UNIT 2 WHO ARE THE LEARNERS OF

LANGUAGE ? -11
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Different Types of Learners
2.3 The Effect of Leanuilg Contexts on Learners
2.4 Personal Qualities of Learners
2.5 In~plicationsfor Curriculum Design and Implementation
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Answers

2.0 OBJECTIVES

Our aim iu this unit is to make you aware that

there are different types of la~iguagelearners
) these learners have certain persolla1 qualities which influence their language learning
processhbility
these attributes of the learners can be exploited for designing the curriculum, as well as
evolvi~igcertain teaching strategies.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first uiut of this block our focus was mainly on the very powerful capacity to learn
that is a characteristic of human children and adults. Learning in a wide variety of domains
and in many different ways begins in early childhood and continues into old age. The
leanling of languages -- especially the L1 (i.e. the first language the child acquires) is an
area in which the great creativity of human learning is very easy to see. Young children, as
we all know, lean1 to speak the language or languages used in their homes and local
communities almost effortlessly. This happens even when there is no planning and
orgaiiized instruction by persoils fuiictio~utigas 'teachers'. Thus an iiiiportant feature of
huina~ilanguage leanling is that a great deal of it takes place outside the formal context of
school and college. Very young children learning to speak their mother tongue through the
processes of socializatioii which is the best example of this. We also know that older
learners -- even those who are not literate -- lean1 to speak a new la~lguage,especially wheil
they move to a new place where the commonly used language is not one they already know.
Iiifonnal and uilplan~ledlearning of languages is very coinillon and widespread. This
iiieaifi that language learners are not always pupils in a class (following a syllabus under a
teacher's guidance). In this respect language learning is very different froin the learning of
typical school subjects, like history or botany or biology. When we talk of leanling these
subjects we are in fact refening to leanling that is linked very directly to teaclling, because
people do not learn such subjects on their own. It is true that some people get vely
intere-sted in certain areas related to acadeinic subjects as hobbies, and after a long period
of 'study' on their own nlay even become experts in these areas. But this applies oiily to a
few very highly motivated individuals. On the other hand, informal language leanling is
soi~lethillgthat most ordinary people seein to truilage, not only a tnii~oritywho are very
interested or who have special abilities and qualifications.
! Who are the Learners
of Language?-I1
I
t We also noted that individual learners have a unique personal learning history which
I influences their patterns of further learning. Undoubtedly we must recognize and respect
this uniqueness when dealing with individuals --seeking to understand how they learn and
how their leanling call be supported. At the same time when we are concenled priinarily
with language instruction (or with curriculum development) we have to think in terms of
categories of groups of learners. We cannot in any meaningful sense have one thousand
different theories and one thousand sepamte curriculuin packages if we are dealing with one
thousand learners. Instruction has necessarily to be planned for groups of (potential)
learners in the first instance, while efforts -n and should be made to proniote
individualization at the actual teaching stage.
In this unit we will try and get a sense of the many types of individuals and groups who are
covered by the notion of 'learners of language'.
Check Your Progress 1 -
b 1. Language learning is very different from the learning of typical school subjects. How?

2.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNERS

As we have noted earlier illany leanlers of language are iiot in school or college. So it is not
very useful to categorize their1 nlaiilly in tenlls of their class or level in the fonnal system of
education. Rather than this administrative aspect, features which can directly affect their
attitude and nlotivatioii are illore relevant. The-se are listed below:

(a) Stage of development in mastering the language

There an be young learners who are quite advanced or skilled, and older learners who are
only beginners. L e a n u ~ ga language is a slow and long-dmwn-out process. Leanlers call be
at inally different stages of progress towards high proficiency or mastery. Obviously the
way of leanliilg, the need for teacher support, the capacity and williiigness to do certain
tasks will vary with the stage of progress. So il broad category like 'young learners' can
include a variety of types based on how far they have progressed.

(b) T h e degrees of dependence on externally planned instruction

The general (fonupl vs. infonlial) context of leanliilg a language is another factor that has a
strong influence on the leanier's motivation and involvement. When language is being
learnt informally (especially through the process of socialisation) the learners may not even
be aware that s h e is 'leanuiig' the language. This is because the focus of attelltioil when
there is iiiteoctioil in ilatural or real-life situations is communication - - sending and
receiving messages by using language. Conscious attention to learning the 'rules' of
laiiguage is not usual or typical here. As we saw in Unit 1,this iiiode of language leanung
is very effective. But, we are forced to admit, illally procedures and principles that we
associate with 'learning in class' do not seem to be relevant or make much sense in this
natural setting. The fact that iilfonllal l r a n ~ i ~is
i gtaking place is iiliportailt when we are
coilsiderii~gthe teaching of the L1 (or a locally used L2). Alongside the classrooili based
learning of language, the natural processes of using it are also going on. The formal
syllabus usually 'recogilizes' only what goes on in class. But leaniers, especially younger
ones, are very uillikely to keep 'language use' in watertight coiripartmeilts as the saying
goes. As we will see in Course 3, the teacher ciiiinot afford to ignore what the learner-user
is doing happily and successfully outside the class. The leanier's contact with real and
The h g u a g e Learner
meallingful use of the target language (L1 or L2) represents a valuable opportunity that
should be exploited i~nagillativelyby the teacher.

(c) Degree of compulsion in the study of language

Let us consider planiled and fonnal instruction in a target language. This is what we have
described earlier as the context for studying in the role of a pupil. Two broad institutional
contexts are possible. In the first case, the student is taking a prescribed language course
because it is part of the fonnal syllabus requirelnents for the tnatriculatio~lor intermediate
certificate. Here, final exatnitlation nlarks can become very illlportant to the student, and
the examination scheme will usually determine what is seen as significant and worthwhile
anlong the topics and activities of the cuniculuin. The secolld context for formal study is
the one in which the student makes a conscious decision to take a language course, even
though it is not required. The best example of this free choice is enrollment in a part-time
language course as an additiollal activity.

2.3 THE EFFECT OF LEARNING CONTEXTS ON

LEARNgRS
In the section above we have seen some of the different contexts in which a person could ,he
in the role of leanler (of a particular language). All these contexts represent conditions
'outside' the leanler. They are not related in ally way to the leanler's personal qualities
such as health and statllina, nlental ability or educatio~~alqualificatio~s.Anyotle could be at
any s b g e of progress towards mastery of the target language; anyone could be studying a
foreign language through a part-time evening course. The interesting point about these
contexts is that they can i~lfluencethe general attitude and lnotivation of the illdividual in
hisher role as learner. Each context in a very general sense can be linked to a cerhin type
of learner approach. The combination of attitudes and motivation that goes with each type
is relevaut to our discussion because this call affect the level of effort on the learner's part;
and this can, as we know, influence how 'successful' learning is.
It is easy to see that a person who has made a conscious decision to try and beco~ne
proficient in using a language (even though it is not required) will have a favourable attitude
and be highly motivated. We would all agree perhaps that teachers of such students are
very fortunate. On the other hand, it is true that many students are caught up in situations
(especially in fonnal education) where they have to study a language, simply because it is a
reql~irementin the +2 or degree syllabus. They may not have any genuine interest in
learning the language, beyond passing the examination. A teacher with lnany such pupils
does face a discouraging situation. However, it is iillportat~tto see this in the context of
fonnal education. Herr a major part of any progralnnle is nude up of colllpulsory coumes
-- which all studelits have to study, whether they are really interested in or like all the
subjects and topi~x. So this problem is one that all teachers ftlce. The need is to inake the
c u m c u l u l ~in~operation - - the actual activities in the classroo~ll -- interesting to the pupils.
In one sense the language teacher, especially the teacher of English in India, has certain
advailtages. Lailguage is solnething that children are always 'using'. Further E ~ ~ g l i is sh
fi~irlywidely seen as an asset because of its association with job opportunities and social
prestige. So the English teacher is better off than the teacher of colnpulsory mathe~l~iltics or
compulsory geography.
The general principle we need to note here is that the context of learning 1s linked to
'expectations'. Those students who are mainly concerned about meeting examination
related requirenlellts will want to 'see' evidence of teaching or classrooxll activity that they
feel is going to be useful in this respect. These learners may not readily put in a lot of time
and effort related to extra activities, even though these are seen by the teacher (and
cumculum desiguer) as desirable. Sinlilarly, leanlem who are very keen on l e a n l i ~ ~ tog
'speak' well and with confidence may be quite resistant to grammar exercises or indepth
discussions on the views of some essayist or poet. The tei her needs to be aware of the
learners' expectatioi~q. But of course a cumcululn cannot 1 .educed to only those things
learners clearly want. This is where the teacher's resourcefu, 2ss in motivating students
becomes important.
 Who are the Lcarnet-s
of Lauguqef -11
Check Your Progress 2
1. As a teacher of English, list at least three ways in which you can use the 'infonual'
language learning context of the learners for teaching in the classroom.
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2. If you were to design a syllabus how would you include learner expectations in it?
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2.4 PERSONAL QUALITIES OF LEARNERS

In the section above we h;we focused on the contexts in which a person relates to a targel
language as a learner, and seen how this factor i~lflue~lces the attitudes and tnotivation of
learners. The same person call be a leanler of two different languages at the same time, and
have a different general approach in each context. Here we see that a general 'mle' about
'the learner' need not always be applicable even to the sanle itldividual. We shall now turn
to look at sonle of the ltlore personal qualities of individuals that seen1to be relevatlt to their
behaviour as learners of language.
a) General scholastic ability
Difference ailloilg pupils in the speed aid effectiveiiess of leanliilg school subjects is
somethiiig we are all fa~niliarwith. The geueral mental ability that underlies scholastic
success is loosely called intelligence. The tern~s'bright' and 'clever' are also used to
indicate a high level of ine~ltiilability. The notion of intelligence is strongly linked to the
capacity 'to think', 'to reason logically', 'to solve abstract p r o b l e ~ t and
~ ' so on. It is true
that this capacity is very useful in copilig with schoolwork and doing well in fonnal written
exami~latio~ls. But we 111ust remenlber that itltellige~lcein this itarrow sense is not
absolutely essential for g~illingproficiency in a Laget language. This is the significance of
the fact that we noted in Unit 1 that persons who itever welit to school and are illiterate call
still be quite skilled a~idflueilt users of a language in its spoken form. Such'perso~lswould
not normally do well in conventional intelligence tests. Even so, their language
developilleilt seelns quite satisfactory. The point to be noted here is, that the so -
called'brigh?' pupils who get high 11mrks it1 tilost exa~tunatiotls,need not be the best
language learners. Other pupils who are probably classified as 'average' by teachers might
prove to be very good at language leanting. We must be careful not to u~lderestitnatetheir
ability.
b) Cognitive style
One of the i~lterestiugfitldiilgs of research itito hu~na~i
~lle~ital
or cognitive processes is that
individuals have certain typical or preferred styles of perceiving the e~lviromneent,thinking
and problem solving. ,These individual differences are not differences in the level of
cognitive ability, which would make sotne persoils more ~ucce~ssful it1 learning that1 others.
These styles are ge~lui~lely altenlative pattens - soinethi~lglike being left- handed or
right-handed. The research done in the. area of cognitive style and its impact on language
The Language Learuer
acquisitioiiflearning is discussed i11 unil 4 of this block. A few of these possible style
variations will be noted here:
(i) reflection vs. impulsiveness
Soine persons are relatively quick in coming to a conclusion or taking il decision, when
faced with an open-ended situation. Others tend to pause and reflect and consider various
possibilities fairly thoroughly before coiiiiiig to a decision. Obviously both styles have
advantages and disadvantages. Examples of classroom situations where these differences
might show up are
- selecting a question or an essay topic wheii a choice is provided;
- suggesting solutioils or approaches during the discussioii of soiiie probleni.
Any clilss will have a few pupils of both types. Pupils who tire impulsive rather than
reflective will probably nuke more mistakes. But they may also learxi inore because they
are more active.
(ii) risk-taking vs. cautiousness
This diineilsioii is related to how much coiifideiice about 'winning' or 'beiiig correct' a
person needs i11 order to act decisively. a s k takers are those who are prepared to 'take a
chance' even when they are not very sure they are going to be correct. They are not very
anxious about beiiig 'wroiig' soxnetixnes. Persons who are cautious on the other halid, will
not act or iilove forward uxiless they are quite sure they will be correct or successful in
doing soinething. They seem to be more coiicerned about avoiding fsilure or defeat thaii i11
gaining some successes at leiist. Pupils of both types are found in the typical ~ 1 ; ~ s .
Obviously the ways in which they tackle the saiile siluations and probleills will be different.
(iii) field-independencevs. field-dependence
This dinlension of difference among individuals is linked to their way of perceiving and
responding to the situations which they have to attend to. Sonle persons take in the whole
stiinulus situation (or field) and respond to this overall impression, without payiiig xiluch
attention to components and details. They also tend to be sensitive to the attitudes and
opinions of the people around them. Such persons are called field-dependent. Those whom
we call field-independent are illore likely to aiialyse a given situation aiid see parts aiid
relationships anlong parts. They pay less attention to the overall picture or lield. They arc'
likely to be more interested in the practical and technical aspects of problems to be tackled
thaii in working with others aiid iilakiiig teaillwork their priority.
Pupils who iim illore field dependent usually need more structuring and guidance from the
teacher. The relatively field - independent ones are more able to break down a general
requirement or job into smaller parts and start working towards these short term goals. For
ii~staiice,wheii a project or assiginnent is suggested, the latter type iiuy be able to pick up a
geileral idea aiid begiii to develop a plan more or less on their own. The others inay l i e d
inore g~idiincefrom the teacher about such a plan of action; they may also need more
support and reassurance from the teacher while working on the plan. It is inlportiint to note
here that these pupils iilt not 'weak' learners who need ii lot of spoonfeeding. They too can
tliiiik 011 tlieir own and produce higli quality work like their inore field - independent peers.
It is only their style of getting started and workiilg that is dil'i'erent.

(iv) divergent thinking vs. convergent thinking.

This diiiieusioii is based on the distiiictioii tliat is soiiletiiiie iilade between iiitelligeiice aiid
creativity. Some psychologists have suggested that there is ii sigiuficant difference between
solving given problems directly in iin expected or recommended illaniier and taking a fresh
look at the nature of the problem itself. In the former case, the fraiilework of the probleiil as
given (or commonly understood) is accepted and the correct or best solution is pursued in a
logical and systematic way. This type of problem solviiig is what we associate with
intelligence. The style is called convergent thinking, because the process seeins to be oiie
of narrowing down and gradually reaching the correct solution. The second style involves
raising questions about the problem itself and the way it has beell presented. This apprc>ach
may lead to reframiiig and reforxnulatiilg the problenl, aiid this nlakes uilexpected or
unconventional -- or creative -- solutioils or approaches possible. The ten11 divergent
thinking is used because of the process of opening up (rather than narrowing down ) that is
 Who are the Lei~rncr,
wf Language'?-!!
involved here. Many i111portant discoveries or fort~iulationsof new theories in various
fields have been associated with 'leaps of the imagination' or breaking out of the
conventional way of approaching problems.
It is easy to see that divergeut thi~lkiligis what lea& to new or original il~terpretationof
literary and other texts, and throws up the ideas or images that go into artistic production.
On the other hand, where the problems are such that 'rules' have to be followed rather than
broken, convergelit , thinking is 111oreappropriate.
c) Personality disposition
The qualities mentioned above are linked to ways of perceiving and thinking. An
individual's personality as we usually think of it has nlore to do with ways of behaving and
ways of relating to the social environment. Some of these dimensions of personality or
'nature' are:

(i) Outgoing (extroverted) vs. withdrawn (introverted)

(ii) Active and energetic vs. lethargic and sluggish
(iii) Positive self-concept vs. negative self-coucept
These dinle~aiotado not indicate neat categories. The nature or personality of individuals
cilll be mc>rein one direction than in the other. Various dispositions, such as these will
i~~fluence the way pupils behave or participate in class. They will ~nakecertain types of
activity or social situation ~llorecomfortable or acceptable to the individual, and similarly
certain other activities n~ighthe difficult or u~~pleasant. It is i111portant to r e ~ l ~ e n bhere,
er
too, that these ilre only different (and natural) ways of behaving; they are not directly linked
to high or low ability or capacity to learn.
d) Handicapped learners
A significant nun~berof pupils in schools have handicaps of various types. Some of them,
esl.>eciallypoor hearing call iliterfere considerably with the learning process. (A fuller
discl~ssionof these issues will be taken up in the optional Courses 4 Rr 5)
Cheek Your 1'1-ogress 3
1. There are four categories of cognitive styles mentioned. According to your experience
in the classroom, what are the cognitive styles which best bring about second
language learning? You may take up case histories of particular students in
answeril~ythis question.

3. Have you ever thought of your students' pemonality dispositio~ls?Go through the
register and niark them according to the categories mentioned. Then make an
analysis of these categories and the language learning ability of each student.
2.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN AND
-
IMPLEMENTATION (OR TEACHING)
In this unit we have seen that there are a wide variety of types of learners. Only a few of thr
more conlmonly found types have'been mentioned. We have noted that the chafilcteristics
that are associated with each type ciln influence the way (and sometimes the
effectivenesslsuccess) of responding to learning situations. Of course individual learnels
have their own unique qualities which are inlporta~ltfor their leanling. But these
differences cannot be known in advance and clearly planned for in designing a common
curriculun~.As we have already noted we realistically think in terms of sepamte
courses for itidividual pupils. What we cau do is make the general cumcvlunl flexible, so
that at the time. of implementation, some adjustn~entor accomnlodation to the. ne,eds of
actual leiir~lelscan be made. Curriculu~nplanners should try and get information about the
variability within the. group of leanlers being targeted by the coulse. It is true that all the
needs of different sub-groups callnot be met. The in~poatantpri~lciplehere is that we should
not assume that the chamcteristics of one sub-group that we know well are a proper
i~ldicatio~lof all other sub-groups. I1111~11yof our centralized state syllabuses for various
subjects, we can find a hiddem assunlption regarding the 'average' child. It seems to be
taken for granted that each child comes from an educated urban family, living iu a house
with ~llodenlamenities. A similar error in planni~lgan English cuniculu~llwould be to
assume that all pupils have contact with English and exposure to it in the ho111e and
neighhourhood. The general principle here is that the needs and styles of different groups
should be taken seriously.
How leanier characteristics call affect language leanling will be taken up in the discussion
in the next two units. Later, in Course 3, under the broad topic of testing, we shall look
Inore closely at how to assess lean~ercharacte,ristics using tests, questiounaires, etc,. The
main ail11 of the discussion here was to get an apprecistiol~of the. tremendous diversity and
vari;~bilityillllollg language learners.

-
2.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have made you aware that there are different types of learners, with
diffi-rent personality dispositions and cognitive styles. The.re are also differellt contexts for
leanling.
An understanding of these factors will help you appreciate your students and their language
leanli~~g
ahility, as well as make you more insightful in planning your syllabus and
cumculun~.
 Wb, are the Learners
ef hlgllage?-I1

2.7 KEY WORDS

Cognitive ally ~ n e i ~ tprocess

al which leanien ilia ke use of in
Process language leanling, suc.h as inferencing, generalimtion, monitoring,
memorizing, etc.
cognitive the particular way in which a learner tries to lean1 something.
style In second or foreign language learniling, different learners may prefer
different solutions to learning problems. For example, some learners may
wa 11t expla~~atio~ts
for granu~~iatical
rules, other iilay not require them.
Field a learning style in which a l a m e r tends to look at the whole of il learning
Dependent task which contains many items.
Field a leanii~lgstyle in which a leanier is able to identify or focus 011 particular
Independent itents and is not distracted by other ite~llsin the background or co~ltext.
Lhnguage the attitudes which speakers of different language or language varieties have
attitude towards eaclrdher's language or to their ow11language. The ease or difficulty
i l l learning a language is often reflected in positive or negative attitudes
towards il lanpage.
Attitudes towards a lal~guagemay also show what people feel about the
speakers of that language.
Motivation the factors that deternline a person's desire to do something.
Target the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a filst language or
language ~notllerto~lgue.

2.8 ANSWERS
Check your Progress - 1
1. See 2.1 for the alswer. You may co~lsidersollie of these poitlts in answering the
question.
Language Learning Learning Other Subjects
* a great deal takes place * occurs in a class roo^^^
outside the colltexts of the setting
school
* unplanned and ui~orga~lised * a set syllabus is followed
* not linked to teachers * teachers are required
to teach the subjects