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3-5 Step 5: Organize the Message 46 5-1c Decide Whether Positive Human Relations Are
Sacrificed 73
3-5a Outline to Benefit the Sender and the Audience 47
3-5b Sequence Ideas to Achieve Desired Goals 47 5-2 Electronic Mail Communication 73
5-2a Advantages of Email 73
4 Preparing Written Messages 50 5-2b Guidelines for Preparing Email Messages 74

5-2c Effective Use of Email 74
5-2d Instant and Text Messaging 77
4-1 Effective Sentences And Coherent Paragraphs 51
5-2e Text Messaging 77
4-1a Craft Powerful Sentences 51
5-2f Electronic Messages and the Law 79
4-1b Develop Coherent Paragraphs 53
4-2 Revise To Grab Your Audience’s Attention 56 5-3 Web Page Communication and Social Media 80
5-3a Writing for a Website 81
4-2a Cultivate a Frame of Mind for Effective Revising
and Proofreading 56 5-3b Social Media 81
4-2b Apply Visual Enhancements to Improve 5-4 Voice and Wireless Communication 83
Readability 57 5-4a Voice Mail Communication 83
4-2c Improve Readability 59 5-4b Cellphone Communication 84
4-3 Improve Readability 60 5-5 Technology and the Future 84
4-3a Eliminate Outdated Expressions 60
4-3b Curb Clichés 60
4-3c Eliminate Profanity 61
4-3d Use Simple, Informal Words 61
6 Delivering Good- and
Neutral-News Messages 86
4-3e Communicate Concisely 61
4-3f Project a Positive, Tactful Tone 63
6-1 Deductive Organizational Pattern 87
4-3g Use Euphemisms Cautiously 65 6-2 Good-News Messages 88
4-3h Avoid Condescending or Demeaning Expressions 65 6-2a Positive News 88
4-3i Use Connotative Tone Cautiously 66 6-2b Thank-You and Appreciation Messages 88
4-3j Use Specific Language Appropriately 66 6-3 Routine Claims 92
4-3k Use Bias-Free Language 67 6-3a Claim Message 92
4-4 Proofread and Revise 68 6-3b Favorable Response to a Claim Message 93
6-4 Routine Requests 94
Part 3 6-4a Requests for Information 94

6-4b Favorable Response to a Routine Request 97
Communication Through Voice 6-4c Positive Response to a Favor Request 97

6-4d Form Messages for Routine Responses 97
and Digital Messages 72 6-5 Routine Messages about Orders and Credit 99
6-5a Acknowledging Customer Orders 99
6-5b Providing Credit Information 100
6-5c Extending Credit 101
Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com
6-6 Procedural Messages 101
7 Delivering Bad-News
Messages 106
7-1 Choosing an Appropriate Channel and Organizational
5 Communicating
Pattern 107
7-1a Channel Choice and Commitment to Tact 107
7-1b Use of the Inductive Approach to Build Goodwill 107
Electronically 72
7-1c Exceptions to the Inductive Approach 109
5-1 Appropriate Use of Technology 73
7-2 Developing a Bad-News Message 109
5-1a Determine the Purpose of the Message 73
7-2a Writing the Introductory Paragraph 109
5-1b Determine Whether the Information Is Personal or
7-2b Presenting the Facts, Analysis, and Reasons 110
Confidential 73
Contents v
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
7-2c Writing the Bad-News Statement 110
7-2d Offering a Counterproposal or “Silver Lining”
9 Understanding the Report
Process and Research
Idea 112
7-2e Closing Positively 112 Methods 146
7-3 Refusing a Request 113 9-1 Characteristics of Reports 147
7-4 Denying a Claim 115 9-1a Types of Reports 147
9-1b Proposals 149
7-5 Denying Credit 118
9-2 Basis For Reports: The Problem-Solving Process 149
7-6 Delivering Constructive Criticism 119
9-2a Recognizing and Defining the Problem 149
7-7 Communicating Negative Organizational News 120 9-3 Selecting a Method of Gathering Information 151
7-7a Breaking Bad News 122 9-3a Secondary Research 151
7-7b Responding to Crisis Situations 122 9-3b Primary Research 154
8 Delivering
9-4 Collecting and Organizing the Data 155
9-4a Collecting Secondary Data 155
Persuasive 9-4b Collecting Data Through Surveys 157
Messages 128 9-4c Avoiding Data-Gathering Errors 159
8-1 Persuasion Strategies 129 9-4d Documenting Sources of Information 159
8-1a Plan Before You Write 129 9-5 Arriving at an Answer 162
8-1b Use the Inductive Approach 130 9-5a Analyzing the Data 162
8-1c Apply Sound Writing Principles 130 9-5b Interpreting the Data 162
8-2 Sales Messages 131
8-2a Gain Attention 132
8-2b Focus on a Central Selling Feature 132
10 Managing
Graphics 166
Data and Using
8-2c Use an Original Approach 133
10-1 Communicating Quantitative Information 167
8-2d Generate Interest by Introducing the Product,
Service, or Idea 133 10-2 Using Graphics 167
8-2e Create Desire by Providing Convincing 10-2a Effective and Ethical Use of Graphics 168
Evidence 134 10-3 Types of Graphic Aids 169
8-2f Motivate Action 137 10-3a Tables 170
8-3 Persuasive Requests 138 10-3b Bar Charts 171
8-3a Making a Claim 138 10-3c Line Charts 173
8-3b Asking a Favor 141 10-3d Pie Charts 173
8-3c Requesting Information 141 10-3e Maps 174
8-3d Persuading Within an Organization 142 10-3f Flowcharts 174
10-3g Other Graphics 174
Part 4 10-4 Including Graphics in Text 175

10-4a Positioning Graphics in Text 175
COMMUNICATION THROUGH 11 Reports

Organizing and Preparing
REPORTS AND BUSINESS and Proposals 178
PRESENTATIONS 146 11-1 Parts of a Formal Report 179
11-1a Preliminary Parts of a Report 179
11-1b Report Text 182
11-1c Report Addenda 182
11-2 Organization of Formal Reports 183
ra2studio/Shutterstock.com
11-2a Writing Convincing and Effective Reports 183

11-3 Choosing a Writing Style for Formal Reports 186
11-3a Enhancing Credibility 187
11-4 Short Reports 187
11-4a Memorandum, Email, and Letter Reports 188
11-4b Form Reports 188
vi Contents
11-5 Proposals 193 13-2 Planning a Targeted Résumé 230
11-5a Proposal Structure 194 13-2a Standard Parts of a Résumé 230
11-5b Proposal Preparation 196 13-2b Types of Résumés 235
13-3 Preparing Résumés for Print and Electronic
12 Business
Designing and Delivering
Presentations 200
Delivery 237
13-3a Preparing a Print (Designed) Résumé 237
13-3b Preparing Electronic Résumé Submissions 238
12-1 Planning an Effective Business Presentation 201 13-4 Supplementing a Résumé 243
12-1a Identify Your Purpose and Consider the Channel 201 13-4a Professional Portfolios 245
12-1b Know Your Audience and Consider the Context 202 13-4b Employment Videos 245
12-2 Organizing the Content 203 13-5 Composing Application Messages 247
12-2a Introduction 203 13-5a Persuasive Organization 247
12-2b Body 204 13-5b General Writing Guidelines 251
12-2c Closing 206 13-5c Finishing Touches 252
14 Interviewing
12-3 Designing Compelling Presentation Visuals 206
12-3a Design of Presentation Visuals 206
12-3b Design Tips for Audience Handouts and Notes
for a Job and
Pages 208 Preparing Employment
12-4 Refining Your Delivery 209 Messages 256
12-4a Delivery Method 209 14-1 Understanding Types of Employment Interviews 257
12-4b Vocal Qualities 210 14-1a Structured Interviews 257
12-4c Delivery Style 212 14-1b Unstructured Interviews 257
12-5 Adapting to Alternate Delivery Situations 215 14-1c Stress Interviews 257
12-5a Culturally Diverse Audiences 215 14-1d Series Interviews 258
12-5b Team Presentations 216 14-1e Phone Interviews 258
12-5c Distance Presentations 218 14-1f Virtual Interviews 258
12-5d Crisis Communication 220 14-2 Preparing for an Interview 259
14-2a Research the Company 259
Part 5 14-2b Study Yourself 260

14-2c Plan Your Appearance 260
Communication for
14-2d Plan Your Time and Materials 261
14-2e Practice 261
Employment 224 14-3 Conducting a Successful Interview 261

14-3a The Opening Formalities 261
14-3b The Information Exchange 262
14-3c The Closing 266
14-3d Additional Considerations for Phone
Production Perig/Shutterstock.com
Interviews 267
14-4 Preparing Other Employment Messages 267
14-4a Application Forms 267
14-4b Follow-Up Messages 267
14-4c Thank-You Messages 268
14-4d Job-Acceptance Messages 269
14-4e Job-Refusal Messages 270
14-4f Resignation Messages 271
13 Preparing
14-4g Recommendation Requests 271
Résumés and
Application Messages 224
Grammar and Usage Appendix 273
13-1 Preparing for the Job Search 225
13-1a Gathering Essential Information 225
References 288
13-1b Identifying Potential Career Opportunities 225 Index 293
Contents vii
part 1 Communication Foundations
Establishing a Framework for

Business Communication
Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com
L e a r n i n g O b j ec t i v e s
After studying this chapter, you will be able to… 1-4 Explain how legal and ethical
constraints, diversity challenges,
1-1 Define communication and describe
changing technology, and team After finishing
the value of communication in
environment act as contextual forces
business.
that influence the process of business
this chapter, go to
1-2 Explain the communication process communication.
PAGE 19 for
model and the ultimate objective of
the communication process. STUDY TOOLS.
1-3 Discuss how information flows in an
organization.
1-1 Value of Communication •• coordinating the work of various employees,
departments, and other work groups;
•• evaluating and counseling employees;
We communicate to satisfy needs in both our work and
•• promoting the company’s products, services,
private lives. Each of us wants to be heard, appreci-
and image using a variety of channels in various
ated, and wanted. We also want to accomplish tasks and contexts.
achieve goals. Generally people communicate for three
basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
However, in the professional workplace some of these
purposes have greater importance. Informing and per-
suading are common purposes of communication in the
1-2 The Communication Process
workplace; entertainment is less so. In addition, estab-
Effective business communication is essential to success
lishing and maintaining our credibility and positive rela-
in today’s work environments. Recent surveys of execu-
tionships with others are also important purposes in an
tives demonstrate that abilities in writing and speaking
organizational setting.
are major determinants of career success in
What is communication? Communica-
many fields.1 Although essential to personal
tion is the process of exchanging and inter- Abilities in writing and professional success, effective busi-
preting information and meaning between
or among individuals through a system of
and speaking are ness communication does not occur auto-
symbols, signs, and behavior. In ideal situ- major determinants matically. Your own experiences likely have
taught you that a message is not interpreted
ations, the goal is to reach mutual under- of career success. correctly just because you transmitted it.
standing. Studies indicate that managers
An effective communicator anticipates pos-
typically spend 60% to 80% of their time
sible breakdowns in the communication
involved in communication. In your career activities, you
process—the unlimited ways the message can be mis-
will communicate in a wide variety of ways, including
understood. This mind-set provides the concentration to
•• listening and contributing to decision making and plan and design the initial message effectively and to be
problem solving while attending meetings; prepared to intervene at the appropriate time to ensure
•• writing various types of messages to inform and that the message received is on target.
persuade others about your ideas and the services Consider the transactional process model of com-
and products your organization provides; munication presented in Figure 1.1. These seemingly
•• presenting information and persuasive messages simple steps actually represent a very complex process.
to large and small groups in face-to-face and virtual A number of communication process models exist.
environments; The transactional model is useful, though, because it
•• explaining and clarifying management procedures illustrates the complexity of the communication pro-
and work assignments; cess and reveals some of the challenges to effective
Figure 1.1 The Transactional Process Model of Communication
Sender Message Receiver

Cengage Learning
Feedback
CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 3
preoccupied with other matters and developing a
response, rather than listening, create barriers to
understanding.
Because of these barriers and because both parties to a

communication encounter may be sending information
both orally and nonverbally simultaneously, it can be very
Paul Vasarhelyi/Shutterstock.com
challenging to ensure that the information is received as
intended. For this reason, it is particularly important to
check for understanding rather than assume that it has
taken place, particularly when communicating important
messages to audiences that are less familiar to us.
You can surely compile a list of other barriers that
Interruptions or distractions can create barriers to understanding. affect your ability to communicate with friends, instruc-
tors, coworkers, supervisors, and others. By being
aware of them, you can concentrate on removing these
interferences.
communication that might emerge in a communication
encounter.
According to the transactional process model, two
parties involved in a communication encounter are 1-3 Communicating within
potentially both communicating at the same time, par-
ticularly if the encounter is face-to-face. That’s because
Organizations
in face-to-face communication situations, parties to the
encounter are continuously interpreting each other’s To be successful, organizations must create an envi-
nonverbal signals. Some scholars say more than 90% ronment that energizes and encourages employees to
of the information in a face-to-face encounter may be accomplish tasks by promoting genuine openness and
sent nonverbally. But even in a cellphone conversation, effective communication.
silences and tone of voice may be interpreted in various Organizational communication is communication
ways. Even a written message may provide information that occurs with an organizational context. Regardless of
about the writer that he or she did not intend to convey. your career or level within an organization, your ability
In an ideal communication situation, one party to communicate will affect not only the success of the
would be able to encode his or her message in such a organization but also your personal success and advance-
way that the receiving party would understand it exactly ment within that organization.
as intended. However, this goal can be challenging for a
variety of reasons, or what are called interferences or Communication Flow in
1-3a
barriers to effective communication. For example, Organizations
•• differences in educa-
Communication occurs in a variety of ways within an
tional level, experience,
interferences also called organization. Some communication flows are planned
barriers; numerous factors that
culture, and other char-
acteristics of the sender and structured; others are not. Some communication
hinder the communication
process and the receiver increase flows can be formally depicted, whereas some defy
the complexity of encod- description.
organizational
ing and decoding a
communication the Formal and Informal Communication
movement of information within message;
the company structure
Networks
•• physical interferences
in the channel, includ- Communication within an organization involves both
formal communication
network a network of ing a noisy environ- formal and informal networks.
communication flow typified by ment, interruptions, •• Formal communication network. This channel
the formal organization chart; and uncomfortable sur- is typified by the formal organization chart, which
dictated by the technical, political, roundings, can occur; is created by management to define individual
and economic environment of the
organization •• mental distrac- and group relationships and to specify lines of
tions, such as being responsibility. Essentially, the formal system is
4 PART ONE: Communication Foundations
dictated by the managerial, technical, cultural,
and structural environment of the organization.
Within this system, people are required to behave
and to communicate in certain ways simply to get
work done.
•• Informal communication network. This net-
work, which is commonly called “the grapevine,”
continuously develops as people interact within
Master-L/Shutterstock.com
the formal system to accommodate their social and
psychological needs. Because the informal network
undergoes continual changes and does not paral-
lel the organizational chart, it cannot be depicted
accurately by any graphic means.
The Formal Communication Network When employ- The office grapevine carries informal messages.
ees rely almost entirely on the formal communica-
tion system as a guide to behavior, the system might
be identified as a bureaucracy. Procedures manuals, •• As a communication network, the grapevine has a
job descriptions, organization charts, and other written reputation for being speedy but inaccurate. In the
materials dictate the required behavior. Communication absence of alarms, the grapevine might be the most
channels are followed strictly, and red tape is abundant. effective way to let occupants know that the build-
Procedures are generally followed exactly; terms such as ing is on fire. It certainly beats sending an email.
rules and policies serve as sufficient reasons for actions. •• Although the grapevine often is thought of as a
Even the most formal organizations, however, cannot channel for inaccurate communication, in reality
function long before an informal communication system it is no more or less accurate than other channels.
emerges. As people operate within the organized system, Even formal communication can become inaccurate
they interact on a person-to-person basis and create an and filtered as it passes from level to level in the
environment conducive to meeting their personal emo- organizational hierarchy.
tions, prejudices, likes, and dislikes. •• The inaccuracy of the grapevine has more to do with
In a workplace, employees are generally expected the message input than with the output. For exam-
to satisfy a formal system of arriving at work on time, ple, the grapevine is noted as a carrier of rumors,
fulfilling their job duties, working well with others, and primarily because it carries informal messages. If
addressing their supervisor’s requests. However, some the input is a rumor, and nothing more, the output
obviously will be inaccurate. But the output might
employees may not openly accept these expectations and
be an accurate description of the original rumor.
may arrive at work late and spend an undue amount of
time “around the water cooler.” If these informal prac- •• In a business office, news about promotions, per-
tices become more widely spread, the purposes of the sonnel changes, company policy changes, and
annual salary adjustments often is communicated
group may move from a focus on completing tasks to that
through the grapevine long before being con-
of socializing with others or speculating about organiza-
veyed through formal channels. The process works
tional events or activities. Obviously, the informal system similarly in colleges, where information about
benefits people because it meets their needs, but it also instructors typically is not officially published but is
may affect the overall communication of the group in known by students, often through word-of-mouth.
important ways. How best to prepare for examinations, instructor
attitudes on attendance and homework, and even
The Informal Communication Network As people talk faculty personnel changes are messages that travel
casually during breaks, text one another, or chat online, over the grapevine.
the focus usually shifts from topic to topic. One of the
•• A misconception informal communication
usual topics is work—job, company, supervisor, fellow about the grapevine network a network of
employees. Even though the formal system includes is that the message communication flow that
definite communication channels, the grapevine tends to passes from person to continuously develops as people
develop and operate within all organizations. Consider interact within the formal system
person until it finally
to accommodate their social and
these points related to the accuracy and value of grape- reaches a person who psychological needs
vine communication: can’t pass it on—the
end of the line. Actually, the grapevine works as a in communication discussions, they deserve clarification.
network channel. Typically, one person tells two or Although the concept of flow seems simple, direction has
three others, who each tell two or three others, who meaning for those participating in the organizational com-
each tell two or three others, and so on. Thus, the munication process.
message might spread to a huge number of people
in a short time, especially now that the grapevine Downward Communication The communication that
includes digital forms of communication, such as flows from supervisor to employee, from policy makers to
social networking sites and Twitter. operating personnel, or from top to bottom on the orga-
•• The grapevine has no single, consistent source. nization chart is called downward communication. A
Messages might originate anywhere and follow simple policy statement from the top of the organization
various routes. might grow into a formal plan for operation at lower lev-
els. Teaching people how to perform their specific tasks
Due at least in part to widespread downsizing and corpo- is an element of downward communication. Another
rate scandals during the last few years, employees in many element is orientation to a company’s rules, practices,
organizations are demanding that they be better informed. procedures, history, and goals. Employees learn about
Some companies have implemented new formal ways, the quality of their job performance through downward
such as newsletters and intranets, as well as informal communication.
ways, including blogs and Twitter, for sharing informa- Downward communication normally involves both
tion with their internal constituents. Company openness written and spoken methods and makes use of the fol-
with employees about management decisions and finan- lowing assumptions:
cial issues means conveying more information through
the formal system rather than risking its miscommunica-
tion through informal channels. Online eyewear retailer Downward Communication
Warby Parker, for example, grew from a small start-up
▸ People at high levels in the organization usually
to a 300-employee company in just three years. In order
have greater knowledge of the organization’s
to keep the lines of communication open, the company
mission and goals than do people at lower levels.
has an “Ask Anything” segment of its weekly meetings,
in which employees can ask anything. The Warby Parker ▸ Both spoken and written messages tend to
become larger as they move downward through
Wiki enables employees to add notes from meetings,
organizational levels. This expansion results
key lessons from the past or present, or team updates.
from attempts to prevent distortion and is more
The transparent company culture extends to each of its
noticeable in written messages.
employees submitting weekly “happiness ratings” (on a
▸ Spoken messages are subject to greater changes
0 to 10 scale) and participating in quarterly, one-on-one,
in meaning than are written messages.
“360 reviews” in which brutal honesty is encouraged.2
An informal communication network will emerge
from even the most carefully designed formal system.
Managers who ignore this fact are attempting to manage When a supervisor sends a message to a subordinate
blindfolded. Instead of denying or condemning the grape- employee who then asks a question or nods in agreement,
vine, the effective manager will learn to use the informal the employee has given signs of feedback. Feedback
communication network. The grapevine, for instance, can can flow both downward and upward in organizational
be useful in counteracting rumors and false information. communication through traditional as well as informal
channels.
downward Directions of Upward Communication The information that flows
communication a type Communication
of communication that flows from the front lines of an organization to the top is
Flow upward communication. When management requests
from supervisor to employee,
from policy makers to operating The direction in which information from lower organizational levels, the result-
personnel, or from top to bottom communication flows in an ing information becomes feedback to that request.
on the organization chart
organization can be down- Employees talk to supervisors about themselves, their
upward communication ward, upward, or horizon- fellow employees, their work and methods of doing it,
a type of communication that is tal, as shown in Figure customer needs and perceptions, and their own percep-
generally a response to requests
from supervisors 1-2. Because these three tions of the organization. These comments are com-
terms are used frequently monly feedback to the downward flow transmitted in
Figure 1.2 Flow of Information within an Organization
UPWARD COMMUNICATION DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Progress reports (spoken and written) Policies and procedures Ideas/suggestions

• Results/accomplishments Organizational goals and strategies Feelings/attitudes
• Problems/clarifications Work assignments
Employee development
• Job role/responsibility
• Performance appraisal
(formal and informal)
• Constructive criticism
• Deserved praise and recognition
HORIZONTAL OR
LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Cengage Learning
Coordination of interrelated activities

Problem-solving efforts
both spoken and written forms by group meetings,

Upward Communication emails, procedures or operations manuals, company
news releases, the company intranet, and the grapevine.
▸ Upward communication is primarily feedback to
Although necessary and valuable, upward communi-
requests and actions of supervisors.
cation involves risks. The following factors are important
▸ Upward communication can be misleading to consider when upward communication is involved:
because lower-level employees often tell their When effectively used, upward communication
superiors what they think their superiors want to
keeps management informed about the feelings of
hear. Therefore, their messages might contradict
lower-level employees, taps the expertise of employees,
their true observations and perceptions.
helps management identify both difficult and poten-
▸ Upward communication frequently involves risk tially promotable employees, and paves the way for even
to an employee and is dependent on trust in the
more effective downward communication. Upward com-
supervisor.
munication is key to keeping employees engaged and
▸ Employees will reject superficial attempts by informed and is especially critical in tapping the power
management to obtain feedback. of younger employees who expect to collaborate rather
than to be supervised.3
Horizontal Communication Horizontal, or lateral, Many companies realize that the traditional hier-
communication describes interactions between orga- archy organized around functional units is inadequate
nizational units on the same hierarchical level. These for competing in increasingly competitive global mar-
interactions reveal one of the major shortcomings of kets. They value work teams that integrate work-flow
organizational charts: they do not recognize the role of processes rather than specialists in a single function or
horizontal communication when they depict authority product. Such work teams can break down communica-
relationships by placing one box higher than another and tion barriers between isolated functional departments,
define role functions by placing titles in those boxes. Yet and communication patterns take on varying forms to
management should realize that horizontal communica- accommodate team activities.
tion is the primary means of achieving coordination in
a functional organizational
Levels of Communication
1-3b
horizontal (or lateral) structure. Units coordi-
communication nate their activities to Communication can involve sending messages to both large
interactions between accomplish task goals just and small audiences. Internal messages are intended for
organizational units on the same
as adjacent workers in a recipients within the organization. External messages
hierarchical level
production line coordi- are directed to recipients outside the organization. When
internal messages nate their activities. So for considering the intended audience, communication can
messages intended for recipients
within the organization
horizontal communication be described as taking place on five levels: intrapersonal,
to be maximally effective, interpersonal, group, organizational, and public. Figure 1.3
external messages the people in any system depicts the five audience levels. An effective communicator
messages directed to recipients
outside the organization or organization should be has a clearly defined purpose for each message and selected
available to one another. strategies for targeting his or her intended audience.
Figure 1.3 Levels of Communication
COMMUNICATION LEVELS EXAMPLES

INTRAPERSONAL
• Communication within oneself Individual considers how others respond to his or her
• Not considered by some to be true communication as verbal and/or nonverbal communication.
it does not involve a separate sender and receiver
INTERPERSONAL
• Communication between two people Supervisor and subordinate, two coworkers
• Task goal to accomplish work confronting them
• Maintenance goal to feel better about themselves
and each other because of their interaction
GROUP
• Communication among more than two people Work group, project team, department meeting
• Goal of achieving greater output than individual
efforts could produce
ORGANIZATIONAL
• Groups combined in such a way that large tasks may Company, organization
be accomplished
• Goal of providing adequate structure for groups to
achieve their purposes
PUBLIC
• The organization reaching out to its public to achieve Media advertisement, website communication, annual
Cengage Learning
its goals report

• Goal of reaching many with the same message
1-4 Contextual Forces
Influencing Business
Communication
Fotoluminate LLC/Shutterstock.com
All communication occurs within a context, which is the
situation or setting. Context can influence the content,
the quality, and the effectiveness of a communication
event. The effective communicator will recognize the
importance of context, identify the contextual elements
that will influence communication, and adjust messages
in response. Four important contextual forces influence
the communication process today and help determine
right and wrong behavior, provides further boundaries
and define the nature of the communication that should
for professional activity.
occur, as shown in Figure 1.4. These forces are legal and
The press is full of examples of unethical conduct in
ethical constraints, diversity challenges, changing tech-
business and political communities, but unethical behav-
nology, and team environment.
ior is not relegated to the papers—it has far-reaching
consequences. Those affected by decisions, the stake-
1-4a Legal and Ethical Constraints holders, can include people inside and outside the
Legal and ethical constraints act as contextual or envi- organization. Employees and stockholders are obvious
ronmental forces on communication because they set losers when a company fails. Competitors in the same
boundaries in which communication rightfully occurs. industry also suffer because their strategies are based
International, federal, state, and local laws affect the on what they perceive about their competition. Beyond
way that various business activities are conducted. For that, financial markets as a whole suffer due to erosion of
instance, laws specify that certain information must be public confidence.
stated in messages that reply to credit applications and Business leaders, government officials, and citizens
those dealing with the collection of outstanding debts. frequently express concern about the apparent erosion
Furthermore, one’s own ethical standards will often of ethical values in society.
influence what a person is willing to say in a message. Even for those who want
context a situation or setting in
For example, a system of ethics built on honesty might to do the right thing, mat- which communication occurs
require that the message provide full disclosure rather ters of ethics are seldom
than a shrouding of the truth. Legal responsibilities, then, clear-cut decisions of right stakeholders people inside
and outside the organization who
are the starting point for appropriate business communi- versus wrong, and they are affected by decisions
cation. One’s ethical belief system, or personal sense of often contain ambiguous
Figure 1.4 Factors Influencing Business Communication
LEGAL AND ETHICAL CHANGING DIVERSITY TEAM

CONSTRAINTS TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ENVIRONMENT
• International Laws • Accuracy and Security • Cultural Differences • Trust
• Domestic Laws Issues • Language Barriers • Team Roles
• Codes of Ethics • Telecommunications • Gender Issues • Shared Goals and
• Stakeholder Interests • Software Applications • Education Levels Expectations
• Ethical Frameworks • “High-Touch” Issues • Age Factors • Synergy
Cengage Learning
• Personal Values • Telecommuting • Nonverbal Differences • Group Reward

• Databases • Distributed Leadership
elements. In addition, the pressure appears to be felt an employee to do what seems to be in the best
most strongly by lower-level managers, often recent interest of the company, even if the act is illegal or
business school graduates who are the least experienced unethical.
at doing their jobs. •• Obsession with personal advancement. Employees
who wish to outperform their peers or are working
The Foundation for Legal and Ethical for the next promotion might feel that they cannot
Behavior afford to fail. They might do whatever it takes to
Although ethics is a common point of discussion, many achieve the objectives assigned to them.
find defining ethics challenging. Most people immedi- •• Expectation of not getting caught. Thinking that the
ately associate ethics with standards and rules of con- end justifies the means, employees often believe
duct, morals, right and wrong, values, and honesty. Dr. illegal or unethical activity will never be discovered.
Albert Schweitzer defined ethics as “the name we give Unfortunately, a great deal of improper behavior
escapes detection in the business world. Believing
to our concern for good behavior. We feel an obligation
no one will ever find out, employees are tempted to
to consider not only our own personal well-being, but
lie, steal, and perform other illegal acts.
also that of others and of human society as a whole.”4 In
other words, ethics refers to the principles of right and •• Unethical tone set by top management. If top man-
agers are not perceived as highly ethical, lower-level
wrong that guide you in making decisions that consider
managers might be less ethical as a result. Employ-
the impact of your actions on others as well as yourself.
ees have little incentive to act legally and ethically
Although the recorded accounts of legal and ethical
if their superiors do not set an example and encour-
misconduct would seem to indicate that businesses are age and reward such behavior. The saying “The
dishonest and unscrupulous, keep in mind that millions of speed of the leader is the speed of the pack” illus-
business transactions are made daily on the basis of hon- trates the importance of leading by example.
esty and concern for others. Why should a business make
•• Uncertainty about whether an action is wrong. Many
ethical decisions? What difference will it make? Johan times, company personnel are placed in situations
Karlstrom, global chief executive officer of construction in which the line between right and wrong is not
giant Skanska, gave a powerful reply to these questions: clearly defined. When caught in this gray area, the
perplexed employee asks, “How far is too far?”
When you understand that profits and a strong
values base go together then you have a com- •• Unwillingness to take a stand for what is right.
pany that employees are so proud of. We want Often employees know what is right or wrong but
our team to feel that they’re doing something are not willing to take the risk of challenging a
wrong action. They might lack the confidence or
that has a higher meaning, that they feel like
skill needed to confront others with sensitive legal
“I’m part of something bigger, part of a bigger
or ethical issues. They might remain silent and then
puzzle driving society in a positive direction.”5 justify their unwillingness to act.
Causes of Illegal and Unethical Framework for Analyzing Ethical

Behavior Dilemmas
Understanding the major causes of illegal and unethical Determining whether an action is ethical can be difficult.
behavior in the workplace will help you become sensi- Learning to analyze a dilemma from both legal and ethi-
tive to signals of escalating pressure to compromise your cal perspectives will help you find a solution that con-
values. Unethical corporate behavior can have a number forms to your own personal values. Figure 1.5 shows the
of causes: four conclusions you might reach when considering the
•• Excessive emphasis on profits. Business manag- advisability of a particular behavior.
ers are often judged and paid on their ability to
increase business profits. This emphasis on profits Dimension 1: Behavior that is illegal and unethical
might send a message When considering some actions, you will reach the con-
ethics the principles of right that the end justifies the clusion that they are both illegal and unethical. The law
and wrong that guide one in means. specifically outlines the “black” area—those alternatives
making decisions that consider
•• Misplaced corporate that are clearly wrong—and your employer will expect you
the impact of one’s actions on to become an expert in the laws that affect your particular
loyalty. A misplaced
others as well as on the decision
maker sense of corporate area. When you encounter an unfamiliar area, you must
loyalty might cause investigate any possible legal implications. Obviously,
Figure 1.5 Four Dimensions of Business Behavior
Cengage Learning
obeying the law is in the best interest of all concerned: Dimension 2: Behavior that is illegal yet ethical
you as an individual, your company, and society. Contrac- Occasionally, a businessperson will decide that even
tual agreements between two parties also offer guidance though a specific action is illegal, there is a justifiable
for legal decision making. Frequently, your own individual reason to break the law. A case in point is a law passed in
sense of right and wrong will also confirm that the illegal Vermont that makes it illegal for a pharmaceutical com-
action is wrong for you personally. In such situations, deci- pany to give any gift valued at more than $25 to doctors
sions about appropriate behavior are obvious. or their personnel.6 Those supporting the law charge
Ethical Dilemmas …
Identifying ethical issues in typical workplace situations can be difficult, and
coworkers and superiors might apply pressure for seemingly logical reasons.
To illustrate, examine each of the following workplace situations for a pos-
sible ethical dilemma:
Stokkete/Shutterstock.com
▸ In order to achieve profit expectations, a stockbroker hides the financial
risk of an investment product from potential clients.
▸ To prevent an adverse effect on stock prices, corporate officers deliber-
ately withhold information concerning a possible corporate takeover.
▸ To protect the organization, management decides not to publicize a
design flaw in an automobile that could lead to possible injury and even
death to consumers, because the announcement might result in legal action.
▸ A supervisor takes advantage of his position and threatens an employee with dismissal if she does not acquiesce
to his inappropriate requests and language use.
▸ Angry because of an unfavorable performance appraisal of a colleague, an employee leaks confidential informa-
tion to the colleague that creates distrust among others in the department and results in a lawsuit.
Your fundamental morals and values provide the foundation for making ethical decisions. However, as the previous
examples imply, even seemingly minor concessions in day-to-day decisions can gradually weaken an individual’s
ethical foundation.
that the giving of freebies drives up medical costs by 4. Does the action pass the light-of-day test? That is, if
encouraging doctors to prescribe new, more expensive your action appeared on television or others learned
brand-name drugs. The law’s opponents contend that about it, would you be proud?
the gifts do not influence doctors and are merely educa- 5. Does the action pass the Golden Rule test? That is,
tional tools for new products. Although a pharmaceuti- would you want the same to happen to you?
cal firm and its employees might see nothing wrong with
6. Does the action pass the ventilation test? Ask the opin-
providing gifts worth in excess of $25, they would be well
ion of a wise friend with no investment in the outcome.
advised to consider the penalty of $10,000 per violation Does this friend believe the action is ethical?
before acting on their personal ethics. A better course of
action would be to act within the law, possibly while lob-
bying for a change in the law. 1-4b Diversity Challenges
Dimension 3: Behavior that is legal yet unethical If Diversity in the workplace is another force influencing
you determine that a behavior is legal and complies with communication. Differences between the sender and
relevant contractual agreements and company policy, the receiver in areas such as culture, age, gender, and
your next step is to consult your company’s or profes- education require sensitivity on the part of both parties
sion’s code of ethics. This written document summa- so that the intended message is the one that is received.
rizes the company’s or profession’s standards of ethical Understanding how to communicate effectively
conduct. Some companies refer to this document as a with people from other cultures has become more
credo. If the behavior does not violate the code of eth- integral to the work environment as many US compa-
ics, then put it to the test of your own personal integ- nies are increasingly conducting business with inter-
rity. You may at times reject a legal action because it national companies or becoming multinational. Even
does not “feel right.” Most Americans were appalled when a person can communicate, it may differ in other
to learn that the marketing of sub-prime loans pack- countries. For example, France’s administrative court
aged as reputable securities has been blamed for caus- recently ruled that tech workers’ right to health and rest
ing the “Great Recession.” Although they might have was not sufficiently protected by existing laws. What
acted legally, their profiting at the expense of company this means is that a tech worker in France can choose
employees, stockholders, and the public hardly seemed to not check his work email during his legally mandated
ethical. You might be faced with situations in which you rest period and not face retribution.8 For Americans,
reject a behavior that is legal because you would not be who may dare not even think of “unplugging,” cultural
proud to have your family and community know that you differences might require adjustments to communica-
engaged in it. tion expectations.
Dimension 4: Behavior that is both legal and ethical When addressing cultural differences, successful
Decisions in this dimension are easy to make. Such actions communication must often span barriers of language and
comply with the law, company policies, and your profes- differing worldviews resulting from societal and religious
sional and personal codes of ethics. beliefs and practices. When a person fails to consider
The Pagano Model offers a straightforward method these factors, communication suffers, and the result is
for determining whether a proposed often embarrassing and poten-
action is advisable.7 For this sys- tially costly. To be success-
tem to work, you must answer the ful on an international scale,
following six questions managers need to be aware of
©Philip Date/Shutterstock.com
honestly: cultural differences and be

1. Is the proposed action willing to work to ensure
legal? (This is the core that effective commu-
starting point.) nication occurs despite
2. What are the benefits these barriers.
and costs to the peo- Cultural blunders
ple involved? aren’t limited to inter-
3. Would you want this national communication
action to be a universal situations, however. In
standard, appropriate April 2014, the magazine
for everyone? Marie Claire tweeted a
photo of American television personality Kendall Jen- experiences within their own society. Culture could be
ner wearing cornrows with the message “Kendall Jenner described as “the way of life” of a people and includes a
takes bold braids to a new epic level.” Twitter followers vast array of behaviors and beliefs. These patterns affect
interpreted the message to insinuate that Jenner had how people perceive the world, what they value, and
invented the braided hairstyle, and a flurry of responses how they act. Differing patterns can also create barriers
ensued reminding the magazine that African Americans to communication.
and others have worn the hairstyle for centuries.9 This
example shows how much “homework” is involved in Barriers to Intercultural
maintaining good relations with customers or clients Communication
from other cultures, and the danger of instantaneous Because cultures give different definitions of such basics
messaging. The potential barrier of language is obvious of interaction as values and norms, people raised in two
in international situations; however, successful commu- different cultures can clash in various ways.
nicators know that much more is involved when inter- •• Ethnocentrism. Problems occur between people of
acting across cultures, genders, ages, abilities, and other different cultures primarily because people tend to
differences, regardless of national boundaries. assume that their own cultural norms are the right
way to do things. They wrongly believe that the
Communication Opportunities and specific patterns of behavior desired in their own
Challenges in Diversity cultures are universally valued. This belief, known as
ethnocentrism, is certainly natural; but learning
As world markets continue to expand, US employees at about other cultures and developing sensitivity will
home and abroad will be doing business with more peo- help minimize ethnocentric reactions when dealing
ple from other countries. You might find yourself working with other cultures.
abroad for a large American company, an international
•• Stereotypes. We often form a mental picture of the
company with a plant in the United States, or a company main characteristics of another group, creating pre-
with an ethnically diverse workforce. Regardless of the formed ideas of what people in this group are like.
workplace, your diversity skills—that is, your ability to These pictures, called stereotypes, influence the
communicate effectively with both men and women of way we interact with members of the other group.
all ages, cultures, and minority groups—will affect your When we observe a behavior that conforms to the
success in today’s culturally diverse global economy. stereotype, the validity of the preconceived notion
Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings is reinforced. We often view the other person as a
and miscommunications, but it also poses opportunities representative of a class of people rather than as an
to improve both workers and organizations. Employees individual. People of all cultures have stereotypes
about other cultural groups they have encountered.
must be prepared to communicate effectively with work-
These stereotypes can interfere with communica-
ers of different nationalities, genders, races, ages, abili-
tion when people interact on the basis of the imag-
ties, and other characteristics.
ined representative and not the real individual.
Being a part of a diverse workforce will require you
•• Interpretation of time. The study of how a culture
to communicate with everyone and to support colleagues
perceives time and
in reaching their fullest potential and contributing to the
its use is called
company’s goals. To lessen miscommunication, which
chronemics. In the diversity skills the ability
inevitably occurs, increasing numbers of companies have United States, we to communicate effectively with
undertaken diversity initiatives and are providing diver- have a saying that both men and women of all ages,
sity training seminars to help workers understand and “time is money.” cultures, and minority groups
appreciate gender and age differences and the cultures Canadians, like some ethnocentrism the assumption
of coworkers. northern Europe- that one’s own cultural norms are
ans who are also the right way to do things
Culture and Communication concerned about
stereotypes mental pictures
punctuality, make that one group forms of the main
The way messages are decoded and encoded is not just a
appointments, keep characteristics of another group,
function of the experiences, beliefs, and assumptions of them, and complete creating preformed ideas of what
the person sending or receiving those messages but also them, and waste no people in this group are like
is shaped by the society in which he or she lives. time in the process. In
chronemics the study of how a
People learn patterns of behavior from their cul- some other cultures, culture perceives time and its use
ture. The culture of a people is the product of their living time is the cheapest
cultural meanings—the familiar North Ameri-
can symbol for “okay” means zero in France,
money in Japan, and an expression of vulgar-
ity in Brazil. Similarly, eye contact, posture,
and facial expressions carry different mean-
ings throughout the world.
•• Translation limitations. Words in one lan-
guage do not always have an equivalent
meaning in other languages, and the concepts
the words describe are often different as well.
Translators can be helpful, but keep in mind
that a translator is working with a second lan-
David Ionut/Shutterstock.com
guage and must listen to one language, men-

tally cast the words into another language,
and then speak them. This process is difficult
and opens the possibility that the translator
will fall victim to one or more cultural barri-
ers. Even if you cannot speak or write another
Although Americans and some Europeans believe “time is money,” other cultures language fluently, people from other cultures
are less concerned about economy of time. Above, the Prague Orloj astronomical will appreciate simple efforts to learn a few
clock, installed in 1410, is the oldest still-working clock in the world. common phrases.
Developing Cultural Intelligence

commodity and an inexhaustible resource; time
One way to improve your ability to communicate with
represents a person’s span on Earth, which is only
those from other cultures is to develop your cultural
part of eternity. To these cultures, engaging in long,
casual conversations prior to serious discussions
intelligence. Cultural intelligence can be defined as “a
or negotiations is time well spent in establishing person’s capability to adapt as he or she interacts with
and nurturing relationships. On the other hand, the others from different cultural regions.”10 There are three
time-efficient American businessperson is likely to elements of cultural intelligence:
fret about wasting precious time. •• Cognitive knowledge: The possession of a wide-
•• Personal space requirements. Space operates as a ranging information base about a variety of people
language just as time does. The study of cultural and their cultural customs.
space requirements is known as proxemics. In all •• Motivation: Healthy self-efficacy, persistence, goals,
cultures, the distance between people functions value questioning, and integration.
in communication as “personal space” or “personal
territory.” In the United States, for example, for •• Behavioral adaptability: The capacity to interact in a
intimate conversations with close friends and rela- wide range of situations, environments, and diverse
tives, individuals are willing to stay within about a groups.
foot and a half of each other; for casual conversa-
The Global Literacy Competence (GLC) Model offers a
tions, up to two or three feet; for job interviews
road map to begin to conceptualize the stages of cultural
and personal business, four to twelve feet; and for
public occasions, more than twelve feet. However,
intelligence development (see Figures 1.6 and 1.7). The
in many cultures outside the United States, closer GLC assumes that ascending to a higher level of global
personal contact is accepted, or greater distance functioning is not only possible but is required for excel-
might be the norm. lence in a cross-cultural environment. To do so requires
a commitment to personal growth, openness, and con-
•• Body language. The
tinuous learning about other cultures and customs.
proxemics the study of study of body language
cultural space requirements is known as kinesics.
kinesics the study of body

Body language is not 1-4c Changing Technology
universal, but instead is
language, which is not universal, Electronic tools create opportunities that range from
learned from one’s cul-
but instead is learned from one’s
culture ture. Even the most basic new kinds of communications to improved quality
gestures have varying of the messages themselves. Electronic tools, such as
Figure 1.6 Global Leadership Competency Model
Cengage Learning
Source: C. O. Chin, J. Gu, and S. Tubbs. (2001). Developing global leadership competencies. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(4):
20–35.
the Internet, intranets, document production s oftware,

multimedia presentations, web publishing tools, and

email, can help people in various ways, such as by
(1) collecting and analyzing data, (2) shaping messages
to be clearer and more effective, and (3) communicat-
ing quickly and efficiently with others in geographically
dispersed locations.
Using various communication technologies, individ-
uals can often work in their homes or other remote loca-
tions and send and receive work from the company office
electronically. Telecommuting (also referred to as tele-
working) offers various advantages, including reduced
travel time and increased work flexibility. Laptops and
smartphones provide computing power and connectivity
for professionals wherever they are. Although the public
Internet is accessible to everyone and offers a wide array
of information, organizations are establishing intranets,
which can be understood as a private analog of the Inter-
net or as a private extension of the Internet confined
to a particular organization. An intranet is a computer
network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share
iStockphoto.com/IS_ImageSource
information, operational systems, or computing ser-

vices within an organization. Increasingly, intranets are
being used to deliver tools,
for example, collaboration telecommuting also called
(to facilitate working in teleworking; working at home
groups and teleconferenc- or other remote locations and
sending and receiving work from
It’s critical in business to develop a cultural intelligence. ing) or sophisticated corpo- the company office electronically
rate directories, sales and
Figure 1.7 Levels of Global Communication Competence
LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Awareness This is the novice stage; with exposure come vague impressions. They are brief sensations of
which people are barely conscious. At this level, there is little or no sense-making, but a dawning
awareness of something different and possibly interesting, strange, frightening, or annoying.
Understanding At this stage individuals begin to exhibit some conscious effort to learn why people are the way
they are and why people do what they do. They display interest in those who are different from
themselves. Sanchez et al. (2000) refer to this as the “transition stage.” This is a stage whereby
the individual collects information through reading, observation, and real experiences as well as
by asking questions to learn more about the new cultural phenomenon.
Appreciation Individuals begin to take a “leap of faith” and experience a genuine tolerance of different points
of view. Through understanding the basic differences as well as areas where one thinks, acts,
and reacts similarly, a positive feeling towards the “new” cultural phenomenon begins to form.
Individuals not only put up with the “new” culture but also display a genuine appreciation of
and, in some cases, preference for certain aspects of the “new” culture.
Acceptance In this stage, the possibility of interaction between cultures increases appreciably. People are
more sophisticated both in terms of recognizing commonalities and in terms of effectively
dealing with differences. At this stage, there is the willingness to acquire new patterns of
behavior and attitudes. This is a departure from the ethnocentric notion that “my way is the
best way and the only way.”
Internalization At this stage, the individual goes beyond making sense of information and actually embarks
on a deliberate internalization process, with profound positive feelings for the once unknown
cultural phenomenon. At this stage, there is a clear sense of self-understanding leading to
readiness to act and interact with the locals/nationals in a natural, appropriate, and culturally
effective manner.
Adaptation Cultural competence becomes a way of life. It is internalized, to the degree that it is out of
one’s consciousness, thus becomes effortless and second nature. Individuals at this level display
and possess (1) The capacity for gathering knowledge about different cultures, (2) drive or
motivation, and (3) behavioral adaptability—the capacity to act effectively based upon their
knowledge and motivation.
Source: C. O. Chin, J. Gu, and S. Tubbs. (2001). Developing global leadership competencies. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(4):
20–35.
customer relationship management tools, and project foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation
management, to advance productivity. and exchange of user-generated content.” Social media
Intranets are also being used as corporate cul- depends on mobile and Web-based technologies to cre-
ture-change platforms. For example, large numbers of ate highly interactive platforms through which individu-
employees discussing key issues in an intranet forum als and communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify
application could lead to new ideas in management, pro- user-generated content. It introduces substantial and per-
ductivity, quality, and other corporate issues. When part vasive changes to communication between organizations,
of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others communities, and individuals. In a business context,
outside the business, that segment becomes part of an social media provides opportunities to engage in mar-
extranet, or a network between organizations. keting research, communication, sales promotions/dis-
A related development is the growing use of social counts, and relationship development/loyalty programs.
media in organizations. Although many benefits are provided through the
social media a group of Social media is “a group use of technology in organizations, challenges or risks
Internet-based applications that of Internet-based applica- also must be recognized. Knowing how to “tunnel”
allow the creation and exchange
of user-generated content tions that build on the ide- through the vast amounts of irrelevant information avail-
ological and technological able on the “digital highway” to find what you want can
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
subjoin in this, and other subsequent notes, the various alterations
made by this judicious editor, together with the original passages: the
lines he has introduced are beautifully written, and a close imitation
of the style of Terence: I cannot doubt but they will be considered
worthy of a perusal: they are a proof of a laudable delicacy, which
was but too rarely to be met with in many of the poets of both
England and France, in the 17th century.
The original passage runs thus:—
“Primùm hæc pudicè vitam, parcè, ac duriter

Agebat, lana ac tela victum quæritans:
Sed postquam amans accessit, pretium pollicens,
Unus, et item alter, ita ut ingenium est omnium
Hominum ab labore proclive ad libidinem:
Accepit conditionem, dein quæstum occipit.”
Which is altered by the French translator to the following:—
“Primum hæc pudicè vitam, parce, ac duriter

Agebat, lana ac tela victum quæeritans:
Sed postquam ad illam accessit adolescentulus,
Unus, et item alter; ita ut ingenium est omnium
Hominum ab labore proclive ad desidiam;
Sperans se cuipiam illorum uxorem fore,
Famæ haud pepercit, illosque in domum suam
Lubens admisit nimium familiariter.
“At first she lived chastely, and penuriously, and laboured hard,
managing with difficulty to gain a livelihood with the distaff and the
loom: but soon after several lovers made their addresses to her, and
as we are all naturally prone to idleness, and averse to labour, and
as they made her promises of marriage, she was too negligent of her
reputation, and admitted their visits oftener than was prudent.”
NOTE 73.
Aha! thought I, he is caught.

In the Latin, Certè captus est. Habet. Terence borrowed this
expression (habet) from the amphitheatre at Rome, where men
called gladiators, who were (for the chief part) captives and slaves,
fought before the people: who looked with great delight on these
combats, which often terminated in death to half the persons
engaged. When a gladiator was wounded, the people exclaimed
Habet, he has it, and thus the word was often used at Rome, in the
sense adopted by Terence.
NOTE 74.
He paid his share, and supped with the rest.

In the Latin symbolum dedit, he gave his ring as a token, or
pledge. This phrase is an allusion to a custom which prevailed chiefly
at Rome. When a party agreed to dine together at their own
expense, or, in other words, to club together for an entertainment:
each of the party gave his ring to him who had the care of providing
the feast, as a symbol or token that he, the owner of the ring, was to
join the company, and defray his share of the expense. Hence, he
who paid nothing, was called asymbolus. Rings were also given in
contracts instead of a bond: and used for tokens of various kinds.
The Greeks also seem to have called rings by the same name,
σύμβολα.
NOTE 75.
To give his daughter to Pamphilus with a large dowry.

The word dowry, which is called, in Greek, προὶξ, or μείλια, or
ἕδνα, originally meant the sum which a man gave to the family of the
woman he married, and with which he might be said to purchase his
wife: but, as the Greeks grew more refined, and also more wealthy,
this custom was wholly abolished; and the dowry was given by the
wife’s relations to the husband, to assist him in the maintenance of
her and of her children. The dowries of women were, in Athens,
considered a subject of great importance; and many laws were
framed by the Athenian legislators, (particularly by Solon,) to provide
for the well ordering of women’s fortunes. An heiress could be
disposed of in marriage, only by her father, grandfather, or brother: if
she had neither of these relations, the archons determined who was
to be her husband; and it was held so important to keep her estate in
the family, that at one time a law prevailed, that if an heiress had no
children by her first husband, she was taken from him by the
authority of the archons, and given to her nearest relation. A wife,
who brought a fortune to her husband, was called γυνὴ; she who
brought none παλλακὴ. Solon, apprehensive of mercenary unions, at
one time, passed a law, that a woman should carry to her husband
only some furniture, and four or five changes of dress. But this
seems to have been little observed.
The large dowry which Simo says Chremes offered with
Philumena, we may fairly suppose to have been twenty talents, as
Chremes imagined he had but one daughter to portion off; when he
had discovered Glycera, he gave her a dowry of ten talents; and we
must suppose that he reserved as much more for Philumena. This
will give us an idea of what the portions of the Athenian women
usually were, and of the fortune of a citizen.
Twenty Greek talents were nearly equal to 5,000l. sterling,
according to some authors, though writers differ widely as to the
amount of the Attic talent; Dr. Arbuthnot makes it equal to 193l. 15s.,
Mr. Raper to 232l. 3s. It is agreed on all sides that the Attic talent
consisted of 6,000 drachmæ; but the value of the drachma was
never correctly ascertained. Vide the table of monies in Note 208.
NOTE 76.
I contracted my son.
The Athenian youth were not allowed to dispose of themselves in
marriage without consulting their parents, who had almost unlimited
authority over them: if they had no parents, guardians, called
ἐπίτροποι, were appointed to control them.
But it does not appear that any particular ceremonies were used
in Athens, in contracting a bride and bridegroom, previous to the day
of marriage; and I rather imagine, Terence, in order to make the
subject clear to his Roman auditors, alluded, by the word despondi,
to the Roman custom of betrothing, called sponsalia, which they
performed as follows:—
Some days before the wedding, the intended bride and
bridegroom, with their friends, met together at the lady’s residence,
and the parent or guardian of each (as I imagine) asked each other,
Spondes? Do you betroth her or him? Then the other party
answered, Spondeo, I do betroth, &c. Then the deeds were signed,
the dowry agreed on, and the day appointed for the marriage.
NOTE 77.
Among the women who were there I saw one young girl.
Women were frequently hired on these occasions, to appear in
the funeral procession as mourners, of whom Horace says,
“Ut quæ conductæ plorant in funere, dicunt

Et faciunt propè plura dolentibus ex animoque.”
Like those, who, hired to weep at funerals,

Exceed, in noisy grief, a faithful friend.
NOTE 78.
She appeared more afflicted than the others who were there, and so
pre-eminently beautiful, and of so noble a carriage, I approach.
To understand the full force of Simo’s remark, when he says how
much he was struck with the contrast between Glycera and the rest
of the mourners, it is necessary that the reader should be informed,
that, in Athens, no woman under sixty years of age was allowed to
appear at a funeral; except the relations of the deceased. Solon
imposed this law upon the Athenians.
NOTE 79.
I approach the women who were following the body.

Literally, the women who were walking after the body. Though
those women who were hired to follow a corpse, walked in
procession, it was very usual in Greece, to attend funerals in
carriages, and on horseback: but Chrysis, not being represented as a
citizen, the ceremonies, in respect to the procession, must be
supposed to be different. The interment of the dead was considered
of such extreme importance throughout the whole of Greece, that to
want the rites of sepulture, was deemed by the natives of that
country, a much greater misfortune than even death itself. The
Greeks (and many other nations) believed that the spirit of a person
whose corpse was unburied, could never obtain admittance to the
Elysian fields: their imaginary place of reward for virtuous men after
death. Two different methods of disposing of the dead prevailed in
Greece. The most ancient of the two (as is generally allowed,) was
much the same as the modern practice, the corpse was interred in a
coffin, and deposited in the earth. The other mode was to burn the
body, and to preserve the ashes. The Athenians seem to have used
both methods indiscriminately: their funerals were usually conducted
by torch-light. On the third or fourth day after death, (though the time
was varied according to circumstances,) the corpse was placed on a
bier, with the feet towards the door; and an obolus put into its mouth,
to defray the passage across the Styx: a certain form of words was
then pronounced over the body, which was afterwards carried out,
and followed by the mourners: those of the same sex as the
deceased were to be nearest the corpse: when it was placed on the
pile, and a second form of words recited over it, some one of the
mourners, (usually the nearest relation,) applied a torch to the wood;
and, if the deceased was of high rank, animals of various kinds, and
sometimes even human victims, were slaughtered, and thrown into
the flames. The ashes of the dead were collected from the
extinguished pile into an urn, and with some further ceremonies
deposited in a sepulchre. The Romans burned their dead in a similar
manner. For a further mention of Greek funerals, vide Notes 77, 78,
80, 81.
NOTE 80.
We follow, and arrive at the tomb.

Tombs, called by the Greeks τάφοι, or τύμβοι, which signify both
the grave and the monument, were not allowed to be within the city
of Athens, but were placed either in the public burial-place, or in
private grounds belonging to the relatives of the deceased: it was not
unusual to erect them by the road side at some distance from the
city, whence the expression, so common on monuments, Siste
Viator, Stay Traveller. The public burial-place of the Athenians was in
that part of the Ceramicus situated beyond the city: it was very
extensive. The other part of the Ceramicus contained the old forum,
called ἀρχαία ἀγορὰ.
NOTE 81.
The corpse is placed on the pile, and quickly enveloped in flames;
they weep; while the sister I was speaking of, rushed forward, in
an agony of grief, toward the fire; and her imprudence exposed her
to great danger.
An eminent English poet, Sir Richard Steele, has endeavoured to
adapt Terence’s Andrian to the taste of an English audience, and has
succeeded in that attempt, in his play, called The Conscious Lovers,
as well as circumstances would permit. A French poet of equal
eminence, Monsieur Baron, has made a similar attempt in French
verse, and has met with equal success in his Andrienne: he has kept
much closer to the original than has Sir Richard Steele; indeed,
many scenes of the Andrienne are a literal version of Terence. I
purpose to point out the most material changes which the two
modern poets have made in the incidents: the bent of the dramatic
taste of the nation of each, may be discovered, in some measure,
from a comparison between the English, the French, and the Roman
dramatist. M. Baron has not made any alteration in the scene at
Chrysis’ funeral, where Simo discovers his son’s attachment to
Glycera; but Sir R. Steele, has altered the mode of discovery to a
quarrel at a masquerade; and his scene, though it may want the
pathos of the original, yet displays the filial affection of Bevil, the
English Pamphilus, in a very amiable light. Sir Richard has
modernized the characters of Simo and Sosia in Sir John Bevil and
Humphrey.
“Sir J. You know I was, last Thursday, at the masquerade:
my son, you may remember, soon found us out. He knew his
grandfather’s habit, which I then wore, and though it was in
the mode of the last age, yet the maskers followed us, as if we
had been the most monstrous figures in the whole assembly.
“Humph. I remember a young man of quality, in the habit of
a clown, was particularly troublesome.
“Sir J. Right: he was too much what he seemed to be: he
followed us, till the gentleman, who led the lady in the Indian
mantle, presented that gay creature to the rustic, and bid him
(like Cymon in the fable) grow polite, by falling in love, and let
that worthy gentleman alone, meaning me. The clown was not
reformed, but rudely offered to force off my mask; with that the
gentleman, throwing off his own, appeared to be my son; and,
in his concern for me, tore off that of the nobleman. At this,
they seized each other, the company called the guards, and,
in the surprise, the lady swooned away; upon which my son
quitted his adversary, and had now no care but of the lady;
when, raising her in his arms, ‘Art thou gone,’ cried he, ‘for
ever?—Forbid it, Heaven!’—She revives at his known voice,
and, with the most familiar, though modest gesture, hangs in
safety over his shoulders weeping; but wept as in the arms of
one before whom she could give herself a loose, were she not
under observation. While she hides her face in his neck, he
carefully conveys her from the company.”—Conscious
Lovers.
Sir John Bevil makes the same trial of his son, as Simo of his: and
young Bevil makes the same reply with Pamphilus. The only
difference in the conduct of the plot in that part is, that Bevil is not
apprized of his father’s stratagem by his own servant; but by
Humphrey, which, as it shews a sort of half-treachery in him, is an
inferior arrangement to that of the Latin poet.
NOTE 82.
That Pamphilus had actually married this strange woman.

The expression ξένα, peregrina, or strange woman, was generally
used amongst eastern nations, to signify a woman of light character:
it is very frequently employed in the Holy Writings in that sense. Vide
Judges, chap. xi. ver. 2; Proverbs, chap. v. ver. 3. 10, 20. Thais, in
the Eunuch, speaking of her mother, says,
“Samia mihi mater fuit: ea habitabat Rhodi.”
My mother was born in Samos, and dwelt in Rhodes.
Athenian citizens were not allowed to marry foreign women, even

of reputation and virtue; this law was not strictly observed: the
penalty for the violation of it was fixed at one thousand drachms.
Simo mentions the epithet peregrina, as what Chremes said he had
heard Glycera called; but does not himself drop the slightest hint
against her, but, on the contrary, praises her modest demeanour; as
he must have been well aware, that she did not deserve such an
epithet, being her opposite neighbour, and having seen her abroad:
ξέναι, or strange women, when they appeared in public, were obliged
to wear striped dresses, to distinguish them from women of innocent
conversation.
NOTE 83.
Of a wicked mind, one can expect nothing but wicked intentions.

In the Latin, mala mens, malus animus. It is not easy to
discriminate with accuracy the different meanings the Romans
attached to mens and animus. Some think that animus meant the
heart, and mens the faculty of thinking. Grotius has, in this passage,
taken those words to signify conscience and judgment: but, I think it
probable, that the word animus was usually employed when they
spoke of the soul, and that mens was intended to express what we
understand by the word mind, when we speak of greatness of mind,
or littleness of mind. Animus was, perhaps, about equivalent to that
elegant expression,—instinctus divinitatis.
NOTE 84.
Exit Sosia.
“Here we take our last leave of Sosia, who is, in the language of
the commentators, a protatick personage, that is, as Donatus
explains it, one who appears only once in the beginning (the
protasis) of the piece, for the sake of unfolding the argument, and is
never seen again in any part of the play. The narration being ended,
says Donatus, the character of Sosia is no longer necessary. He
therefore departs, and leaves Simo alone to carry on the action. With
all due deference to the ancients, I cannot help thinking this method,
if too constantly practised, as I think it is in our author, rather
inartificial. Narration, however beautiful, is certainly the deadest part
of theatrical compositions: it is, indeed, strictly speaking, scarce
dramatic, and strikes the least in the representation: and the too
frequent introduction of a character, to whom a principal person in
the fable is to relate in confidence the circumstances, previous to the
opening of the play, is surely too direct a manner of conveying that
information to the audience. Every thing of this nature should come
obliquely, fall in a manner by accident, or be drawn as it were
perforce, from the parties concerned, in the course of the action: a
practice, which, if reckoned highly beautiful in epic, may be almost
set down as absolutely necessary in dramatic poetry. It is, however,
more adviseable, even to seem tedious, than to hazard being
obscure. Terence certainly opens his plays with great address, and
assigns a probable reason for one of the parties being so
communicative to the other; and yet it is too plain that this narration
is made merely for the sake of the audience, since there never was a
duller hearer than Master Sosia, and it never appears, in the sequel
of the play, that Simo’s instructions to him are of the least use to
frighten Davus, or work upon Pamphilus. Yet even this protatick
personage is one of the instances of Terence’s art, since it was often
used in the Roman comedy, as may be seen even in Plautus, to
make the relation of the argument the express office of the
prologue.”—Colman.
Monsieur Baron does not dismiss Sosia here, but brings him on
the stage again; once in the third act, and once in the fourth. Sir R.
Steele introduces Humphrey again in the first act, and also in the
fifth. We are told by Donatus, that in the Andrian and Perinthian of
Menander, which are similar in the plot, the first scene is the same as
in Terence, but that in the Perinthian, the old man consults with his
wife instead of Sosia; and, in the Andrian he opens with a soliloquy.
NOTE 85.
But, here he comes.

It has been objected against many dramatic writers, that they are
guilty of great neglect in first bringing their characters on the stage,
without preparing the audience for their appearance, and acquainting
them with their names; and sometimes it happens that an actor has
been on the stage a considerable time, before the audience know
whom he is meant to personate. Terence’s art is admirably shown in
this particular; a new character scarcely ever appears on the stage
after the first scene, before his name, and character, and perhaps
what he may be expected to say or do, is announced to the
audience. For example, in the Andrian, Act I. Scene I., Simo
describes the occupation and character of Davus before he appears;
and names him to the audience as he comes on the stage. In Act I.
Scene III., Davus introduces Mysis: in Act I. Scene IV., Mysis
prepares the audience for the appearance of Pamphilus: in Act III.
Scene IV., Simo announces Chremes, and Mysis is the nomenclator
of Crito in the last scene of the fourth Act. This rule of preparation for
the next scene was called, among the ancients, παρασκευὴ.
NOTE 86.
How this rascal prates!

Carnifex quæ loquitur. Carnifex, or carnufex, means literally an
executioner: this was one of the most opprobrious epithets used by
the Romans. Of all their public servants, the carnifex was the lowest
in rank: his office extended only to crucifixion, which was never
inflicted in Rome on any but those who were considered as the very
worst of criminals. The person of the carnifex was held in such
abhorrence, that he was never suffered to reside in Rome, and rarely
(though sometimes) permitted to enter the city. Vide Cicero’s Oration
for Rabirius. Carnifex means literally a butcher; and most of the
writers of later ages have used it in that sense.
NOTE 87.
No: I am not Œdipus, but Davus.

This is as much as to say, I am a plain man, I am no reader of
riddles: because Œdipus, king of Thebes, was particularly celebrated
for solving an enigma, which had long baffled the penetration of all
the Thebans. Ancient writers relate the story thus: Europa, the sister
of Cadmus, the first king of Thebes, having been carried off by
Jupiter; Juno, in her jealousy, wreaked her vengeance on Europa’s
family, and persecuted Cadmus and his descendants with the most
inveterate hostility. During the reign of Creon, one of the successors
of Cadmus, Juno sent to destroy Thebes, a dreadful monster, called
Sphinx, which was described as having the face and voice of a
woman, the wings of a dragon, the body of a dog, and the claws of a
lion. This extraordinary monster dwelt in a cave, immediately in the
neighbourhood of Thebes, and seizing every one that ventured to
approach, proposed the following well-known riddle, “What walks in
the morning on four legs, at noon on two, and at night on three?”
Those who were unable to solve the enigma were instantly torn in
pieces; and, as the Thebans were, in general, so remarkable for their
slowness and sluggishness, that they were called “Theban pigs” by
the rest of Greece, it may be readily believed that the monster’s
question long remained unanswered. When the city was in danger of
total demolition, Creon the king offered his daughter Jocasta, and his
crown, to him who should solve the riddle, as the oracle declared that
to be the only means of deliverance. This was at last accomplished
by Œdipus, who replied, that it was man: who crawls in his childhood,
walks upright in the vigour of his age, and who uses a crutch when
he grows old: on hearing this answer, the Sphinx slew herself.
Some commentator on Terence very ingeniously observes, that
Davus, by saying that he is not Œdipus, and cannot understand his
riddle, covertly insinuates that Simo is a second Sphinx.
NOTE 88.
The grinding-house.
Terence has rendered by the word pistrinum, the Greek
σωφρονιστήριον, or house of correction, whither criminals were sent
for the various terms of imprisonment proportioned to their offences.
Slaves, while in this prison, were employed chiefly in grinding corn,
which, from a deficiency of mechanical knowledge, was, in those
times, a very laborious employment. The Athenians, who were
universally celebrated for their kind and gentle treatment of slaves,
were very reluctant to proceed to severer punishments than whipping
or imprisonment: but when a flagrant delinquency rendered it
necessary to make an example, they either burned the criminal with
a hot iron, in the offending member, if possible; or put on his feet a
torturing instrument, called χοῖνιξ. If the law required the criminal to
suffer death, which happened in very few cases, he was either hung,
beaten to death with clubs, or cast into a deep pit, called βάραθρον,
filled at the bottom with sharp spikes. They sometimes had recourse
to other extraordinary modes of punishment: but the before-
mentioned were the most common.
NOTE 89.
In truth, friend Davus, from what I have just heard.

This scene contains the second part of the narration, which
possesses all the requisites enumerated by Cicero, perspicuity,
probability, brevity, and sweetness. It is introduced with Terence’s
usual art, and enough is said respecting Glycera’s birth, to prepare
the mind for the dénouement in the last act. This scene, and that
before it, are omitted in the Conscious Lovers; and a dialogue
between Humphrey and Tom, and another between Tom and Phyllis,
the English Davus and Mysis, are substituted instead of them: but
Phyllis is the servant of Lucinda, the lady Sir J. Bevil wishes his son
to marry: and not of Indiana, the modern Glycera. The two scenes
above mentioned contain only one incident: the conveyance of a
letter from young Bevil to Lucinda, apprizing her of his disinclination
to the match.
NOTE 90.
This affair must be handled dexterously, or either my young master

or I must be quite undone.
The original of this passage is as follows: Quæ si non astu
providentur, me, aut herum pessundabunt. A deviation from the
customary mode of expression sometimes occurs in our author’s
writings. I shall set down the most remarkable words of this nature
that are to be found in this play.
Abutor, with an accusative.

Alterco, for altercor.
Astu, for Astutia.
Complacita est, for placuit.
Catus.
Claudier, for claudi.
Conflictatur, cum ingeniis ejusmodis.
Duint, for dent.
Diecula.
Emergere se, for emergere.
Face, for fac.
Introspicere.
Ipsus.
Immutarier, for immutari.
Morigera.
Maximum facere hominem, for maximi.
Ornati, for ornatus.
Preci, for precibus.
Postillà, for posteà.
Symbola, for symbolum.
Spero, for timeo.
Subsarcinatam.
Tetulit.
Tumulti, for tumultus.
NOTE 91.
If he finds out the least thing I am undone.

Terence has the art of making us feel interested in the favour of
almost all his characters: they insensibly gain ground in our good
opinion: even this Davus, who certainly has a spice of the rogue
about him, creates a warm interest in his favour by his fidelity to
Pamphilus; and his generosity in risking his own safety to serve him:
he braves the threats of Simo, when, by assisting him, and betraying
Pamphilus, he must have secured the old man’s favour, and
consequently great advantages to himself. But very few of the worst
characters in Terence’s plays seem to us to be wholly unamiable.
NOTE 92.
I think their intentions savour more of madness than of any thing
else.
Terence plays upon the words in the original of this passage,
which is as follows,
“Nam inceptio est amentium, haud amantium.”
Literally, For they act like mad people, not like lovers. This pun
cannot be preserved in an English translation, till two words can be
found alike in sound, one meaning “mad people,” and the other
“lovers.” The only attempt in English is the following: but the author
has rather altered the sense.
“For they fare as they were lunaticke, and not lovesicke.”

Bernard.
Terence plays upon words in this manner several times in this

play,
Maledicere, malefacta ne noscant sua.

Solicitando, et pollicitando eorum animos lactas.
Quia habet aliud magis ex sese, et majus.
Quo jure, quaque injuria.
Ipsu’ sibi esse injurius videatur, neque id injuriâ.
P. Quid vis patiar? D. Pater est Pamphile.
The ancients manifested very great partiality for this species of

wit, which the Greeks called παρανομασία and the Romans
agnominatio. The writings of Plautus abound with puns above all
others, and he is thought to have applied them with great ingenuity:
the following may serve as a specimen.
Boius est, Boiam terit.

Advenisse familiares dicito.
Nescio quam tu familiaris es: nisi actutum hinc abis,
Familiaris, accipiere faxo haud familiariter
Optumo optumè optumam operam das.
Though the Greeks and Romans considered puns an ornament to

writings and discourses of all kinds, modern critics have decided that
they ought to be admitted only in writings of a light nature; and that
they decrease the force and beauty of grave and serious
compositions, which ought to wear an air of dignified sublimity,
unmixed with any thing of a trivial nature.
The lines immediately preceding the before-mentioned passages
are thus altered by a French editor. Vide Note 72.
Ad hæc mala hoc etiam mihi accedit; hæc Andria,

Quam clam patre uxorem duxit Pamphilus, gravida ab eo est.
The original lines are,
Ad hæc mala hoc etiam mihi accedit; hæc Andria,

Sine ista uxor, sine amica est gravida a Pamphilo est.
NOTE 93.
Boy or girl, say they, the child shall be brought up.

In the Latin,
Quidquid peperisset decreverunt tollere.
Boy or girl, they have resolved that it shall be taken up. The words
taken up allude to the custom which prevailed in Greece, of
destroying children. This barbarous cruelty was practised on various
pretences; if an infant was, at its birth, deformed in any of its
members, or if it appeared extremely feeble or sickly, the laws
allowed, and even enjoined, that it should be exposed: sometimes
illegitimacy was considered a sufficient cause for the exposure of a
child. Though the parents were generally allowed to choose whether
their offspring should be destroyed or preserved; in some parts of
Greece all the inhabitants were compelled to send their new-born
infants to officers appointed to examine them: who, if they found
them not robust and healthy, cast them immediately into deep
caverns, called ἀποθέται, which were dedicated to this purpose. It
was customary, in Athens, to place a new-born infant on the ground
at the feet of its father, if he then took it up in his arms, it was
considered that he bound himself to educate and provide for the
child: hence, the expression tollere, to take up: but, if on the contrary,
he refused to acknowledge it, a person appointed for that purpose
conveyed it to some desert place at a distance from the city: and
there left it to perish. The Thebans are said to have been the only
people in Greece, among whom this barbarous custom did not
prevail: but the story of Œdipus, a prince who was exposed, though
afterwards preserved, is a proof that they did not altogether abstain
from this practice.
NOTE 94.
To prove that she is a citizen of Athens.

Women were allowed to enjoy the privileges of Athenian citizens,
and, at the building of Athens, by Cecrops, they carried a point of no
less importance than the choice of a name for the new city, in
opposition to the votes of the men. Varro tells us that Neptune
wished the new-built city to be called after his name, and that
Athena, or Minerva, rivalled his pretensions. The question being put
by Cecrops to his people, the men all voted for Neptune, but the
women voted for Minerva, and gained, by one vote, the privilege of
naming the city. The women were wholly excluded from any share in
the government of Athens, in later ages; though they still retained
various privileges as Athenian citizens.
For a further explanation of the rights of the Athenian citizens; and
for some account of the city of Athens, vide Notes 150, 179, 180,
181, 193, 197.
NOTE 95.
Once upon a time, a certain old merchant.

The title of merchant we are to suppose to be added by Davus to
embellish the tale. Neither Chremes nor Phania are described as
merchants. This addition is well managed by the author, as Davus,
who thought the whole a fabrication, imagined he was more likely to
gain credit by telling the tale that way; as a considerable traffick was
carried on between Athens and the island of Andros, which was a
very fertile spot.
M. Baron has translated this scene with great fidelity and beauty.
Davus developes in it a plan to break off the dreaded match with
Philumena, by introducing Glycera to Chremes: which incident is
substituted instead of the birth of the child. There is a break in the
French lines which renders them inimitably beautiful.
“De ce vieillard fougueux pour calmer la furie,
Quoi! Ne pourrions nous pas résoudre Glycérie
A venir à ses pieds lui demander——? Helas!
Glycérie est malade, et je n’y songe pas.”
Baron.
NOTE 96.
Well, I’ll betake myself to the Forum.

A forum, both in Athens and Rome, was a large open space
within the city, dedicated to various purposes. The forum was a place
where the people met for public worship, for the administration of
justice, and to debate on the public affairs. In the Forum, also, were
the temples, hospitals, sanctuaries, and the markets of all kinds: in
short, it was a place of general rendezvous for men of all ranks and
professions, and was, in many respects, very similar to those places
of meeting we call by the name Exchange.
In Rome there were six great forums, 1. the Roman, 2. the Julian,
3. the Augustan, 4. the Palladian, 5. the Trojan, 6. the Forum of
Sallust. In Athens, the principal Forum was called ἀρχαία ἀγορὰ; it
was extremely spacious, and decorated with some very fine
buildings, and statues of eminent persons. There were also many
others, but the most considerable was called the Forum, by way of
distinction.
NOTE 97.
Act I. Scene IV.

Of all writers ancient or modern, except Seneca, Terence was the
most indefatigable in endeavouring to embellish his writings with all
the ornaments that alliteration could give them. It is not my intention
to enter in this place into a discussion of the advantages, or
disadvantages that verses may derive from alliteration; a subject on
which critics differ as widely as they can on any other point. The
practice of many first-rate writers, however, both ancient and
modern, who have thought that alliteration adorned their
compositions, entitles it to attention. Although eminent critics have
argued against this literary ornament, that its success is but a trivial
excellence, I cannot but remark that it is allowed on all sides that
great labour, care, and patience, are requisite, to succeed in
alliteration; which must certainly contribute to render it of some
value, and afford an absolute proof of the excessive labour and
deliberation with which Terence wrote his plays, every line of which
was, as I may say, weighed, before he wrote it down: for no author,
ancient or modern, (with the before-mentioned exception,) ever
employed alliteration so frequently, nor, in my opinion, with better
effect than Terence.
The following lines will afford the reader a specimen of the almost
astonishing extent to which alliteration was used by some of the
ancient authors, Greek and Latin.
I. From Terence.
“Audivi, Archillis, jamdudum: Lesbiam adduci jubes

Sane pol illa temulenta est mulier, et temeraria
Nec sati digna cui committas primo partis mulierem.
Tamen eam adducam. Importunitatem spectate aniculæ;
Quia compotrix ejus est. Diana da facultatem, obsecro,
Huic pariundi, atque illi in alius potius peccandi locum.
Sed, quidnam Pamphilum exanimatum video? vereor quid siet.
Opperiar, ut sciam, numquidnam hæc turba tristitiæ adferat.
Ut animum ad aliquod stadium adjungant, aut equos—
Alere, aut canes ad venandum, aut ad philosophos.
In ignem imposita est. Fletur. Interea hæc soror.
Mala mens, malus animus. Quem quidem ego si sensero.
Ipsum animum ægrotum ad deteriorem partem plerumque applicat,
Nec, quid agam, cerium est; Pamphilumne adjutem, an auscultem
seni.

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4 Preparing Written Messages 50 5-2b Guidelines for Preparing Email Messages 74

Part 3 6-4a Requests for Information 94

Communication Through Voice 6-4c Positive Response to a Favor Request 97

6-6 Procedural Messages 101

Part 4 10-4 Including Graphics in Text 175

COMMUNICATION THROUGH 11  Reports

11-2a Writing Convincing and Effective Reports 183

Part 5 14-2b Study Yourself 260

Employment 224 14-3 Conducting a Successful Interview 261

Establishing a Framework for

Figure 1.1 The Transactional Process Model of Communication

Sender Message Receiver

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 3

Because of these barriers and because both parties to a

4 PART ONE: Communication Foundations

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 5

UPWARD COMMUNICATION DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION UPWARD COMMUNICATION

Progress reports (spoken and written) Policies and procedures Ideas/suggestions

Coordination of interrelated activities

both spoken and written forms by group meetings,

Figure 1.3 Levels of Communication

COMMUNICATION LEVELS EXAMPLES

its goals report

8 PART ONE: Communication Foundations

Figure 1.4 Factors Influencing Business Communication

LEGAL AND ETHICAL CHANGING DIVERSITY TEAM

• Personal Values • Telecommuting • Nonverbal Differences • Group Reward

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 9

Causes of Illegal and Unethical Framework for Analyzing Ethical

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 11

honestly: cultural differences and be

CHAPTER 1: Establishing a Framework for Business Communication 13

guage and must listen to one ­language, men-

Developing Cultural Intelligence

kinesics the study of body

the Internet, intranets, document production s­ oftware,

information, operational systems, or computing ser-

“Primùm hæc pudicè vitam, parcè, ac duriter

Which is altered by the French translator to the following:—

“Primum hæc pudicè vitam, parce, ac duriter

Aha! thought I, he is caught.

He paid his share, and supped with the rest.

To give his daughter to Pamphilus with a large dowry.

“Ut quæ conductæ plorant in funere, dicunt

Like those, who, hired to weep at funerals,

I approach the women who were following the body.

We follow, and arrive at the tomb.

That Pamphilus had actually married this strange woman.

“Samia mihi mater fuit: ea habitabat Rhodi.”

COMMUNICATION THROUGH 11 Reports

guage and must listen to one language, men-

the Internet, intranets, document production s oftware,