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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
INTERFACIAL CHEMISTRY
SURFACE SCIENCE AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY

This page intentionally left blank
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
INTERFACIAL CHEMISTRY
SURFACE SCIENCE AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Klaus Wandelt
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany;
and Institute of Experimental Physics, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
VOLUME 1
1.1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

1.2 SURFACE SCIENCE UNDER ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD

PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
Copyright Ó 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo-
copying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to
seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the
Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted
herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in
research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers may always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods,
compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the
safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
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Printed and bound in the United States

EDITORIAL BOARD
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Klaus Wandelt
SUBJECT EDITORS
Conrad Becker
Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CINaM, Marseille, France
Peter Broekmann
University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Victor Climent
Institute of Electrochemistry, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
Francesco Di Quarto
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Aerospaziale e dei Materiali Università di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Juan M Feliu
Institute of Electrochemistry, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
Ueli Heiz
Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
Kurt W Kolasinski
West Chester University, West Chester, PA, USA
Markus Lackinger
Technische Universität München & Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany
Falko P Netzer
Karl-Franzens University Graz Institute of Physics, Surface and Interface Physics, Graz, Austria
Roberto Otero
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and IMDEA Nanoscience, Madrid, Spain
Miquel Salmeron
Materials Science Division of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory;
and Materials Science and Engineering Department of the University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
v
vi Editorial Board
Andrew Teplyakov
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Pankaj Vadgama
School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
Soma Vesztergom
Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
Klaus Wandelt
PREFACE
The motivation for compiling and publishing this encyclopedia on Interfacial Chemistry was to promote the
communication between chemists, electrochemists, physicochemists, as well as solid-state and surface physi-
cists. The growing diversification and specialization of science and research makes mutual understanding more
and more difficult, and therefore interdisciplinary communication imperative. Chemists take great advantage of
heterogeneous catalysts often without knowing their properties and operation on the atomic scale. This
knowledge, however, is necessary for a rational design and optimization of the catalysts’ activity, selectivity, and
stability. Electrochemists and surface physicists working on a similar problem such as film deposition and
growth, just in different environment, may not share knowledge due to distinctly different “languages,” such as
“underpotential deposition” and “Franck-van-der-Merwe growth” for a similar phenomenon. And there are
known differences between the more “practical” approach of chemists and the more “formal” approach of
physicists, including the resultant communication “barriers”. On the other hand, all modern experimental
analytical tools are based on physical phenomena, such as interaction of radiation with matter and electron
tunneling, and are implemented by physicists. Interfacial chemistry, as an excellent example of interdisciplinary
research, can only profit from an unbiased communication and mutual understanding between the different
involved disciplines.
Interfaces are the divides between phases, e.g., solid/gas, solid/liquid, solid/solid, liquid/gas, liquid/liquid,
and thus an inherent property of heterogeneous systems. “Heterogeneous” sounds, and actually is, more
complex than “homogeneous” and therefore calls for a multidisciplinary approach. To investigate and
understand “electrocatalysis,” it is certainly helpful to take into account the experience and knowledge of
electrochemists and solid-state and surface physicists, two communities that are not known for a close
connection.
The difference in properties on either side of the divide has two important consequences: (1) interfaces are
the locations of gradients that are a driving force for processes and (2) interactions across the interface will
obviously also alter the properties in interface-near layers of the adjacent phases. If a solid iron surface is
exposed to oxygen gas, the surface will oxidize; the resultant oxide layer differs from the pure iron underneath. If
two different solids (or liquids) form a common phase boundary, interdiffusion will change the composition of
the interface-near regions on both sides. If a platinum electrode in sulfuric acid solution is negatively polarized,
protons (hydronium cations) are attracted with the consequence that the pH near the Pt/electrolyte interface is
lower than in the bulk of the solution. And if a copper electrode in hydrochloric acid solution is positively
polarized, chloride anions will be attracted, adsorb, and restructure the surface before surface atoms form soluble
copper chloride species.
Interestingly, not only the presence of interactions across an interface causes alterations on either side, but
also the sudden absence of interactions across an interface has a decisive influence: While an atom in the bulk of
a solid in equilibrium is surrounded by and interacts with atoms on all sides, an atom at the very surface in
vacuum has no neighbors to interact with on the vacuum side. This unbalance drives the system toward a new
equilibrium and causes a repositioning of the surface atoms; most intuitively the surface atoms “relax” toward
the bulk of the solid. But there are even cases where the surface atom layer as a whole assumes a two-
dimensional lattice structure different from that of a parallel plane in the bulk, the surface “reconstructs.”
Due to the missing neighbors, the “unsaturated bonds” of surface atoms (in contact with vacuum) add to the
total energy of the solid. The surface “relaxation” and “reconstruction” are a response of the system to lower this
“excess surface energy.” The very same argument explains why in equilibrium also the surface composition of
multicomponent materials, e.g., alloys, solutions, must be expected to be different from the bulk composition.
vii
viii Preface
In equilibrium the surface will be enriched with those atoms whose unsaturated bonds add least to the excess
surface energy.
Since it is the very surface of a solid (or liquid), which first interacts with the adjacent phase (gas, liquid, or
solid), its chemical composition and structure must be known in detail, i.e., on the atomic scale, to understand
and describe its involvement in chemical processes.
This information is nowadays available thanks to the development of a broad arsenal of incredibly sensitive
high-resolution microscopic and spectroscopic techniques and the so-called “surface science approach.” This
approach starts with structurally and chemically well-defined surfaces, e.g., single-crystal surfaces, which under
ultrahigh vacuum conditions are exposed to gases or vapors in a very controlled manner. In this way it is
nowadays possible not only to characterize bare and adsorbate covered surfaces and monitor changes atom-by-
atom but also to modify surfaces by arbitrary manipulation of individual atoms. These achievements and
abilities have occasionally misled “insiders” to statements such as “surface science has reached completion.”
Apart from the fact that claims like this in science have often been rash, there are at least two expectations on
“surface science” still. The first is, due to the ubiquity and universal importance of interfaces, to disseminate the
knowledge about their fundamental peculiarities more widely to “outsiders” in other disciplinesdbeyond
materials sciencesdand in particular to include it more regularly into curricula. The second is to transfer and
apply the concepts and methods, largely resulting from the “surface science approach” under ultrahigh vacuum
conditions, to more complex systems in realistic environment such as ambient gases and liquids, as they are
dealt with by electro- and bioelectrochemists, materials scientists, and chemical engineers. This transfer, of
course, requires to overcome the “barriers” indicated above and, sometimes, may also require the revision of
“established views.”
The present encyclopedia is an attempt to contribute to this transfer by including publications from rather
different but inherently interface-related research fields under the common heading “Interfacial Chemistry.”
When I first proposed this project, I suggested 11 subjects: (1) model studies in heterogeneous catalysis, (2)
surface science under environmental conditions, (3) ultrathin films, (4) clusters and nanoparticles at surfaces,
(5) molecular self-assembly at surfaces, (6) surface-confined polymerization, (7) functionalization and grafting
of surfaces and nanoparticles, (8) ultrafast surface dynamics, (9) general interfacial electrochemistry, (10)
interfacial electrocatalysis, (11) model studies on corrosion, and left a 12th subject deliberately open for further
suggestions. The reports of 19 (!) international reviewers of this proposal were unison positive and led to the
suggestion of including (12) bioelectrochemistry as the 12th subject. All 12 topics are well covered in this
encyclopedia thanks to the team of excellent subject editors whom I asked and who agreed to join this project.
To accentuate “Interfacial Chemistry” as the common ground, all contributions are explicitly linked by cross-
references between papers in the various sections, anddeven though partly very different and subject
specificdthe most important experimental methods are grouped in one separate section “side-by-side.”
In addition to the printed version of this encyclopedia, all articles appear within the section “Interfacial
Chemistry” of the overarching and well-structured electronic-only Reference Module “Chemistry, Molecular
Sciences and Chemical Engineering”1, which supports both an easy accessibility and, thereby, a wide dissemi-
nation among its readership.
The coming together of the relevant disciplines is a “steady” process. In 1995 I already edited jointly with
S. Trasatti, Milano, a special issue “Surface Science and Electrochemistry” of the journal Surface Science2. Twenty
years later in 2015 I repeated this initiative together with A. Gross, Ulm, in Surface Science3, and we came to the
“disenchanting insight” that the progress in bringing solid state surface physicists and electrochemists together
“was only moderate” and this even though the “interest in processes at electrochemical interfaces in the context
of electrochemical energy conversion and storage plays an enormously important role for future energy
technology.”
As stated above, this encyclopedia is a further attempt to promote the mutual insight in the importance of
a close collaboration between the involved disciplines, and the electronic version of this encyclopedia
embedded in the section “Interfacial Chemistry” of the general Reference Module “Chemistry, Molecular Sciences
and Chemical Engineering” even offers the possibility of a continuous updating.
I am deeply indebted to all those who have contributed to this work, primarily, of course, all authors of the
articles, my fellow coeditors who identified and motivated the authors, and last but not least the Elsevier staff at
the Oxford office, UK, who organized and handled the workflow.
Klaus Wandelt
Editor in Chief
Preface ix
References
1. Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering, Editor in Chief, J.Reedijk.
2. Trasatti, S.; Wandelt, K. Surface Science and Electrochemistry. Surf. Sci. 1995, 335, 1–447.
3. Gross, A.; Wandelt, K. Surface Science and Electrochemistry - 20 Years Later 2015, 631, 1–300.
This page intentionally left blank
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1
C A Angelucci Y-H Chen

Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, São Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH,
Paulo, Brazil Düsseldorf, Germany
R Arrigo S Cherevko
Diamond Light Source Ltd., Oxfordshire, United Helmholtz-Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for
Kingdom Renewable Energy (IEK-11), Erlangen, Germany; and
Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH,
C Ascoli
Düsseldorf, Germany
Istituto Nazionale di Ottica (INO) del Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pisa, Italy C-T Chiang
Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle,
A Baber
Germany; and Max-Planck-Institut für
James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, United
Mikrostrukturphysik, Halle, Germany
States
P M Clawin
S Barzilai
Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
NRCN, Beer-Sheva, Israel
V Climent
P Baschieri
Instituto de Electroquímica, Universidad de Alicante,
Alicante, Spain
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pisa, Italy
A Czerwi nski
C Becker
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; and
Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Marseille, France
Industrial Chemistry Research Institute, Warsaw,
H Bluhm Poland
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
F Di Franco
United States
Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo,
A Bondarenko Italy
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL Valais
F Dinelli
Wallis), Sion, Switzerland
J A Boscoboinik Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pisa,
Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven Italy
National Laboratory, Upton, NY, United States
F Di Quarto
A Braun Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Empa. Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science
Z Dohnálek
and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA,
R K Campen United States; and Washington State University,
Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin, Pullman, WA, United States
Germany
K F Domke
M B Casu Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz,
University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany Germany
xi
xii Contributors to Volume 1
J-C Dong A R Head

Xiamen University, Xiamen, China Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
United States
K Duanmu
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department, Y Horowitz
University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
United States; and University of California, Berkeley,
A K Engstfeld
CA, United States
Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
K Hubkowska
A Erbe
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim, Norway T Jones
Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
B Eren
Berlin, Germany
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot,
Israel M Jurczyszyn
University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
S Fearn
Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom M M Kappes
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe,
J M Feliu Germany
Instituto de Electroquímica, Universidad de Alicante,
Alicante, Spain M Keddam
Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
S Ferrer
A Klyushin
Alba Synchrotron Light Source, Barcelona, Spain
Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
M Filez Berlin, Germany; and Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin,
Germany
A Foelske-Schmitz
Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, A Knop-Gericke
Austria Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft,
Berlin, Germany
H-J Freund
Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin, J Knudsen
Germany MAX IV Laboratory & Lund University, Lund, Sweden
T Fukuma F La Mantia
Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany
K Fushimi A Lasia
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
HH Girault A Lesch
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL Valais École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL Valais
Wallis), Sion, Switzerland Wallis), Sion, Switzerland
M J Gladys J-F Li
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
C Goletti T-E Lin
Physics Department, University of Rome Tor Vergata, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL Valais
Roma, Italy Wallis), Sion, Switzerland
I M N Groot M qukaszewski
Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
H-L Han I Matsuda
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, The Institute for Solid State Physics, The University of
United States Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
Contributors to Volume 1 xiii
K J J Mayrhofer P Puschnig
Helmholtz-Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for Renewable University of Graz, Graz, Austria
Energy (IEK-11), Erlangen, Germany; Max-Planck-
Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf, J Radnik
Germany; and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Federal Institute for Material Testing and Research
Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany (BAM), Berlin, Germany
M H Mintz M G Ramsey
NRCN, Beer-Sheva, Israel; and Ben-Gurion University University of Graz, Graz, Austria
of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel N F Richter
A Miszczuk Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland W Riedel
I Morawski Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
T Risse
K Mudiyanselage Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
SABIC-CRD at KAUST, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Z Ristanovic
S Nayak Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
H Ronneburg
A Neff Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Leibniz Institute of Surface Modification, Leipzig,
M J Rost
Germany
Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
F Niu A V Rudnev
University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; and Russian
Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Z Novotny E Ruiz-Trejo
University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
M Nowicki
G Rupprechter
University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
Technische Universität Wien, Vienna, Austria
T Ohtsuka
M Salmeron
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
M E Orazem
C M Sánchez-Sánchez
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France
D J O’Connor
M Santamaria
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
M Pander PV Barbosa Santiago
Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, São
Paulo, Brazil
L S Parreira P Sautet
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department,
M Pellegrino University of California, Los Angeles, CA,
Istituto Nazionale di Ottica (INO) del Consiglio United States
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pisa, Italy; and J Schnadt
Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
MAX IV Laboratory & Lund University, Lund,
V Pfeifer Sweden
Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, D Schooss
Berlin, Germany; and Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe,
für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin,
Germany
Germany
xiv Contributors to Volume 1
A Shavorskiy C Toparli
MAX IV Laboratory & Lund University, Lund, Sweden Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH,
K R Siefermann
Leibniz Institute of Surface Modification, Leipzig, B Tribollet
Germany Université Pierre et Marie Curie, CNRS, Paris,
France
G A Somorjai
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, J-J Velasco-Velez
United States; and University of California, Berkeley, Max-Planck-Institut für Chemische Energiekonversion,
CA, United States Mülheim, Germany
J Souza Garcia S Vesztergom
Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, São Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
Paulo, Brazil
T Vidakovic-Koch
D Stacchiola Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex
Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
National Laboratory, Upton, NY, United States
V Vivier
M Sterrer Sorbonne Universités, Paris, France; and Université
University of Graz, Graz, Austria Pierre et Marie Curie, CNRS, Paris,
France
Y Suchorski
Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria K Wandelt
University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; and University of
G Sun
Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department,
University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States B M Weckhuysen
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
K Sundmacher
Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex D P Woodruff
Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany and Otto-von- University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
A Zaffora
Y Takahashi Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo,
Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan; and Japan Italy
Science and Technology Agency (JST), Saitama, Japan
Z Zhang
S Tecklenburg Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
Y Zhou
Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
E Tognoni
U E Zhumaev
Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz,
Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Pisa, Italy
Germany
Y Tong
Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Berlin,
Germany
CONTENTS OF VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1.1: EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
A Review on In Situ Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy Studies

of LiquideSolid Interfaces in Electrochemical Systems 1
H-L Han, Y Horowitz, and G A Somorjai
Ambient Pressure X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 13
A R Head and H Bluhm
Angle-Resolved Photoelectron Spectroscopy at Surfaces With High-Order Harmonic Generation 28
C-T Chiang
Atomic Scale STM Imaging of Alloy Surfaces With Chemical Resolution 39
A K Engstfeld
Cyclic Voltammetry 48
V Climent and J M Feliu
Differential Capacitance Measurements on Passive Films 75
F Di Quarto, F Di Franco, M Santamaria, and F La Mantia
EIS Technique in Passivity Studies: Determination of the Dielectric Properties of Passive Films 93
B Tribollet, V Vivier, and M E Orazem
Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 108
M Nowicki and K Wandelt
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy at Surfaces 129
P M Clawin, N F Richter, W Riedel, H Ronneburg, and T Risse
Ellipsometry in Passive Films 143
T Ohtsuka and K Fushimi
Experimental Methods in Interfacial and Surface Chemistry 157
K Wandelt
Field Ion and Field Desorption Microscopy: Surface Chemistry Applications 162
Y Suchorski
High-Speed Electrochemical STM 180
M J Rost
How to Probe Structure, Kinetics, and Dynamics at Complex Interfaces In Situ and
Operando by Optical Spectroscopy 199
A Erbe, S Nayak, Y-H Chen, F Niu, M Pander, S Tecklenburg, and C Toparli
xv
xvi Contents of Volume 1
Imaging Chemical Reactions One Molecule at a Time 220

Z Novotny, Z Zhang, and Z Dohnálek
Impedance Spectroscopy Applied to the Study of Electrocatalytic Processes 241
A Lasia
In Situ Photoelectron Spectroscopy 264
A Braun
In Situ Probing of Adsorbates at Electrochemical Interfaces With Vibrational
Sum Frequency Spectroscopy 280
Y Tong and R K Campen
In Situ Real-Time Low-Energy Electron Microscopy 287
M B Casu
Ion Conductance Probe MicroscopydMolecular Resolution 295
Y Zhou, T Fukuma, and Y Takahashi
Micro-Spectroscopy to Interrogate Solid Catalysts at Work 304
M Filez, Z Ristanovic, and B M Weckhuysen
Online Chromatographic Detection 321
A V Rudnev
On-Line Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry in Electrochemistry: Basic Principles
and Applications 326
S Cherevko and K J J Mayrhofer
Operando Scanning Probe Microscopy, Surface X-Ray Diffraction, and Optical
Microscopy for Catalysis Studies 336
I M N Groot
Perspectives of Advanced Ion Beam Analysis of Electrochemically Active Surfaces 354
S Fearn and E Ruiz-Trejo
Photocurrent Spectroscopy in Passivity Studies 361
F Di Quarto, F Di Franco, A Zaffora, and M Santamaria
Photoelectron Diffraction 372
D P Woodruff
Photoemission Tomography: Valence Band Photoemission as a Quantitative Method
for Investigating Molecular Films 380
P Puschnig and M G Ramsey
Porous Electrodes in Bioelectrochemistry 392
T Vidakovic-Koch and K Sundmacher
Quartz Crystal Nanobalance Measurements in Electrocatalysis 402
K Hubkowska, M Łukaszewski, and A Czerwi
nski
Reflectance Anisotropy Spectroscopy 413
C Goletti
Rotating Disk and RingeDisk Electrodes 421
S Vesztergom
Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy for Bioimaging 445
T-E Lin, A Bondarenko, A Lesch, and H H Girault
Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy in the AC-Mode 453
M Keddam, C M Sánchez-Sánchez, and V Vivier
Contents of Volume 1 xvii
Scanning Ion Conductance MicroscopydMorphology and Mechanics 465

E Tognoni, P Baschieri, F Dinelli, C Ascoli, and M Pellegrino
Shell-Isolated Nanoparticles-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy 475
J-F Li and J-C Dong
Spectroelectrochemistry Applied to Electrocatalytic Processes 486
J Souza Garcia, C A Angelucci, L S Parreira, and P V Barbosa Santiago
Structural Investigations by Means of Directional Elastic Peak Electron Spectroscopy 496
M Jurczyszyn, A Miszczuk, I Morawski, and M Nowicki
Sum Frequency Generation Spectroscopy and Second Harmonics Generation 509
G Rupprechter
Surface Characterization by Ion Scattering Spectroscopy 521
D J O’Connor and M J Gladys
Surface X-Ray Diffraction Under Gases 532
S Ferrer
Surface-Enhanced Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy 542
U E Zhumaev and K F Domke
Time-Resolved Photoelectron Spectroscopy 549
I Matsuda
Time-Resolved Photoemission Electron Microscopy 557
K R Siefermann and A Neff
Trapped Ion Electron Diffraction of Metal Cluster Ions 567
D Schooss and M M Kappes
UHV Surface Preparation Methods 580
C Becker
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy in Electrochemistry Research 591
A Foelske-Schmitz
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy for Investigation of Heterogeneous Catalytic Process 607
J Radnik
VOLUME 1.2: SURFACE SCIENCE UNDER ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Catalyst Electronic Surface Structure Under Gas and Liquid Environments 615
A Klyushin, R Arrigo, V Pfeifer, T Jones, J-J Velasco-Velez, and A Knop-Gericke
Surface Science Approach to Catalyst Preparation Using Thin Oxide Films as Substrates 632
M Sterrer and H-J Freund
Surface Science at the Dawn of the 21st Century: From UHV to Ambient Conditions
in Gas and Liquid Environments 643
M Salmeron
Surface Structure and Modifications Under Ambient Pressure: A Case Study With Copper Surfaces 645
B Eren
The Dynamic Structure of Model Catalyst Surfaces Under Ambient Conditions 658
A Baber, J A Boscoboinik, K Mudiyanselage, and D Stacchiola
The Initial Steps of HydrogeneMetal Reactions: The GdeH2 as a Model System 676
M H Mintz and S Barzilai
xviii Contents of Volume 1
Theoretical Treatment of Surfaces in Equilibrium with Gases 684

K Duanmu, G Sun, and P Sautet
Thin-Film Growth and Oxidation of Surfaces Under Relevant Pressure Conditions 699
J Schnadt, J Knudsen, and A Shavorskiy
PERMISSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following material is reproduced with kind permission of American Association for the Advancement of
Science
Figure 12 Catalysis for Energy Conversion

Figure 3 (left) Biophotovoltaic Systems
Figure 1b Conductance and Light Emission From On-surface Synthesized Molecular Wires
Figure 2b Conductance and Light Emission From On-surface Synthesized Molecular Wires
Figure 12 Silicene
Figure 7 Atomic Scale STM Imaging of Alloy Surfaces With Chemical Resolution
http://www.aaas.org/
The following material is reproduced with kind permission of Nature Publishing Group
Figure 8 Substrate Mediated Interactions

Figure 3 (middle) Biophotovoltaic Systems
Figure 4 Biophotovoltaic Systems
Figure 12A-C Biophotovoltaic Systems
Figure 14G-H Biophotovoltaic Systems
Figure 3 Lanthanide-Based 2D Coordination Networks
Figure 2 Temperature Control of Reaction Pathways: Intramolecular vs. Intermolecular
Figure 1a Conductance and Light Emission From On-surface Synthesized Molecular Wires
Figure 1d Conductance and Light Emission From On-surface Synthesized Molecular Wires
Figure 2d Conductance and Light Emission From On-surface Synthesized Molecular Wires
Figure 1 On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
Figure 2b On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
Figure 2c On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
Figure 2d On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
Figure 3a On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
Figure 8e On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
i
ii Permission Acknowledgments

Figure 11ab Silicene
Figure 14 Silicene
Figure 2 Oxide Thin Films for Memristive Devices
Figure 2 Steering Molecular Assemblies and Reactions on Surface
Figure 3 Ullmann Coupling of Porphyrins
Figure 4 Ullmann Coupling of Porphyrins
http://www.nature.com
A Review on In Situ Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy
Studies of Liquid–Solid Interfaces in Electrochemical Systems
H-L Han, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
Y Horowitz and GA Somorjai, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States; and University of California,
Berkeley, CA, United States
© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction: The Significance of Probing Electrified Interfaces for Renewable Energy Production and Storage 1
Basic Concepts of SFGVS for Studies of Electrified Solid–Liquid Interfaces 1
Probing Solid–Liquid Interfaces Under Reaction Condition 4
Li-Ion Batteries 4
Fuel Cells 7
Conclusions and Remarks 11
Acknowledgments 11
References 11
Introduction: The Significance of Probing Electrified Interfaces for Renewable Energy Production and Storage
As an energy-driven society we are facing sustainability challenges1 and therefore are constantly looking for better ways to design,
manufacture, and use energy storage devices, including rechargeable batteries, fuel cells, and large-scale grid energy storage. Regard-
less of the technology, the fundamental electrochemical process is most likely occurring on the nanoscale2 at an interface of two
phases (e.g., solid–liquid) under applied potentials. To improve our energy production and storage devices, we have to gain
in situ, real-time information of the electrified interface on the nanoscale level, such as the solid surface geometric structure and
the electronic properties of the solid–liquid interface. In addition, we need to obtain a clear understanding of the electrochemical
mechanism by revealing the molecular structures of the reactants, intermediates, and products.3 Over the years, different spectros-
copy techniques have been adapted to probe electrochemical interfaces such as infrared reflection adsorption spectroscopy (IRRAS),
Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray spectroscopy. While the IRRAS and Raman spectroscopies allow in situ probing, none of them is
highly surface-specific. X-ray spectroscopy is surface-specific but cannot yet be applied to solid–liquid systems, though some consid-
erable advances were reported.4 Hence, our understanding of many aspects of interfaces in electrochemical systems is still lacking,
and the need for a real-time analytical tool that can access solid–liquid interfaces is crucial.
The development of sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFGVS) has enabled surface-specific studies of various
surfaces and interfaces. SFGVS is a nondestructive, in situ nonlinear optical method that does not require any photoactive labeling
or has any restrictions to the sample’s preparation. SFGVS is a nonlinear optical method that yields vibrational spectra of molecules
at buried interfaces with high-interface selectivity and sensitivity. Vibrational spectra are known to be the fingerprints of molecules.
Consequently, SFGVS can be used to identify interfacial (adsorbed) species on a surface, probe their dynamics, and since it is a laser-
based technique by polarizing the laser beams, it can provide the interfacial species orientation with respect to the surface plane.
In this article, we present recent applications of SFGVS in studies of research groups that took on the endeavor to understand
interfacial processes on the molecular level of systems relevant to energy generation and storage like lithium ion batteries and
fuel cells.
Basic Concepts of SFGVS for Studies of Electrified Solid–Liquid Interfaces
Vibrational sum-frequency generation (VSFG) spectroscopy is a second-order nonlinear optical technique that is intrinsically sensi-
tive to probing vibrational spectrum of molecules within a few molecular layers (Angstroms) of an interface. This section describes
the general and basic theory of SFG, which provides guidelines for applying SFG for interfacial characterization.
Briefly, the SFG process from an interfacial system (any two mediums in contact) comprises two incident laser beams with
frequencies of u1 and u2, overlapping on the interface both spatially and temporary to induce a nonlinear polarization having
the sum of the incoming laser frequencies us ¼ u1 þ u2. The outcome of a sum frequency radiation (beam) is in both the reflected
and transmitted directions. Based on the electric-dipole approximation, SFG is forbidden in the bulk since it has an inversion
symmetry but is allowed at the interface where the inversion symmetry is broken. If the higher order electric quadrupole response
from a bulk is negligible, the SFG is dominated by the surface response and therefore intrinsically interface sensitive. Fig. 1A shows
the SFG process in an interfacial system. The generated SFG beam is both in the reflected and the transmitted directions. In Fig. 1A,
the two incident beams copropagate with respect to the plane normal to the surface incident on the interface at angles q1 and q2,
and the resulted SFG reflected and transmitted beams exit at angles qSR and qST. We can calculate qSR and qST, based on boundary
1
2 A Review on In Situ Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy Studies
Fig. 1 (A) A schematic of a SFG process at an interface. (B) Energy diagrams and description of resonant SFGVS with (1) u2 in resonance with
a vibrational transition, (2) uS in resonance with an electronic transition, and (3) both u2 and uS are in resonances.
conditions and phase-matching requirements, k1jj þ k2jj ¼ ksjj . Eq. (1) describes the emitted SFG direction based on the wavelength
of the input beams and the geometry of the setup:
qS ¼ sin1 ðn1 u1 sinq1 þ n2 u2 sinq2 Þ=nS uS (1)
where n is the refractive index of the medium in which the SFG is present.
Fig. 1B shows the energy levels for the excitations in a SFG process. In the SFGVS, u1 is typically in the visible spectral region and
u2 is in the infrared (IR) spectral region. Whenever either u1 or u2 or/and uS are in resonance with the electronic or vibrational
mode at the interface, the SFG intensity increases several orders of magnitudes.5 By scanning the IR frequency and monitoring
the SFG intensity, we obtain the vibrational spectrum of surface molecules and the structural information from the molecules
present at the interface. The output intensity of the reflected SFG is given by the square of the sum of the second-order nonlinear
susceptibility and the intensities of the input beams, as shown in Eq. (2).
2
8p3 u2 sec2 qSR ! ð 2Þ ! ð2Þ 2
ISF ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffibe ðuS Þ c S : be ðu1 Þbe ðu2 Þ Iðu1 ÞIðu2 Þf c eff Iðu1 ÞIðu2 Þ (2)
c3 εðuS Þεðu1 Þεðu2 Þ
where be ðuS Þ, be ðu1 Þ, and be ðu2 Þ denote the Fresnel factors for the output and input beams. In SFGVS, in order to characterize the
vibrational modes of adsorbates, one would use the expression in Eq. (3) to fit the observed spectrum.
2 3
!
! ð 2Þ ! 6 ð2Þ X Aq 7 b ! !
c eff ðuIR Þ ¼ be S LS 4cNR þ 5 e vis $ Lvis be IR $ LIR (3)
q uIR uq þ iGq
!
where Aq , uq, Gq are the amplitude, frequency, and damping coefficient of the qth vibration mode, respectively, c(2)
NR is the second-
!

order nonlinear susceptibility from the nonresonant background. Lu is the Fresnel factor at u, and these local field factors can be
calculated based on the physical and geometrical properties of the SFG apparatus and experiment: the beam angles, the refractive

! ð2Þ
index of the medium, etc. The SFG data has to be processed so that one can deduce the surface nonlinear susceptibility, x s j from
the SFG signal amplitude. Usually, this is carried out by removing the geometric factors and Fresnel coefficients and so we are left

! ð2Þ
with the signal’s amplitude that in turn gives x s j. The nonlinear susceptibility holds the information of the adsorbate’s
molecular orientation and the adsorbate layer ordering degree,6 of which we give examples later in this section.
When studying electrified interfaces, the effect from an electric field or so-called electric double layer (EDL) on the SFG signal
needs to be considered due to the additional contribution from the second-order bulk nonlinear susceptibility inside the EDL.
This potential-induced contribution originates from the electric-dipole-allowed third-order bulk nonlinear susceptibility and the
field in the EDL.7–9 The intensity of a potential-dependent reflected SFG beam in the presence of an EDL can be expressed as7:
Z N 2
ð2Þ
ISFG ðuVIS þ uIR ; fÞfIðuIR ÞIðuVIS Þ ceff ðuIR ; fÞ þ dzcð3Þ ðuIR ; z; fÞEDC ðzÞ (4)
0
where f is potential and EDC(z) is the static electric field from the electrode that is a decaying function of z. The third-order
susceptibility, c(3)(uIR, z, f), varies with the distance z from the electrode surface starting at z ¼ 0. If we assume that the field
EDC(z) is constant in the double layer and equals to zero in the bulk electrolyte, the equation can be expressed as follows:
2 h i ð2Þ
ð2Þ ð2Þ ð3Þ ð3Þ
ISFG ðuVIS þ uIR ; fÞfIðuIR ÞIðuVIS Þ ceff ðuIR ; fÞ þ 2Re ceff ðuIR ; fÞcDL ðuIR ; fÞeid þ cDL ðuIR ; fÞ f2 (5)
where c(3)
DL(uIR, f) is the third-order potential-dependent susceptibility of the double layer. The third-order susceptibility in the
double layer is the sum of the third-order hyperpolarizabilities of all the molecules in the double layer.10 d is a phase factor that is
A Review on In Situ Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy Studies 3

! ð2Þ 2
difficult to determine in the homodyne (i.e., c eff ) detection scheme. This term also implies that SFGVS of metal interfaces can
suffer from an interference due to a strong background in the spectrum that comes from the metal or/and electrolyte and depends
on the electrode’s potential. In reality, the presence of a strong dispersive background that depends on the potential of the electrode
needs to be considered in the SFG spectra analysis, as it may also cause the SFG spectra to be convoluted and reduce the accuracy of
fitting.11 By carefully evaluating the SFG spectrum dependence in the applied field, one can construct the molecular structure of the
electrified interface.
One of SFGVS greatest advantages is the ability to carry out orientation analysis of the adsorbates. We can deduce the orientation
of molecules at interfaces by analyzing sets of SFG spectra taken under different polarization combinations of the incident incoming
lights and the resulting SFG light. For example, spectra acquired at SSP (where s-, s-, p- are the visible, IR, and SFG polarized fields,
respectively) polarization is sensitive to dipole moments that are oriented perpendicular to the sample’s surface plane for an
isotropic surface. Generally, the molecular orientation of an adsorbate can be deduced from the ratio between symmetric and asym-
metric stretching vibrations of a specific group (e.g., C]O or –CH2–) by specific polarization combinations. For example, in the
case of a monolayer of C]O stretching mode on an azimuthally isotropic surface having a CNv symmetry. We consider the Z
axis to be along the surface normal and the X and Y axis, to lie in parallel to the surface. For a SFG measurement with the SSP
ð2Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ
and SPS polarization combinations, x(2)
ijk can be reduced to nonzero component xyyz ¼ xxxz and xyzy ¼ xxzx respectively, where
ð2Þ PD E
ð2Þ
xijk ¼ Ns a bj∙b
bi∙b b b (2)
k∙bc aabc . a, b, and c represent the molecular coordinates as described in Fig. 2A, aabc is the molecular
abc
hyperpolarizability and is related to the IR dipole and Raman polarizability of a vibrational mode. For the stretching mode of C]O:
ð2Þ 1
xyyz ¼ Ns accc hcosqið1 þ RÞ cos3 q ð1 R Þ (6)
2
ð2Þ 1
xyzy ¼ Ns accc hcosqi cos3 q ð1 R Þ (7)
2
with q denoting the tilt angle of C]O with respect to the z-axis. R is hyperpolarizability ratio of aacc and accc. The angle brackets
represent the ensemble average over f(q), with a polar orientation distribution of the C]O bonds in the tilt angle q, at the range of
0 q p/2 from the surface normal. Fig. 2B shows a simulation for the ratio of x(2) (2)
yzy to xyyz and the orientation angle for different
angle distribution of 0 and 10 degrees. We can calculate the average q from the normalized intensity ratio of the SSP and SPS spectra.
Another orientation analysis example is the CH2 stretching intensities of an azimuthally isotropic sample. The SSP measurements of
ð2Þ ð2Þ
the CH2 stretches yield that xxxz ¼ xyyz . The explicit expression for the symmetric stretching mode of CH2 is:
ð2Þ 1 1
xxxz ¼ Ns ½aaac þ accc hcosqi þ Ns ½aaac accc cos3 q (8)
2 2
and for the asymmetric stretching:
ð2Þ 1
xxxz ¼ Ns aaaa cosq cos3 q (9)
2
with q denoting the polar angle of the symmetry axis c with respect to the z-axis. From the ratio deduced from the s-CH2 and as-CH2
spectra, the average q can be determined.
In practice, when applied to metallic interfaces, the determination of the molecular orientation is challenging as the s-polarized
component of the reflected light from metal surfaces is usually weak. SFG with all polarization combinations containing an
(2) (2)
Fig. 2 (A) The molecular coordinates of a carbonyl (C]O) group and a methylene (CH2) group. (B) The ratio of xyzy to xyyz in regard to average
(2) (2)
angle q of a carbonyl group. Black and red lines are for the ratio of xyzy to xyyz which is calculated with the Gaussian distribution function and angle
distribution of 0 and 10 degrees, respectively.
s-component (except for PPP) has shown low signal-to-noise ratio. Hence, most SFGVS studies on metal electrochemical interfaces
apply the PPP polarization combination. The PPP combination in turn also limits the accuracy of orientation determination since it
has contributions from all possible polarizations.
Probing Solid–Liquid Interfaces Under Reaction Condition

Li-Ion Batteries
Since the birth of the commercial lithium ion battery in the 1990s when Sony Inc. engineers clamped together a carbonations anode
with a discharged oxide cathode, as envisioned by Goodenough,12,13 significant technological advances had occurred in the field of
energy storage, specifically in the lithium (Li) ion battery. Generally, the Li-ion battery is composed of two electrodes, a separator
membrane designed to ensure electrical insulation of the two electrodes and a medium that allows the Li-ions to diffuse through it
between the two electrodes. Many aspects of the Li-ion battery have been designed to achieve the maximal efficiency without
compromising safety, capacity, and power demands.14,15 The lithium ion battery is a dynamic system even at open circuit potential
(OCP) when no external potential is applied. The difference of the Gibb’s free energy between the organic molecules to the electrode
energy levels is enough to initiate redox reactions upon mere contact of the electrolyte/electrode16; thus, in situ methodologies
should be employed for their study. Moreover, it was suggested that the overall behavior of the Li-ion battery is defined at the
electrode–electrolyte interface.17 SFGVS is the best option as it can be used to probe the lithium ion battery components (mainly
electrode surface, the effect of surface termination, and the electrode–electrolyte interface) under “as prepared” and reaction condi-
tions. For example, by applying SFG one can deduce the surface concentration and orientation of the various electrolyte molecules
on a cathode material.18 Yu et al. have demonstrated that at OCP, there is a preferential adsorption of cyclic carbonates, mainly
ethylene carbonate (EC) over linear carbonates such as diethyl carbonate (DEC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC).19 EC was found
to be the dominating adsorbate on the LiCoO2 (cathode material) regardless of its molecular proportion in the solution bulk. Refer
to Fig. 3.
The interpretation of SFG spectra of solid–liquid interfaces is challenging and at times ambiguous; therefore, computational
modeling can greatly improve our understanding and decipher the resulting nonlinear vibrational spectra. As a general case, we
can examine the differences between probing the [c2]2 (absolute square) versus probing the imaginary part Im[c2]. As we have
noted in our explanation for Eq. (3), c2 holds the chemical and physical information of the adsorbates that we probe by SFGVS.
Eq. (3) can be rearranged so that:
2
X
Aq ifq 2
ISFG f e þ cNR
y uIR uq þ iGq
Fig. 3 The SPS polarized SFG spectra of LiCoO2 in contact with EC:DMC (1:1 in volume) at open circuit potential. Top panels: SFG spectra where
the nonresonant background is removed. Middle panels: SFG spectra (circle) and their fitting results (solid traces). Bottom panels: deconvoluted
bands for the SFG spectra. The upward and downward peaks represent modes with reversed phases. All the spectra (except for the middle panels)
are offset for clarity. Adapted with permission from Yu, L.; Liu, H.; Wang, Y.; et al. Preferential Adsorption of Solvents on the Cathode Surface of
Lithium Ion Batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2013, 52, 5753–5756.
where fq is a phase angle with respect to the nonresonant signal c2NR. While obtaining [c2]2 is well established and is based on
a straightforward design of the SFG apparatus, there is a fundamental shortcoming of this technique, whereby all information on
the complex nature of c2 is lost. For example, for a given vibration associated with a specific bond, we can deduce the angle
2
distribution of the dipole moment by calculating the intensity ratio between SSP and SPS. However, just from the c2 ssp c2 2
sps
ratio, we cannot predict if the dipole moment is pointing away from the surface or pointing to the surface. Probing the complex
representation of c2, specifically its imaginary component, Im[c2] readily reveals the dipole orientation. Nevertheless, it requires
either a phase-modulation or a heterodyne SFG set up together with solid mathematical modeling.
In order to simplify the interpretation of phase-sensitive SFGVS, that is, Im[c2], Morita and Hynes, begun by modeling the SFG
spectra according to the energy representation of the nonlinear susceptibility, c2, in molecular dynamics (MD) calculations.20 They
have pioneered the computational analysis of SFG spectroscopy in general and suggested an alternative MD model based on the
time correlation function.21 Recently, Morita et al. have incorporated the charge response kernel (CRK) model in their work bringing
the computational model to better interpret the experimental SFG spectra.22,23 The CRK was successfully implemented in investi-
gating the vapor–liquid interface structure of DMC and propylene carbonate (PC), both common solvents in Li-ion electrolyte solu-
tions.22 The study probed the C]O stretch and its orientation at the liquid–gas interface. In Fig. 4, we can see that the simulated MD
SFG (A, C) and experimental SFG (B, D) spectra of PC and DMC at the solid–gas interface correspond well. However, the impor-
tance of the MD simulation was demonstrated by revealing that the reason for the C]O bipolar bands lies with DMC having an
almost isotropic orientation while PC has an ordered structure due to PC dimers as discussed in Ref. [23].
The advantages of SFG vibrational spectroscopy as a surface specific spectroscopy are demonstrated in the study of the solid
(electrode)–liquid (electrolyte) interface and even more so in examining the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI).24 The SEI25,26 is
a term and concept that has been widely accepted for the reduction products formed on an anode of the liquid hydrocarbon elec-
trolyte molecules interacting with Li-ions during the charging process. The SEI serves as a physical barrier and a chemically inert
coating that hinders further electrolyte reduction on the surface of the anode. Meanwhile, it allows lithium ions diffusion, at
a reasonable rate, through it to the lithium ion host (anode) upon charging and back to the electrolyte solution once the discharge
of the Li-ion battery takes place.
One of the key steps for a major improvement of the Li-ion battery is understanding the SEI’s structure-related diffusion in energy
storage materials. The SEI formation is a crucial step as charge and discharge rates of Li-ion batteries are diffusion-limited. The
fundamental understanding of the ion transport and diffusion mechanism will ultimately lead to faster charging, longer lasting,
and safer Li-ion batteries. Several groups have set to explore the composition, structure, and formation/degradation mechanisms
of the solid electrolyte interface on the surfaces of electrodes at OCP and during charge/discharge cycles by applying advanced
in situ SFG vibrational spectroscopy.
The SEI’s behavior was also investigated under applied potentials. Dlott et al. carefully chose an electrochemical system to
produce a single SEI product.24 They cycled lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) salt dissolved in an EC diluted with tetrahydrofuran
(THF) in contact with either gold or copper anodes between 2.0 and 0.2 V (vs. Li/Liþ). The single reduction product was lithium
ethylene dicarbonate with a trace amount of ethylene having two C]O distinct vibrational frequencies at 1782 and 1800 cm 1,
refer to Fig. 5. They had reported two main findings. The first is that the SEI “breaths” as a function of applied potential only
when reduced on a copper electrode. This increase and decrease of the SEI width is not apparent when a gold electrode is used
even though the same electrolyte and the same electrochemical conditions as in the Cu case are maintained. The second, presented
in Fig. 6, was that the applied external potential affects the SFG profile27 and so one should carefully examine the SFG profile
obtained under potentiodynamic conditions.
Fig. 4 The simulated MD SFG (A, C) and experimental SFG (B, D) spectra of propylene carbonate (PC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) solid–gas
interface. LeftdThe SSP-polarized SFG spectra are shown in red and SPS spectra in blue. RightdThe SSP polarized imaginary component, Im[c2],
calculated SFG spectra of PC (up) and DMC (bottom) solid–gas interface. The MD simulations show that the SFG bipolar band originates from
different molecular interactions, dimerization for PC (up) and random for DMC (bottom). Reprinted with permission from Wang, L.; Peng, Q. L.; Ye,
S.; Morita, A. Surface Structure of Organic Carbonate Liquids Investigated by Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Sum Frequency Generation Spec-
troscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 15185–15197; Ishiyama, T.; Morita, A. Computational Analysis of Vibrational Sum Frequency Generation Spec-
troscopy. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2017, 68, 355–377. Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society.
Fig. 5 The breathing effect of the solid electrolyte as depict by SFG measurements. Leftdcopper electrode. The overall SFG peak areas at two
typical SEI frequencies (ethylene carbonate, carbonyl group, Fermi doublet) 1782 and 1807 cm 1 as a function of scanned potential 2.0 V ! 0.2 V at
2 mV/s. Rightdgold electrode. The overall SFG peak areas at two typical SEI frequencies (EC Fermi doublet) 1795 and 1831 cm 1 as a function of
scanned potential 2.0 V ! 0.2 V at 5 mV/s. Adapted with permission from Mukherjee, P.; Lagutchev, A.; Dlott, D. D. In Situ Probing of Solid-
Electrolyte Interfaces With NonlinearCoherent Vibrational Spectroscopy. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2012, 159, A244–A252. Copyright 2012, The Electro-
chemical Society.
Fig. 6 The SFG intensity of the ethylene carbonate carbonyl stretch as a function of applied potential. The SEI region (blue) is around 1400 cm 1,
and the carbonyl stretch is around 1800 cm 1. Insetdthe cyclic voltammograms of LiClO4 in tetrahydrofuran (THF). Adapted with permission from
Nicolau, B. G.; García-Rey, N.; Dryzhakov, B.; Dlott, D. D. Interfacial Processes of a Model Lithium Ion Battery Anode Observed, In Situ, With
Vibrational Sum-Frequency Generation Spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 2015, 119, 10227–10233. Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society.
Somorjai et al. successfully performed in situ potentiodynamic SFG analysis (Fig. 7) of a common electrolyte, 1.0 M of lithium
hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) dissolved in EC and DEC, diluted with THF in contact with crystalline silicon (Si) electrodes in
a lithium half-cell system under reaction conditions.28 They found that with a Si(100)-hydrogen-terminated wafer, a Si-ethoxy
(Si-OC2H5) surface intermediate forms due to DEC decomposition at 1.0 V versus Li/Liþ to an ethoxy radical. This radical is gener-
ated only when DEC is present in the solution. Furthermore, they have shown that the SEI surface composition varies depending on
the termination of Si surface, that is, the acidity of the Si surface. Moreover, their finding supports an electrochemical electrolyte
reduction mechanism in which the reduction of the DEC molecule occurs before the reduction of the EC molecule. The formation
of the Si-ethoxy termination allows the growth of a protective solid electrolyte interface that sticks to the silicon surface and inhibits
its structural deterioration. This finding can lead to a novel electrolyte design that upon reduction will better adhere to and protect
the silicon surface.
In a recent study, the Somorjai group employed the ability of SFGVS to detect the adsorption angles (and tilt) of the electrolyte
molecules at the surface of an anode to study the effect of fluorine on the electrolyte–electrode interface (Fig. 8).29 The motivation to
explore the fluorine’s effect on the SEI arises from the beneficial effect of fluorine-based additives on the performance of lithium-ion
batteries,30–32 yet the origin of this phenomenon is unclear.33–35 They have studied an anode specific model system, the reduction
of 1,2-diethoxy ethane with lithium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide, (LiTFSI) as the lithium salt on an amorphous silicon anode,
and compared the electrochemical response and SEI formation from the hydrocarbon ether to its fluorinated version, bis(2,2,2-
trifluoroethoxy) ethane (BTFEOE). They have found that fluorinated electrolyte has tighter, upright packing on the silicon anode
Fig. 7 The SFG of Si(100)-Ox anode after cycling between 3.0 V ! 0.05 V vs. Li/Liþ (lithiation). In order to emphasize the evolution of the Si-
ethoxy peaks, we divided the SFG spectra by their former potentials. Adapted with permission from Horowitz, Y.; Han, H. L.; Ross, P. N.; Somorjai,
G. A. In Situ Potentiodynamic Analysis of the Electrolyte/Silicon Electrodes Interface Reactions – A Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectros-
copy Study. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 726–729. Copyright (2017) American Chemical Society.
Fig. 8 Leftdthe SFG profiles of 0.1 M LiTFSI: 1,2-DEE (black) and 0.1 M LiTFSI: BTFEOE (red) in contact with amorphous Si anode at OCP. We
note the frequencies corresponding to a-OCH2 (backbone) and b-OCH2 (adjacent to -CX3 end groups) methylene groups. Rightdan illustration of
structures of the ethers adsorbed on a-Si at OCP. Adapted with permission from Horowitz, Y.; Han, H.-L.; Ralston, W. T.; et al. Fluorinated
End-Groups in Electrolytes Induce Ordered Electrolyte/Anode Interface Even at Open-Circuit Potential as Revealed by Sum Frequency Generation
Vibrational Spectroscopy. Adv. Energy Mater. 2017, 1602060.
surface leading to higher lithium ion diffusion rates in the silicon anode bulk in comparison to its regular hydrocarbon electrolyte
version.
In future Li-ion batteries research, one can extend SFGVS to study cathode (sulfur, air, or polyanionic compounds) or anode
materials under reaction condition to understand the fundamental aspects of surface redox reactions, like surface species and
reaction dynamics, leading to the formation of a stable SEI.
Fuel Cells
In its most broad definition, a fuel cell generates electricity from the chemical reaction of a hydrogen-containing fuel with oxygen.
The fuel cell’s operation requires a constant feed of hydrogen-containing fuel (e.g., molecular hydrogen, alcohols, etc.) and oxygen.
The end products of its operation are water and electricity. Hence, fuel cells are considered as sustainable energy devices. As any
electrochemical system, the fuel cell has a metallic electrode that is in contact with an electrolyte, usually an aqueous salt solution.
Once the fuel cell is operating a voltage develops and so to simulate a working fuel cell, we apply an external potential on the metal
surface. Tadjeddine et al.11,36,37 and others38–42 have demonstrated that the use of SFGVS in fuel cell studies is effective in probing
electrodes under working conditions since it provided fundamental information on the bonding geometry of adsorbed molecules,
identified reaction intermediates, and revealed oxidation/reduction mechanisms while under working conditions. Ethanol is
known as a feed for fuel cells, also named ethanol fuel cell. Liquid ethanol has the potential to become an alternative energy
resource since upon its complete oxidation to CO2 it yields 12 electrons per one ethanol molecule.43 Also, ethanol can be either
reformed to produce hydrogen which can operate the proton exchange membrane fuel cells or directly used in the fuel cell. The
oxidation of ethanol on polycrystalline Pt electrodes was studied by conventional IR spectroscopy, and the main conclusion of
that study was that acetaldehyde and acetyl are the predominant intermediates on the Pt electrode surface.44 Recently, in a combined
SFGVS and density functional theory study, Gomes et al. observed new adsorbed intermediates by using isotope-labeled ethanol as
the reactant.45 Their SFGVS study revealed many new intermediates on top of the previously reported ones. Their findings showed
that the Pt surface is much more reactive than previously considered as multiple ethanol oxidation intermiedates were identified.
Fig. 9 shows the proposed intermediates of ethanol oxidation on a platinum electrode in an acidic medium under oxidation condi-
tions. Gomes et al., observed that during the catalytic oxidation of ethanol, acetaldehyde and acetyl are the dominant intermediates.
These in turn, can subsequently decompose to form CO which at lower potentials poisons the surface.44,45 CO poisoning is
a limiting factor for the performance of fuel cells. However, the CO poisoning mechanism is still under debate as conventional
IR spectroscopic methods lack the necessary surface sensitivity that SFGVS has.46 Humbert et al. reported a strategy to study the
Fig. 9 Proposed intermediates of ethanol oxidation on platinum electrode in acidic medium. The geometry of the adsorbed intermediates is not
considered in this scheme. Adapted with permission from Gomes, J. F.; Bergamaski, K.; Pinto, M. F. S.; Miranda, P. B. Reaction Intermediates of
Ethanol Electro-oxidation on Platinum Investigated by SFG Spectroscopy. J. Catal. 2013, 302, 67–82.
CO poisoning mechanism of Pt by combining sum-frequency generation spectroscopy with applied potential.47 They correlated
between Stark shifts in the spectra of C]O vibrations to different surface coverage that in turn changes as a function of the applied
potential. In the potential range of hydrogen evolution and CO oxidation, 800 to 450 mV and þ 600 to þ 1000 mV, the Stark
shift is not significant. However, in the potential range of 450 to 50 mV and 50 to þ 600 mV, two Stark shifts of 31 and
15 cm 1 are observed, respectively. Humbert et al. claimed that this observation was due to the dipole–dipole coupling inside
the CO layer: a more densely packed layer gives rise to stronger coupling and therefore induces a shift of the resonance frequency
to higher values. In other words, the tilt angle (orientation) of CO on Pt(110) manifested in the strong frequency shift plays a major
role since the straighter the molecules, the bigger the coupling. They concluded that in the potential range from 50 to þ 600 mV,
the CO adlayer is so densely packed that it prevents ions from accessing the electrode surface. The small additional peak (gray arrow
in Fig. 10) at 1955 cm 1 around 200 mV was attributed to the Pt–H stretch. The weak Pt–H signal shows the amount of adsorbed
hydrogen is low and the quenching of hydrogen evolution as a consequence of the dense CO coverage. A potential of zero-charge
of þ 650 mV is measured by a careful analysis of the SFG spectra, confirming that this potential corresponds to the onset of oxida-
tion processes at the surface.
While SFGVS has excellent surface sensitivity, it suffers from absorption of the IR radiation when passing through the liquid elec-
trolyte medium. Therefore, most of the above experiments were conducted in an electrochemical cell with a window separated
about 1–50 mm away from the metal electrode in order to reduce the IR attenuation due to electrolyte absorption.38 Some concerns
may arise from this type of configuration; for instance, the ion diffusion rate may be different from a bulk solution and may affect
the electrochemical reaction during a potential scan, and the sum frequency generated from the window and solution may interfere
with the sum frequency generated from the metal electrode during the frequency scan.
Fig. 10 SFG spectra of the CO layer deposited from CO (C/10) solution on Pt(110) for applied potentials ranging from 800 to 50 mV
(A) and 50 mV to 1 V (B) (vs. Ag/AgCl/KCl (3 M)). Lines are fitted to the data. The same SFG intensity scale is for all spectra. Reprinted with
permission from Humbert, C.; Busson, B.; Tadjeddine, A. Enhanced Stability of a Carbon Monoxide Monolayer Adsorbed on Platinum Under
Electrochemical Control Probed by Sum-Frequency Generation Spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 2016, 120, 16211–16220. Copyright (2017) American
Chemical Society.
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LARGE ENGLISH
Prunus domestica
1. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort. 443. 1881. 2. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 429,
433. 1889.
Englische Zwetsche 2. Grosse Englische Zwetsche 2. Grosse Englische
Zwetsche 1, 2. Grosse Englische Pflaumen Zwetsche 2. Grosse
Zwetsche? 2. Schweizer Zwetsche 2 incor.
This appears to be a most excellent plum closely resembling the

Italian Prune and surpassing that well-known variety in some
respects. As compared with Italian Prune, the fruit of Large English
runs larger, is slightly more conical, having the ventral swelling near
the base, thus giving it more of a shoulder. The flavor is sweeter and
richer than that of the Italian Prune. There appear to be practically no
differences between the trees, the foliage and the flowers of the two
kinds. Wherever the Italian is successfully grown it may be well
worth while to try the Large English. The relation the word English
has to this prune is unknown. Oberdieck, in 1881, wrote that this
variety resembled the Italian Prune in fruit, but differed in that it had
a noticeably broader leaf; he adds “it has been incorrectly called the
Swiss Prune and is much spread in Germany under the name of
Italian Prune.” E. R. Lake, of the United States Department of
Agriculture, brought it to America, in 1901, from the Pomological
Institute, Reutlingen, Wurtemburg, Germany. Lake’s stock was
tested at this Station and the variety agrees with Oberdieck’s
description.
Tree of average size, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense-topped,

productive; branchlets with, long internodes; leaf-scars enlarged; leaves
folded upward, oval or obovate, nearly one and three-quarters inches
wide, three and one-half inches long, thick, rugose; margin crenate or
almost serrate, eglandular or with small dark glands; petiole pubescent,
tinged red, with from two to four globose glands; blooming season
intermediate in time, short; flowers appearing after the leaves, one inch
across; petals long, narrow, white, in the buds tipped with yellow; borne
singly or in pairs; stamens tend to become petals.
Fruit late, season of medium length; one and three-quarters inches by
one and one-half inches in size, long-ovate, purplish-black, with thick
bloom; dots numerous, conspicuous; flesh yellowish with a trace of red at
full maturity at both skin and stone, juicy, very sweet, aromatic, with a
pleasant flavor; very good to best; stone free, the cavity larger than the pit,
often brownish-red, one inch by five-eighths inch in size, irregular-oval,
flattened, with an oblique apex; ventral suture prominent, usually with a
distinct wing; dorsal suture with a wide, deep groove.
LATE MIRABELLE
Prunus insititia
1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 150. 1831. 2. Barry Fr. Garden 339. 1851. 3.
Downing Fr. Trees Am. 388. 1857. 4. Hogg Fruit Man. 353. 1866. 5.
Downing Fr. Trees. Am. 901. 1869. 6. Pom. France 7: No. 20. 1871. 7.
Mas Le Verger 6:7. 1866-73. 8. Cat. Cong. Pom. France 352. 1887. 9.
Mathieu Nom. Pom. 442, 449. 1889. 10. Guide Prat. 162, 360. 1895. 11.
Baltet Cult. Fr. 493. 1908.
Bricette 9. Bricetta 5. Bricet 5, 9. Bricette 6, 8, 10. Brisette 6, 7, 10.
Bricette 4. Die Brisette 9. Kleine Brisette 9. La Bricette 9. Mirabelle Tardive
1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11. Mirabelle Tardive 4, 5, 6, 9. Mirabelle d’Octobre 2.
Mirabelle d’Octobre 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10. October Mirabelle 9. Petit Bricette 5,
9. Petite Bricette 4, 6, 10. Runde Brisette 9. Späte Mirabelle 6, 8, 9, 10.
In France, where all of the Mirabelles are highly esteemed, the

Late Mirabelle is much grown because of its season. The variety is
practically unknown in America, but, judging from its behavior at
Geneva, well deserves widespread trial, as do all the Mirabelles. The
history of this variety is unknown other than that it is an old sort,
having been mentioned in the London Horticultural Society catalog
as long ago as 1831. In 1851, Barry, of Rochester, New York,
described the Mirabelle d’Octobre, which is identical with Late
Mirabelle, and said that it had been recently introduced from France.
Tree medium in size and vigor, very hardy, productive; branches

smooth; leaves small, oval, one and one-quarter inches wide, two inches
long; margin finely serrate, with few, dark glands; petiole slender,
glandless or with one or two glands at the base of the leaf.
Fruit late; small, roundish-oval, greenish-yellow, often with a light blush
on the sunny side, covered with thin bloom; stem short, slender; flesh
yellow, very juicy, aromatic, sweet; good; stone semi-free.
LATE MUSCATELLE
Prunus domestica
1. Lucas Vollst. Hand. Obst. 470. 1894. 2. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2nd Ser.
3:53. 1900. 3. U. S. D. A. Div. Pom. Bul. 10:22. 1901.
Late Muscatel 2. Späte Muskateller 3. Späte Muskatellerpflaume 1.
This variety was obtained by the United States Department of

Agriculture from the Pomological Institute at Reutlingen, Germany, in
1900, and was soon after sent to this Station to test. In some
respects, in fruit-characters in particular, the variety is promising, but
not sufficiently so to recommend it to fruit-growers, even for trial.
Tree of medium size and vigor, upright-spreading, productive;

branchlets thick; with short internodes, pubescent; leaf-scars prominent;
leaves drooping, folded upward, obovate, one and five-eighths inches
wide, three and three-eighths inches long, leathery; margin crenate,
eglandular or with few, small, dark glands; petiole thick, pubescent,
glandless or with from one to three glands; blooming season intermediate
in time; and length; flowers appearing after the leaves, one inch across;
borne in scattering clusters, singly or in pairs; petals white, creamy-white
as they open; anthers tinged red.
Fruit late, season short; medium in size, roundish, slightly truncate,
purplish-brown, splashed and mottled with russet about the base,
overspread with thick bloom; flesh greenish-yellow, sweet; good to very
good; stone often reddish, clinging, three-quarters inch by one-half inch in
size, somewhat flat, irregular-oval, with slightly pitted surfaces.
LATE ORLEANS
LATE ORLEANS
Prunus domestica
1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 151. 1831. 2. Mag. Hort. 164. 1843. 3. Jour.
Hort. N. S. 15:301. 1868. 4. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 927. 1869. 5. Guide
Prat. 161, 360. 1895. 6. Garden 49:268. 1896. 7. Rivers Cat. 33. 1898.
Black Orleans 1, 2, 5. Late Black Orleans 3, 4. Late Black Orleans 5.
Late Orleans 5. Monsieur Noir Tardif 5. Orleans Late Black 5.
This is another variety having only a European reputation to

recommend it in America. The fruits of Late Orleans are handsome
in color and shape, but are not large enough to enable them to
compete in the markets with other late purple plums and are so poor
in quality as to be worthless as dessert fruits. In Europe the variety is
rated high for culinary purposes and fruit-growers there like it
because it hangs well to the tree and keeps and ships well. The
trees are very satisfactory in practically all respects. It is doubtful if
the variety is worth further trial in America.
Late Orleans was mentioned in the catalog of the Horticultural
Society of London in 1831, but was not described. No account
seems to have ever been published of its origin, but it is probably
related to or descended from the Orleans since they are very similar
in tree and shape of fruit, differing only in size and color of fruit.
Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, hardy, very productive; branches

smooth, dark ash-gray, with numerous, small lenticels; branchlets medium
to slender, with long internodes, greenish-red changing to dull reddish-
brown, dull, pubescent, marked with gray scarf-skin and with small
lenticels; leaf-buds intermediate in size and length, conical, appressed.
Leaves flattened, oval or obovate, one and one-quarter inches wide, two
and one-quarter inches long; upper surface sparingly pubescent, with a
deeply grooved midrib; lower surface heavily pubescent along the midrib;
apex abruptly pointed, base broadly cuneate, margin finely crenate, with
small, dark glands; petiole one-half inch long, slender, pubescent, faintly
tinged with red, glandless or with from one to four small, globose,
yellowish glands usually on the stalk.
Flowers appearing after the leaves, one inch across, white; borne on
lateral buds and spurs, singly or in pairs; pedicels one-half inch long,
glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube, green, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes
obtuse, pubescent, glandular-serrate and with marginal hairs, erect; petals
roundish or broadly ovate, entire, short-clawed; anthers yellow with a
reddish tinge; filaments five-sixteenths inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to
the stamens in length.
Fruit late, season long; about one and one-half inches in diameter,
roundish, slightly compressed, halves equal; cavity shallow, narrow,
flaring; suture a line; apex roundish; color dark purple, overspread with
thick bloom; dots few, reddish-brown; stem three-quarters inch long,
pubescent at the base, adhering well to the fruit; skin toughish, slightly
astringent, separating readily; flesh golden-yellow, dry, tender, sweet, mild;
fair in quality; stone clinging, one inch by five-eighths inch in size, oval,
flattened, slightly roughened, blunt at the base and apex; ventral suture
rather narrow, blunt; dorsal suture widely and deeply grooved.
LAWRENCE
Prunus domestica
1. Cultivator 10:167. 1843. 2. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 54. 1852. 3. Elliott Fr.
Book 412. 1854. 4. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 928. 1869. 5. Pom. France 7:
No. 29. 1871. 6. Mas Le Verger 6:75. 1866-73. 7. Hogg Fruit Man. 710.
1884. 8. Cat. Cong. Pom. France 349. 1887. 9. Guide Prat. 364. 1895. 10.
Waugh Plum Cult. 112. 1901.
Favorite de Lawrence 6, 9. Lawrence Favorite 5. Lawrences Reine
Claude 9. Lawrence’s Favorite 1, 2, 3, 4, 7. Lawrence’s Gage 1, 3, 4, 6, 7,
9. Lawrence’s Favorite 6, 8, 9, 10. Lawrence Gage 8. Prune Lawrence
Gage 5. Reine-Claude de Lawrence 6, 9. Reine-Claude de Lawrence 4, 5,
8.
This variety is surpassed in the quality of its fruits by few plums.

The trees bear young and abundantly and the fruit hangs well on the
tree; unfortunately, the plums do not ship nor keep well and the
variety thus fails as a market sort. It is, however, a delicious dessert
fruit, deserving to be grown in every plum connoisseur’s garden.
Lawrence is a seedling of Reine Claude, and was grown by L. V.
Lawrence of Hudson, New York, some time during the second
quarter of the last century. As its large size and superior quality
became known its popularity increased, until it was cultivated not
only in America, but to some extent throughout western Europe.
During the last twenty-five years, however, it has waned in
popularity, having been superseded by better commercial varieties,
though it still ranks high as a dessert plum. The American
Pomological Society placed Lawrence in its catalog in 1852, and
retained it there until 1899.
Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, productive; trunk and branches

rough, with large lenticels; branchlets brash, dark reddish-brown,
pubescent; leaves folded upward, oval, two inches wide, three and three-
quarters inches long, thick, leathery, rugose; margin doubly serrate, with
small glands; petiole pubescent, usually with two small glands.
Fruit medium early; one and three-eighths inches in diameter, roundish,
greenish-yellow, covered with thin bloom; skin thin, tender, slightly
astringent; flesh yellowish, fibrous, tender, sweet, aromatic; very good;
stone free, seven-eighths inch by five-eighths inch in size, oval, turgid,
nearly smooth.
LINCOLN
Prunus domestica
1. Lovett Cat. fig. 44. 1890-1900. 2. Rural N. Y. 56:595 fig. 253, 598.
1897. 3. Mich. Sta. Bul. 169:242, 246. 1899. 4. Ohio Sta. Bul. 113:159.
1899. 5. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2d Ser. 3:53. 1900. 6. Waugh Plum Cult.
114. 1901. 7. Budd-Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 317, 318 fig. 1903. 8. Am.
Pom. Soc. Rpt. 254. 1903. 9. Ohio Sta. Bul. 162:236, 238 fig., 256, 257.
1905. 10. Mass. Sta. An. Rpt. 17:159. 1905.
Lincoln has never been popular in New York, but in Pennsylvania

and New Jersey it is well thought of for home use and the markets.
The trees in this State grow slowly and when fully grown are rather
inferior. This is one of the sorts recommended to be top-worked on
better growing varieties but, as has been said before in these notes,
top-working in New York is far more often a failure than a success
with plums. The fruit of this variety is unusually attractive in size and
color and for quality it may be named among the best of the red
plums. Unfortunately, the variety is readily infected by the brown-rot
which when epidemic cannot be controlled. Lincoln has been so well
tested in New York without becoming popular with plum-growers that
it is hardly worth recommending for further trial, though the fruits in
particular have much merit.
This plum originated in York County, Pennsylvania, about forty-five
years ago, supposedly from seed of the Reine Claude, and was
named after Abraham Lincoln. If it be a Reine Claude seedling it
comes from a cross with some other variety, since it shows many
characters not in Reine Claude. Lincoln was introduced by J. T.
Lovett and Company, Little Silver, New Jersey.
Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright-spreading, but somewhat

variable in habit, dense-topped, hardy, productive; branches ash-gray,
rough; branchlets somewhat slender, short, with long internodes,
greenish-red changing to brownish-red, dull, sparingly pubescent
throughout the season, overspread with thin bloom, with small,
inconspicuous lenticels; leaf-buds large, long, pointed, free; leaf-scars
prominent.
Leaves somewhat folded backward, oval or obovate, two inches wide,
four inches long, rather stiff; upper surface slightly rugose, pubescent only
in the shallow, grooved midrib; lower surface silvery-green, pubescent;
apex abruptly pointed, base acute, margin doubly crenate, with small, dark
glands; petiole nearly one inch long, pubescent, reddish, with from one to
four rather large, globose or reniform, yellowish glands variable in position.
Season of bloom medium; flowers appearing after the leaves, over one
inch across, white; borne on lateral spurs and buds, singly or in pairs;
pedicels about seven-eighths inch long, slender, pubescent, greenish;
calyx-tube green, campanulate, thinly pubescent; calyx-lobes broad,
acute, somewhat pubescent on both surfaces, glandular-serrate, with
marginal hairs, reflexed; petals oval, crenate, with claws of medium width;
anthers yellow; filaments three-eighths inch or more in length; pistil
glabrous, shorter than the stamens.
Fruit early, season short; somewhat variable but averaging about two
inches by one and five-eighths inches in size, oblong-oval, slightly necked,
halves usually equal; cavity very shallow, narrow, abrupt; suture shallow;
apex roundish or depressed; color light or dark red over a yellow ground,
overspread with thin bloom; dots numerous, small, light russet; stem one
inch long, lightly pubescent, adhering poorly to the fruit; skin thick, rather
sour, separating readily; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, coarse and fibrous,
firm but tender, sweet, mild, pleasant; good to very good; stone nearly
free, one and one-eighth inches by five-eighths inch in size, long-oval,
flattened, necked at the base, blunt at the apex, with markedly rough and
deeply pitted surfaces; ventral suture narrow, distinctly furrowed, with a
short wing; dorsal suture with a narrow groove of medium depth.
LOMBARD
LOMBARD
Prunus domestica
1. Kenrick Am. Orch. 268. 1832. 2. Ibid. 224. 1841. 3. Downing Fr.
Trees Am. 303 fig. 124. 1845. 4. Thomas Am. Fruit Cult. 345 fig. 265.
1849. 5. Goodrich N. Fr. Cult. 84. 1849. 6. Elliott Fr. Book 412. 1854. 7.
Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 190, 210. 1856. 8. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 929 fig.
1869. 9. Mas Le Verger 6:151, fig. 76. 1866-73. 10. Country Gent. 48:981.
1883. 11. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 423. 1889. 12. Guide Prat. 160, 359. 1895.
13. Mich. Sta. Bul. 169:242, 246. 1899. 14. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:279. 1900. 15.
Waugh Plum Cult. 114 fig. 1901. 16. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 43:34. 1903. 17.
Ohio Sta. Bul. 162:240, 256, 257. 1905.
Beekman’s Scarlet 3, 6, 8, 11, 12. Bleecker’s Scarlet 3, 4, 6, 8, 12.
Bleeker’s Scarlet 11. Bleeker’s Rotepflaume 11. Bleekers Rothe Pflaume
12. Bleeckers Rothe Pflaume 9. Lombard 11. Lombard Plum 1.
Montgomery Prune 8, 11. Prune Rouge De Bleeker 9, 11. Rouge de
Bleecker 12. Spanish King? 14, 15. Variegated Plum 1.
The Lombard plum is known by all. It is not as largely planted in

New York as a few other varieties, but it is probably more widely
grown than any other plum if the whole continent be considered. The
preeminently meritorious characters which enable it to take first
place in American plum-growing are: The elasticity of its constitution
whereby it adapts itself to widely different soils and climates; the
robustness, healthiness, productiveness and regularity in bearing of
its trees; the fact that the fruits are comparatively free from the
scourge of the crescent sign, plum-curculio; and, lastly, its showy
fruits tempting to the eye and readily salable. The tree-characters of
Lombard are all good, making so superior a tree that it, more than
any other variety, is recommended as a stock upon which to graft
weak-growing plums. It is a virile variety and from it have come a
considerable number of offspring mostly from self-fertilized seeds
which have given us several nearly related varieties and strains.
There are also a few very good cross-bred plums of which Lombard
was one parent. Lombard would be preeminently the plum “for the
millions” were it not for a fatal fault—it is very poor in quality.
Canned, cooked, preserved or spiced, it does very well, but as a
dessert fruit it falls in a category with the Ben Davis apple and Kieffer
pear, “good-looking but poor.” The variety ripens so early as to come
in direct competition with the peach and this hurts it not a little as a
market plum. To be at its best the crop should be thinned and should
be allowed to ripen fully on the trees. Lombard is now much used in
the canneries in New York and is also planted in home orchards
where only hardy plums stand the climate. In the markets it is usually
a low-priced plum.
Lombard was raised by Judge Platt, Whitesboro, New York, from
seed received from Amsterdam (References, 2). Another writer
(References, 10) reports that the trees were brought over from
Holland by some of the earliest Dutch settlers of Utica and
Whitesboro. The name was given to the plum about 1830 by the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society in honor of Daniel Lombard of
Springfield, who was the first to propagate the variety in that state. It
was previously well known in New York as Bleecker’s Scarlet
(References, 3), but was never formally described under that name
which must, therefore, though the older, be discarded. In 1856, it
was placed on the recommended list by the American Pomological
Society. Several varieties, as Communia, Tatge, Spanish King and
Odell, are very similar, if not identical to the Lombard and,
consequently, have caused much confusion in the nomenclature of
the variety. This similarity is probably explained by the fact that the
Lombard produces seedlings very nearly true to type. Professor J. L.
Budd, in a letter written in 1898 to this Station, says, “The fruit of
Communia is much like that of Lombard, but this can be said of a
hundred or more east European varieties.” Professor Budd had
traveled much in Europe and knew plums very well. His statement,
therefore, is entitled to credence and indicates, together with other
circumstances, that Lombard is one of an old group of plums the
varieties of which are very similar.
Tree of medium size, round-topped, very hardy, productive; branches

stocky, dark ash-gray, smooth, with few, small lenticels; branchlets thick,
medium to long, with long internodes, greenish-red changing to dull
brownish-red, marked with gray scarf-skin, glabrous early in the season,
becoming pubescent at maturity, with a few, inconspicuous, small
lenticels; leaf-buds of medium size and length, conical, appressed; leaf-
scars prominent.
Leaves long-oval or long-obovate, one and five-eighths inches wide,
three and one-half inches long, medium to thick; upper surface dark
green, thinly pubescent, with a grooved midrib; lower surface silvery-
green, lightly pubescent; apex acute, base somewhat tapering, margin
often doubly serrate, eglandular or with small, dark glands; petiole one-
half inch long, thick, tinged red, pubescent, glandless or with one or two
globose, yellowish-green glands usually at the base of the leaf.
Blooming season short; flowers appearing after the leaves, one inch
across, the buds creamy-yellow, changing to white on expanding; borne in
clusters on short, lateral spurs, singly or in pairs; pedicels nine-sixteenths
inch long, slender, nearly glabrous; calyx-tube greenish, campanulate,
pubescent only at the base; calyx-lobes obtuse, pubescent on both
surfaces, glandular-serrate, strongly reflexed; petals oval, entire or
occasionally notched at the apex, short-clawed; anthers yellow; filaments
five-sixteenths inch long; pistil pubescent only on the ovary, longer than
the stamens.
Fruit mid-season, ripening period long; one and three-quarters inches
by one and five-eighths inches in size, oval or roundish-oval, slightly
compressed, halves unequal; cavity narrow, abrupt, roundish; suture
usually a line; apex roundish or flattened; color light to dark purplish-red,
overspread with thick bloom; dots numerous, small, light russet; stem
slender, three-quarters inch long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin,
tender, separating readily; flesh yellowish, juicy, slightly fibrous, firm and
sweet, mild; inferior in quality; stone semi-free to free, one inch by five-
eighths inch in size, dark colored, oval, flattened, roughened; base and
apex acute; ventral suture slightly furrowed, acute; dorsal suture widely
and rather deeply grooved.
LONG FRUIT
Prunus triflora
1. Wild Bros. Cat. 27. 1892. 2. Cornell Sta. Bul. 62:26. 1894. 3. Am.
Pom. Soc. Cat. 26. 1897-99. 4. Waugh Plum Cult. 138. 1901.
Long Fruited 1.
Long Fruit is noted among the leading varieties of plums in The

Plums of New York chiefly to condemn it. On the grounds of this
Station and elsewhere in New York where tested, the trees are
unproductive, the crop drops badly and the fruits are small and poor
in quality. The variety was imported from Japan in 1885 by Luther
Burbank.
Tree large, vigorous, vasiform to spreading, unproductive; branches

roughened by numerous raised lenticels; branchlets slender, with short
internodes, glabrous, marked by scarf-skin; leaves oblanceolate,
somewhat peach-like, one inch wide, two and one-half inches long, thin;
margin finely crenate, with small, amber glands; petiole slender, tinged
with red, glandless or with from one to five small glands usually on the
stalk; blooming season early; flowers appearing after the leaves, seven-
eighths inch across; borne singly or in pairs; calyx-tube much swollen at
the base.
Fruit early; one inch by one and one-eighth inches in size, roundish-
oblate; cavity deep; color dark red over a yellow ground, covered with thin
bloom; stem slender, adhering poorly to the fruit; skin thick, somewhat
astringent; flesh greenish-yellow or pale yellow, tender, sweet, mild; poor
in quality; stone semi-clinging, small, one-half inch by three-eighths inch in
size, roundish-oval, turgid, blunt at the base, the apex terminating abruptly
in a small, sharp point, with smooth surfaces.
LUCOMBE
Prunus domestica
1. Pom. Mag. 3:99. 1830. 2. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 281. 1845. 3. Floy-
Lindley Guide Orch. Gard. 284, 383. 1846. 4. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 222.
1858. 5. Hogg Fruit Man. 711. 1884. 6. Guide Prat. 163, 358. 1895. 7.
Waugh Plum Cult. 117. 1901. 8. Budd-Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 320. 1903.
Incomparable de Lucombe 6. Lucombe’s Nonesuch 2, 3, 5. Lucombe’s
Nonsuch 1, 4. Lucombe’s Nonsuch 6, 7. Lucombe’s Unvergleichliche 6.
Lucombe’s Nonesuch 8. Luccombe’s Nonesuch 3. Nonsuch 7. Nonesuch
8.
This old plum has a reputation of high excellence and is well

entitled to it. Despite the fact that it must compete for favor with such
estimable plums as Reine Claude, Washington and Hand, belonging
to the same group with these, it is still much grown in England and is
well thought of for home use in America. Hardly in accordance with
its reputation, it was rejected by the American Pomological Society in
1858 for a place in its list of fruits. Lucombe originated as a seedling
about 1825 with a Mr. Lucombe of Lucombe, Prince and Company,
nurserymen, at Exeter, England, and was first described by Lindley
in 1830 in the Pomological Magazine.
Tree large, of medium vigor, upright-spreading, productive; branches

covered with numerous fruit-spurs; twigs very short, with heavy
pubescence; leaves one and three-quarters inches wide, three and one-
quarter inches long, dark green; margin finely serrate or crenate, with
small, dark glands; petiole pubescent, glandless or with one or two small
glands usually at the base of the leaf; blooming season intermediate,
short; flowers appearing after the leaves; petals with a yellowish tinge as
the buds unfold; borne on long naked spurs with tufts of leaves and
flowers at the ends, singly or in pairs.
Fruit mid-season, period of ripening long; one and three-eighths inches
by one and one-half inches in size, roundish-oblate or roundish-obovate,
greenish-yellow, becoming golden-yellow, indistinctly splashed and
streaked with green, covered with thin bloom; flesh golden-yellow, firm,
sweet, pleasant, mild; very good; stone free, three-quarters inch by five-
eighths inch in size, roundish, slightly necked, with pitted surfaces.
MAQUOKETA
MAQUOKETA
Prunus hortulana mineri
1. Mich. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 290. 1889. 2. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 55, 85. 1890.
3. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:40. 1892. 4. Mich. Sta. Bul. 118:53. 1895. 5. Ibid.
123:20. 1895. 6. Ia. Sta. Bul. 31:346. 1895. 7. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:46. 1897.
8. Budd-Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 298. 1903. 9. Ga. Sta. Bul. 67:277. 1904.
10. Ohio Sta. Bul. 162:256, 257. 1905.
Maquoketa is distinguished as one of the best of the native plums

for culinary purposes. Nearly all of the plums brought in from the wild
in America have so much astringency, most of it coming from the
skins, that they are impalatable to some. Now and then a variety is
nearly free from this disagreeable taste and Maquoketa is one of
these. The quality, as a dessert fruit, is very good for a native and
the fruits keep and ship well. In the South the plums are subject to
both curculio and brown-rot. The trees, like those of nearly all of the
Miner-like plums, are rather better formed and more adaptable to
orchard conditions than those of other species. After the Americana
and Nigra plums, Maquoketa is one of the hardiest of our native
varieties, growing even in Minnesota. The variety belongs in the
South and Middle West and there are few, if any, places in New York
where it is worth growing.
The origin of this plum is uncertain. It is reported in the references
given as a native found on the banks of the Maquoketa River in
eastern Iowa and also as a Miner seedling grown under cultivation. It
has been known to fruit-growers since about 1889.
Tree of medium size and vigor, spreading, low-topped, open, hardy,

variable in productiveness, susceptible to attacks of shot-hole fungus, the
trunk shaggy; branches slender, rough, zigzag, with few thorns, dark, dull
ash-gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets slender, long, with
internodes of medium length, green, changing to dull reddish-brown,
glabrous, with numerous, conspicuous, small, slightly raised lenticels; leaf-
buds very small, short, obtuse, appressed.
Leaves falling early, folded upward, broadly lanceolate, peach-like, one
and three-quarters inches wide, four and one-half inches long; upper
surface light green, changing to a dull red late in the fall, glossy, glabrous,
with a narrowly grooved midrib and veins; lower surface silvery-green,
thinly pubescent; apex taper-pointed, base rather abrupt; margin with
serrations in two series, with very small, black glands; petiole five-eighths
inch long, tinged with dull red, hairy, with from one to four globose, rather
large, dark brownish-yellow glands.
Blooming season late and of medium length; flowers appearing after the
leaves, one inch across, yellowish as the buds begin to open, changing to
white, with a disagreeable odor; borne in clusters on lateral spurs and
buds, varying from two to four flowers in a cluster; pedicels five-eighths
inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, narrowly
campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, slightly obtuse, nearly
glabrous on the outer surface, but pubescent within, serrate, with dark
colored glands and marginal hairs, reflexed; petals oval or ovate, with
long, tapering claws of medium width, sparingly hairy at the base; anthers
yellowish; filaments seven-sixteenths inch in length; pistil glabrous,
slender, shorter than the stamens.
Fruit late, ripening period short; below medium in size, ovate or
roundish-ovate, halves equal; cavity shallow, rather wide, rounded, flaring;
suture a distinct line; apex roundish or slightly pointed; colors some time
before fully ripe becoming dark carmine, covered with thin bloom; dots
numerous, small to medium, light brown, clustered about the apex; stem
rather slender, glabrous, parting readily; skin thick, tough, astringent,
semi-adherent, removing a thin layer of pulp when detached; flesh deep
yellow, juicy, coarse, fibrous, nearly melting next to the skin, becoming
firmer toward the center, sweet at first but astringent near the pit, with a
strong flavor; inferior in quality; stone adhering, of medium size, oval,
turgid, bluntly pointed at the base and apex, with slightly roughened
surfaces; ventral suture acute, ridged; dorsal suture a narrow, shallow
groove.
MARIANNA
MARIANNA
Prunus cerasifera × ?
1. Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 28. 1886. 2. Gard. Mon. 29:148. 1887. 3. Am.
Pom. Soc. Cat. 38. 1889. 4. Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 56. 1889. 5. Ill. Hort.
Soc. Rpt. 63. 1890. 6. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:66, fig., 71, 83, 86. 1892. 7.
Tex. Sta. Bul. 32:479, 480 fig. 1894. 8. Rev. Hort. 278. 1894. 9. Rural N. Y.
54:600. 1895. 10. Mich. Sta. Bul. 152:210. 1898. 11. Bailey Ev. Nat. Fruits
208, 213. 1898. 12. Vt. Sta. An. Rpt. 13:336-369. 1900. 13. Waugh Plum
Cult. 36, 232. 1901. 14. Ga. Sta. Bul. 67:277. 1904. 15. S. Dak. Sta. Bul.
93:67. 1905.
Marianna has little or no value for its fruit. It is illustrated and

discussed at length in The Plums of New York for two reasons. First,
because it has long been an enigma which has baffled both
horticulturists and botanists; second, because it is extensively used
as a stock upon which other kinds of plums are propagated. In 1884,
a plum of unknown species was introduced to the trade. Some said
the new variety belonged to Prunus cerasifera and others that it was
an offspring of some native species. The characters of the first
named species are so apparent in Marianna that all are now agreed
that this variety is from either a self or a cross-fertilized seed of
Prunus cerasifera; if the latter the other parent must have been some
native species, the particular variety possibly being Wild Goose, one
of the Munsoniana plums. Its behavior on these grounds, its
robustness and semi-sterility and its not fitting exactly into any
known species, mark it as a hybrid. A curious character peculiar to
this variety is that it grows very readily from cuttings and for this
reason it is a cheap stock for plums of all kinds and is used even for
peaches and apricots. Besides rooting readily, the Marianna does
not sprout and may be budded as late or later than the peach. It is
chiefly used in propagation in the South, but, for reasons stated in
the discussion of stocks in Chapter II, the Marianna is not now
employed by nurserymen as largely as formerly, though there are
still conditions in which it is the best of stocks. The tree is a
handsome ornamental at any season of the year and its broad,
spreading top makes it a good shade tree.
Marianna originated as a seedling in a mixed orchard belonging to
Charles G. Fitze, Marianna, Polk County, Texas; its parentage is
unknown. The originator considered it a seedling of Wild Goose, but,
it is probably an offspring of DeCaradeuc and, as stated in the
foregoing paragraph, undoubtedly a hybrid. In 1884, Charles N. Eley,
Smith Point, Texas, introduced the Marianna to fruit-growers; in 1889

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SURFACE SCIENCE AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY

SURFACE SCIENCE AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1.1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD

Copyright Ó 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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For information on all publications visit our website

Publisher: Oliver Walter

Printed and bound in the United States

C A Angelucci Y-H Chen

J-C Dong A R Head

VOLUME 1.1: EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

A Review on In Situ Sum Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy Studies

Imaging Chemical Reactions One Molecule at a Time 220

Scanning Ion Conductance MicroscopydMorphology and Mechanics 465

VOLUME 1.2: SURFACE SCIENCE UNDER ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Theoretical Treatment of Surfaces in Equilibrium with Gases 684

Figure 12 Catalysis for Energy Conversion

Figure 8 Substrate Mediated Interactions

Figure 11a On-surface Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons

Basic Concepts of SFGVS for Studies of Electrified Solid–Liquid Interfaces

Probing Solid–Liquid Interfaces Under Reaction Condition

This appears to be a most excellent plum closely resembling the

Tree of average size, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense-topped,

In France, where all of the Mirabelles are highly esteemed, the

Tree medium in size and vigor, very hardy, productive; branches

This variety was obtained by the United States Department of

Tree of medium size and vigor, upright-spreading, productive;

This is another variety having only a European reputation to

Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, hardy, very productive; branches

This variety is surpassed in the quality of its fruits by few plums.

Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, productive; trunk and branches

Lincoln has never been popular in New York, but in Pennsylvania

Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright-spreading, but somewhat

The Lombard plum is known by all. It is not as largely planted in

Tree of medium size, round-topped, very hardy, productive; branches

Long Fruit is noted among the leading varieties of plums in The

Tree large, vigorous, vasiform to spreading, unproductive; branches

This old plum has a reputation of high excellence and is well

Tree large, of medium vigor, upright-spreading, productive; branches

Prunus hortulana mineri

Maquoketa is distinguished as one of the best of the native plums

Tree of medium size and vigor, spreading, low-topped, open, hardy,

Marianna has little or no value for its fruit. It is illustrated and

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