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July 24, 2012 17:50 ffirs Sheet number 6 Page number vi cyan black

PUBLISHER Laurie Rosatone

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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
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July 24, 2012 17:50 ffirs Sheet number 7 Page number vii cyan black

To Elsa and in loving memory of Maureen

To Siobhan, James, Richard, Jr., Carolyn, and Ann
And to the next generation:
Charles, Aidan, Stephanie, Veronica, and Deirdre
July 24, 2012 17:50 ffirs Sheet number 8 Page number viii cyan black

The Authors
William E. Boyce received his B.A. degree in Mathematics from Rhodes College,
and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Mathematics from Carnegie-Mellon University.
He is a member of the American Mathematical Society, the Mathematical Associ-
ation of America, and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. He is
currently the Edward P. Hamilton Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Science Ed-
ucation (Department of Mathematical Sciences) at Rensselaer. He is the author
of numerous technical papers in boundary value problems and random differential
equations and their applications. He is the author of several textbooks including
two differential equations texts, and is the coauthor (with M.H. Holmes, J.G. Ecker,
and W.L. Siegmann) of a text on using Maple to explore Calculus. He is also coau-
thor (with R.L. Borrelli and C.S. Coleman) of Differential Equations Laboratory
Workbook (Wiley 1992), which received the EDUCOM Best Mathematics Curricu-
lar Innovation Award in 1993. Professor Boyce was a member of the NSF-sponsored
CODEE (Consortium for Ordinary Differential Equations Experiments) that led to
the widely-acclaimed ODE Architect. He has also been active in curriculum inno-
vation and reform. Among other things, he was the initiator of the “Computers in
Calculus” project at Rensselaer, partially supported by the NSF. In 1991 he received
the William H. Wiley Distinguished Faculty Award given by Rensselaer.

Richard C. DiPrima (deceased) received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in
Mathematics from Carnegie-Mellon University. He joined the faculty of Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute after holding research positions at MIT, Harvard, and Hughes
Aircraft. He held the Eliza Ricketts Foundation Professorship of Mathematics at
Rensselaer, was a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the
American Academy of Mechanics, and the American Physical Society. He was also
a member of the American Mathematical Society, the Mathematical Association of
America, and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. He served as the
Chairman of the Department of Mathematical Sciences at Rensselaer, as President
of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, and as Chairman of the Ex-
ecutive Committee of the Applied Mechanics Division of ASME. In 1980, he was the
recipient of the William H. Wiley Distinguished Faculty Award given by Rensselaer.
He received Fulbright fellowships in 1964–65 and 1983 and a Guggenheim fellow-
ship in 1982–83. He was the author of numerous technical papers in hydrodynamic
stability and lubrication theory and two texts on differential equations and boundary
value problems. Professor DiPrima died on September 10, 1984.
July 27, 2012 15:56 fpref Sheet number 1 Page number ix cyan black

P R E FAC E

This edition, like its predecessors, is written from the viewpoint of the applied
mathematician, whose interest in differential equations may be sometimes quite
theoretical, sometimes intensely practical, and often somewhere in between. We
have sought to combine a sound and accurate (but not abstract) exposition of the
elementary theory of differential equations with considerable material on methods
of solution, analysis, and approximation that have proved useful in a wide variety of
applications.
The book is written primarily for undergraduate students of mathematics, science,
or engineering, who typically take a course on differential equations during their
first or second year of study. The main prerequisite for reading the book is a working
knowledge of calculus, gained from a normal two- or three-semester course sequence
or its equivalent. Some familiarity with matrices will also be helpful in the chapters
on systems of differential equations.
To be widely useful, a textbook must be adaptable to a variety of instructional
strategies. This implies at least two things. First, instructors should have maximum
flexibility to choose both the particular topics they wish to cover and the order in
which they want to cover them. Second, the book should be useful to students who
have access to a wide range of technological capability.
With respect to content, we provide this flexibility by making sure that, so far as
possible, individual chapters are independent of each other. Thus, after the basic
parts of the first three chapters are completed (roughly Sections 1.1 through 1.3, 2.1
through 2.5, and 3.1 through 3.5), the selection of additional topics, and the order and
depth in which they are covered, are at the discretion of the instructor. Chapters 4
through 8 are essentially independent of each other, except that Chapter 7 should
precede Chapter 9. This means that there are multiple pathways through the book,
and many different combinations have been used effectively with earlier editions.

ix
July 27, 2012 15:56 fpref Sheet number 2 Page number x cyan black

x Preface

With respect to technology, we note repeatedly in the text that computers are ex-
tremely useful for investigating differential equations and their solutions, and many
of the problems are best approached with computational assistance. Nevertheless,
the book is adaptable to courses having various levels of computer involvement,
ranging from little or none to intensive. The text is independent of any particular
hardware platform or software package.
Many problems are marked with the symbol to indicate that we consider them
to be technologically intensive. Computers have at least three important uses in a
differential equations course. The first is simply to crunch numbers, thereby gen-
erating accurate numerical approximations to solutions. The second is to carry out
symbolic manipulations that would be tedious and time-consuming to do by hand.
Finally, and perhaps most important of all, is the ability to translate the results of
numerical or symbolic computations into graphical form, so that the behavior of
solutions can be easily visualized. The marked problems typically involve one or
more of these features. Naturally, the designation of a problem as technologically
intensive is a somewhat subjective judgment, and the is intended only as a guide.
Many of the marked problems can be solved, at least in part, without computa-
tional help, and a computer can also be used effectively on many of the unmarked
problems.
From a student’s point of view, the problems that are assigned as homework and
that appear on examinations drive the course. We believe that the most outstanding
feature of this book is the number, and above all the variety and range, of the prob-
lems that it contains. Many problems are entirely straightforward, but many others
are more challenging, and some are fairly open-ended and can even serve as the basis
for independent student projects. There are far more problems than any instructor
can use in any given course, and this provides instructors with a multitude of choices
in tailoring their course to meet their own goals and the needs of their students.
The motivation for solving many differential equations is the desire to learn some-
thing about an underlying physical process that the equation is believed to model.
It is basic to the importance of differential equations that even the simplest equa-
tions correspond to useful physical models, such as exponential growth and decay,
spring–mass systems, or electrical circuits. Gaining an understanding of a complex
natural process is usually accomplished by combining or building upon simpler and
more basic models. Thus a thorough knowledge of these basic models, the equations
that describe them, and their solutions is the first and indispensable step toward the
solution of more complex and realistic problems. We describe the modeling process
in detail in Sections 1.1, 1.2, and 2.3. Careful constructions of models appear also in
Sections 2.5 and 3.7 and in the appendices to Chapter 10. Differential equations re-
sulting from the modeling process appear frequently throughout the book, especially
in the problem sets.
The main reason for including fairly extensive material on applications and math-
ematical modeling in a book on differential equations is to persuade students that
mathematical modeling often leads to differential equations, and that differential
equations are part of an investigation of problems in a wide variety of other fields.
We also emphasize the transportability of mathematical knowledge: once you mas-
ter a particular solution method, you can use it in any field of application in which an
appropriate differential equation arises. Once these points are convincingly made,
we believe that it is unnecessary to provide specific applications of every method
July 27, 2012 15:56 fpref Sheet number 3 Page number xi cyan black

Preface xi

of solution or type of equation that we consider. This helps to keep this book to
a reasonable size, and in any case, there is only a limited time in most differential
equations courses to discuss modeling and applications.
Nonroutine problems often require the use of a variety of tools, both analytical
and numerical. Paper-and-pencil methods must often be combined with effective
use of a computer. Quantitative results and graphs, often produced by a computer,
serve to illustrate and clarify conclusions that may be obscured by complicated ana-
lytical expressions. On the other hand, the implementation of an efficient numerical
procedure typically rests on a good deal of preliminary analysis—to determine the
qualitative features of the solution as a guide to computation, to investigate limit-
ing or special cases, or to discover which ranges of the variables or parameters may
require or merit special attention. Thus, a student should come to realize that investi-
gating a difficult problem may well require both analysis and computation; that good
judgment may be required to determine which tool is best suited for a particular task;
and that results can often be presented in a variety of forms.
We believe that it is important for students to understand that (except perhaps
in courses on differential equations) the goal of solving a differential equation is
seldom simply to obtain the solution. Rather, we seek the solution in order to obtain
insight into the behavior of the process that the equation purports to model. In
other words, the solution is not an end in itself. Thus, we have included in the text
a great many problems, as well as some examples, that call for conclusions to be
drawn about the solution. Sometimes this takes the form of finding the value of the
independent variable at which the solution has a certain property, or determining
the long-term behavior of the solution. Other problems ask for the effect of variations
in a parameter, or for the determination of a critical value of a parameter at which
the solution experiences a substantial change. Such problems are typical of those
that arise in the applications of differential equations, and, depending on the goals
of the course, an instructor has the option of assigning few or many of these problems.
Readers familiar with the preceding edition will observe that the general structure
of the book is unchanged. The revisions that we have made in this edition are in
many cases the result of suggestions from users of earlier editions. The goals are
to improve the clarity and readability of our presentation of basic material about
differential equations and their applications. More specifically, the most important
revisions include the following:

1. Sections 8.5 and 8.6 have been interchanged, so that the more advanced topics appear at
the end of the chapter.
2. Derivations and proofs in several chapters have been expanded or rewritten to provide
more details.
3. The fact that the real and imaginary parts of a complex solution of a real problem are also
solutions now appears as a theorem in Sections 3.2 and 7.4.
4. The treatment of generalized eigenvectors in Section 7.8 has been expanded both in the
text and in the problems.
5. There are about twenty new or revised problems scattered throughout the book.
6. There are new examples in Sections 2.1, 3.8, and 7.5.
7. About a dozen figures have been modified, mainly by using color to make the essen-
tial feature of the figure more prominent. In addition, numerous captions have been
July 27, 2012 15:56 fpref Sheet number 4 Page number xii cyan black

xii Preface

expanded to clarify the purpose of the figure without requiring a search of the
surrounding text.
8. There are several new historical footnotes, and some others have been expanded.

The authors have found differential equations to be a never-ending source of in-

teresting, and sometimes surprising, results and phenomena. We hope that users of
this book, both students and instructors, will share our enthusiasm for the subject.

William E. Boyce
Grafton, New York
March 13, 2012
July 27, 2012 15:56 fpref Sheet number 5 Page number xiii cyan black

Preface xiii

Supplemental Resources for Instructors and Students

An Instructor’s Solutions Manual, ISBN 978-0-470-45834-1, includes solutions for all
problems not contained in the Student Solutions Manual.
A Student Solutions Manual, ISBN 978-0-470-45833-4, includes solutions for se-
lected problems in the text.
A Book Companion Site, www.wiley.com/college/boyce, provides a wealth of re-
sources for students and instructors, including
• PowerPoint slides of important definitions, examples, and theorems from the
book, as well as graphics for presentation in lectures or for study and note taking.
• Chapter Review Sheets, which enable students to test their knowledge of key
concepts. For further review, diagnostic feedback is provided that refers to per-
tinent sections in the text.
• Mathematica, Maple, and MATLAB data files for selected problems in the text
providing opportunities for further exploration of important concepts.
• Projects that deal with extended problems normally not included among tradi-
tional topics in differential equations, many involving applications from a variety
of disciplines. These vary in length and complexity, and they can be assigned as
individual homework or as group assignments.
A series of supplemental guidebooks, also published by John Wiley & Sons, can be
used with Boyce/DiPrima in order to incorporate computing technologies into the
course. These books emphasize numerical methods and graphical analysis, showing
how these methods enable us to interpret solutions of ordinary differential equa-
tions (ODEs) in the real world. Separate guidebooks cover each of the three major
mathematical software formats, but the ODE subject matter is the same in each.
• Hunt, Lipsman, Osborn, and Rosenberg, Differential Equations with MATLAB,
3rd ed., 2012, ISBN 978-1-118-37680-5
• Hunt, Lardy, Lipsman, Osborn, and Rosenberg, Differential Equations with
Maple, 3rd ed., 2008, ISBN 978-0-471-77317-7
• Hunt, Outing, Lipsman, Osborn, and Rosenberg, Differential Equations with
Mathematica, 3rd ed., 2009, ISBN 978-0-471-77316-0

WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS is an innovative, research-based online environment for effective teach-
ing and learning.
WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence because it takes the guesswork out of
studying by providing students with a clear roadmap: what to do, how to do it, if they
did it right. Students will take more initiative so you’ll have greater impact on their
achievement in the classroom and beyond.
WileyPLUS, is loaded with all of the supplements above, and it also features
• The E-book, which is an exact version of the print text but also features hyper-
links to questions, definitions, and supplements for quicker and easier support.
July 27, 2012 15:56 fpref Sheet number 6 Page number xiv cyan black

xiv Preface

• Guided Online (GO) Exercises, which prompt students to build solutions step-
by-step. Rather than simply grading an exercise answer as wrong, GO problems
show students precisely where they are making a mistake.
• Homework management tools, which enable instructors easily to assign and
grade questions, as well as to gauge student comprehension.
• QuickStart pre-designed reading and homework assignments. Use them as is,
or customize them to fit the needs of your classroom.
• Interactive Demonstrations, based on figures from the text, which help reinforce
and deepen understanding of the key concepts of differential equations. Use
them in class or assign them as homework. Worksheets are provided to help
guide and structure the experience of mastering these concepts.
July 25, 2012 15:13 flast Sheet number 1 Page number xv cyan black

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a pleasure to express my appreciation to the many people who have generously

assisted in various ways in the preparation of this book.
To the individuals listed below, who reviewed the manuscript and/or provided
valuable suggestions for its improvement:
Vincent Bonini, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Fengxin Chen, University of Texas San Antonio
Carmen Chicone, University of Missouri
Matthew Fahy, Northern Arizona University
Isaac Goldbring, University of California at Los Angeles
Anton Gorodetski, University of California Irvine
Mansoor Haider, North Carolina State University
David Handron, Carnegie Mellon University
Thalia D. Jeffres, Wichita State University
Akhtar Khan, Rochester Institute of Technology
Joseph Koebbe, Utah State University
Ilya Kudish, Kettering University
Tong Li, University of Iowa
Wen-Xiu Ma, University of South Florida
Aldo Manfroi, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Will Murray, California State University Long Beach
Harold R. Parks, Oregon State University
William Paulsen, Arkansas State University
Shagi-Di Shih, University of Wyoming
John Starrett, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
David S. Torain II, Hampton University
George Yates, Youngstown State University
Nung Kwan (Aaron) Yip, Purdue University
Yue Zhao, University of Central Florida
xv
July 25, 2012 15:13 flast Sheet number 2 Page number xvi cyan black

xvi Acknowledgments

To my colleagues and students at Rensselaer, whose suggestions and reactions

through the years have done much to sharpen my knowledge of differential equa-
tions, as well as my ideas on how to present the subject.
To those readers of the preceding edition who called errors or omissions to my
attention.
To Tamas Wiandt (Rochester Institute of Technology), who is primarily responsi-
ble for the revision of the Instructor’s Solutions Manual and the Student Solutions
Manual, and to Charles Haines (Rochester Institute of Technology), who assisted in
this undertaking.
To Tom Polaski (Winthrop University), who checked the answers in the back of
the text and the Instructor’s Solutions Manual for accuracy.
To David Ryeburn (Simon Fraser University), who carefully checked the entire
manuscript and page proofs at least four times and is responsible for many corrections
and clarifications.
To Douglas Meade (University of South Carolina), who gave indispensable assis-
tance in a variety of ways: by reading the entire manuscript at an early stage and
offering numerous suggestions; by materially assisting in expanding the historical
footnotes and updating the references; and by assuming the primary responsibility
for checking the accuracy of the page proofs.
To the editorial and production staff of John Wiley & Sons, who have always been
ready to offer assistance and have displayed the highest standards of professionalism.
Finally, and most important, to my wife Elsa for discussing questions both math-
ematical and stylistic, and above all for her unfailing support and encouragement
during the revision process. In a very real sense, this book is a joint product.
William E. Boyce
July 25, 2012 15:19 ftoc Sheet number 1 Page number xvii cyan black

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Some Basic Mathematical Models; Direction Fields 1
1.2 Solutions of Some Differential Equations 10
1.3 Classification of Differential Equations 19
1.4 Historical Remarks 26

Chapter 2 First Order Differential Equations 31

2.1 Linear Equations; Method of Integrating Factors 31
2.2 Separable Equations 42
2.3 Modeling with First Order Equations 51
2.4 Differences Between Linear and Nonlinear Equations 68
2.5 Autonomous Equations and Population Dynamics 78
2.6 Exact Equations and Integrating Factors 95
2.7 Numerical Approximations: Euler’s Method 102
2.8 The Existence and Uniqueness Theorem 112
2.9 First Order Difference Equations 122

Chapter 3 Second Order Linear Equations 137

3.1 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients 137
3.2 Solutions of Linear Homogeneous Equations; the Wronskian 145
3.3 Complex Roots of the Characteristic Equation 158
3.4 Repeated Roots; Reduction of Order 167
3.5 Nonhomogeneous Equations; Method of Undetermined Coefficients 175
3.6 Variation of Parameters 186
3.7 Mechanical and Electrical Vibrations 192
3.8 Forced Vibrations 207

Chapter 4 Higher Order Linear Equations 221

4.1 General Theory of nth Order Linear Equations 221
4.2 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients 228
4.3 The Method of Undetermined Coefficients 236
4.4 The Method of Variation of Parameters 241

Chapter 5 Series Solutions of Second Order Linear Equations 247

5.1 Review of Power Series 247
5.2 Series Solutions Near an Ordinary Point, Part I 254

xvii
July 25, 2012 15:19 ftoc Sheet number 2 Page number xviii cyan black

xviii Contents

5.3 Series Solutions Near an Ordinary Point, Part II 265

5.4 Euler Equations; Regular Singular Points 272
5.5 Series Solutions Near a Regular Singular Point, Part I 282
5.6 Series Solutions Near a Regular Singular Point, Part II 288
5.7 Bessel’s Equation 296

Chapter 6 The Laplace Transform 309

6.1 Definition of the Laplace Transform 309
6.2 Solution of Initial Value Problems 317
6.3 Step Functions 327
6.4 Differential Equations with Discontinuous Forcing Functions 336
6.5 Impulse Functions 343
6.6 The Convolution Integral 350

Chapter 7 Systems of First Order Linear Equations 359

7.1 Introduction 359
7.2 Review of Matrices 368
7.3 Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations; Linear Independence, Eigenvalues,
Eigenvectors 378
7.4 Basic Theory of Systems of First Order Linear Equations 390
7.5 Homogeneous Linear Systems with Constant Coefficients 396
7.6 Complex Eigenvalues 408
7.7 Fundamental Matrices 421
7.8 Repeated Eigenvalues 429
7.9 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems 440

Chapter 8 Numerical Methods 451

8.1 The Euler or Tangent Line Method 451
8.2 Improvements on the Euler Method 462
8.3 The Runge–Kutta Method 468
8.4 Multistep Methods 472
8.5 Systems of First Order Equations 478
8.6 More on Errors; Stability 482

Chapter 9 Nonlinear Differential Equations and Stability 495

9.1 The Phase Plane: Linear Systems 495
9.2 Autonomous Systems and Stability 508
9.3 Locally Linear Systems 519
9.4 Competing Species 531
9.5 Predator–Prey Equations 544
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Contents xix

9.6 Liapunov’s Second Method 554

9.7 Periodic Solutions and Limit Cycles 565
9.8 Chaos and Strange Attractors: The Lorenz Equations 577

Answers to Problems 589

Index 637
July 25, 2012 15:19 ftoc Sheet number 4 Page number xx cyan black
August 7, 2012 21:03 c01 Sheet number 1 Page number 1 cyan black

CHAPTER

Introduction

In this chapter we give perspective to your study of differential equations in several

different ways. First, we use two problems to illustrate some of the basic ideas that we
will return to, and elaborate upon, frequently throughout the remainder of the book.
Later, to provide organizational structure for the book, we indicate several ways
of classifying differential equations. Finally, we outline some of the major trends
in the historical development of the subject and mention a few of the outstanding
mathematicians who have contributed to it. The study of differential equations has
attracted the attention of many of the world’s greatest mathematicians during the
past three centuries. Nevertheless, it remains a dynamic field of inquiry today, with
many interesting open questions.

1.1 Some Basic Mathematical Models; Direction Fields

Before embarking on a serious study of differential equations (for example, by read-
ing this book or major portions of it), you should have some idea of the possible
benefits to be gained by doing so. For some students the intrinsic interest of the
subject itself is enough motivation, but for most it is the likelihood of important
applications to other fields that makes the undertaking worthwhile.
Many of the principles, or laws, underlying the behavior of the natural world are
statements or relations involving rates at which things happen. When expressed
in mathematical terms, the relations are equations and the rates are derivatives.
Equations containing derivatives are differential equations. Therefore, to understand
and to investigate problems involving the motion of fluids, the flow of current in elec-
tric circuits, the dissipation of heat in solid objects, the propagation and detection of
1
August 7, 2012 21:03 c01 Sheet number 2 Page number 2 cyan black

2 Chapter 1. Introduction

seismic waves, or the increase or decrease of populations, among many others, it is

necessary to know something about differential equations.
A differential equation that describes some physical process is often called a math-
ematical model of the process, and many such models are discussed throughout this
book. In this section we begin with two models leading to equations that are easy to
solve. It is noteworthy that even the simplest differential equations provide useful
models of important physical processes.

Suppose that an object is falling in the atmosphere near sea level. Formulate a differential
EXAMPLE equation that describes the motion.
1 We begin by introducing letters to represent various quantities that may be of interest in this
problem. The motion takes place during a certain time interval, so let us use t to denote time.
A Fa l l i n g Also, let us use v to represent the velocity of the falling object. The velocity will presumably
Object change with time, so we think of v as a function of t; in other words, t is the independent
variable and v is the dependent variable. The choice of units of measurement is somewhat
arbitrary, and there is nothing in the statement of the problem to suggest appropriate units,
so we are free to make any choice that seems reasonable. To be specific, let us measure time
t in seconds and velocity v in meters/second. Further, we will assume that v is positive in the
downward direction—that is, when the object is falling.
The physical law that governs the motion of objects is Newton’s second law, which states
that the mass of the object times its acceleration is equal to the net force on the object. In
mathematical terms this law is expressed by the equation
F = ma, (1)
where m is the mass of the object, a is its acceleration, and F is the net force exerted on the
object. To keep our units consistent, we will measure m in kilograms, a in meters/second2 , and
F in newtons. Of course, a is related to v by a = dv/dt, so we can rewrite Eq. (1) in the form
F = m(dv/dt). (2)
Next, consider the forces that act on the object as it falls. Gravity exerts a force equal to
the weight of the object, or mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. In the units we have
chosen, g has been determined experimentally to be approximately equal to 9.8 m/s2 near
the earth’s surface. There is also a force due to air resistance, or drag, that is more difficult to
model. This is not the place for an extended discussion of the drag force; suffice it to say that it
is often assumed that the drag is proportional to the velocity, and we will make that assumption
here. Thus the drag force has the magnitude γv, where γ is a constant called the drag coefficient.
The numerical value of the drag coefficient varies widely from one object to another; smooth
streamlined objects have much smaller drag coefficients than rough blunt ones. The physical
units for γ are mass/time, or kg/s for this problem; if these units seem peculiar, remember that
γv must have the units of force, namely, kg·m/s2 .
In writing an expression for the net force F, we need to remember that gravity always acts
in the downward (positive) direction, whereas, for a falling object, drag acts in the upward
(negative) direction, as shown in Figure 1.1.1. Thus

F = mg − γv (3)

and Eq. (2) then becomes

dv
m = mg − γv. (4)
dt
Equation (4) is a mathematical model of an object falling in the atmosphere near sea level.
Note that the model contains the three constants m, g, and γ. The constants m and γ depend
August 7, 2012 21:03 c01 Sheet number 3 Page number 3 cyan black

1.1 Some Basic Mathematical Models; Direction Fields 3

very much on the particular object that is falling, and they are usually different for different
objects. It is common to refer to them as parameters, since they may take on a range of values
during the course of an experiment. On the other hand, g is a physical constant, whose value
is the same for all objects.

γυ

mg

FIGURE 1.1.1 Free-body diagram of the forces on a falling object.

To solve Eq. (4), we need to find a function v = v(t) that satisfies the equation. It
is not hard to do this, and we will show you how in the next section. For the present,
however, let us see what we can learn about solutions without actually finding any of
them. Our task is simplified slightly if we assign numerical values to m and γ, but the
procedure is the same regardless of which values we choose. So, let us suppose that
m = 10 kg and γ = 2 kg/s. Then Eq. (4) can be rewritten as
dv v
= 9.8 − . (5)
dt 5

Investigate the behavior of solutions of Eq. (5) without solving the differential equation.
EXAMPLE First let us consider what information can be obtained directly from the differential equation
2 itself. Suppose that the velocity v has a certain given value. Then, by evaluating the right side of
Eq. (5), we can find the corresponding value of dv/dt. For instance, if v = 40, then dv/dt = 1.8.
A Fa l l i n g This means that the slope of a solution v = v(t) has the value 1.8 at any point where v = 40.
Object We can display this information graphically in the tv-plane by drawing short line segments
(continued) with slope 1.8 at several points on the line v = 40. Similarly, if v = 50, then dv/dt = −0.2, so
we draw line segments with slope −0.2 at several points on the line v = 50. We obtain Figure
1.1.2 by proceeding in the same way with other values of v. Figure 1.1.2 is an example of what
is called a direction field or sometimes a slope field.
Remember that a solution of Eq. (5) is a function v = v(t) whose graph is a curve in the
tv-plane. The importance of Figure 1.1.2 is that each line segment is a tangent line to one
of these solution curves. Thus, even though we have not found any solutions, and no graphs of
solutions appear in the figure, we can nonetheless draw some qualitative conclusions about
the behavior of solutions. For instance, if v is less than a certain critical value, then all the line
segments have positive slopes, and the speed of the falling object increases as it falls. On the
other hand, if v is greater than the critical value, then the line segments have negative slopes,
and the falling object slows down as it falls. What is this critical value of v that separates objects
whose speed is increasing from those whose speed is decreasing? Referring again to Eq. (5),
we ask what value of v will cause dv/dt to be zero. The answer is v = (5)(9.8) = 49 m/s.
In fact, the constant function v(t) = 49 is a solution of Eq. (5). To verify this statement,
substitute v(t) = 49 into Eq. (5) and observe that each side of the equation is zero. Because
it does not change with time, the solution v(t) = 49 is called an equilibrium solution. It is
the solution that corresponds to a perfect balance between gravity and drag. In Figure 1.1.3
Another random document with
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 Yeou, — hieou.

DES CONSONNES

Les seules consonnes dont la prononciation diffère de la syntaxe

française sont le g et l’i consonne. Les Provençaux prononcent ces
lettres mouillées comme les Italiens. Il en est de même du ch; mais il
est impossible de donner cette prononciation, à un homme qui n’a
jamais entendu parler un Provençal ou un Italien, par de simples
caractères; il ne connaîtra pas la façon de prononcer ces lettres, en
plaçant un d devant le g, ni un t devant ch. Il faut, pour le mettre au
fait, l’inviter à prononcer ces lettres très lentement, comme on le fait
en français; qu’il observe le mouvement de la langue, et nous lui
ferons sentir la différence. Le Français, pour prononcer le g ou le j,
porte le bout de la langue au palais, à peu près à la racine des dents
de la mâchoire supérieure. Le Provençal et l’Italien poussent le bout
de la langue jusqu’aux dents, relèvent un peu la langue et prononcent
plus de la bouche que du gosier. Au reste, une seule fois qu’on
entende prononcer cette lettre, on en saura plus qu’avec les plus
longues explications. La même chose doit être appliquée au ch.
Il ne faut pas oublier de dire ici que, lorsqu’un mot provençal a
deux l mouillées, on prononce comme le peuple de Paris. Ainsi mouille
ou mouillée se prononce en provençal comme si l’on écrivait mouyé,
et comme ceux qui parlent mal le français prononcent l’adjectif
mouillé.

NOTE:
[101] Cette grammaire fait partie du rapport que C.-F. Achard
adressa au Comité de l’Instruction publique en l’an II de la République.

CHAPITRE II

DES ARTICLES

L’idiome provençal a deux articles: lou, le, pour le masculin, et la

pour le féminin. Au pluriel, l’article leis, qu’on prononce lei devant une
consonne, sert pour les deux genres. L’article lou et l’article la s’élident
devant un mot qui commence par une voyelle; ainsi l’on dit l’ai, l’âne,
et non pas lou ai; l’anduecho, l’andouille, et non pas la anduecho.
Les Provençaux ne changent pas leurs terminaisons dans les
déclinaisons; en cela nous ne différons pas de la langue française.
Exemple:
SINGULIER
MASCULIN FÉMININ
français provençal français provençal
Nominatif le, lou la la
Génitif doou ou
du, de la de la
dau
Datif au, aou ou au à la à la
Accusatif le, lou la la
Vocatif ô, ô ô ô
Ablatif doou ou
du, de la de la
dau

PLURIEL
MASCULIN ET FÉMININ
français provençal
Nominatif les Leis prononcez Lei
Génitif des Deis — Dei
Datif aux Eis — ei
Accusatif les Leis — Lei
Vocatif ô ô — ô
Ablatif des Deis — Dei

Tous ces mots sont monosyllabes.

CHAPITRE III
DES NOMS

Tous les noms prennent l’article devant eux, excepté les noms
propres et ceux que l’on prend indéterminément, comme députa,
administratour (député, administrateur).
La particule de remplace souvent l’article en provençal; aussi les
Provençaux font-ils beaucoup de provençalismes en parlant français,
par l’habitude qu’ils ont de leur idiome. Donnez-moi d’eau, de vin,
diront-ils, au lieu de dire: Donnez-moi de l’eau, du vin; cela vient de ce
que le Provençal dit dounas-mi d’aiguo, de vin, etc.
Il n’y a pas de règle générale pour les genres des noms; presque
tous les mots français masculins sont du même genre dans leurs
correspondants provençaux. Il y a cependant des exceptions: ainsi le
sel est masculin en français, et la saou est féminin en provençal;
l’huile est féminin, l’oli ou l’holi est masculin; le peigne se rend par la
pigno; le balai, par l’escoubo, féminin, et quelques autres de même.
Les terminaisons des noms varient beaucoup, de même que dans
le français, mais elles sont presque toujours les mêmes au pluriel et
au singulier. Ainsi chivau, cheval, fait au pluriel chivaus, et se
prononce comme au singulier. De là vient encore que les enfants
disent ici très communément, en parlant français: le chevau ou les
chevals.
Les substantifs masculins forment quelquefois des substantifs
féminins d’une terminaison différente. En général, les noms qui se
terminent par une n donnent un féminin en y ajoutant un o, qui
équivaut à notre e muet, par exemple: couquin, masculin, couquino,
féminin; landrin, masculin, landrino, féminin.
Les mots terminés en r changent cette dernière lettre en la syllabe
so: voulur, vouluso, féminin; recelur, receluso, féminin, etc...
Les mots français terminés en aire sont assez ordinairement
terminés en ari dans l’idiome provençal.
Les adjectifs sont également très variés; ils ont un rapport direct
avec ceux de la langue française. Ceux qui se terminent en é pour le
masculin et en ée pour le féminin, se rendent en provençal par la
terminaison at, ado: fortuné, fortunée; fourtunat, fourtunado.
Les adjectifs terminés par un e muet en français se terminent de
même au féminin provençal, mais au masculin ils ont un é fermé. Ainsi
invulnérable fait au masculin invulnérablé, et au féminin invulnérablo,
que l’on prononce tout comme en français.
 CHAPITRE IV
DES PRONOMS

Il y a, dans les pronoms, des observations importantes à faire sur

la différence qui existe entre le français et le provençal. Je donne
d’abord la déclinaison des pronoms personnels:

SINGULIER

Nominatif Je ou moi, Yeou.

Génitif De moi, De yeou, sans élision.
Datif A moi, A yeou ou mi, en quelques
lieux me.
Accusatif Moi, Mi ou me et yeou dans le
pléonasme.
Ablatif Par moi, Per yeou.

Il me conduisit moi-même: Mi menet yeou-même ou m’aduguet

yeou-même.

SINGULIER

Nominatif Tu, toi, Tu.

Génitif De toi, De tu.
Datif A toi, A tu, ou ti ou te.
Accusatif Toi ou te, Ti ou te.
Ablatif Par toi, Per tu.

SINGULIER

Nominatif ....... ..........

Génitif De soi, De si ou de si-même.
Datif A soi, A si, ou si ou se.
Accusatif Soi, Si ou se.
Ablatif Par soi, Per si-même.

PLURIEL

Nominatif Nous, Nautreis pour nous autres.

 Génitif De nous, De nautries.
Datif A nous, A nautreis ou nous.
Accusatif Nous, Nautries ou nous.
Ablatif Par nous, Per nautreis.

PLURIEL

Nominatif Vous, Vautreis.

Génitif De vous, De vautreis.
Datif A vous, A vautreis ou vous.
Accusatif Vous, Vautries ou vous.
Ablatif Par vous, Per vautreis.

Il vous a donné: v’a dounat. Il vous accuse: n’accuso.

Ces exemples sont faits pour faire connaître que le provençal fait
une élision de trois lettres devant un mot qui commence par une
voyelle, lorsqu’il est précédé d’un pronom pluriel. Le pronom se est le
même au pluriel qu’au singulier.

SINGULIER

Nominatif Lui, eou. Elle, ello.

Génitif De lui, d’eou. D’elle, d’ello.
Datif A lui, on eou, à eou, li; à elle, an ello ou li.
Accusatif Lui, eou ou lou. La, la.
Ablatif Par lui, per eou. Par elle, per ello.

PLURIEL

Nominatif Eux, elleis. Elles, elleis.

Génitif D’eux, d’elleis. D’elles, d’elleis.
Datif A eux, an elleis ou li. A elles, an elleis, ou li.
Accusatif Eux, elleis, leis. Elles, elleis, leis.
Ablatif Par eux, per elleis. Par elles, per elleis.

PRONOMS POSSESSIFS

Les pronoms possessifs sont mieou, tieou, sieou, nouestre,

vouestre; ils sont précédés de l’article et gouvernent les deux genres.
 Lou mieou, la mieouno.
Lou tieou, la tieouno.
Lou sieou, la sieouno.
Lou nouestre, la nouestro.
Lou vouestre, la vouestro.
Le mien, la mienne.
Le tien, la tienne.
Le sien, le leur, la sienne, la
leur.
Le, la nôtre.
Le, la vôtre.

PRONOMS DÉMONSTRATIFS

Il y a deux pronoms démonstratifs: aqueou, qui fait au féminin

aquelo, et aquestou, qui fait au féminin aquesto, c’est-à-dire celui-ci,
celle-ci; celui-là, celle-là.

PRONOMS RELATIFS

Lequel, laquelle, louquaou, laqualo, se déclinent avec l’article; qui

se traduit par qun ou par que. Ses composés sont queque, sieque,
quoi qu’il en soit; quelqu’un, quelqu’une, quauqu’un, quaouqu’uno.
Exemple: L’homme qui vint, l’home que venguet.—Ce qui me
surprend, ce que m’estouno.—Qui est là? Qun es aqui?—Qui va, qui
vient? Que va, que ven?

CHAPITRE V
DES VERBES

Le provençal a des verbes auxiliaires, des actifs et des passifs. On

appelle verbe auxiliaire celui qui sert à former les temps des autres
verbes, comme j’ai, ai; je suis, sieou.
Les verbes actifs peuvent être réduits à deux conjugaisons
principales, qui se connaissent par l’infinitif: les verbes qui se
terminent à l’infinitif en ar et ceux qui finissent en e ou en ir.
Tous les verbes en ar font le participe passé en at. Les autres le
font en it ou en ut.
Commençons par les verbes auxiliaires.

AVER
 INFINITIF
Avoir, dérivé du latin habere.

INDICATIF PRÉSENT
Ai, j’ai. Aven, nous
avons.
As, tu as. Avés, vous avez.
A, il a. An, ils ont.

IMPARFAIT
Avieou, j’avais. Avian, nous
avions.
Aviés, tu avais. Avias, vous aviez.
Avié, il avait. Avien, ils avaient.

PARFAIT

Ai agut ou aguersi, j’ai eu.

As agut ou agueres, tu as eu.
A agut ou aguet, il a eu.
Aven agut ou aguerian, nous avons
eu.
Avés agut ou aguerias, vous avez eu.
Au agut ou agueroun, ils ont eu.

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT

Avieou agut, j’avais eu. Aviés agut, tu avais eu.

FUTUR

Aurai, j’aurai. Auren, nous aurons.

Auras, tu auras. Aurés, vous aurez.
Aura, il aura. Auran, ils auront.

IMPÉRATIF
Agues, aie, etc. Agues,
Que ague, Que aguoun,
Aguen,

SUBJONCTIF PRÉSENT
Que agui, que j’aie. Que aguen, que nous
ayons.
Que agues, que tu aies. Que agués, que vous
ayez.
Que ague, qu’il ait. Que aguoun, qu’ils aient.

IMPARFAIT

Aguessi ou aurieou, que j’eusse ou j’aurais.

Aguesses ou auriés, que tu eusses ou tu aurais.
Aguessoun ou aurien, qu’il eût ou il aurait.

PARFAIT

Que agui que j’aie. Aguen agut, que nous

agut, ayons.
Agués agut, que tu aies. Agusé agut, que vous
ayez.
Aguet agut, qu’il ait. Aguon agut, qu’ils aient.

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT

Aguessi ou aurieou agut, etc. que j’eusse ou j’aurai eu, etc.

FUTUR
Aurai agut, etc. j’aurais eu, etc.

INFINITIF PRÉSENT

Aver, avoir.

PARFAIT

Aver agut, avoir eu.

GÉRONDIF

Per aver, à avoir.

PARTICIPE PRÉSENT

Ayent, ayant.

PARTICIPE PASSÉ
 Ayent agut, ayant eu.

LE VERBE ÊTRE

INDICATIF PRÉSENT
Sieou. Sian.
Siés. Sias.
Es. Soun.

IMPARFAIT
Eri. Erian.
Eres. Erias.
Ero. Eroun.

PARFAIT

Sieou estat. Fouguet.

Sies estat. Fouguerian.
ou Fougueri. Fouguerias.
Fougueres. Fougueroun.

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT
Eri estat, eres estat.
FUTUR
Sarai. Saren.
Saras. Sarès.
Sara. Saran.

IMPÉRATIF

Siegues. Siegués.
Siegue. Siégoun.
Sieguen.

SUBJONCTIF PRÉSENT

Que siegui. Que sieguen.

Que siegues. Que siegués.
Que siegue. Que siegoun.
 IMPARFAIT

Fouguessi. Fouguesses.
Fouguesse. Fouguessian.
Fouguessias. Fouguessioun.
ou Sarieou. Sariès.
Sarié. Sarian.
Sarias. Sarèn.

PARFAIT

Que siegui estat. Siegues estat, etc.

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT
Fouguessi estat ou Sarieou estat, etc.

FUTUR

Sarai estat Saras estat, etc.

INFINITIF PRÉSENT
Estre ou esse.

PARFAIT
Estre estat.

On voit que l’auxiliaire aver n’entre pas dans la conjugaison

provençale du verbe estre. C’est ce qui nous fait entendre le
provençalisme impardonnable: Je suis été, pour dire: J’ai été.

TABLEAU DES CONJUGAISONS DES VERBES ACTIFS

1re Conjugaison 2e Conjugaison

Verbe Adoûrar Verbe Estendre

INDICATIF PRÉSENT

Adôri. Adourân. Estêndi. Estênden.

Adôres. Adoûras. Estêndes. Estêndes.
Adôro. Adôrun. Estende. Estêndoun.

IMPARFAIT
 Adourâvi. Adourâviau. Estendieou. Estendian.
Adourâvis. Adourâvias. Estendies. Estendias.
Adourâvo. Adourâvoun. Estendié. Estendiau.

PARFAIT

Ai adourat. As adourat, etc. Ai estendut. Etc...

ou Adourèri. Adourerian. ou Estenderi. Estenderian.
Adourères. Adourerias. Estenderes. Estenderias.
Adoûret. Adoureroun. Estendet. Estenderoun.

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT

Avieou adourat, Avieou estendut,

Aviès adourat, etc. Aviès estendut, etc.

FUTUR

Adourarai. Adouraren. Estendrai. Estendran.

Adouraras. Adourarés. Estendras., Estendrés.
Adourara. Adouraran. Estendra. Estendran.

IMPÉRATIF

Adoro. Estende.
Qu’adôro. Qu’estende.
Adouren. Estenden.
Adouras. Estendés.
Qu’adoroun. Qu’estendoun.

SUBJONCTIF PRÉSENT

Qu’adori. Qu’adouren. Qu’estendi. Qu’estendessian.

Qu’adorés. Qu’adourés. Qu’estendes. Qu’estendés.
Qu’adore. Qu’adoroun. Qu’estende. Qu’estendoun.

IMPARFAIT

Qu’adouressi, Qu’adouressian, Qu’estendessi, Qu’estendessian,

Qu’adouresses, Qu’adouressias, Qu’estendesses, Qu’estendessias,
 Qu’adouresse, Qu’adouressoun, Qu’estendesse, Qu’estendessoun,
ou Qu’adourarieou, Qu’adourarian, ou Qu’estendrieou, Qu’estendarian,
Qu’adourariés, Qu’adourarias, Qu’estendariés, Qu’estendarias,
Qu’adourarié, Qu’adourarien, Qu’estendarié, Qu’estendarien.

PASSÉ

Que agui adourat, etc. Que agui estendut, etc.

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT

Que aguessi adourat, etc. Que aguessi estendut, etc.

ou Aurieou adourat, etc. ou Aurieou estendut, etc.

FUTUR

Aurai adourat, etc. Aurai estendut, etc.

INFINITIF PRÉSENT

Adourar, Estendre.

PASSÉ

Aver adourat, Aver estendut.

PARTICIPE PRÉSENT

Adourant, Estendent.

Le passif se conjugue par l’auxiliaire estre en ajoutant le participe

passif adourat, estendut, etc... Sieou adourat, sieou estendut, etc...
On a vu que la seule différence de terminaison des verbes se
trouve dans l’imparfait, où les verbes qui ont l’infinitif en ar font ce
temps en avi et ceux qui ont une autre terminaison font l’imparfait en
ieou. D’après cela, il est facile de connaître les conjugaisons
provençales. Il est bien quelques verbes irréguliers; mais, comme ils
ont un rapport direct avec leurs correspondants français, il est inutile
d’en faire mention ici.
 SECONDE PARTIE

CHAPITRE PREMIER

La synthèse de la langue provençale a tant de rapports avec la

française qu’il n’y a point de règles à donner, mais seulement des
observations à présenter sur les tournures des phrases.

DES ARTICLES

On met quelquefois l’article avant l’adjectif au lieu de le mettre

avant le substantif. C’est une chose qui nous est commune avec les
Grecs, et certainement c’est d’eux que nous tenons cette façon de
nous exprimer: lou mieou béou, mon beau; lou mieou bel enfant, mon
bel enfant; lou sieou fraire, son frère, etc.

DES NOMS

J’ai dit plus haut que les noms ne changeaient pas de terminaison
dans les nombres et qu’il était même reçu de ne pas ajouter l’s final
pour désigner le pluriel, à moins que le mot suivant ne commence par
une voyelle. Mais cette règle n’est pas encore générale; on dit bien
leis ais, prononcez lei zai; mais on ne dit pas les ais avien en
prononçant lei-zai zavien, mais lei-zai-avien; en sorte qu’il faut
nécessairement entendre parler le provençal ou l’écrire comme on le
parle. C’est un défaut de la langue, défaut qui ne doit pas surprendre
ceux qui savent que les idiomes vulgaires n’ont pas de règles bien
certaines, et que l’usage est la première de ces règles. Les
Provençaux ne connaissent pas de mot qui forme seul un comparatif.
C’est une faute de dire en provençal: milhour que l’autre, piegi que
vous: meilleur que vous, pire que vous; il faut dire plus milhour, plus
piegi, ce qui, en français, serait un pléonasme détestable.

CHAPITRE II

DES PRONOMS
 Les pronoms personnels se sous-entendent toujours devant les
verbes, comme on l’a vu dans les conjugaisons que j’ai placées en
leur lieu. Ainsi on dit vendrai, je viendrai; esveray, il est vrai, etc.
Lorsqu’on parle de plusieurs personnes, on emploie toujours le
pronom soun, sa, comme s’il ne s’agissait que d’une seule: ils
viennent de leur maison de campagne, venoun de sa bastido.
De même, l’on dit pour les deux nombres: li ai dounat, je lui ai ou je
leur ai donné; li digueri, je lui ou je leur ai dit, etc.
Lorsqu’on parle indéterminément de quelque chose, on emploie la
particule va au lieu de l’article lou, le, etc. Exemple: Le croyez-vous?
Va crésez? ou va créseti? Je le ferai, va farai. Mais, s’il était question
d’une personne, on dirait: lou veiray, je le verrai.
L’adverbe relatif y, qui signifie en cet endroit-là, s’exprime en
provençal par li: Veux-tu y aller? Li voues anar? J’(y) irai, l’anaraï;
passes-y, passos-li; prends-y garde, pren li gardo.
Le relatif qui s’exprime par qun toutes les fois qu’il y a
interrogation: Qun piquo? Qui frappe? Mais, dans le cours d’une
phrase, il se rend par le mot que: aqueou que douerme, celui qui dort;
lou cavaou ou lou chivaou que vendra, le cheval qui viendra.

CHAPITRE III

DES VERBES

Le nominatif précède toujours le verbe; cependant j’ai souvent

entendu les gens de la campagne, et surtout les enfants, dire: a dich
moun paire, pour moun paire a dich.
Le verbe Estre, Être, s’emploie ordinairement comme gouvernant
l’accusatif si je fusse (sic) en leur place, se fouguessi elleis. On dit
aussi se fougueissi d’elleis en sous-entendant en plaço.
Les infinitifs forment tout autant de noms substantifs: on dit lou
proumenar pour la proumenado, lou dourmir pour lou souen, etc... Il
semble même que cette façon d’exprimer les choses est plus
énergique.
 Il est d’usage encore d’employer le pronom si, se à la première
personne du pluriel: nous nous reverrons, si vereins; allons-nous-en,
s’en anan ou Enanen s’en.
On dit aussi: sau pas ce que si fa, il ne sait pas ce qu’il fait; quelle
heure est-il? quant soun d’houro? Ce qui signifie littéralement:
combien est-il d’heures?
Je ne dirai rien des adverbes et des prépositions, mais il y aurait
encore beaucoup de choses à dire sur les tournures des phrases. J’ai
cru qu’il ne serait pas hors de propos de donner une courte notice de
la poésie provençale et de citer quelques morceaux qui n’ont pas été
livrés à l’impression.
L’auteur (comme exemple) donne un quatrain de Toussaint Gros,
sur la Mort; il cite la Bourrido deis Dious, de Germain, et un extrait du
Nouveau Lutrin, par d’Arvieux.
Les nombreux exemples que nous avons donnés de la poésie
provençale nous dispensent de citer dans cet ouvrage des extraits,
forcément incomplets et qui n’ajouteraient rien à la beauté de la
langue. Mais ce que nous avons cru nécessaire de ne pas omettre,
comme nous l’avons dit précédemment, c’est un aperçu grammatical
du Provençal tel qu’on l’écrit et qu’on le parle aujourd’hui, d’après la
méthode de la nouvelle école félibréenne, en parallèle avec la
grammaire d’Achard, qui date des premières années du siècle dernier.
Le lecteur pourra, par lui-même, constater les différences qui existent
entre les deux orthographes et se faire une opinion, au point de vue
linguistique et orthographique, sur les œuvres qui ont précédé le
mouvement félibréen et celles qui l’ont suivi.

DIFFÉRENCES LINGUISTIQUES ET ORTHOGRAPHIQUES

ENTRE LE PROVENÇAL PARLÉ ET ÉCRIT AVANT LA RÉVOLUTION ET
LE PROVENÇAL DE NOS JOURS, SELON L’ECOLE FÉLIBRÉENNE,
D’APRÈS L’OUVRAGE DU FRÈRE SAVINIEN ET DOM XAVIER DE
FOURVIÈRES
 ALPHABET PROVENÇAL USITÉ DE NOS JOURS[102]

L’alphabet provençal aujourd’hui en usage se compose de vingt-

trois lettres; l’y et l’x supprimés formaient la vingt-quatrième et la vingt-
cinquième avant la réforme orthographique.
A garde le son qu’il a en français; B également, mais ne se
prononce pas à la fin des mots, comme plumb, plomb.
C ne diffère de la prononciation française que lorsqu’il est suivi
d’un h. Ainsi le mot chien s’écrit chin, et se prononce tsin. Cependant
cette prononciation est plutôt vauclusienne que marseillaise. A
Marseille, en effet, on écrit et on prononce chin.
Le D, comme en français. Ainsi que le b, il ne se prononce pas à la
fin des mots: verd, vert.
L’E, dans la grammaire d’Achard, ne devait pas, suivant l’usage
observé jusqu’à la Révolution, être accentué; aujourd’hui, sans accent
ou avec un accent aigu, il se prononce comme l’e ouvert français.
Ainsi devé, devoir, teté, sein, sonnent comme cité, vérité.
L’E est ouvert s’il est suivi d’une consonne, comme dans terro,
terre, et encore s’il est surmonté d’un accent grave, comme dans
venguè, il vint. Il est faible à la fin des mots: te, toi; fort dans les
monosyllabes: vese, je vois.
F, pour efo, comme en français.
G, placé devant les voyelles a, o, u, est dur, comme dans goi,
boiteux; gau, coq; degun, personne; mais, devant un e ou un i, il se
prononce comme le z italien: soit gibous, bossu, que l’on prononce
dzibous. Toutefois, cette dernière prononciation n’est pas usitée dans
les Bouches-du-Rhône, où l’on continue à dire gibous, comme s’il était
écrit djibous.
H, en provençal acho, n’est aspirée que dans quelques
interjections: ho! ha! hoù! hoi! hèi! On l’emploie également pour rendre
le son ch comme dans charpa, gronder, et remplacer l’ancienne forme
lh pour séparer deux voyelles, ainsi: famiho, famille; abiho, abeille;
Marsiho, Marseille.
I se prononce comme en français: camiso, chemise; mais, dans les
monosyllabes im et in, il prend en provençal la prononciation latine;
simplo, simple, ansin, ainsi; cinsaire, priseur; timbre, timbre.
 Il y a aussi l’i fort et l’i faible: pali, pâlir; pàli, dois.
Le J devant l’e et l’i se prononce comme le g ou le z dans le
provençal rhodanien: jamai, pour dzamai, jamais; genesto, dzenesto,
genêt. A Marseille, on prononce jamai, ginesto.
K est peu ou pas usité en provençal, on le remplace généralement
par c, qu et ch, suivant les cas.
L ou élo, comme en français; deux l précédées de la voyelle i ne se
prononcent pas. Ainsi: mouillé se prononce, en provençal, mouyé.
M ou émo, comme en français. Cette lettre équivaut à l’n devant un
b ou un p.
N ou éno, comme en français.
O, comme en français dans le corps des mots, mais remplace l’e
français à la fin de quelques-uns. Exemple: Prouvenco, Provence; la
peissounièro, la poissonnière.
P. En provençal, la forme ph est remplacée par f: farmacian,
pharmacien.
Q conserve le son du k français: que, que; quitran, goudron.
R ou ero se prononce comme en français.
S ou esso également. Deux s en provençal remplacent l’x français.
Ainsi Maximin se prononce et s’écrit: Meissemin; exemple, eissèmple.
T ou té conserve toujours en provençal le son dur, même lorsqu’il
précède un i suivi d’une voyelle: carretoun, petite charrette;
conventialo, religieuse; t dans la fin des mots ne se prononce pas:
nougat, nougat.
U ne se prononce pas exactement comme en français. Dans le
mot un, on le fait sonner comme dans une, tandis qu’en français il se
change en la diphtongue eun. Dans le cas où l’u est précédé des
voyelles a, e, ou d’un o accentué, il se prononce comme en italien;
exemple: oustaù, maison, que l’on prononce oustaou suivant
l’ancienne orthographe; néu, neige, ne-ou, pôu, pour poou, sont dans
le même cas.
V, vé, se prononce comme en français ainsi que le z, izido.

DIPHTONGUES
 Les diphtongues servent à unir deux voyelles ne formant qu’une
syllabe.
Les cinq voyelles forment en provençal plusieurs diphtongues;
ainsi:
 Ai, qui se prononce: aï.
Ei, — — eï.
Oi, — — oï.
Au, — — aou.
Eu, — — èou.

Exemples:
Aigo, eau, se prononce d’une seule émission: aïgo.
Rèi, roi, — — rèï.
Galoi, joyeux, — — galoï.

Avant la réforme orthographique, ces diphtongues s’écrivaient

comme on les prononçait.
Comme triphtongues, les cinq voyelles donnent:
Iau, dans niau, éclair.
Iai, — biais, manière de faire.
Ièi, — pièi, puis.

Ces triphtongues se prononcent également par un simple son.

L’ACCENT TONIQUE

L’accent tonique est la base de la prononciation du provençal.

Dans les mots terminés par e ou par o, il doit se porter sur la
pénultième, ainsi: capello, chapelle, se prononce capélo; campana,
cloche, campàno; il se porte sur toute syllabe accentuée: armàri,
armoire.
Dans les mots terminés par a et i, il se porte sur la dernière
syllabe: verita, vérité; sournaru, sournois; durbi, ouvrir. Mais, dans le
cas où la dernière syllabe terminée en i est précédée d’une syllabe
qui porte un accent, l’i devient muet, comme dans barri, rempart.
Si le mot est terminé par une consonne, on appuie plus fortement
sur la dernière syllabe: auceloun, petit oiseau.
Dans les diphtongues, on doit appuyer sur la première voyelle:
l’ai, l’âne, se prononce àï.
 Dans le dialecte marseillais, la prononciation est souvent
différente de celle du rhodanien. Ainsi la voyelle o se change
souvent en oue; exemples:
Font, fontaine, fait fouent.
Cor, cœur, — couer.
Colo, colline, — coueli.

U se change en ue quelquefois, comme dans: adurre, apporter,

aduerre.
Io se change en ue: fio, feu, fait fue; agrioto, cerise, fait agrueto.
Ioù fait uou: bioù, bœuf, buou; aurioù, maquereau, auruou.
Ioun se change en ien: nacioun, nation, fait nacien; religioun,
religion, religien; incarnacioun, incarnation, incarnacien.

DE L’ARTICLE

Voici le tableau des articles en provençal singulier, en français et

en provençal pluriel:
Lou, la, — le, la, — li, les,
Doù, de la, — du, de la, — di, des,
Au, à la, — au, à la, — i, aux,
De, — du, de la, — de, des.

Dans le dialecte marseillais, li, di, i font lei, dei, ei, au singulier, et
leis, deis, eis, au pluriel.
L’article, en provençal, s’emploie comme en français devant les
noms communs. Il y a exception dans les proverbes, dans les
énumérations et quand des noms se trouvent liés à certains verbes.
On l’emploie également devant les noms propres des personnes
généralement connues, et dans un sens familier: la Marietto, la
petite Marie; devant le nom d’un personnage jouissant d’une
certaine célébrité, il trouve aussi son emploi: Victor Gélu es lou
Bérengier de Marsiho, Victor Gélu est le Bérenger de Marseille.