Gymnosperm

Main plant body sporophytic (diploid); gametophyte is dependent on sporophyte.

1. Cycas

General features:

 Usually called as ‘living fossil’. Mainly distributed in eastern countries of the

world.
 Four naturally growing species in India, i.e. C. circinalis, C. pectinata, C.
rumphii, C. beddomei. C. revoluta and C. siamensis grown in gardens.
 C. beddomei restricted to Seshachalam Hills of Andhra Pradesh.
 Small tree; Sporophyte is differentiated into root (normal tap root and
apogeotropic coralloid; in coralloid root algal zone is found; usually Anabaena
and Nostoc, blue green algae; stele → diarch), stem (unbranched; covered with
persistent woody leaf bases; stele→ ectophloic siphonostele; secondary
growth abnormal result in polyxylic condition by formation of successive
rings of cambium; wood ‘manoxylic’, i.e. loose and soft) and leaves
[dimorphic: foliage (circinate when young, having ramenta; pinnately
compound) and scale leaves (also called cataphylls); each leaf receives 4 leaf
traces: 2 direct, 2 girdle traces; rachis has diploxylic (having both centripetal
and centrifugal xylem) vascular bundles arranged in ‘inverted omega shape’].
 Leaflets have single midrib; haplocheilic stomata (type of stoma in which both
guard cell and subsidiary cell derive from a single mother cell); transfusion
tissue and accessory or secondary transfusion tissue present in leaflet that
helps lateral conduction of water and nutrients; vascular bundle diploxylic.

Reproduction:

i. Vegetative: By adventitious buds, bulbils or suckers.

ii. Sexual: Dioecious plant; heterosporous.
Male plant → Male cone (largest in plant kingdom) at apex of stem (future
stem become sympodial), having short stalk. Each male cone has several
microsporophyll arranged spirally. Microsporangia grouped in sori and
found on lower surface (abaxial) of microsporophyll. Development of
microsporangia is of ‘eusporangiate type’. Microspore or pollen grains boat-
shaped, shed at 3-celled stage (1 prothallial cell + 1 tube cell + 1 generative
cell).
Female plant → Not organized into cone; consist of loose spiral. Apex not
involved (thus future stem remains monopodial). Megasporophyll is
differentiated into stalk and pinnate lamina; 1—6 pairs of ovules develop on
the lateral sides of stalk. Ovules orthotropous and unitegmic (largest in plant
kingdom). Ovule has large micropyle, pollen chamber, nucellus; integument

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 differentiated into 3 distinct layers → outer and inner fleshy, middle stony.
Ovule supplied with 3 vascular strands. A megaspore formed in ovule.
Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at 3-celled stage, further
development takes place after pollination. Microspore → pollen chamber →
Generative cell divide into stalk cell and body cell; further body cell divides to
form 2 anteriorly multiflagellate antherozoids (largest in plant kingdom).
Megaspore → female prothallus or endosperm (haploid) → 3—6 archegonia
develop from some cells → mature archegonia has 2—4 neck cells, venter
canal nucleus and egg nucleus (largest in plant kingdom). Neck canal cells
absent.
Fertilization: Antherozoid and egg meet → fertilization → zygote [usually
multiple zygote formation takes place by the fertilization of more than one
archegonium → simple polyembryony] → proembryo → differentiates into 3
regions: micropylar ‘haustorial region (absorb nutrients)’, middle ‘suspensor
region (push embryo deep in endosperm)’, basal ‘embryonal’ → 2 cotyledons
formed → seeds → hypogeal germination → New plant.

2. Pinus (Pine)

General features:

 Mainly distributed in north eastern and western parts of India. Plants have
pyramidal shape.
 5-6 naturally growing species in India, i.e. P. armandi (Armand’s pine), P.
gerardiana (Chilgoza pine), P. insularis (= P. khasya; Khasi pine), P. merkusii
(Teenasserim pine), P. roxburghii (= P. longifolia; Chir pine) and P. wallichiana
(Blue pine or Kail).
 Small tree; Sporophyte is differentiated into root (with mycorrhizal
association; mainly members of Basidiomycetes; stele → diarch to hexarch,
protoxylem bifurcated and Y-shaped, having schizogenous resin canal
between two arms), stem [branched; branches dimorphic, i.e. dwarf
shoot/branches of limited growth/brachyblast and long shoots/branches of
unlimited growth; wood ‘pycnoxylic’, i.e. compact and hard; tracheids; ‘Bars
of Sanio’ present in between pits on tracheids → later two fused to form ‘Rims
of Sanio’; [Remember: In radial longitudinal section (RLS) we observe length
and height of medullary rays; in tangential longitudinal section (TLS) we
observe height and breadth of medullary rays] and leaves [dimorphic: foliage
(born only on dwarf shoots; group together with dwarf shoot called ‘foliar
spur’; with haplocheilic stomata; with transfusion tissue) and scale leaves
(born on both dwarf and long shoots; also called cataphylls).
Each foliar spur has fixed number of needles in it: Pinus monophylla→
unifoliar (having only one needle); P. merkussi & P. sylvestris→ bifoliar
(having two needles); P. gerardiana & P. roxburghii (synonym: P. longifolia,
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 called as ‘Chir pine or Red wood of China’) → trifoliar (having three needles);
P. quadrifolia→ quadrifoliar (having four needles); P. wallichiana (Blue pine or
Kail) & P. excelsa (found at maximum height) → pentafoliar (having five
needles).

Reproduction:

Sexual: Monoecious plant; heterosporous.

Male cone → Develop in the axils of scale leaves on branches of unlimited
growth. Each male cone has several microsporophyll arranged spirally. Each
microsporophyll has two microsporangia at the base on lower surface.
Development of microsporangia is of ‘eusporangiate type’. Microspore or
pollen grains shed at 4-celled stage, it has two wings, called as ‘saccus’ (exine
extension). Released in large quantity forming yellow clouds; this
phenomenon is called ‘shower of sulphur’ (2 prothallial cell + 1 tube cell + 1
generative cell).

Female cone → Consist spirally arranged megasporophylls. Each

megasporophyll consists of bract scale and ovuliferous scale.
 According to Sachs and Eichler, the female cone is equivalent to simple flower.
 According to Braun, female cone is equivalent to inflorescence.
 According to Florin, female cone is equivalent to inflorescence; he introduced ‘seed-scale-
complex’ term for bract and ovuliferous scale.
Development of megasporangia is of ‘eusporangiate type’. Ovules
orthotropous and unitegmic. Ovule has narrow micropyle, pollen chamber,
nucellus; integument differentiated into 3 distinct layers → outer and inner
fleshy, middle stony. Vascular strands not well developed.

Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at 4-celled stage, further

development takes place after pollination. Microspore → pollen chamber →
Generative cell divide into stalk cell and body cell; further body cell divides to
form 2 nuclei (non-flagellate sperms). Megaspore → female prothallus or
endosperm (haploid) → 1-5 archegonia develop from some cells → mature
archegonia has 8 neck cells, a venter canal cell and egg nucleus.

Fertilization: Sperm nuclei and egg meet → fertilization [1 year gap in

pollination to fertilization] → zygote → proembryo → differentiates into 4
tiers: nutritive tier (provide nutrition), rosette tier (conduct nourishment to
embryo)’, suspensor tier, embryonal tier (form embryo)’ [cleavage
polyembryony is found in Pinus, where zygote split to form more than one
embryo (in simple polyembryony more than one zygote forms embryo);
rosette polyembryony also occur when rosette tier develop into embryo] →
more than 2 cotyledons (polycotyledonous) formed → seeds (seeds winged
due to attachment of some part of ovuliferous scale; nucellus persist in the
form of ‘perisperm’ in seed; testa of seed develops from middle stony layer of
integument) → epigeal germination → New plant.

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 [It takes about 3 years from ovule development to shedding seeds in Pinus.
Resin ducts are found in root and shoot of Pinus, which are schizogenously
developed].

Note: Source of ‘Turpentine oil’. Pinus gerardiana → Chilgoza pine.

3. Taxus (Yew)

General features:

 Shrub or small tree; Sporophyte is differentiated into root (stele → diarch and
exarch), stem (branched; branches dimorphic, i.e. dwarf shoot/reproductive
shoot/ branches of limited growth and long shoots/branches of unlimited
growth; wood ‘pycnoxylic’, i.e. compact and hard; tracheids; ‘Bars of Sanio’
present in between pits on tracheids) and leaves [dimorphic: spirally arranged
foliage (born only on long shoots) and opposite-decussate scale leaves (born
only on dwarf shoots; stomata haplocheilic; transfusion tissue present in
wings of leaf).

Reproduction:

Sexual: Majority dioecious plant; heterosporous.

Male plant → Male cones develop in the axils of leaves on branches of limited
growth. Male cone pendent at maturity; microsporophylls peltate with
pendent microsporangia. Development of microsporangia is of ‘eusporangiate
type’. Microspore or pollen grains shed at uninucleate stage.

Female plant → Sex organs not organized into cone. Development of

megasporangia is of ‘eusporangiate type’. Ovules orthotropous and
unitegmic. Ovule has narrow micropyle, nucellus; integument differentiated
into 3 distinct layers → outer and inner fleshy, middle stony; supplied with 2
vascular strands; aril encloses the ovule (aril red at maturity).

Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at uninucleate stage, further

development takes place after pollination. Microspore → Tube cell +
Generative cell (no prothallial cell); generative cell divides into stalk cell and
body cell; further body cell divides to form 2 nuclei (non-flagellate sperms).
Megaspore → female prothallus or endosperm (haploid) → apex form a flask-
shaped structure called ‘tent-pole’→ archegonia develop from some cells →
mature archegonia has 2-4 neck cells and egg nucleus [no venter canal cell].

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 Fertilization: Sperm nuclei and egg meet → fertilization → zygote →
proembryo → suspensor cell + dicotyledonous embryo → epigeal
germination → New plant.

[Resin ducts are not found in aerial parts of Taxus]

4. Ephedra (Jointed fir)

General features:

 Mainly distributed in north west parts of India.

 Trailing or climbing shrub; Sporophyte is differentiated into root (stele, diarch
to triarch), stem [with groove and ridges, jointed, branched; with nodes and
internodes; branches whorled at node, develop in leaf axils; with haplocheilic
stomata. Vascular bundles have vessels; nodal diaphragm is present at nodes;
wood pycnoxylic] and leaves [minute, scaly, whorled at nodes, non-
photosynthetic].

Reproduction:

Sexual: Dioecious plant; heterosporous.

Male cone → Compound, whorled, develop at nodes. Each cone has opposite-
decussate bracts and each bract embraces 2 bracteoles and has single flower
(consists of microsporangiophore and 2-8 microsporangia at tip;
microsporangia has 2-3 locules, therefore called as ‘synangium’).
Development of microsporangia is of ‘eusporangiate type’. Microspore boat-
shaped, shed at 5-celled stage (2 prothallial cell + 1 stalk cell + 1 body cell +
tube nucleus).

Female cone → Compound, whorled, develop at nodes. Each cone has

opposite-decussate bracts and each bract has single ovule (bitegmic).

Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at 5-celled stage, further

development takes place after pollination. Microspore → pollen chamber →
Body cell divides to form 2 nuclei (non-flagellate sperms). Megaspore (has
micropylar tube, an extended part of inner integument) → female prothallus
or endosperm (haploid) → mature archegonia has 32 or more neck cells
(largest in Gymnosperm), a venter canal nucleus and egg nucleus [no neck
canal cell].

Fertilization: Sperm nuclei and egg meet → fertilization (a kind of double

fertilization is reported in E. nevadensis & E. trifurca) → zygote → proembryo
→ [embryo sac polyembryony is found in Ephedra, where each cell of
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 proembryo capable to develop into embryo] → 2 cotyledons formed → seeds
(seeds with extra integument, developed by bracts) → epigeal germination →
New plant.

[Vivipary is common in some species (E. trifurca). Resin ducts are absent.
Tunica-corpus shoot apex organization is found in Ephedra, Gnetum and
Welwitschia].

5. Gnetum

General features:

 Trailing or climbing shrub most often (tree → G. gnemon; parasite → G.

trinerve on Cinchona).
 Sporophyte is differentiated into root (stele, diarch to triarch), stem
[dimporphic: dwarf shoot and long shoot; jointed, stomata present; secondary
growth anomalous in climbing species→ concentric rings of secondary tissue.
Vascular bundles have vessels] and leaves [decussate, dimporphic, i.e. foliage
(on dwarf shoots, resemble dicots) and scaly (on long shoots)].

Reproduction:

Sexual: Dioecious plant; heterosporous. Both male and female inflorescence

axillary.

Male cone → In the form of axis bearing whorls of bracts (fused and called
collar) at short intervals; in collar several male flowers develop in whorls,
above it abortive female flowers (ovules) develop. A single male flower has 2
bracts and a stalk bearing 2 anthers (development eusporangiate).

Female cone → Similar to male but only female flowers (ovules) develop. A
single female flower has a stalk bearing ovule (megasporangium; with long
micropylar tube and 3 layered envelop; development tetrasporic as in
flowering plants).

Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at 3-nucleate stage [prothallial,

tube and generative nucleus; prothallial cell absent according to some
workers], further development takes place after pollination. Microspore →
pollen chamber → Generative nucleus divides to form 2 nuclei (non-flagellate
sperms). Megaspore (has micropylar tube) → female prothallus or endosperm
(haploid) → Archegonia absent, some few nuclei of the gametophyte act as
egg.

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 Fertilization: Sperm nuclei and egg nuclei meet → fertilization (a kind of
double fertilization is reported in G. gnemon) → zygote → proembryo (a
structure called ‘feeder’ is found on embryo; simple and cleavage
polyembryony present) → 2 cotyledons formed → seeds → epigeal
germination → New plant.

6. Welwitschia

General features:

 Distribution is restricted to deserts of south-west Africa.

 The plant looks like a gigantic wooden radish or turnip. Plant has very long
tap root system. Stem remains buried for most of the part (successive rings of
xylem and phloem found as in Cycas and Gnetum; vessels present). Exposed
part has two very large opposite leaves (persisting throughput the life of
plant; having syndetocheilic stomata).

Reproduction:

Sexual: Dioecious plant; heterosporous.

Male cone → Compound, having tetrangular axis. Axis has several opposite-
decussate arranged bracts; male flower develops in axil of each bract. Male
flowers have 2 bracts and a perianth. A whorl of 6 micro-sporangiophores
present inner to perianth. A sterile ovule is present in the center. Each micro-
sporangiophore has synangium at tip (fusion of 3 microsporangia).

Female cone → Similar to male; female flowers have single ovules

(development tetrasporic).

Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at 3-celled stage [tube, sterile
and spermatogenous cell; prothallial cell absent according to some workers],
further development takes place after pollination. Microspore →
Spermatogenous cell divides to form 2 nuclei (non-flagellate sperms).
Megaspore (has micropylar tube) → female prothallus or endosperm
(haploid) → Archegonia absent, some few nuclei of the gametophyte act as
egg.

Fertilization: Sperm nuclei and egg nuclei meet → fertilization → zygote →

proembryo (a structure called ‘feeder’ is found on embryo; simple and
cleavage polyembryony present) → 2 cotyledons formed → seeds → epigeal
germination → New plant.

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 7. Ginkgo (Maiden hair tree)

General features:

 Usually called as ‘living fossil’; having characters of both Conifers and

Cycads.
 The plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves. Branches
dimorphic: dwarf shoot and long shoot. Leaves dimorphic (leaves deeply
lobed on long shoots and entire or not so deeply lobed on dwarf shoots).

Reproduction:

Sexual: Dioecious plant; heterosporous.

Male cone → Develop in the axils of leaves on dwarf shoots. Male cone has a
central axis bearing spirally arranged microsporophyll. Each microsporophyll
bears two pendent microsporangia.

Female cone → Develop in the axils of leaves on dwarf shoots. Female cone has
a central axis, bifurcating into two at apex; each apex has a single ovule
(having collar). Ovule orthrotropous, unitegmic. Ovule has large micropyle,
pollen chamber, nucellus; integument differentiated into 3 distinct layers →
outer and inner fleshy, middle stony. Ovule supplied with 2 vascular strands.
A megaspore formed in ovule.

Male and female gametophyte: Microspore shed at 4-celled stage [2 prothallial

cells + 1 antheridial cell + 1 tube cell], further development takes place after
pollination. Microspore → Antheridial cell divides to form a stalk cell and a
body cell; body cell divides to form 2 posteriorly multiflagellate sperms (like
that of Cycas). Megaspore → female prothallus or endosperm (haploid) →
archegonia develop from some cells → mature archegonia has 4 neck cells,
ephemeral venter canal cell and egg cell.

Fertilization: Sperm nuclei and egg nuclei meet → fertilization → zygote →

proembryo → 2 cotyledons formed → seeds → hypogeal germination → New
plant.

[Note: Female Ginkgo plants have rancid odour due to their seed coat].