Document preparation by Rohan Perera

(114)
ENGINE DYNAMICS AND VIBRATIONS

BALANCING

All rotating parts are subjected to two kinds of unbalance.

They are called static unbalance and dynamic unbalance.

The unbalanced condition in both cases can be readily determined and corrected by counterbalancing.

A static balancing test is conducted by placing the two ends of the rotating part on perfectly smooth,
horizontal, and parallel rails. If statically unbalanced, the part will roll on the rails until its center of gravity
reaches its lowest position and then it will come to rest.

If, however, its center of gravity lies along its axis it will remain at rest when placed in any position, and it is
then in static balance.

It frequently occurs that the center of gravity of a body lies in its axis of rotation but that its irregular shape
or composition generates a disturbing force when the body is rotated. In this case the body would be in
static balance and in dynamic unbalance. In general, before balancing ,most rotating parts are in both
static and dynamic unbalance.

In all cases, complete balancing can be obtained by attaching weights to the rotating body, if the position
and degree of unbalancing are known.

For determining this unbalance all naval shipyards are equipped with balancing machines. Experience with
large and high speed machinery has shown that balancing machines show good results but do not insure
against excessive vibration in service. This is due to the low speeds used with the balancing machines.

Diesel engines in the service must operate over a wide speed range usually, and for this reason they are not
accepted until after they have been tried at all speeds at which they must operate when installed in service.
In any event, all rotating parts of the engine should be as accurately balanced as possible.

Forces Acting in a Single-Cylinder Engine and Irregularity of Crankshaft Rotation

It is known that the connecting rod-crank mechanism serves to convert the reciprocating motion of the
piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.

Let US consider the forces set up in the connecting rod-crank mechanism of a single-cylinder engine.
Document preparation by Rohan Perera
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
(115)
During the expansion stroke, coming on the piston are a force due to the gas pressure and an inertia force of
the reciprocating parts.

While the former varies with the crank angle, the latter equaling the product of the acceleration of the parts
and their mass varies directly with crankshaft speed.

The resultant of the forces, referred to as the motive force P, is applied to the centre of the piston pin, and
transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.

The motive force, is resolved into two components N and S (Fig. 19a - d).

The normal component force N presses the piston against the cylinder liner in a trunk-type engine or the
shoe against the corresponding guide in a cross-head engine.

This force, varying in both direction and magnitude, produces a recurrent piston thrust against the opposite
sides of the cylinder liner.

It also gives rise to an overturning moment about an arm equal to the distance between the axis of the
piston pin and the crankshaft axis.

The moment, opposing the direction of crankshaft rotation, is taken up by the bolts holding down the engine
to the bedplate.

Bringing the second components force S (see Fig. 19a-d) down the line of its action and applying it to the
crankpin centre, we resolve it in two components:

A force T tangential to the crankpin and a force Z coinciding with the crankpin radius.

Multi Cylinder Engine

The crankshaft of a multi-cylinder engine, set to rotate by the torques produced by all the cylinders in
succession, will operate more regularly than the crankshaft of the single cylinder engine.

However, the torques will not coincide in time, because the cranks are arranged at certain angles to each
other rather than in the same plane.

This implies that the recurrence of torque alterations increases directly with the number of cylinders and the
irregularity of crankshaft rotation decreases.

Comparing the continuously altering engine torque with the moment due to the force resisting crankshaft
rotation, provided this moment is assumed to be constant when the engine is in a steady operating
condition, we can see that the torque exceeds the moment at the instants of cylinders' firing and is less than
the moment during the intermissions.

The two situations are referred to as surplus torque and torque deficiency, respectively, and cause irregular
crankshaft rotation.

Defining this irregularity is the so-called irregularity factor of the engine which is the ratio of the difference
between the maximum and minimum angular velocities of the crankshaft and the mean angular velocity
throughout a cycle of torque alterations.

The lower the irregularity factor, the more steadily is the crankshaft rotation.

Fly Wheel

To minimize the irregularity of crankshaft rotation, use is commonly made of a flywheel fitted to the aft end
of the crankshaft.

It functions as an accumulator of the energy of the gyrating masses storing it at the periods of surplus
torque and supplying the stored energy during the periods of torque deficiency.

This lessens the irregularity of crankshaft rotation.

Document preparation by Rohan Perera
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera

(116)
Since flywheels carry high inertia loads, they must be manufactured with great care; cracks, pits and other
detects are not permissible.

A gear ring of the barring gear is cut in the flywheel rim.

Flywheels are not the only means of checking crankshaft rotation, the alternative is to increase the number
of cylinders.

Diesel engines having more than twelve cylinders commonly dispense with the flywheel, its function being
taken care of by the gyrating masses of the connecting rod-crank mechanisms.

Firing Order of Cylinders

To obtain better regular crankshaft rotation, the cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine are arranged to fire in
equal intervals.

Expressed in terms of the angle on the crankshaft, this interval is 720/z on a four-stroke engine and 360/z
on a two-stroke one, where z is the number of cylinders.

TABLE 3 - Firing Order of Two- and Four-Stroke Engines

Consequently, the crank angles of a four-stroke six-cylinder engine are 120 deg each and those of an eight-
cylinder diesel are 90 deg each. In the case of two-stroke engines with the equal number of cylinders as
indicated above, the crank angles are 60 deg and 45 deg each, respectively.
However, the above angles do not indicate the way the cranks are arranged in the order of their succession.
Document preparation by Rohan Perera
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
(117)
They are set up with reference to a specific order established with a view to relieving the crankshaft journals
between the adjacent cylinders from excessive loads, unavoidable if these cylinders would fire in succession.

So, by way of illustration, the cranks of a four-stroke six-cylinder engine are arranged pair wise and
unidirectionally in the same plane, the cranks of No.1 and No.6 cylinders making an angle of 120 deg with
the cranks of Nos. 2,5 and Nos. 3,4 cylinders and the two last numbered pairs making the same angle with
each other.

For the crank arrangements and firing orders adopted in various engines depending on the type and number
of cylinders see Table 3.

Static Balancing

It implies that the shaft is stationary or stops at a different position,if rotated when supported between
centres.

The sum of all moments taken about its centre of rotation should be zero at any angular position. It is done
by placing counter weights to balance the moments so that their sum becomes zero.

Dynamic Balancing of Engines

Coming into play in each cylinder of a running engine is an inertia force of the translating masses of the
connecting rod-crank mechanism and an inertia force of the unbalanced gyrating masses.

The former is an alternating force in line with the cylinder axis which tends either to tear the engine off the
foundation or to press it against the foundation by turns depending on the direction of action.

The latter acts along the crank web and is constant at any angle on the crankshaft at a given engine speed.
It tends either to shift the engine off the foundation, or overturn it.

Both these forces induce foundation vibration.

Moreover, the two inertia forces give rise to moments. Those due to the inertia forces of the unbalanced
gyrating masses act in the vertical and horizontal planes whereas the moments set up by the inertia forces of
the reciprocating masses are confined to the vertical plane.

The process of eliminating the unbalanced inertia forces together with the moments they produce
is referred to as the dynamic balancing of an engine.

In designing a new engine, a calculation of the unbalanced forces is necessary .

The unbalanced inertia forces of the gyrating masses are then offset by fitting balance weights to crank
webs.

The elimination of these forces nullifies the moments they produce. Once each of the cranks has been
balanced, all the inertia forces of the gyrating masses of the engine become balanced, as well.

A prudent layout of multi-cylinder engines, i.e. one providing for the right number of cylinders and an
appropriate spacing of the cranks apart from each other facilitates the balancing.

So, the theory and practice of marine engineering have proved that four-stroke engines with six or more
cylinders are at a perfect balance, provided the number of the cylinders is even.

This does not apply to two-stroke engines which have always a moment of inertia forces causing an
unbalance, no matter how small this moment may be.

On the other hand, two-stroke engines materially add to their balance with an increase in the number of the
cylinders.

Not infrequent are the cases when a two-stroke engine with an odd number of cylinders appears to be
better balanced than a four-stroke engine having the even number of cylinders.

This is why two-stroke engines with seven or nine cylinders enjoy wide-spread application.
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
(118)
VIBRATION

It is not possible to balance out all the forces producing vibration in an engine. However, the primary or
principal forces may be almost entirely balanced by the addition of weights to the crankshaft or connecting
rods at the proper places.

There are five principal causes of vibrations in combustion engines:

Unbalanced rotating parts .

Unbalanced reciprocating parts .
Combustion cyclic variations .
Cyclic variations in the inertial force of reciprocating parts .
Variations in torque and torque reaction .

During normal operation, the chief cause of vibrations is fluctuating engine torque –more so on four cylinder
engines than six cylinder engines since the torque impulses are further apart on four cylinder engines. The
turning force (torque) imposed on the crankshaft occurs on each power stroke and causes uneven torque
loading because internal combustion engines are pulsating flow devices. Torque vibrations are transmitted to
the engine frame primarily from the cylinder walls, and, to a lesser extent, from the crankshaft. Torque is
made up of two forces: inertia and gas pressure

There are two categories of engine vibrations:

Abnormal Vibrations - Vibrations caused by a component rotating the same speed as the engine's
crankshaft, a belt-driven accessory, or a gear-driven component that is out-of-round, out-of-balance.

Abnormal engine vibrations can also be caused by piston slap, excessive valve lash, excessive bearing
clearances, deformation of parts under stress, crankshaft and camshaft deformations, etc.

Normal Vibrations - Vibrations caused by normal engine operating characteristics such as: cylinders firing
events, rocking motions, crankshaft deflection, exhaust pulsations, etc.

All engines have vibrations which are a normal part of the engine running; however, they should not be felt
in the passenger compartment.

If the source of the vibration is a normal engine operating characteristic, do not attempt engine repairs
because there is nothing wrong. Instead, the transfer path for the vibration must be repaired.

CRANKSHAFT VIBRATIONS

Due to their mechanical design, all internal combustion engines are subjected to two different sources of
vibration, that may cause the engine itself to vibrate seriously, namely,

1.Torsional Vibrations, and

2. Engine unbalance
vibrations

TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS

These vibrations are caused by

the irregular turning or torques
on the crankshaft, due to the
firing strokes of the different
cylinders.

This force tends to twist the

crankpin ahead of the rest of the crankshaft. And when the force against the crankpin recedes, it tends to
untwist or move back into its original relationship with the rest of the crankshaft.

This twist – untwist action, repeated with every power impulse, tends to set up an oscillating motion in the
crankshaft. This is shown in the above figure.
Document preparation by Rohan Perera
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
(119)
When the period of these vibrations coincides with the natural period of vibration of the crankshaft, this
resonance effect is liable to make the vibrations increase to such an extent that the crankshaft is severely
stressed above its designed values.

Each time the air/fuel mixture inside a cylinder is ignited, the combustion that results creates a torque spike
- an extremely rapid rise in cylinder pressure. This pressure, applied to the top of the piston, becomes the
force that is applied to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. Each torque spike is like a hammer blow.
In fact, it hits with sufficient intensity that it not only causes the crankshaft to turn, it actually deflects or
twists it.

This twisting action and the resulting rebound (as the crank arm snaps back in the opposite direction) is
known as torsional harmonic vibration. If not adequately controlled, torsional vibration causes rapid main
bearing and main journal wear and possible crankshaft breakage.

Unchecked torsional vibrations can cause:

• Crankshaft Cracking or Failure

• Excessive Bearing Wear
• Excessive Gear Wear or Failure
• Broken Accessory Drives
• Throwing or Slapping of Belts

Flexural vibrations.

The bending of the parts of the engine framing such as the bedplate, crankcase, or similar members, results
in flexural vibrations.

The cause of flexural vibration lies in the faulty balance of the rotating and reciprocating masses of the
engine and the presence of the so-called free forces or rocking couples. It may be manifest in the horizontal
or vertical planes and may in turn be the cause of vibration
of surrounding structures, such as the ship's hull in marine
installations. This type of vibration does not depend on the
way the engine is coupled to its load, and if an engine does
not vibrate on test, no vibrations will develop after it is
placed in service.

VIBRATION DAMPERS

Purpose of the Vibration Damper

The power impulses of an engine result in torsional

vibration in the crankshaft. A vibration damper mounted on
the front of the crankshaft controls this vibration (figure at
right).

If this torsional vibration were not controlled, the

crankshaft might actually break at certain speeds. Most
types of vibration dampers resemble a miniature clutch.

A friction facing is mounted between the hub face and a

small damper flywheel. The damper flywheel is mounted on
the hub face with bolts that go through rubber cones in
the flywheel.

These cones permit limited circumferential movement

between the crankshaft and damper flywheel.

That reduces the effects of the torsional vibration in the crankshaft. Several other types of vibration dampers
are used;however, they all operate in essentially the same way

The purpose of the vibration damper is to reduce the torsional vibrations in the crankshaft or camshaft and
to keep the material stresses within acceptable limits thereby eliminating the risk of failure.
Document preparation by Rohan Perera
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
(120)
Harmonic Balancer

Tuned absorber type of "dampers" often referred to as a harmonic dampers or harmonic balancers.

Fortunately, harmonic vibration can be controlled by a vibration damper - which is also called a harmonic
damper or erroneously a "harmonic balancer". The main purpose of a "harmonic damper" is to control
harmonic vibration, not necessarily to balance the engine's rotating assembly.

Harmonic dampers are called by a wide range of varied names. In truth they are all torsional vibration
dampers. Terms like crank pulleys, balancers, power pulley etc are to varying degrees erroneous.

The term harmonic balancer comes from some manufacturers using the hub as a convenient location for
external mass balance weights. The reason for this is that it made fine tuning of engine vibration simply done
by adding or removing weight from the mass balance.

Although harmonics occur over a broad range of engine speeds, rubber and elastomer-type dampers are
frequency sensitive - they are tuned only to control harmonic vibrations that occur within a narrow band of
rpm.
VISCOUS TORSIONAL VIBRATION DAMPERS

Most high horse power engines are equipped with one or two viscous dampers attached to the front end of
the crankshaft .

When the crankshaft rotates uniformly, without experiencing any torsional vibrations the intertia mass in the
housing also rotates without any slippage occurring. When vibration amplitudes are superimposed, a relative
motion takes place between the housing and intertia mass.

The resultant forces generate alternating stresses in the silicone fluid. The sum of these stresses over the
gap surface between the intertia mass and housing, results in a damping action.

A worn out viscous damper leaves the crankshaft torsional vibration unchecked and can cause costly engine
damage. Replacement intervals vary
depending on engine manufacturer, and
type of service.

Dampers should be replaced or

remanufactured at major engine rebuild
intervals to assure the crankshaft is
properly protected. This will also reduce
premature bearing wear, gear wear, and
avoid loosening of intertia mass or pulley
bolts and throwing or slapping of belts

PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE OF
VISCOUS DAMPERS

Preventative Maintenance is critical

for longer engine life. Inspect
Viscous Dampers regularly to avoid
costly engine damage.
A worn out viscous damper leaves
crankshaft torsional vibration unchecked,
and can cause costly engine damage.
That's why regular damper replacement
or remanufacturing of the damper is
critical to longer engine life. While
recommended replacement intervals
vary depending on engine manufacturer
and severity of service, the average is
about 25.000 to 30000 hours, 360,000
miles or at major engine rebuilds, regardless of condition.
Document preparation by Rohan Perera
 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
(121)
A worn out viscous damper leaves the crankshaft torsional vibration unchecked and can cause costly engine
damage. Replacement intervals vary depending on engine manufacturer, and type of service.

Dampers should be replaced or remanufactured at major engine rebuild intervals to assure the crankshaft is
properly protected. This will also reduce premature bearing wear, gear wear, and avoid loosening of inertia
mass or pulley bolts and throwing or slapping of belts.

VISCOUS DAMPER CONSTRUCTION

All Heavy Duty Components Viscous Vibration dampers are manufactured to OEM specifications. Shown
below are two typical construction photos.

This is also an accepted design still used on some

models but, in many cases has been replaced by a
welded cover or bolted cover design.

Cross-Sectional Drawing of a Viscous Damper,

Bolted Design
(Damper for Stationary and Propulsion
Application) (above page)

(Below)
Cross-Sectional Drawing of a Viscous Damper
Truck-Damper,

(Laser Welded)

Signs of a Faulty Damper

 Fluid leakage from the cover or filler plugs

 Nicks dents or damage on the damper
 Bulged or raised cover, protruding sealant
 Rattling sound
 Heat buildup due to other components rubbing
on the damper

Unchecked Engine Vibration can cause

 Cracked or broken crankshaft

 Excessive bearing wear
 Excessive gear wear or failure
 Loosening pulley or flywheel bolts
 Failure of other rotating or reciprocating engine components
 Loss of horsepower

Viscous dampers should be replaced or remanufactured at the first opportunity after the OEM warranty
expires.

Harmonic Balancers- figures below

 Document preparation by Rohan Perera
THEORY: Reciprocating Engine Vibration (122)
Piston Engine Vibration
An internal combustion engine produces power in the form of controlled explosions. These explosions
produce powerful pulses of energy that cause the engine to vibrate in response. Engine designers do their
best to make these forces cancel out to minimize vibrations. But, no matter how well the designer does his
job, he cannot eliminate all inherent vibrations in an engine. Therefore we need to remember that it is
perfectly normal for an IC (Internal combustion) engine to produce a characteristic vibration spectrum
signature. Vibration analysis of IC engines then must focus on "variations" from the "normal" vibration
signature.

Normal Vibration Signature

Each combustion pulse acts much like a hammer blow, hitting the engine block with a pulse of energy. The
vibration spectrum of such a pulse is a series of vibration spectral lines. These spectral lines will be at integer
multiples of the firing rate of each piston. In a four stroke engine the piston fires every other revolution,
therefore the fundamental spectral line will be at 1/2 the engine RPM, often called the 1/2 order vibration.
The result will be a vibration signature that has spectral lines at the 1/2 order, 1P, 1-1/2P, 2P, 2-1/2P, 3P ...
etc. In our experience, we have found that most 4 and 6 cylinder horizontally opposed IC engine produce
these spectral lines in varying patterns but the levels are usually in the range of .2-.5 IN/S. For unknown
reasons we have found it is not uncommon for an engine to produce a 2P or 2-1/2P vibration in the range of
.5-1.0 IN/S. These readings are taken on the ground at typically 2500 RPM.

1/2 Order Vibrations

It turns out that if all of the pistons produce nearly identical combustion pulses, the 1/2 order vibration will
be very small, .1-.3 IN/S. When any one cylinder produces less power than the rest, the 1/2 order vibration
will increase from .3 IN/S on up to over 1 IN/S for a misfire. Mechanics know very well what can cause one
cylinder to be weak. Plug misfire, bad plug, plugged injector, broken ring, leaky valve, low compression, bad
magneto, worn cam, collapsed lifter, etc. Any of these things can cause a higher than normal 1/2 order
vibration.

In an aircraft ,1/2 order vibration are especially troublesome as they can be felt in the cabin by the pilot. Low
frequency vibrations are not well isolated by most engine mounts, and the vibration will shake the entire
aircraft. If not taken care of, a 1/2 order vibration can loosen rivets, hinges, and pivots all over the airframe,
as well as causing premature pilot fatigue. This is a serious safety issue.

IPS defined
IPS is just an acronym for "inches per second". When measuring a vibration, the velocity is the speed the
object reaches as it passes through the center of the range of displacement. Similar to the highest speed a
pendulum reaches at the center of its swing. Velocity is arrived at by simply integrating the signal that an
accelerometer produces. If you integrate a second time, you get displacement.
It has been found through experience that velocity is a better unit of measurement to use if you want the
numbers to track with how severe a vibration is independent of RPM. In other words, a 1 IPS vibration is
pretty severe no matter if the object is turning at 200 RPM or 200,000 RPM. This is not true for units of
acceleration or displacement.

Important Terminology

Amplitude- It is the maximum displacement of vibration from the point of equilibrium.

Node- It is the point in the vibrating system at which the amplitude of vibration is zero.

Order of vibration- It is the number of vibration cycles in one revolution of the engine.

Vibration Mode- It is designated by the number of nodes in the system.

Natural Vibration- It is the vibration caused by the elastic forces of the crankshaft material and the
inertia of its masses in the absence of external forces.

Forced Vibration- It is the vibration of the crankshaft and the shafting coupled to it, which is
induced by a variable engine torque.

Resonance- It is the coincidence of the frequency of natural vibration and the frequency o
the forced vibration. It results in vibration, local overheating and over stressing of
the shafting.
Document preparation by Rohan Perera