita, cioè soldato e mero elemento di forza; alla
religiosa venerazione pel passato surrogò l’entusiasmo politico, alla
fraternità una comunanza di obbedienza che mentre annichilava i
sudditi, rendeva più facile ad abbattere l’autorità.
Vent’anni di guerra aveano rinvigorito gli ordigni
dell’amministrazione, abituato i Governi agli arbitrj dei tempi
eccezionali, quando lo Stato è tutto, nulla l’individuo [153].
Quest’assolutezza parve un acquisto, nè i principi vollero rinunziarvi
nella pace; tutto regolarono per decreti; guardarono come
concessione l’esercizio delle naturali libertà; non viaggiare senza
passaporti, non tener armi senza licenza, non istampare senza
censura, non istudiare che nelle scuole regie; necessaria la regia
approvazione per istituire compagnie, per esercitare la beneficenza,
per divertirsi, per le spese e pei magistrati comunali, per l’elezione
dei vescovi e de’ parroci; affidata ogni cosa alla parassita turba
degl’impiegati: insomma si fecero dipendere dal beneplacito del
Governo mille atti, di cui prima della rivoluzione godeasi e non
prezzavasi la libertà. Lo spirito di famiglia, di corpo, di città, di patria,
di religione, insomma quello spirito pubblico che è vita e forza della
società, soccombeva alla simmetria d’un’amministrazione centrale e
all’oculatezza della Polizia, la quale sempre acquista importanza
primaria dopo una rivoluzione [154].
Dacchè i Governi vollero concentrata in sè tutta la vita, restò ad essi
tutta la responsalità; ucciso lo spirito di sagrifizio, tolto il dovere o
l’impulso dell’attività individuale, gli uomini non furono che cifre, e il
dirigerli un atto di forza; talchè non rimase a scegliere che tra una
dipendenza cieca o una forsennata anarchia. I Governi trovavansi
per avversario non un uomo o una classe, ma il libero arbitrio, il