Moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

1. Attention- The person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation- The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learners
must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
Effects of modeling on behavior:
1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.
MODULE 9
Gestalt psychology- was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the foundation
of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of
behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products of perception.
Gestalt theory -was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance
of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception.
The term gestalt means “form” or “configuration.” Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not
passive, but rather active.
Gestalt Principles
1. Law of Proximity- Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent
object.
2. Law of Similarity- Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.
3. Law of Closure- We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive. We enclose a
space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
4. Law of Good Continuation- Individuals have the tendency to continue contours
whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to
draw a good continuous line.
5. Law of Good Pragnanz- The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible.
In this example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity. The figure is
perceived as a square overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated
shapes.
6. Law of Figure/Ground- We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground
first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground.
Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on “life space”
adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that
affect his perceptions and also his learning.
Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings.
Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates.
Mario Polito- an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of gestalt psychology
education.
Gestalt theory- is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now.
It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in
the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying
all that emerges.
Knowledge- is conceived as a continuous organisation and rearrangement of
information according to needs, purposes and meanings.
MODULE 10
Information processing- is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how
knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory.
It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century
and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.

Information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and
design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to
that of the human mind.
Cognitive psychologists -believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned.

IPT -describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the
information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term
memory and the long term memory.
“Types” of Knowledge
1. General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or
only in one.
2. Declarative- This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They may be in the form of a word or an image.
3. Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things.
4. Episodic- This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
5. Conditional - This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or
procedural strategies.
 These three primary stages in IPT are:
1. Encoding- Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2. Storage- The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
3. Retrieval- The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated
for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.

Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what
our minds can hold or perceive.
Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief
period in the order of 1 to 3 seconds
Auditory memory is more persistent than visual.
“Precategorical” information- This means that until that point, the learner has not
established a determination of the categorical membership of the information.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes described as
7+/-2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily
placed.
Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need do maintenance rehearsal
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.
Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite.

Executive control processes involve the executive processor of what is referred to as

metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system,
help the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or interpret
information. Example of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting- is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

Decay Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in
Working Memory.
 Interference- New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
Meaningful Learning This is making connections between new information and prior
knowledge.
Organization- It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is
organized efficiently should be recalled.
Elaboration- This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one
already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
Visual Imagery This means forming a “picture” of the information
Generation- Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear”.
Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information.
Personalization – It is making the information relevant to the individual.
Other Memory Methods

Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) You will remember the beginning and end of
a ‘list’ more readily
Part Learning+ Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to increase memorization.
Distributed Practice -Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at
once (Massed Practice)
Mnemonic Aids- These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them
retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci technique,
acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques, among others
Information- is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very
brief amount of time.

Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is on
intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the
earlier version of the theory, special attentive was given to military training settings.
Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional technology in learning.
Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes
Gagne’s theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning.
Furthermore, the theory implies that each different type of learning calls for
different types of instruction, Gagne named five categories of learning verbal
information, intellectual skills cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.
 Gagne suggests the learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy
according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation procedure following,
use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem
solving.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of
learning.
These events should satisfy of provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as
the beast for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.
Nine instructional events

1. Gaining attention (reception)

2. informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. eliciting performance (responding)
7. providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. assessing performance (retrieval)
9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

SCIENCE
General properties- are the properties that are common to all types of matter.
Mass- is the amount of matter present in a body, object, or substance.
- It is a property that will not change under all conditions.
Weight- is the measure of the gravitational force acting on a body or an object.
Three types of plant cell
Parenchyma- cells have walls that are thin and flexible. They lack secondary walls.
A central large vacuole occurs in parenchyma cells. They perform most metabolic
functions in plants.
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. Plastids
store starch found in parenchyma of stems and roots. The fleshy part of the fruit is
mainly parenchyma.
Collenchyma- cells are elongated with thicker primary walls. The cell walls are
unevenly thickened. These cells are grouped in strands and help support young
parts of the short. Strands of collenchyma are found in young stems and petioles.
Cells of collenchyma provide flexible support in plants.
Sclerenchyma - cells are very rigid with thick secondary walls containing lignin.
This indigestible polymer is the main component of wood. Sclerenchyma cells
have stopped elongating. Most are dead at functional maturity. Sclereids and
fibers are the two types of sclerenchyma for support. Hard seed coats contain
sclereids while fibers are long and tapered and can be used commercially as hemp
fibers.
Length – is used to measure the distance of a place, height, or how long
something is.

Mass- is used to determine how heavy or light an object is.

Volume- is used to measure how much quantity of liquid an object can hold.

Mixtures- is a combination of two or more substances in which it’s substances

retain it’s individual chemical properties.
Two types of mixtures
Heterozygous Mixtures
- Means different
- You can see the different parts of the mixtures easily.
Homogeneous mixtures
- Means the same
- You cannot see the different parts of mixtures easily.
Pure substances- Is an element or compound made of one type of particle.
Element -are pure substances that cannot be separated into simple substances by
physical or chemical reactions.
Compounds- are pure substances made of two or more different elements joined
by chemical bonds.