NOTES:

● Heat Transfer is a form of energy transfer and can occur because of conduction, convection, and radiation.
● Heat transfer happens when there is a temperature difference between two objects and goes hot to cold
Conduction:
● As collisions occur, heat transfers from one molecule to the molecule next to it.
● Examples
○ Heat transferred through a cooking utensil to your hand
● Heat may be transferred to transparent solids
○ Glass
○ Some plastics
● Fourtier’s Law
○ Includes thermal conductivity
■ Indication of how effectively the material heats
○ Conductivity varies
■ Solids with high conductivity can be used as thermal insulators in the form of granules
■ Solids with low conductivity can be used as thermal insulators
● Dispersed materials increase path length and reduce the effective cross-sectional area of heat transfer
Convection:
● Heat transfer is due to molecular motion
● Molecules are also moved due to fluid motion.
● Newton’s law of cooling
○ Includes heat transfer coefficient
■ A function of thermophysical properties of fluid
■ The function of physical characteristics of the sysstom
● Velocity of fluid
● Shape of the flow field
● Diffusion is when molecules transport due to temperature gradients in the fluid.
● Advection is when molecules are transported by the bulk motion of fluid
● Diffusion and advection can occur simultaneously
○ When water is colder at the bottom and hotter at the top
● When fluid is in contact with a surface from the fluid temperature, conduction transfers heat from the hot
surface to the cold fluid, and vice versa.
● The motion of the fluid transfer head within the fluid
● Convective transfer cannot occur without conduction at the interface between the fluid and the surface.
● The motion of fluid may be because of differences in density
○ Resulting from temperature differences
○ Natural convection
■ Buoyant convection
○ Mechanical means
 ■ Fan
■ Forced current
● Convection heat is important to engineering applications found in nature.
○ Steam from hot-water radiator
■ convection
○ Cooling and heating in the vehicle
■ Heat transfer
● The heat from the combustion of natural gas in hot water to the water tank
○ Convection
● Heat transferred by convection can involve single-phase fluids or ones that undergo a phase change
● Phase changes increase heat transfer because of the additional energy needed to vaporize or condense a fluid
○ Heat of vaporization
○ Solidification
○ Sublimation
○ Crystallization
Radiation:
● All materials emit radiation
● Transfer of energy by radiation is unique as no conducting substance is needed
○ Required with conduction and convection
● It can occur in a vacuum.
○ Makes possible energy transfer from the Sun to the Earth.
● Quantified by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
○ Interpreted using wave theory, the same way as light.
● The interaction of surfaces at different temperatures and radiation can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
● Characterize effectiveness as are function of the surface of the material and is described by the material
○ Emissivity
○ Absorptivity
○ Transmissivity
○ Reflectivity
● Net energy transferred by radiation = difference between the radiation emitted and absorbed by the surface.
● Radiation is a function of wavelength
● When temperature increases, wavelengths get shorter.
● Liquids and gases can be transparent to some wavelengths and highly absorptive by others.
○ O2 absorbing bad rays
○ Greenhouse gases are infrared absorbers
Design Considerations:
● Proper selection and fabrication of materials can allow heat transfer.
● All three modes of transfer can be applied in one process.
○ The roof of a house becomes hot from radiation, a cool breeze transfers energy from convection, and
conduction transports heat through to the attic.
● When all three modes are present one might dominate the others.
● Convection and conduction raters are proportional to the temperature difference between objects.
● Non-linear dependence on temperature causes radiation to dominate.
● Radiation is the only mode of heat transfer present in vacuum systems.