RESEARCH ARTICLE

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Coherent Control of the Dynamics of Quantum Fisher

Information and Geometric Phase in a 1D Photonic Crystal
Waveguide
Negar Nikdel Yousefi and Ali Mortezapour*

to improve the accuracy of the estima-

It is aimed to study a hybrid quantum-classical system in which a qubit as a tion of quantum parameters. In this
quantum system coupled to a semi-infinite 1D photonic crystal (PC) context, multi-parameter quantum es-
waveguide, and is controlled by a classical driving field. PC waveguides with timation theory as a subsector rely-
engineering capability serve as engineered reservoirs where various ing on the quantum Fisher informa-
tion (QFI) theory determines the max-
manifestations of quantum mechanics can be studied. Here, the main imal achievable accuracy in estimating
purpose of the study is to evaluate the effect of coherent control on the parameters and is neatly formulated
dynamics of quantum Fisher information (QFI) and geometric phase (GP). It by Cramér–Rao theorem.[2] QFI reveals
is revealed that the intensity (the Rabi frequency) of the classical field, intrinsic information in the quantum
memory time, and geometric length of the waveguide are key variables whose state, regardless of the actual measure-
ment procedure.[3,4] It determines the
judicious choice aids in optimizing the estimation of the quantum parameters
maximum amount of information that
that are initially encoded in the qubit state. It is observed that the optical can be extracted from quantum exper-
length of the waveguide and the Rabi frequency of the classical field have an iments about unknown parameters us-
interplay effect on the dynamic of the QFI and geometric phase. As an ing ideal measurement devices.[5,6] Ow-
interesting finding, it is disclosed that as the Rabi frequency increases, the ing to the growing demand for im-
effect of the optical length of the waveguide fades away, and the Rabi proving the accuracy of estimation, as
a chief concern, in measuring param-
frequency solely controls the geometric phase. Moreover, it is demonstrated eters in all types of quantum systems,
that the estimation accuracy increases as the memory time decreases. On the the behaviors of QFI have been ex-
other hand, lengthening the memory time lessens the dependency of the tensively studied both theoretically and
geometric phase on the length of the waveguide. experimentally.[7–11] However, studies in
recent years have revealed wide connec-
tions between QFI and other aspects of
quantum mechanics, including quantum
1. Introduction thermodynamics,[12,13] quantum phase transition,[14] entan-
glement witness,[15] quantum speed limit[16,17] and non-
The increasing advancements in quantum information science Markovianity.[18–23] These connections indicate that QFI is
have provided plenty of opportunities for vast applications of more than a concept in quantum metrology, but rather a
quantum technology, such as quantum computation and quan- fundamental quantity in quantum mechanics.
tum metrology in quantum systems. Quantum metrology by ex- Geometric Phase (GP) is another strange phenomenon that
ploiting quantum features allows us to exceed the classical limit can be mathematically interpreted as a phase difference that a
for measurement precision and reach a point far beyond classi- system experiences in a cyclic adiabatic process of evolution. The
cal value. Moreover, it is becoming one of the pillars of future term “geometric phase” was coined by Pancharatnam in optics
quantum sensors owing to its potential benefits.[1] As a generic while he was working on polarized light.[23] About thirty years
definition, quantum meteorology is a sector that studies the mea- later, Berry revived this notion with his seminal theoretical work
surement within the quantum framework whose main goal is in a closed quantum system that undergoes adiabatic[24–26] and
cyclic[27–29] evolution. Berry encountered a total bipartite phase
change in his calculation. An expected part that was already fa-
N. N. Yousefi, A. Mortezapour miliar with and the system would acquire due to the dynamic
Department of Physics
evolution (dynamical phase) and an unfamiliar part that was ge-
University of Guilan
Rasht 41335–1914, Iran ometric in nature (geometric phase). He physically interpreted
E-mail: mortezapour@guilan.ac.ir the dynamical and geometric phases as an internal clock that
registers the time duration of evolution and as a system history
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article recorder that geometrically records the information of evolution,
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.202300361 respectively. Since the GP is rooted in the geometrical proper-
DOI: 10.1002/andp.202300361 ties of the parameter space of the Hamiltonian, it was speculated

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that it is a universal concept that can be applicable to any field
of physics, depending on the corresponding parameter space.[30]
On the other hand, the isolated (closed) system is an abstract idea
while in practice, a real (open) system inevitably interacts with its
environment to a lesser or greater extent where neither the state
is pure nor the evolution is unitary. Hence, these reasons aroused
interest to generalize the (GP) to non-adiabatic and open quan-
tum systems, although the redefinition of the GP, while the envi-
ronmental effects are included, is still open to debate. In this re-
gard, a variety of proposals have been put forward.[31–48] All of the
efforts are due to the appreciation of the significance of the GP
whether from the theoretical or technological perspective. Ow-
ing to the geometric nature of this phase, it may have intrinsic
resistance to external noise. Hence, one can exploit the potential
of the GP to meet the challenge of protecting an open quantum
system against noises which holds promise for making quantum
information processing robust.[49–54]
Although the GP may withstand the adverse environmental ef-
fect (decoherence), the precision in the measurement outcomes
becomes restricted.[52–54] Numerous proposals based on control-
ling QFI against environmental noise have been made to address
this issue.[55–61] In this context, photonic crystal (PC) structures
are served as tools for controlling qubit-photon interactions.[62]
Among the variety of PC structures, one-dimensional (1D) pho-
tonic crystal (PC) waveguides, where function as a QED system,
have attracted the attention of many researchers.[63,64] It is note-
worthy that 1D systems provide a foundation for the manifesta-
tion and investigation of broad quantum optical properties, such
as population trapping without decay,[65] giant Lamb shifts,[66]
and photon scattering due to the interference of the absorbed and
directly transmitted waves.[67] These properties can be used to
develop atomic light switches,[68] quantum computation,[69] en-
tanglement production,[70–72] quantum networks,[73] and single-
photon transistors.[74]
It is worth mentioning that PC waveguides due to possess-
ing some features, such as high guiding efficiency, compact size,
low loss, and design flexibility have superiority over other struc-
tured environments like cavities and photonic crystals. To further
elaborate, one can conveniently reach an optimum design for a
PC waveguide with very low loss by omitting defect structures of
the crystal and tailoring the geometrical dimensions. Moreover,
PC waveguides are highly tunable namely, the properties of the
waveguide can be readily changed by manipulating the period-
icity or geometry of the photonic crystal. Such capability enables
us to have precise control over the propagation of light within the
waveguide, which is crucial for some applications such as optical
communications and sensing. Finally, PC waveguides can be in-
tegrated with other photonic components such as photonic crys-
tals and microcavities to form complex photonic circuits. Such
integrations lead to the fabrication of innovative photonic devices
with enhanced functionality and performance.[75–77]
Apart from environmental engineering, classically controlling
a quantum system by driving fields, which plays a complemen-
tary role in protecting the system, will benefit the whole system.
Classical control is indeed an effective method to harness the
dynamics of open quantum systems and as a result quantum
resources.[45,21,78–85]
In this study, we consider a classically driven two-level quan-
tum dot (qubit) placed in a semi-infinite one-dimensional (1D)
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Figure 1. Schematic illustration of setup, consisting a triangular lattice of
air holes in the dielectric material, 1D waveguide whose end lies at x = 0
and coupled to a qubit (two-level quantum dot) at x = x0 .
photonic crystal (PC) waveguide as an engineered environment
to find the conditions under which the quantum properties of in-
terest are optimized. In particular, we assess the impact of both
the driving laser field and waveguide length on the time evolution
of quantum QFI of the qubit and the geometric phase.
The motivation behind the simultaneous study of the geomet-
ric phase and quantum Fisher information is to understand the
properties of quantum systems and their behavior under differ-
ent conditions. Moreover, we aimed to figure out how the QFI and
geometric phase are affected by changing the parameters, and ba-
sically, if there is a meaningful relationship between them. Since
the QFI is too fragile toward decoherence, one of our purposes
was to provide conditions to better shield it from decoherence
and consequently examine how the geometric phase is affected.
We had anticipated that both QFI and the geometric phase would
change by changing the memory time. Hence, we struggled to ex-
hibit these changes and discuss them. It is nothworthy that QFI
of a qubit driven by a phase noise laser under non-Markovian dy-
namics has been recently studied and it was disclosed that QFI
flow can be used to characterize the damping effect and unveil
a fundamental connection between non-Markovian behavior and
dynamics of system-environment correlations under phase noise
laser.[60]
The present paper is structured as follows: In Section 2, a
model in which a classically driven qubit is embedded in a single-
end (1D) waveguide is illustrated. Successively, the time evolu-
tion of the (QFI) is comparatively discussed in Section 3I. In Sec-
tion 4 the behavior of the (GP) is reported. Finally, an outline of
the main results is provided in Section 5.
2. Result and Discussion
The studied model is a combination of a single qubit driven
by a classical field of frequency 𝜔c and a semi-infinite one-
dimensional (1D) photonic crystal (PC) waveguide. Let us con-
sider a 2D triangular lattice of air holes drilled through the pho-
tonic crystal.[86,87] One can generate a deliberate linear defect
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Figure 2. Time evolution of F𝜙 for different values of the Rabi frequency of the classical driving field (Ω) in waveguides with various values of the optical
lengths of waveguide (𝜑𝓁 ); a)𝜑𝓁 = 𝜋∕2 b) 𝜑𝓁 = 𝜋 c)𝜑𝓁 = 3𝜋∕2 d)𝜑𝓁 = 2𝜋.Other parameters are taken as: 𝜃 = 𝜋∕2, 𝜙 = 𝜋∕4, Γtd = 0.5.

by omitting a couple of air holes in a row which leads to the
formation of a PC slab. The PC slab functions as a horizontal
1D semi-infinite waveguide which is geometrically restricted be-
tween x = 0 and x = x0 where the qubit is situated. The qubit
possessing the excited state |a⟩ and a ground state |b⟩ behaves as
a quantum emitter whose radiation is confined to travel through
the waveguide. Since the finite end of the waveguide acts as a per-
fect mirror, the emitted photon is reflected back to the qubit and
experiences a round trip.[88] A schematic illustration of the setup
is depicted in Figure 1.
Note that the emitted photon has the freedom to experience
a continuum of electromagnetic modes each one possessing fre-
quency 𝜔k and the corresponding wave vector k. one can straight-
forwardly expand the frequency around the qubit frequency and
keep the linear form namely,[62] 𝜔k ≈ 𝜔0 + 𝜐(k − k0 ) which is
termed dispersion relation. Note that 𝜐 = d𝜔 dk
| and k0 respec-
k=k0
tively characterize the photon group velocity and the carrier wave
vector (𝜔k0 = 𝜔0 ). Under the dipole and rotating-wave approxima-
tions, the associated Hamiltonian of the system can be written as
(ℏ = 1):
( )
𝜔0 ∑ ∑
̂ =
H 𝜎̂ z + 𝜔k â †k â k + gk â k 𝜎̂ + + Ωe−i𝜔c t 𝜎̂ + + c.c (1)
2 k k
ing (lowering) operator; â k (̂a†k ) represents the annihilation (cre-
ation) operator for the k-th field mode with frequency 𝜔k ; More-
over, Ω indicates the coupling constant between the qubit and the
classical driving field which is assumed to be both real and small
compared to the qubit and classical field frequencies. By applying
the unitary transformation U = e−i𝜔c 𝜎̂ z t∕2[89,90] to the Hamiltonian
in Equation (1), the effective Hamiltonian of the system in the ro-
tating reference frame can be acquired as:
H ̂I +H
̂ ef = H ̂ II
Ĥ I = Δ 𝜎̂ z + Ω𝜎̂ x
2 (2)
∑ ∑
̂ II =
H 𝜔k â †k â k + {gk â k e+i𝜔c t 𝜎̂ + +c.c.}
k k
where Δ = 𝜔0 − 𝜔c designates the detuning between the qubits;
and the classical driving field. By suggesting the dressed states
|A⟩ = sin[𝜂∕2]|b⟩ + cos[𝜂∕2]|a⟩ and
|B⟩ = cos[𝜂∕2]|b⟩ − sin[𝜂∕2]|a⟩ which are the eigenstates of
̂ I , the effective Hamiltonian can be transformed as follows,
H

𝜔ef ∑ ∑
where 𝜎̂ z = |a⟩⟨a| − |b⟩⟨b| is the Pauli matrix, 𝜔0 is the qubit tran- ̂ ef =
H ̂z+
℘ 𝜔k â †k â k + cos2 [𝜂∕2] ̂ + e+i𝜔c t +c.c.) (3)
{gk â k ℘
2
sition frequency; 𝜎̂ + = |a⟩⟨b| (𝜎̂ − = |b⟩⟨a|) denotes the qubit rais- k k

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Figure 3. Time evolution of F𝜙 for different values of Ω, 𝜑𝓁 . All the parameters are the same as Figure 2, except memory time which is Γtd = 5.

√
where 𝜔ef = Δ2 + 4Ω2 is the dressed qubit frequency and ℘ ̂z= straightforward manipulation, we obtain the following integro-
|A⟩⟨A| − |B⟩⟨B| denotes the fresh Pauli matrix. Moreover ℘ ̂+= differential equation of motion for C(t):
|A⟩⟨B| (℘ ̂ − = |B⟩⟨A|) represents the new raising (lowering) op-
√ t
erator and 𝜂 = Arc tan[2Ω∕Δ]. In addition, gk = Γ𝜐∕𝜋sin[kx0 ][75] ̇ + cos4 [𝜂∕2]
C(t) F(t, t′ )C(t′ )dt′ = 0 (6)
implies the coupling strength between the qubit and k-th mode ∫
in which Γ stands for the spontaneous emission rate of the qubit. 0

It is worthy of mention that we have discarded the terms of the ∑ ′

where the kernel F(t − t′ ) = k |gk |2 ei(𝜔ef −𝜔k )(t−t ) is the correlation
non-conservation of energy by employing the usual rotating-wave
function possessing the memory effect which is heavily depen-
approximation.
dent on the spectral density of the field. Since 𝜔k is continuous,
We assume the qubit is initially in a coherent superposi-
it is permissible to replace the sum over the modes with the in-
tion cos[𝜃∕2]|A⟩ + ei𝜙 sin[𝜃∕2]|B⟩ and the reservoir (waveguide) ∑
tegral according to the relation k |gk |2 → ∫ d𝜔J(𝜔).
modes in the vacuum state |0⟩, so that the total initial state
Here, J(𝜔) denotes the spectrum density of the field inside the
is[21,23,78,91]
PC waveguide which is given by[92]
|Ψ(0)⟩ = (cos[𝜃∕2] |A⟩ + ei𝜙 sin[𝜃∕2] |B⟩) |0⟩) (4) [ ]
| 𝜑
Γ t
J(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) = sin2 d (𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) + 𝓁 (7)
Thus, the time evolution of the state can be described through 4𝜋 2 2
the following equation;
where 𝜑𝓁 = 2k0 x0 represents the phase parameter which is twice
|Ψ(t)⟩ = cos[𝜃∕2]C(t) |A⟩ |0⟩ + ei𝜙 sin[𝜃∕2] |B⟩ |0⟩ the optical length of the waveguide (i.e., the length between qubit
|
∑ and mirror). Moreover, the photon performs a round trip within
+ cos[𝜃∕2] Ck (t) |B⟩ ||1k ⟩ (5) the elapsed time of td = 2x0 ∕𝜐 (time delay) which implies the en-
k vironmental memory time.
̇ as
Inserting the Equation (7) into Equation (6) recasts C(t)
where |1k ⟩ indicates the state with a single photon in k-th mode
with frequency 𝜔k , i.e., |1k ⟩ = â †k |0⟩. By substituting Equation (5)
into the time-dependent Schrödinger equation and after some ̇ = − Γ C(t) + Γ C(t − td )ei(2Ωtd +𝜑𝓁 ) Θ(t − td )
C(t) (8)
8 8

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|𝜆 ⟩ = 𝛼 |A⟩ + 𝛽 |B⟩
| 1
(12)
|𝜆2 ⟩ = 𝛽 ∗ |A⟩ − 𝛼 ∗ |B⟩
|
|𝜌12 | (𝜆1 −𝜌11 )
in which 𝛼 = √ ,𝛽 = √ .
|𝜌12 |2 +|𝜆1 −𝜌11 |2 |𝜌12 |2 +|𝜆1 −𝜌11 |2

2.1. Quantum Fisher Information

Quantum Fisher information (QFI) is a key quantity in quan-

tum estimation theory that appears in Cramér–Rao inequality
and serves as an indicator of the maximal achievable estimation
precision. Meanwhile, the main task of quantum estimation the-
ory is to optimize the estimated value of unknown parameters
in order to extract the maximum amount of information. In this
context, we are interested in finding the optimal estimation pre-
cision of the angle parameters 𝜃 and 𝜙 encoded into the initial
state of the qubit. Considering this fact that no one could pre-
cisely estimate the unknown parameter since there always is a
minimal indelible estimation error which is quantified through
the quantum Cramér–Rao inequality:[2,93–95]

1
𝛿qest ≥ √ (13)
nFq

where 𝛿q is the root-mean square of q, n is the number of re-

peated measurements (in this paper for the sake of simplicity,
we consider n = 1), and Fq denotes the (QFI) defined as Fq =
Tr[𝜌q L2q ] where L is the so-called symmetric logarithmic deriva-
tive (SLD) operator which is given by 𝜕q𝜌q = (Lq 𝜌q + 𝜌q Lq )∕2,
with 𝜕q = 𝜕∕𝜕q).[80,21] Using spectral decomposition of the q-
∑
dependent density matrix 𝜌q = m 𝜆m |𝜙m ⟩⟨𝜙m |, where 𝜆m and
|𝜙m ⟩ respectively stand for eigenvalues and eigenstates, the ex-
plicit form of the QFI is acquired as[84,94,95]
Figure 4. F𝜙 as a function of Ω for different values phase 𝜑𝓁 . Other pa- ∑ 2 | |2
rameters are taken as: 𝜃 = 𝜋∕2, 𝜙 = 𝜋∕4, a) Γtd = 0.5 and b) Γtd = 5. Fq = |⟨𝜙 | 𝜕 𝜌 |𝜙 ⟩| (14)
m,n
𝜆 m + 𝜆n | m | q q | n |

where Θ(t) stands for the Heaviside step function. Taking the In general, regarding Equation (14), our ultimate aim is to
Laplace transform of Equation (8) yields devise an experimental setup and successively sift through the
achieved data to select the optimal ones to minimize the uncer-
̃ = 1
C(s) Γ
(9) tainty in the estimated parameters (𝛿qest ) which is related to the
s+ 8
− Γ8 ei(2Ωtd +𝜑𝓁 ) e−std maximizing the (QFI) of parameter q encoded in the quantum
system. Hence, in this section, our purpose is to realize how one
Successively, one can obtain the probability amplitude C(t) by can increase the accuracy of the initial state vector parameters (𝜙
numerically solving the above equation. Subsequently the time- and 𝜃) estimation by changing the optical length of the waveguide
dependent reduced density matrix of the qubit 𝜌(t) in the basis (phase 𝜑𝓁 ) and Rabi frequency of the classical driving field.
{|A⟩, |B⟩} can be achieved as: In Figure 2, we assess the impact of the various values of the
[ ] Rabi frequency of the classical field (Ω) on the time evolution
𝜌 𝜌12
𝜌(t) = 11 (10) of (QFI) F𝜙 for the waveguides with different optical lengths of
𝜌21 𝜌22
waveguide (phase 𝜑𝓁 ), considering the memory time Γtd = 0.5.
As can be seen, for 𝜑𝓁 = 𝜋∕2 variation of the values of the Rabi
with 𝜌11 = cos2 [ 𝜃2 ]|C(t)|2 , 𝜌12 = 𝜌∗21 = 2 e−i𝜙 C(t), 𝜌22 = 1 − 𝜌11 .
sin[𝜃]
frequency does not appreciably affect the dynamics of F𝜙 . How-
The corresponding eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the density
ever, for the case possessing𝜑𝓁 = 𝜋, applying the classical field
matrix 𝜌(t) are determined as
and increasing its intensity has an appreciable and beneficial ef-
{ √ } fect on maintainingF𝜙 and as a result, improving the estimation
1 2
sin2 [𝜃]||C(t)|| + (2cos2 [𝜃∕2]||C(t)|| − 1) of parameter 𝜙 for larger time values. In contrast when𝜑𝓁 = 2𝜋,
2 2
𝜆1,2 = 1± (11)
2 applying the classical field and increasing its intensity adversely

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Figure 5. F𝜃 as a function of Ω for different values of 𝜑𝓁 . Other parameters are taken as: Column (I): 𝜃 = 𝜋∕2, 𝜙 = 𝜋∕4; Column (II): 𝜃 = 𝜋∕4, 𝜙 = 𝜋∕4.
The memory time in panels a,b) Γtd = 0.5 and c,d) Γtd = 5.
affects the (QFI) and consequently worsens the estimated results.
So that in the absence of classical field, (QFI) possesses its maxi-
mum value and constantly sustains this value. For the waveguide
with 𝜑𝓁 = 3𝜋∕2, the presence of the classical field is effective, but
since it does not conform to a predictable pattern, it is not guar-
anteed that increasing the intensity of the classical field will nec-
essarily improve the estimation.
Now, let us repeat this scenario once again and replot the time
evolution of the (QFI) for the same conditions but for a bigger
value of memory time with Γtd = 5 in Figure 3. We are curious
to find out how the (QFI) reacts to such modification. As it is ev-
ident, the dynamics of F𝜙 is still heavily dependent on the values
of the Ω, and 𝜑𝓁 , and an interplay between these two parame-
ters leads F𝜙 to experiencing a non-zero steady value. As a com-
mon result among the subplots, for t ≤ td , F𝜙 decays exponen-
tially, while for t > td , owing to the appearance of non-Markovian
behavior in the system, such a sharp drop in F𝜙 is restrained and
it reaches a non-zero steady value with a gentle slope. Of course,
depending on the value of 𝜑𝓁 , this occurs for different values of
Ω. It is noteworthy that the stability of the F𝜙 value is rooted in the
formation of an qubit-photon bound state in the system. Since the
end of the waveguide is assumed to behave as a perfect mirror,
the emitted photon bounces forward and backward between the
qubit and the end of the waveguide in a cycle of emission from
and reabsorption by the qubit. Such occurrence leads to the trap-
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ping of the information and as a result, the protection of (QFI)
for longer times by the system.
The possibility of finding non-zero steady states for F𝜙 moti-
vates us to study the behavior of the steady state value of F𝜙 versus
Ω in more detail. Therefore, Figure 4 displays the steady states of
F𝜙 as a function of Ω for different values of phase 𝜑𝓁 . The mem-
ory time is assumed to be Γtd = 0.5 and Γtd = 5 in panels (a) and
(b), respectively. As it is obvious, the curves of the steady state
of F𝜙 in terms of Ω conform to a periodic pattern regardless of
the value of memory time and phase 𝜑𝓁 . Of course, let us stress
that changing 𝜑𝓁 gives rise to the shift in the peaks of F𝜙 with
maintaining their maximum values. Therefore, it is revealed that
for any arbitrary values of 𝜑𝓁 , there are optimal periodic values
of Ω for which the phase of the qubit can be estimated with high
accuracy for an extended period of time. In addition, the estima-
tion accuracy (maximum achievable value for F𝜙 ) increases as the
memory time td decreases.
Now we intend to investigate F𝜃 as a function of Ω for various
values of phase 𝜑𝓁 whose results are presented in Figure 5. In
general, it is observed that the dynamics of F𝜃 almost follows the
same pattern as F𝜙 . This figure reaffirms that applying a classi-
cal field to a qubit coupled to a photonic crystal waveguide and
manipulating its intensity enables us to control the (QFI) re-
lated to the parameter whether 𝜃 or 𝜙 in the initial state of the
qubit. Based on these findings and making an analogy, one can
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Figure 6. Geometric phase Φg as a function of 𝜃 for the different values of 𝜑𝓁 with Δ = 0. Column (I) corresponds the memory time Γtd = 0.5 and
Column (II) corresponds the memory time Γtd = 5. The panels correspond to various values of the Rabi frequency of the classical field: a,b) Ω = 0.1 and
panels c,d) Ω = 1.

conveniently identify the optimal values of the 𝜑𝓁 and Ω for tomize the general qubit (GP) for our specific system, it is neces-
which the maximal accuracy of the quantum estimation of the sary to first calculate the eigenvalues and eigenstates of the den-
parameter 𝜃 can be obtained. It is noteworthy, panels (a) and (b) sity matrix 𝜌(t) of Equation (10) as:
of Figure 5 having the memory time 0.5, provide the reliable evi-
√
dence in support of this claim. 1
𝜀± (t) = {1 ± |C(t)|2 sin2 [𝜃] + (2|C(t)|2 cos2 [𝜃∕2] − 1)2 } (16)
2
⟩
2.2. Geometric Phase |𝜀+ (t) = e−i𝜔ef t∕2 cos Θ |A⟩ + e−i𝜔ef t∕2 sin Θ |B⟩
|
(17)
In this section, we extend our study by assessing the impact of |𝜀− (t)⟩ = −e−i𝜔ef t∕2 sin Θ |A⟩ + e−i𝜔ef t∕2 sin Θ |B⟩
|
key variables, including the intensity of the classical driving field,
the geometric length of the waveguide, and memory time on the Where
geometric phase (GP) of the system. Therefore, it is required to
initially calculate the (GP) for a mixed state of the qubit under 2(|C(t)|2 cos2 [𝜃∕2] − 𝜀− (t))
non-unitary evolution. For this purpose, we employ the kinematic cos Θ = √ (18)
method introduced by Tong et al. in Ref., [96] according to which |C(t)|2 sin2 [𝜃] + 4(|C(t)|2 cos2 [𝜃∕2] − 𝜀− (t))2
the GP of the qubit is acquired as[82]
{ } Since 𝜀_(0) = 0, the “+ mode” solely contributes to the GP.
∑√ Thus, the GP of the qubit after a period T = 2𝜋∕𝜔ef can be
𝜀i (0)𝜀i (T) ⟨𝜀i (0)|| 𝜀i (T)⟩ e− ∫0 dt⟨𝜀i (t)| 𝜕t |𝜀i (t)⟩
T 𝜕
Φg = arg (15)
straightforwardly obtained using Eq. (18) as:
i

where 𝜀i (0), 𝜀i (T) and |𝜀i (0)⟩, |𝜀i (T)⟩ (i = 1, 2) respectively indi- T

cate the instantaneous eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the re- Φg = 𝜔ef cos2 Θdt (19)
∫
duced density matrix of the qubit at times t = 0. In order to cus- 0

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Figure 7. Geometric phase Φg as a function of Ω for different values of 𝜑𝓁 . Other parameters are taken as 𝜃 = 𝜋∕4, Δ = 0. The memory time for panel
a) Γtd = 0.5, b) Γtd = 5.
This neat and explicit expression enables us to unveil the be-
havior of the GP in terms of the key parameters.
Along this route, the GP (Φg ) as a function of the angle 𝜃 for
various values of the phase 𝜑𝓁 has been plotted in Fig 6. As it
is abundantly clear, for both values of td , the GP in all panels
has a parabolic curve. To illustrate, when 𝜃 = 0 the GP has its
maximum value, then it gradually decreases until it completely
vanishes at 𝜃 = 𝜋 and again revives and reaches its maximum
value at 𝜃 = 2𝜋. Therefore, it is deduced that the correct selec-
tion of the parameter 𝜃 (the initial state vector of the qubit) plays
a crucial role in the value of the GP. The interesting finding
is that when Ω = 1 and Γtd = 5) panel (d)(, all the curves per-
fectly coincide which means the (GP) is independent of 𝜑𝓁 . It
is also seen in both columns that by changing Ω, the GP un-
dergoes considerable changes. Hence, to gain a better and thor-
ough understanding of the relationship between the value of the
Rabi frequency and the GP, we plot the Φg as a function of Ω
for different values of 𝜑𝓁 in Fig. 7. It is seen that by increasing
the value of Ω, GP grows from its minimum value and eventu-
ally reaches a constant value. This behavior is generally common
among the plots. Although, by magnifying the first part of the
curves it is observed that the difference in the values of 𝜑𝓁 al-
ters the path leading to the constant value. Moreover, this figure
clearly shows that only for the small Rabi frequencies, 𝜑𝓁 inter-
venes in the trend of Φg . So that, as the intensity of the Rabi fre-
quency increases, the effect of 𝜑𝓁 fades away, and the behavior
of the GP becomes independent of the value of 𝜑𝓁 . Additionally,
lengthening the memory time lessens the dependency of the GP
on 𝜑𝓁 .
3. Conclusion
To summarize, we have carried out a study on a classically driven
qubit coupled to a 1D PC waveguide. We aimed to assess the
impact of key variables such as the Rabi frequency of the clas-
sical driving field (Ω), memory time (td ), and optical length of
the waveguide (phase 𝜑𝓁 ) on the dynamics of (QFI) (F𝜃 and F𝜙 )
and geometric phase (Φg ). The manipulation of these variables
Ann. Phys. (Berlin) 2024, 536, 2300361 2300361 (8 of 10)
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aids us in finding an optimal situation for which the quantum
parameters can be estimated with high accuracy. It is revealed
that Ω and 𝜑𝓁 have an interplay effect on the dynamics of the
quantum Fisher information. So that, depending on the length
of the waveguide, applying and intensifying the classical driving
field can have either beneficial or detrimental effects on achiev-
ing the maximum value of the steady state of the quantum Fisher
information. Moreover, it is demonstrated that the estimation ac-
curacy (maximum achievable value for F𝜙 ) increases as the mem-
ory time decreases. In general, it is observed the dynamics of F𝜃
almost follow the same pattern as F𝜙 which reaffirms the fact
that applying a classical field to a qubit coupled to a photonic
crystal waveguide and manipulating its intensity can be served
as a tool to control the (QFI) related to the parameter (whether
𝜃 or 𝜙) encoded in the initial state of the qubit. On the other
hand, by analyzing the (GP) diagrams, it is deduced that an ap-
propriate selection of the parameter 𝜃 and the Rabi frequency of
the classical driving field play a crucial role in the value of the
geometric phase. As an interesting finding, it is disclosed when
Ω = 1 and Γtd = 5 the (GP) becomes independent of 𝜑𝓁 . Further-
more, it is seen that by increasing the value of the Rabi frequency
of the classical driving field, the (GP) grows from its minimum
value and eventually gets stable. A remarkable point is that as the
intensity of the Rabi frequency increases, the effect of 𝜑𝓁 fades
away, and the Rabi frequency solely controls the geometric phase.
Moreover, it is worth noting that lengthening the memory time
lessens the dependency of the (GP) on 𝜑𝓁 (the optical length of
the waveguide).
Finaly, we aim to culminate our study by discussing the feasi-
bility of the proposed model from the experimental perspective.
For our model, InGaAs quantum dot best exemplifies our qubit
that can be coupled to a planar GaAs photonic crystal.[97] The
mentioned photonic crystal waveguide can be produced through
electron beam lithography,[98] and the electrohydrodynamic jet
printing method can be employed to manipulate the position of
the embedded quantum dot.[99] Moreover, the strength of the cou-
pling between the quantum dot and waveguide can be adjusted
using current technologies.
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www.advancedsciencenews.com
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the cor-
responding author upon reasonable request.
Keywords
classical driving field, geometric phase, quantum fisher information, rabi
frequency, waveguide
Received: August 13, 2023
Revised: December 31, 2023
Published online: January 22, 2024
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