PEC NOTES

lOMoARcPSD|203 633 05
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATIONS
[EC611OE]
R20 REGULATION
III Year B. Tech – II Semester:
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Prepared by
Dr. K.SRAVAN ABHILASH

Associate Professor
CMR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(UGC Autonomous)
Accredited by NBA & NAAC
Permanently Affiliated to JNTUH, Approved by AICTE,
Kandlakoya, Medchal Road, Hyderabad -501 401
[2023-24]
PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

OBJECTIVES :
The main objectives of the course are:
1. To develop ability to analyze system requirements of

analog communication systems.
2. To understand the need for modulation
3. To understand the generation, detection of various analog
modulation techniques and also perform the
mathematical analysis associated with these techniques.
4. To understand the pulse modulation techniques.
5. To understand the functional block diagram of Digital communication system.
6. To learn about the networking concept, layered protocols.
7. To understand various communications concepts.
8. To get the knowledge of various networking equipment.
9. To understand the basic concepts of satellite, optical, cellular,
mobile and wireless communication systems.
OUTCOMES
Upon completion of the course, student should possess the following skills:
1. Able to analyze and design various modulation and demodulation analog

systems.
2. Understand the characteristics of noise present in analog systems.
3. Study of signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) performance,
of various Analog Communication systems.
4. Understand basic components of Digital Communication Systems.
5. Able to analyze various wireless and cellular,
mobile and telephone communication
system.
6. The student can get the knowledge of networking of computers,
data transmission between computers.
7. Will have the exposure about the various communication concepts.
8. Will get awareness about the structure and equipment of
computer network structures
UNIT - I
Introduction: Need for Modulation, Frequency translation, Electromagnetic spectrum,
Gain, Attenuation and decibels.
UNIT - II
Simple description on Modulation: Analog Modulation-AM, FM, Pulse Modulation-
PAM, PWM, PCM, Digital Modulation Techniques-ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK modulation
and demodulation schemes.
UNIT - III
Telecommunication Systems: Telephones Telephone system, Paging systems, Internet
Telephony.
Networking and Local Area Networks: Network fundamentals, LAN hardware, Ethernet
LANs, Token Ring LAN.
UNIT - IV
Satellite Communication: Satellite Orbits, Satellite Communication systems, Satellitesub
systems, Ground Stations Satellite Applications, Global Positioning systems.
Optical Communication: Optical Principles, Optical Communication Systems, Fiber –Optic

Cables, Optical Transmitters & Receivers, Wavelength Division Multiplexing.
UNIT - V
Cellular and Mobile Communications: Cellular telephone systems, AMPS, GSM, CDMA,
and WCDMA.
Wireless Technologies: Wireless LAN, PANs and Bluetooth, Zig-Bee and Mesh Wireless
networks, Wi-MAX and MANs, Infrared wireless, RFID communication, UWB.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Louis E. Frenzel, “Principles of Electronic Communication Systems”, 3rd Ed.,
McGrawHill publications, 2008.
2. Kennady, Davis, “Electronic Communications systems”, 4Ed., TMH, 1999
`
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Tarmo Anttalainen, “Introduction to Telecommunications Network Engineering”,
ArtechHouse Telecommunications Library.
2. Theodore Rappaport, “Wireless Communications-Principles and practice”, Prentice Hall, 2002.
3. Roger L. Freeman, “Fundamentals of Telecommunications”, 2 Ed. Wiley publications.
4. Wayne Tomasi, “Introduction to data communications and networking”,
PearsonEducation,2005.
INDEX
Unit No Contents Page
no
I. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to communication Systems 2
1.1.1 Block diagram of Communication Systems 3
1.2 Modulation 5
1.3 Need for Modulation 5
1.4 Frequency Translation 8
I
1.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum 9
1.5.1 Frequency and Wavelength 9
1.6 Gain 11
1.6.1 Power Gain 11
1.7 Attenuation 11
1.8 Decibel 12
1.8.1 Decibel applications 12
1.8.2Decibel formula for power comparisons 12
II. Simple Introduction on Modulation
2.1 Concept of Modulation 14
2.1.1 Modulation Scheme 14
2.1.2 Demodulation Scheme 14
2.2 Amplitude Modulation 15
2.3 Single Tone Modulation 18
2.4 Modulation Index 19
2.4.1 AM waves Based on Modulation Index value 20
2.5 Bandwidth of AM wave 21
2.6 Power Calculations of AM wave 22
2.7 Generation of AM waves 23
2.7.1 High level and Low level transmitter 23
2.8 Detection of AM waves 28
2.9 Amplitude modulation Applications 30
II 2.10 Amplitude Modulation advantages & disadvantages 31
2.11 Frequency Modulation 32
2.11.1 Single Tone FM 32
2.12 Generation of AM waves 33
2.13 Detection of FM waves 36
2.14 Pulse Modulation 37
2.14.1 Analog Pulse modulation 37
2.14.1.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation 38
2.14.1.2 Pulse Width Modulation 40
2.14.1.3 Pulse Position Modulation 45
2.14.1.4 Comparison of PAM, PWM & PPM 47
2.15 Introduction to Digital Communication 47
2.15.1 Model of DC 47
2.15.2 Advantages & Disadvantages of DC 51
2.15.3 Digital representation of Analog signal 52
2.16 Amplitude shift keying 53
2.17 Frequency shift Keying 55
2.18 Phase Shift Keying 58
2.19 Quadrature Phase shift Keying 61
III. Telecommunication Systems

3.1 Telephone System 64
3.2 Paging System 65
3.2.1 Types of Paging system 65
3.2.2 Messages in Paging System 65
3.3 Internet Telephony 66
3.3.1 Introduction 66
3.3.2 Intranet Telephony Paves the Way for Internet Telephony 67
III 3.3.3 Technical Barriers 68
3.4 Network Fundamentals 69
3.4.1 Milestones in the history of data networking include 69
3.4.2 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model 70
3.5 Types of network 73
3.6 LAN Hardware 76
3.7 ETHERNET LAN 78
3.8 IEEE Standards 78
3.9 Topology 79
3.10 CSMA/CD 79
3.11 Limitations of Ethernet 80
3.12 Token Ring LAN 81
IV. Satellite Communication & Optical Communication
4.1 Introduction 84
4.1.1 How a Satellite Works 84
4.2 Satellite Orbits 86
4.3 Satellite Sub-Systems 88
4.4 Space Segment Subsystem 89
4.5 Earth Segment Subsystem 89
IV
4.5.1 AltitudeControlSubsystem 90
4.5.2 Three Axis Method 91
4.6 Orbit Control Subsystem 92
4.6.1 TelemetryandMonitoringSubsystem 92
4.6.2 TrackingSubsystem 93
4.6.3 CommandingSubsystem 93
4.7 Ground Stationary Satellite Application 94
4.8 Global Positioning System 95
4.9 GPS Service 98
4.10 GPS Receiver 99
4.11 Basic Optical Law 101
4.12 Total Internal Reflection 103
4.13 Optical Communication Sysytem 104
4.14 Optical Fiber cables 108
4.15 Attenuation within an optical fiber 110
4.16 Fiber Optic Transmitter 111
4.17 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 114
V Cellular and Mobile Communications
5.1 Cellular Telephone System
5.2 Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) 118
5.3 Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) 120
5.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 123
5.4.1 Salient Features of CDMA 124

5.5 Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) 126
5.5.1 WDMCA-3G 127
5.6 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) 128
5.7 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards 128
5.7.1 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Components 130
5.7.2 IEEE 802.11 Framing 134
5.7.3 IEEE 802.11 Frame Types 134
5.8 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN- IEEE 802.15) 136
5.8.1 Applications of WPAN 137
5.9 Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1) 138
5.9.1 IrDA 142
5.9.2 Piconets 142
5.9.3 Scatternets 143
5.10 ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4) 145
5.10.1 ZigBee Alliance 145
5.10.2 ZigBee basics 146
5.10.3 ZigBee Applications 150
5.11 Wireless Mesh Networks(WAN) 150
V 5.11.1 Point to Point(PtP) 151
5.11.2 Point to Multipoint(PtMP) 151
5.12 Wi MAX 152
5.12.1 Some of silent features supported by WiMAX are 153
5.13 Difference between Wi-Fi and WiMAX 155
5.14 Metropolitan Area Network 155
5.15 RFID Communication 157
5.15.1 RFID technology-Basics 159
5.16 IEE 802.11.3a Ultra-Wide band(UWB) 162
5.16.1 The advantages of Ultra-Wide Band Technology 163
5.16.2 UWB Transmission 164
Short answer questions 165
Multiple Choice Questions & Answers 186
Long Answer Questions 197
Tutorial Problems 199
Model Mid Paper & Previous Question Papers 203
Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE
UNIT-I
Introduction to Communication
Major Contents:
Introduction to communication system, What is meant by modulation, Need for

modulation, Concept of frequency translation, Electromagnetic Spectrum, Frequency and
wavelength in EM spectrum, Fundamental definitions of Gain, decibel and attenuation.
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
Communication means sending, receiving and processing of information between two or

more devices. A collection of elements (devices) which works together to establish a
communication between the sender and receiver is called a communication system. Some
examples of communication system include radio broadcasting, television broadcasting,
radio telegraphy, mobile communication, computer communication etc. Two or more
people communicating with each other by using sound signals is also known as the
communication system.
Block Diagram of Communication system:

The basic components of a communication system are information source, input
transducer, transmitter, communication channel, receiver, output transducer, and
destination.
Fig 1.1.1 Block diagram of Communication System

Information Source: As we know that the communication system establishes the
communication bridge between the sender (transmitter) and receiver. To establish this
communication bridge between the sender and receiver, first, we need information to send.
This information originates in the information source. The information generated by the
source may be in the form of sound (human speech), picture (image source), words (plain
text in some particular language such as English, French, German etc.) For example, if you
are talking with your friend on a phone, you are considered as the information source who
generates information in the form of sound. For beginners to analog communication, it’s
important to understand the difference between message and information.

The message is the part of a communication which involves sending information from
source to destination. Information is a meaningful data that the receiver consumes.
Input Transducer: If you want to talk (communicate) with your friend who is sitting
beside you, then you can directly talk with him by using voice signals (sound signals). But
if the same friend is farther away from you, then you can’t directly communicate with him
by using voice signals (sound signals) because sound signals cannot travel larger distances.
So in order to overcome this problem and transmit information to larger distances, first we
need to convert this sound signal into another form of signal (electrical signal or light
signal) which travel larger distances.
The device which is used to convert this sound signal into another form of signal is called
transducer. A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy or signal into
another form of energy or signal. The transducer is present at the input side and output
side of the communication system. The transducer that is present at the input side of the
communication system is called input transducer. Generally, the input transducer converts
the non-electrical signal (sound signal or light signal) into an electrical signal. The best
example of an input transducer is the microphone which is placed between the information
source and the transmitter section. A microphone is a device which converts your voice
signals (sound signals) into electrical signals.
Transmitter: The transmitter is a device which converts the signal produced by the source
into a form that is suitable for transmission over a given channel or medium. Transmitters
use a technique called modulation to convert the electrical signal into a form that is
suitable for transmission over a given channel or medium. Modulation is the main function
of a transmitter. When we send the signal to larger distances, it undergoes various
circumstances which make the signal weak. In order to send the signals to larger distances,
without the effect of any external interferences or noise addition and without getting faded
away, it has to undergo a process called modulation. Modulation increases the strength of
a signal without changing the parameters of the original signal. Thus the resulted signal
overcomes the various effects which make it to becomeweak.
Communication Channel: The communication channel is a medium through which the
signal travels.
(or)
The communication channel is a wired or wireless medium through which the signal
(information) travels from source (transmitter) to destination (receiver).
Page. no 3

(or)
The communication channel is a wired or wireless medium that is used to send the signal
from the source (transmitter) to the destination (receiver).
(or)
The communication channel is a wired or wireless medium that connects the transmitter
and receiver for sending the signal.
Communication channels are divided into two categories: wired and wireless. Some
examples of wired channels include co-axial cables, fiber optic cables, and twisted pair
telephone lines. Examples of wireless channels are air, water, and vacuum.
Althoughchannel provides a way for communication, it has one drawback. The
communication channel reduces the signal strength (attenuates the signal) that carries the
information. This reduction in signal strength is mainly caused by the addition of external
noise, physical surroundings, and travel distance. Thus the signal received by the receiver
is very weak. To compensate this signal loss, amplifiers (the device that amplifies the signal
strength) are used at both the transmitter and the receiver side.
Noise: Noise is an unwanted signal that enters the communication system via the
communication channel and interferes with the transmitted signal. The noise signal
(unwanted signal) degrades the transmitted signal (signal containing information).
Receiver: The receiver is a device that receives the signal (electrical signal) from the
channel and converts the signal (electrical signal) back to its original form (light and
sound) which is understandable by humans at the destination. TV set is a good example
of a receiver. TV set receives the signals sent by the TV transmitting stations and
converts the signal into a form which is easily understandable by the humans who are
watching TV.
Output Transducer: The transducer that is present at the output side of the
communication system is called output transducer. Generally, the output transducer
converts the electrical signal into a non-electrical signal (sound signal, light signal, or
both sound and light signal). The best example of an output transducer is the
loudspeaker which is placed between the receiver section and the destination. The
loudspeaker converts the electrical signals into sound signals which are easily
understandable by the humans at the destination.
Destination: The destination is the final stage in the communication system. Generally,
humans at some place are considered as the destination. A destination is a
Page. no 4
place where humans consume the information. For example, if you are watching TV,
you are considered as the destination.
Fig 1.1.2: An electronic communications system using electronic signals
MODULATION:
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more
properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that
typically contains information to be transmitted In general telecommunications,
modulation is a process of conveying message signal, for example, a digital bit stream oran
analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation
of a sine waveform transforms a narrow frequency range baseband message signal into a
moderate to high frequency range pass band signal, one that can pass through a filter.
A modulator is a device that performsmodulation.
A demodulator (sometimes detector or demod) is a device that perform
demodulation, the inverse ofmodulation.
A modem (from modulator–demodulator) can perform bothoperations
The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass) signal, for
example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog bandpass channel at a different
frequency, for example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network
channel.
The importance of performing modulation and the major advantages what we can
observe after performing modulation are explained below:
Page. no 5
NEED FOR MODULATION:

1. Reduction in the height of antenna
2. Avoids mixing of signals
3. Increases the range of communication
4. Multiplexing is possible
5. Improves quality of reception
1. Reduction in the height of antenna
For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4, where λ
is the wavelength.
λ = c /f
where c : is the velocity of light
f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted.

The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 15 kHz is
calculated as follows:
H =λ/4= 𝑐 3 𝑋 108 = 5000 mt

=
𝑓𝑋4
15𝑋103𝑋
4
The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install. We observe that as we are
operating with low frequency signals then the height of the antenna required to transmit
those signal is of 5000 meters. The design of this type of antenna is practically impossible
so if we increase the frequency of signal then we can reduce the height of antenna but
practically our message signal is of low frequency so we use a high frequency carrier and
imparts our low frequency message in that carrier which makes transmitting signal as high
frequency now
Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz . The minimum antenna height is
given by,
H =λ/4= 𝑐 3 𝑋 108 = 75 mts
=
𝑓𝑋4
1 𝑋 106𝑋
4
Page. no 6
1. Avoids mixing of signals

If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than
one transmitter, then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz.
Therefore, all the signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them from each
other. Hence, if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then
they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain (different channels). Thus,
modulation avoids mixing of signals.
2. Increase the Range of Communication

The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency signals cannot travel long
distance when they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated. The attenuation reduces
with increase in frequency of the transmitted signal, and they travel longer distance. The
modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Therefore, it
increases the range of communication.
3. Multiplexing is possible
Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same
communication channel simultaneously. This is possible only with modulation. The
multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals. Hence, many TV
channels can use the same frequency range, without getting mixed with each other or
different frequency signals can be transmitted at the same time.
4. Improves Quality of Reception

With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication techniques such as PCM,
the effect of noise is reduced to a great extent. And because of the high frequency carrier,
we can protect information from various disturbances and we will get information without
any loss. This improves quality of reception.
In addition with respect to above mentioned necessaries there are plenty of advantages we
may observe by performing the concept of modulation. The major part of considering modulation
is to perform noise free transmission.
Page. no 7
Frequency Translation
The process of transferring a signal form one part of the frequency axis to the other is
called Frequency translation. It occurs frequently in a Wireless communication system,
that is, Frequency translation is used to transfer the pass band signal to base band signal.
The Decimation is the most efficient method for the frequency translation.
For Example, consider a modulated signal S1(t) with a centered spectrum of frequency
f1 and a factor of cos2π(f2–f1)t. Where, f2 is the centered spectrum of frequency of band
pass filter. Figure 1 depicts the process of obtaining upward frequencytranslation.
Fig: 1.4.1 Upward Frequency Translation
The signal x(t) in Figure 1, can be obtained by the multiplication of signal S1(t) with cos
2π(f2–f1)t. Then the resultant signal x(t) is passed through the Band pass filter (BPF) which
is at a centered spectrum of frequency f2. The band pass filter output results as an upward
frequency translated signal s2(t).
Fig: 1.4.2 Output Response of Band Pass Filter

The signal S1(t) represented in Figure 2, with a centered spectrum of frequency f1 and
output of band pass filter signal results in an upward translated frequency signal
s2(t).Similarly, the downward frequency translation is estimated by multiplying the
modulated signal with cos2π(f2–f1)t and then filtering out the high frequency component
using the lower frequency component.
Page. no 8
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to
as the electromagnetic spectrum.
Fig: 1.5.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequency and Wavelength:

Frequency:
A signal is located on the frequency spectrum according to its frequency and
wavelength.
Frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given
period of time.
It consists of two voltage polarity reversals, current reversals, or electromagnetic
field oscillations.
Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps).
The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
Wavelength:
Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave and is usually
expressed in meters.
Wavelength is also the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the
time of one cycle.
The wavelength of a signal is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ).
With the help of speed of light and wavelength we can measure frequency.
Page. no 9
Fig: 1.5.2.1Representation of Frequency & Wavelength

Wavelength (λ) = speed of light ÷ frequency
Speed of light = 3 × 108 meters/second
Therefore:λ = 3 × 108 / f
Frequency Ranges from 30 Hz to 300 GHz
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments:
Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30–300 Hz.

Voice Frequencies (VF) 300–3000 Hz.
Very Low Frequencies (VLF) Include the higher end of the
human hearing range up to about
20 kHz.
Low Frequencies (LF) 30–300 kHz.
Medium Frequencies (MF) 300–3000 kHz
AM radio 535–1605 kHz.
High Frequencies (HF) 3–30 MHz
(short waves; VOA, BBC broadcasts;
government and military two-way
communication; amateur radio, CB.
Very High Frequencies (VHF)FM radio 30–300 MHz
broadcasting (88–108 MHz), television channels
2–13.
Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 300–3000 MHz
TV channels 14–67, cellular phones, military
communication.
Microwaves and Super High Frequencies(SHF) 1–30 GHz
Satellite communication, radar, wireless LANs,
microwave ovens
Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) 30–300 GHz
Satellite communication, computer data, radar
Table: 1.5.2.1 Spectrum Frequency applications
Page. no 10
Gain
Gain is defined as the difference in power between the amplifier output signal and the
input signal. Gain can be calculated by subtracting the input from the output levels when
both are expressed in dB (Decibel).
Power Gain:
Originally, the decibel (abbreviated dB) was created to measure the intensity of sound. In
communication systems, it is used to express the power gain of an amplifier or the power
+attenuation (loss) of a transmission medium. The equation to convert a power ratio into
decibels is: GdB = 10log10 (POUT/ PIN)
Table: 1.6.1.1Conversion from power loss/gain as a ratio to loss/gain in decibels:
Attenuation:
Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal.
Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or analog. Sometimes called
loss, attenuation is a natural consequence of signal transmission over long distances.
The decibel (abbreviated as dB and also as db and DB) is a logarithmic expression of the
ratiobetween two signal power, voltage, or current levels. A decibel is one-tenth of a Bell,
a seldom-used unit named for Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone.
Suppose a signal has a power of P1 watts, and a second signal has a power of P2 watts.
Then the power amplitude difference in decibels, symbolized SdBP, is:
SdBP = 10 log10 (P2 / P1)
Page. no 11
Fig: 1.7.1 Reduction in signal strength due to attenuation
Decibel (dB):
The decibel, dB utilizes a logarithmic scale based to compare two quantities. It is a
convenient way of comparing two physical quantities like electrical power, intensity, or
even current, or voltage.
The decibel uses the base ten logarithms, i.e. those commonly used within mathematics.
By using le, the decibel is able to compare quantities that may have vast ratios between
them.
The abbreviation for a decibel is dB - the capital "B" is used to denote the Bel as the
fundamental unit.
Decibel applications:
Typically the decibel, dB is used for defining amplifier gains, component losses (e.g.
attenuators, feeders, mixers, etc), as well as a host of other measurements such as noise
figure, signal to noise ratio, and many others.
Decibel formula for power comparisons:

The most basic form for decibel calculations is a comparison of power levels. As might be
expected it is ten times the logarithm of the output divided by the input. The factor tenis
used because decibels rather than Bels are used.
The decibel formula or equation for power is given below:
NdB=10log10(P2/P1)
Where:
N dB is the ratio of the two power expressed in decibels, dB
P2 is the output power level
P1 is the input power level
Page. no 12
UNIT-2
SIMPLE INTRODUCTION ON MODULATION
Major Contents:
Concept of Modulation, Amplitude modulation, Time domain & Frequency
domain representation and analysis of AM, Single tone Amplitude modulation,
Modulation Index, Power calculations of AM, Generation and degeneration
Techniques of AM, Bandwidth for AM, Concept of Frequency Modulation, Single
tone FM, Generation and degeneration of FM
Pulse Modulation Techniques – PAM, PWM & PPM generation and degeneration
techniques, Comparision of Pulse modulation techniques, Concept of Digital
Modulation, ASK, FSK and PSK generation and degeneration mechanisms,
Concept of QPSK transmitter & receiver.
Page. no 13
Concept of Modulation:
Modulation Scheme:
Operation of varying amplitude, frequency or phase of carrier signal accordingly with the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal is called modulation.
Fig: 2.1.1.1 Modulation Process
Baseband signals are also called modulating signal as it modulates carrier signal. Carrier
signals are high frequency radio waves it generally comes from a radio frequency
oscillators. These two signals are combined in modulator. Modulator takes the
instantaneous amplitude of baseband signal and varies amplitude/frequency/phase of
career signal. Resultant signal is a modulated signal. It goes to an RF-amplifier for signal
power boosting and then feed to antenna or a co-axial cable.
There are two types of modulation analog and digital. Analog modulation deals with the
voice, video and regular waves of base band signals. Whereas digital modulations are with
bit streams or symbols from computing devices as base band signals.
Demodulation Scheme:
Demodulation is the opposite process of modulation. Modulator is a part of signal

transmitter where as demodulator is the receiving side. The major aim of demodulator in
any communication model is to convert back the electromagnetic signal into electronic
signal then this electronic or electrical signal is applied to transducers to get back the
original form of the input signal.
Page. no 14
Fig: 2.1.2.1 Demodulation Process
AMPLITUDEMODULATION:
A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it isthe
basebandmessage signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.
In order that a steady radio signal or "radio carrier" can carry information it must be
changed or modulated in one way so that the information can be conveyed from one place
to another. There are a number of ways in which a carrier can be modulated to carry a
signal - often an audio signal and the most obvious way is to vary its amplitude. Amplitude
Modulation has been in use since the very earliest days of radio technology. The first
recorded instance of its use was in 1901 when a signal was transmitted by a Canadian
engineer named Reginald Fessenden. To achieve this, he used a continuous spark
transmission and placed a carbon microphone in the antenna lead. The sound waves
impacting on the microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the intensity of the
transmission. Although very crude, signals were audible over a distance of a few hundred
metres. The quality of the audio was not good particularly as a result of the continuous
rasping sound caused by the spark used for the transmission. Later, continuous sine wave
signals could be generated and the audio quality was greatly improved. As a result,
amplitude modulation, AM became the standard for voice transmissions.
According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the
amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of
the signal containing information, at each instant. This can be well explained by the
following figures.
Page. no 15
Time domain Representation:
Fig: 2.2.1.(a) Low frequency Message signal
Fig: 2.2.1. (b) High frequency Carrier signal
Fig: 2.2.1. (c) Amplitude modulated signal
The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is
the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the
last one is the resultant modulated wave. It can be observed that the positive and negative
peaks of the carrier wave are interconnected with an imaginary line. This line helps
recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier wave
is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message signal.
Page. no 16
Frequency domain Representation of AM:
Fig: 2.2.1. (d) Message signal in Frequency domain
Fig: 2.2.1. (e) Carrier signal in Frequency domain
Fig: 2.2.1. (e) Frequency Spectrum of AM signal

For perspective frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of the modulated wave lying
above the carrier frequency c f is called the upper sideband, whereas, the symmetric
portion below c f is called lower sideband.
For negative frequencies, the image of the upper sideband is represented by the portion
of the spectrum below - ω c and the image of the lower sideband by the portion above
– c f . The condition ω c>> ω m ensures that the sidebands do not overlap.
For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM wave is c f + Bf
and the lowest frequency component is c f - B f .
Page. no 17
The difference between these two frequencies defines the transmission bandwidth T f
for an AM wave. Transmission Bandwidth fT =2 fB (twice the message
bandwidth)Message Bandwidth = fB-0= fB
Single ToneModulation(or) Time domain analysis of AM
Following are the mathematical expressions for above time-domain Representation of
the waves.Let the modulating signal be,
m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)
and the carrier signal
be, c(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)
Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
s(t)=[Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) (Equation1)
s(t)=Ac[1+(Am/Ac) cos(2πfmt)] cos(2πfct)
⇒ s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) (Equation 2)
Frequency domain Analysis:

From time domain we got AM signal expression as
S(t)=[Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
The above equation is also expressed as
S(t) = Ac [1+Ka Amcos(wmt)]cos(wct) (Equation 3)
S(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)+ Ac KaAmcos(2πfmt) cos(2πfct)
S (t) = Ac cos(2πfct)+ Ac µcos(2πfmt) cos(2πfct) [KaAm =µ]
𝑨𝒄µ 𝑨𝒄µ
S(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)+ cos(wc+wm)t + cos(wc-wm)t (Equation 4)
𝟐 𝟐
By applying Fourier transform to the above equation we convert the time domain into
frequency domain as follows:
Fourier transform of cos (2πfct) = 𝟏[δ(f-fc)+δ(f+fc)]
𝟐
Therefore Fourier transform of equation 3 is expressed as

S(f) = 𝑨𝒄 [δ(f-fc)+δ(f+fc)] + 𝑨𝒄µ [δ(f-(fc+fm)+δ(f+(fc+fm)] + 𝑨𝒄µ [δ(f-(fc-fm)+δ(f+(fc-fm)]
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒
This is the standard equation for AM in frequency domain.
Page. no 18
Prepared by Mr.D.Veeraswamy, Assistant Professor Dept. of ECE

Modulation Index:
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an
attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of
modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.Where, μ is Modulation index and it is equal to
the ratio of Amand Ac. Mathematically, we can write it as: μ=Am/Ac
Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula,
when the amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known. Now, let us derive one
more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We can use this formula
for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum amplitudes of
the modulated wave are known.
Fig:2.4.1 AM wave with amplitude levels

Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is 1.
⇒Amax=Ac+Am (Equation 4)
We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos(2πfmt) is -1.
⇒Amin=Ac−Am (Equation 5)
Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.
Amax+Amin=Ac+Am+Ac−Am=2Ac
⇒Ac=[Amax+Amin]/2 (Equation 6)
Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.
Amax−Amin=Ac+Am− (Ac−Am)=2Am
⇒Am=[Amax−Amin]/2 (Equation7)
The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be asfollows.
Am/Ac=[(Amax−Amin)/2]/[(Amax+Amin)/2]
⇒ μ= [Amax−Amin ]/[Amax+Amin] (Equation8)
Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The
modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage
of Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the
modulation index value with 100.
Page. no 19

AM Modulated Wavesbased on Modulation Index(µ) Value:

Three types of AM modulated waves are observed based on the value of modulation
index which are named as follows:
1. Under modulation
2. Critical Modulation
3. Over Modulation
Under modulation:
If the modulation index value is less than 1 then the Amplitude modulated wave is
named as Under modulated AM signal.
Critical modulation:
If the modulation index value is equal to 1 then the Amplitude modulated wave is
named as Critically modulated AM signal or Perfect AM signal.
Over modulation:
Any increase of the modulation index above 1.0, i.e. 100% modulation depth causes over-
modulation. The carrier experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier level would try
to go below the zero point. These phase reversals give rise to additional sidebands resulting
from the phase reversals (phase modulation) that extend out, in theory to infinity. This can
cause serious interference to other users if not filtered.
Broadcast stations in particular take measures to ensure that the carries of their
transmissions never become over modulated. The transmitters incorporate limiters to
prevent more than 100% modulation. Hover they also normally incorporate automatic
audio gain controls to keep the audio levels such that near 100% modulation levels are
achieved for most of the time.
Among the three modulation techniques, we consider the demodulation circuit
based on the received form of AM signal.
If the signal is under modulated then we consider the square law demodulator where
as if the AM signal is over modulated then we may consider the envelope detector circuit
for the demodulation principle.
This indicates that AM signal output response is specified by modulation index
value and this response make us to consider the type of demodulator circuit also.
Page. no 20

Fig: 2.4.1.1 AM waves based on Modulation index values
Bandwidth of AM Wave:
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the
signal. Mathematically, we can write it as
BW=fmax−fminConsider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
⇒ s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμcos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt)
⇒ s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Acμ/2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Acμ/2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ (f+fc)] +Ac δ /4[δ (f-fc-fm) + δ (f+fc+fm)] +Ac δ /4[δ (f- fc+fm)+
δ (f+fc-fm)]
Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies.
Those are carrier frequency fc, upper sideband frequency fc+fm and lower sideband
frequency fc−fm
Page. no 21

Here,
fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm

Substitute, fmaxfmax and fminfmin values in bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)
⇒BW=2fm
Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice
the frequency of the modulating signal.
POWER CALCULATIONS OF AM WAVE:
Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)+Ac μ / 2 cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Ac μ/2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]

Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower
sideband frequency components.
Pt=Pc+PUSB+PLSB
We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is
2
P
r m=
s (v/√2) m
Where,vrms is the rms value of cos signal. vm is the peak value of cos signal.First, let us
find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
Carrie power
Pc=(Ac/√2)2/R=Ac2/2R
Upper sideband power
PUSB=(Ac μ/2√2)2/R=A c2μ2/8R
Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band
power.
PLSB= (Ac μ/2√2)2/R=A c2μ2/8R
Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.
Pt=Ac2/2R+Ac2μ2/8R+ Ac2μ2/8R
Page. no 22

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC)
⇒Pt=(Ac2/2R)(1+μ2/4+ μ2/4)
⇒Pt=Pc (1+μ2/2)
We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power
and the modulation index are known. If the modulation index μ=1μ=1 then the power of
AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier power. So, the power required for transmitting
an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.
GENERATION OF AMWAVES:
Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM Transmitters. These transmitters
are used in medium wave (MW) and short (SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast. The
MW band has frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has
frequencies ranging from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. the two types of AM transmitters that are
used based on their transmitting powers are: High Level and Low Level.
High level transmitters use high level modulation and low level transmitters use low level
modulation. The choice between the two modulation schemes depends on the transmitting
power of the AM transmitter. In broadcast transmitters, where the transmiting power may
be of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is employed. In low power transmitter,
where only a few watts of transmitting power are required, lowlevel modulation is used.
High-Level and Low-Level Transmitters:

Below figure's show the block diagram of high-level and low-level transmitters. The basic
difference between the two transmitters is the power amplification of the carrier and
modulating signals. Figure (a) shows the block diagram of high-level AM transmitter. In
high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating signals are amplified
before applying them to the modulator stage, as shown in figure. In low- level modulation,
the powers of the two input signals of the modulator stage are not amplified.
In high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating signals are
amplified before applying them to the modulator stage, as shown in figure. In low-level
modulation, the powers of the two input signals of the modulator stage are not amplified.
Page No 23
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Fig: 2.7.1.1 High level Transmitter block diagram

The required transmitting power is obtained from the last stage of the transmitter, the class
C power amplifier.
The various sections of the figure 2.4.1.1 are:
Carrier oscillator: The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal, which lies
in the RF range. The frequency of the carrier is always very high. Because it is very
difficult to generate high frequencies with good frequency stability, the carrier
oscillator generates a sub multiple with the required carrier frequency. This sub
multiple frequency is multiplied by the frequency multiplier stage to get the
required carrier frequency. Further, a crystal oscillator can be used in this stage to
generate a low frequency carrier with the best frequency stability. The frequency
multiplier stage then increases the frequency of the carrier to its required value.
Buffer Amplifier: The purpose of the buffer amplifier is two fold. It first matches
the output impedance of the carrier oscillator with the input impedance of the
frequency multiplier, the next stage of the carrier oscillator. It then isolates the
carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier. This is required so that the multiplier
does not draw a large current from the carrier oscillator. If this occurs, the
frequency of the carrier oscillator will not remain stable.
Frequency Multiplier: The sub-multiple frequency of the carrier signal, generated
by the carrier oscillator , is now applied to the frequency multiplier through the
buffer amplifier. This stage is also known as harmonic generator. Thefrequency
multiplier generates higher harmonics of carrier oscillator frequency. The
frequency multiplier is a tuned circuit that can be tuned to the requisite carrier
frequency that is to be transmitted.
Page No 24
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Power Amplifier: The power of the carrier signal is then amplified in the power
amplifier stage. This is the basic requirement of a high-level transmitter. A class
C power amplifier gives high power current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.
Audio Chain: The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the microphone,
as shown in figure (a). The audio driver amplifier amplifies the voltage of this
signal. This amplification is necessary to drive the audio power amplifier. Next, a
class A or a class B power amplifier amplifies the power of the audiosignal.
Modulated Class C Amplifier:This is the output stage of the transmitter. The

modulating audio signal and the carrier signal, after power amplification, are
applied to this modulating stage. The modulation takes place at this stage. The class
C amplifier also amplifies the power of the AM signal to the reacquired
transmitting power. This signal is finally passed to the antenna., which radiates the
signal into space oftransmission.
Figure shows the block diagram of a low-level AM transmitter.
Fig: 2.7.1.2 Low level Transmitter Block diagram
The low-level AM transmitter shown in the figure (b) is similar to a high-level transmitter,
except that the powers of the carrier and audio signals are not amplified. These two signals
are directly applied to the modulated class C power amplifier. Modulation takes place at
the stage, and the power of the modulated signal is amplified to the required transmitting
power level. The transmitting antenna then transmits the signal.
Low Level Modulators for AM:
Square Law Modulator
Switching Modulator
Page No 25
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Square law modulator:
Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and A cos(2πfct) respectively.
These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block
produces an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as
V1t=m (t)+Ac cos(2πfct)
Fig 2.7.1.3 Square law Modulator

This signal V1t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The characteristics
of the diode are closely related to square law.
V2t=k1 V1(t)+kV2(t)(Equation 1)
21
Where, k1 and k2 are constants.
Substitute V1(t) in Equation 1
V2(t)=k1[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]+k2[m(t)+Ac cos(2πfct)]2
⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k1Accos(2πfct)+k2m2(t)+k2Ac 2cos2(2πfct)+2k2m(t)Accos(2πfct)
⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k2m2(t)+k2Ac 2cos2(2πfct)+k1Ac[1+(2k2/k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)
The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three
terms of the above equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass filter, we can
pass only AM wave and eliminate the first three terms.
Therefore, the output of square law modulator is
s(t)=k1Ac[1+(2k2/k1)m(t)]cos(2πfct)
The standard equation of AM wave is
s(t)=Ac[1+Kam(t)] cos(2πfct)
Where, Ka is the amplitude sensitivity
By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM
wave, we will get the scaling factor as k1 and the amplitude sensitivity ka as 2k2/k1.
Page No 26
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Switching Modulator:
Assume that carrier wave C (t) applied to the diode is large in amplitude, so that it swings
right across the characteristic curve of the diode .
Fig: 2.7.1.4 Switching Modulator Circuit

we assume that the diode acts as an ideal switch, that is, it presents zero impedance when
it is forward-biased and infinite impedance when it is reverse-biased. We may thus
approximate the transfer characteristic of the diode-load resistor combination by a
piecewise-linear characteristic.
The input voltage applied Vi (t) applied to the diode is the sum of both carrier and message
signals.
Vi (t) =Ac cos2πfct+m (t) ..................... (i)
During the positive half cycle of the carrier signal i.e. if C (t)>0, the diode is forward
biased, and then the diode acts as a closed switch. Now the output voltage Vo (t) is same
as the input voltage Vi (t) . During the negative half cycle of the carrier signal i.e. if C(t)
<0, the diode is reverse biased, and then the diode acts as a open switch. Now the output
voltage VO (t) is zero i.e. the output voltage varies periodically between the values input
voltage Vi (t) and zero at a rate equal to the carrier frequency fc.
i.e., Vo (t) = [Ac cos2πfct+m (t)] gP(t) ............ (ii)
Where gp(t) is the periodic pulse train with duty cycle one-half and period Tc=1/fc and
which is given by:
gP(t)= ½+2/πΣ[(-1)n-1/(2n-1)] cos[2πfct(2n-1)]............... (iii)
Page No 27
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Fig:2.7.1.5 Periodic Pulse train

Now design the tuned filter /Band pass filter with center frequency fc and pass band
frequency width 2W.We can remove the unwanted terms by passing this output voltage
V0(t) through the band pass filter and finally we will get required AM signal.
V0 (t) =Ac/2[1+kam (t)] cos2πfct --------- AM signal
Fig: 2.7.1.6 Response of Switching Modulator
Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference is that
in the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the
switching modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal switch
DETECTION OF AMWAVES:
The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known
as detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is
known as the demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating AM wave.
Square Law Demodulator
Envelope Detector
Page No 28
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Square Law Demodulator:

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the
block diagram of the square law demodulator.
Fig: 2.8.1 Block Diagram of Square law demodulator
This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave V1(t)
is applied as an input to this demodulator.
The standard form of AM wave is

We know that the mathematical relationship between the input and the output of square
law device is
Substitute V1(t) in Equation 1
In the above equation, the term k A 2k m(t) is the scaled version of the message signal. It
2 c a
can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC
component k A 2/2 can be eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.
2 c
Envelope Detector:
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following is the
block diagram of the envelope detector.
Page No 29
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Fig. no.2.8.2 Envelope detection of AM wave

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main
detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode detector. The
low pass filter contains a parallel combination of the resistor and thecapacitor.
The AM wave s(t) is applied as an input to this detector. We know the standard form of
AM wave is
s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the
peak value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode
will be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next
positive half cycle of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor
voltage, the diode conducts and the process will be repeated. We should select the
component values in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly and discharges
very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as that of the
envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulatingsignal.
Amplitude modulation applications :

Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications. Even though it is not as widely
used as it was in previous years in its basic format it can nevertheless still be found.
Broadcast transmissions: AM is still widely used for broadcasting on the long, medium
and short wave bands.
Page No 30
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It is simple to demodulate and this means that radio receivers capable of demodulating
amplitude modulation are cheap and simple to manufacture.
Air band radio: VHF transmissions for many airborne applications still use AM. . It is
used for ground to air radio communications as well as two way radio links for ground
staff as well.
Single sideband: Amplitude modulation in the form of single sideband is still used for HF
radio links. Using a lower bandwidth and providing more effective use of the transmitted
power this form of modulation is still used for many point to point HF links.
Quadrature amplitude modulation: AM is widely used for the transmission of data in

everything from short range wireless links such as Wi-Fi to cellular telecommunications
and much more. Effectively it is formed by having two carriers 90° out of phase.
Amplitude modulation advantages & disadvantages:
Like any other system of modulation, amplitude modulation has several advantages and
disadvantages. These mean that it is used in particular circumstances where its advantages
can be used to good effect.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
It is simple toimplement An amplitude modulation signal is
It can be demodulated using a not efficient in terms of its power usage
circuit consisting of very fewcomponents It is not efficient in terms of its use
AM receivers are very cheap as no of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal
specialized components areneeded. to twice that of the highest audio
frequency
An amplitude modulation signal is
prone to high levels of noise because most
noise is amplitude based and obviously
AM detectors are sensitive to it.
Page No 31
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In view of its characteristics advantages and disadvantages, amplitude modulation is being

used less frequently. However it is still in widespread use for broadcasting on the long,
medium and short wave bands as well as for a number of mobile or portable
communications systems including some aircraft communications.
Frequency modulation (FM):
Frequency modulation (FM)is that of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t), as shown by
fi(t) =fc+kfm(t)
Where fc represents the frequency of the un modulated carrier
kf represents the frequencysensitivity of the modulator(Hz/volt)
FM wave is mathematically represented as
s(t)=Accos[2πfct+2πkf ᶋm(t)dt]
FM wave can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then using the result as the input
to a phase modulator. Frequency modulation is a Non-linear modulation process.
Single tone FM:

Consider m(t)=Am cos(2πfmt)
The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave
fi(t) =fc+kf Amcos(2πfmt)
= fc+Δf cos(2πfmt)
where Δf = kf Am is called as frequency deviation
θ (t) =2πᶋfi(t)dt
=2πfct+Δf/fm sin(2πfmt)
= 2πfct+β sin(2πfmt)
Where β= Δf/fm= modulation index of the FM wave.
When β<<1 radian then it is called as narrowband FM consisting essentially of a
carrier, an upper side-frequency component, and a lower side-frequency component.
When β>>1 radian then it is called as wideband FM which contains a carrier and an
infinite number of side-frequency components located symmetrically around the carrier.
The envelope of an FM wave is constant, so that the average power of such a wave
dissipated in a 1-ohm resistor is also constant.
Page No 32
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Fig: 2.11.1.1 FM Response

Generation of FM waves:
1. Indirect FM: This method was first proposed by Armstrong. In this method the
modulating wave is first used to produce a narrow-band FM wave, and frequency
multiplication is next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
2. Direct FM: In this method the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with
the incoming message signal.
Armstrong method for FM generation:
The direct methods cannot be used for the broadcast applications. Thus the alternative
method i.e. indirect method called as the Armstrong method of FM generation is used.
In this method the FM is obtained through phase modulation. A crystal oscillator can be
used hence the frequency stability is very high.
The block diagram of the Armstrong method is shown below:
Fig: 2.12.1 Block diagram of Armstrong method of FM generation
Page No 33
Page 23

Operation:
The crystal oscillator generates the carrier at low frequency typically at 1MHz. This
is applied to the combining network and a 90° phase shifter.
The modulating signal is passed through an audio equalizer to boost the low
modulating frequencies .The modulating signal is then applied to a balanced
modulator.
The balanced modulator produced two side bands such that their resultant is 90°
phase shifted with respect to the un modulated carrier.
The un-modulated carrier and 90° phase shifted sidebands are added in the
combining network.
At the output of the combining network we get FM wave. This wave has a low
carrier frequency fc and low value of the modulation index mf.
The carrier frequency and the modulation index are then raised by passing the FM
wave through the first group of multipliers. The carrier frequency is then raised by
using a mixer and then the fc and mf both are raised to required high values using
the second group of multipliers.
The FM signal with high fc and high mf is then passed through a class C power
amplifier to raise the power level of the FM signal.
The Armstrong method uses the phase modulation to generate frequency
modulation. This method can be understood by dividing it into four parts as follows:
1. Generation of FM from phase modulator:
The modulating signal is passed through a low pass RC filter. The filter output is then
applied to a phase modulator along with carrier. Hence the extra deviation in the carrier
fc due to higher modulating frequency is compensated by reducing the amplitude of the
high frequency modulating signals.
Hence the frequency deviation at the output of the phase modulator will be
effectively proportional only to the modulating voltage and we obtain an FM wave at the
output of phase modulator.
FM signal can be converted to PM signal by using integrator and similarly PM
signal can be converted to FM signal by using differentiator circuit .
Page No 34
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Fig: 2.12.2. Generation of FM using Phase Modulator
2. Implementation of phase modulator:

The crystal oscillator produces a stable un modulated carrier which is applied to the “90°
phase shifter” as well as the “combining network” through a buffer.
Fig: 2.12.3 Phase modulator circuit
The 90° phase shifter produces a 90° phase shifted carrier. It is then applied to the balanced
modulator along with the modulation signal.
At the output of the balanced modulator we get DSBSC signal i.e. AM signal without
carrier. This signal consists of only two sidebands with their resultant in phase with their
resultant in phase with the 90° phase shifted carrier.
3. Combining parts 1 and 2 to obtain The FM:
Combining the parts 1 and 2 we get the block diagram of the Armstrong method of FM
generation
4. Use of frequency multipliers and amplifiers:
The FM signal produced at the output of phase modulator has a low carrier frequency and
low modulation index. They are increased to an adequately high value with the help of
frequency multipliers and mixer.
PagePage
No 35
23

The power level is raised to the desired level by the amplifier.
Detection of FM waves:
Slope Detector:
The slope detector is the simplest type of FM detector. A schematic diagram of a slope
detector appears below:
Fig: 2.13.1 Slope Detector Circuit
The operation of the slope detector is very simple. The output network of an amplifier is
tuned to a frequency that is slightly more than the carrier frequency + peak deviation. As
the input signal varies in frequency, the output signal across the LC network will vary in
amplitude because of the band pass properties of the tank circuit. The output of this
amplifier is AM, which can be detected using a diode detector.
The circuit shown in the diagram above looks very similar to the last IF amplifier and
detector of an AM receiver, and it is possible to receive NBFM on an AM receiver by
detuning the last IF transformer. If this transformer is tuned to a frequency of
approximately 1 KHz above the IF frequency, the last IF amplifier will convert NBFM to
AM.
In spite of its simplicity, the slope detector is rarely used because it has poor linearity. To
see why this is so, it is necessary to look at the expression for the voltage across the primary
of the tuned transformer in the sloped detector. The voltage across the transformer's
primary winding is related to the square of the frequency. Since the frequency deviation
of the FM signal is directly proportional to the modulating signal's amplitude, the output
of the slope detector will be distorted. If the bandwidth of the FM signal is small, it is
possible to approximate the response of the slope detector by a linear
PagePage
No 36
23

function, and a slope detector could be used to demodulate an NBFM signal.

FM Advantage:
Modulation and demodulation does not catch any channel noise.
FM Disadvantage:
Circuit needed for FM modulation and demodulation is bit complicated than AM
Application:
FM radio broadcasting
PULSEMODULATION:
Pulse modulation is a technique in which the signal is transmitted with the information by
pulses. Here, the carrier signal is a pulse wave. Pulse can be of rectangular form or any
other appropriate shape. In pulse modulation one or more characteristics of a Pulse Train
is varied in accordance with the messagesignal.
Pulse Modulation is divided into two types:
Analog Pulse Modulation
Digital Pulse Modulation.
ANALOG PULSE MODULATION:
In analog pulse modulation, a periodic pulse train is used as carrier signal to modulate a
continuous-time message signal. One or more properties of this pulse train is varied
continuously according to the corresponding sample of message signal. The information
is transmitted in analog form but transmission is done at discrete times.
There are basically three types of analog pulse modulation. They are:
Pulse Amplitude Modulation(PAM)
Pulse Time modulation
The two main types of Pulse time modulation are:

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Or
Pulse Duration Modulation(PDM)
Pulse Position Modulation(PPM)
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PPM can be determined by considering PWM as one of the input signal. This shows that
PWM and PPM are related.
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM):

In PAM, the amplitude of a periodic pulse train is varied in accordance with
corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal. Pulse amplitude modulation
is categorized into two types:
1. Single Polarity PAM: Single polarity PAM is a situation where a fixed DC level is
added to the signal to ensure that all the pulses arepositive.
2. Double Polarity PAM: Double polarity PAM is a situation where the pulses are both
positive andnegative.
PAM wave with single polarity and double polarity are shown in the figure below.
Fig: 2.14.1.1.1 Single & Double Polarity PAM Signal
Generation of PAM wave:

The ability to use constant amplitude pulses is a major advantage of pulse modulation.
Since PAM does not utilize constant amplitude pulses, it is less frequently used. If it is
used, the pulse frequency modulates the carrier. The Fig1below shows the generation of
PAM signal from the sampler, which has two inputs i.e. modulating signal and sampling
signal or carrier pulse.
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Fig.2.14.1.1.2 Generation of PAM signal

Thus the amplitude of the carrier/sampling signal is proportional to the modulating signal
through which information is carried. Fig2 shows the spectrum of pulse amplitude
modulated signal along with the message signal and the sampling signal which is the
carrier train of pulses with the help of the waveform plotted in time domain.
Fig: 2.14.1.1.3 Spectrum of PAM
Demodulation of PAM wave:

For Demodulation of the Pulse Amplitude Modulated signal, PAM is fed to the low pass
filter as shown in Figure below.
Fig. 2.14.1.1.4 PAM detector
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The low pass filter eliminates high frequency ripples and generates the demodulated signal,
which has its amplitude proportional to PAM signal at all time instant. This signalis then
applied to an inverting amplifier to amplify its signal level to have the demodulated output
with almost equal amplitude with the modulating signal. The Fig below shows the
modulated and demodulated PAM signal. This signal is then applied to an inverting
amplifier to amplify its signal level to have the demodulated output with almost equal
amplitude with the modulating signal. The Fig below shows the modulated and
demodulated PAM signal. This signal is then applied to an inverting amplifier to amplify
its signal level to have the demodulated output with almost equal amplitude withthe
modulating signal. The Fig below shows the modulated and demodulated PAM signal.
Fig. 2.14.1.1.5 Modulation and demodulation of PAM signal
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):
Pulse width Modulation is also called as pulse duration modulation (PDM) or Pulse
Length modulation (PLM). In PWM the sample values of the analog waveform are used
to determine the width of the pulse signal. Either instantaneous or natural sampling can be
used. Figure below shows PWM generation using instantaneous sampling. Here,
amplitude and starting time of each pulse is fixed but the width of each pulse is varied in
proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at thatinstant.
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Fig: 2.14.1.2.1 (a) Signal (b) PWM signal

Generation of PWM:
Using Mono-stable Multi-vibrator:
PWM may be generated using monostable multivibrator, by applying trigger pulses (at the
sampling rate) to control the starting time of pulses. The signal to be sampled controls the
duration of the pulses. The circuit diagram for such an arrangement is shownin Fig. below.
The emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator shown in Fig. above, makes an excellent

voltage to time converter, since its gate width is dependent on the voltage to which the
capacitor C is charged.
Fig: 2.14.1.2.2 PWM generation using Mono-stable Multi-vibrator

If this voltage is varied in accordance with a signal voltage, a series of rectangular pulses
are obtained, with widths varying as required. The circuit performs two functions; it
samples, and converts this sample in Pulse Width Modulation.
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The operation of the circuit is as follows.
The multivibrator is in the stable state when Q1 — OFF and Q2 — ON. The applied trigger
pulse switches Q1 — ON, and thereby the voltage at C falls as Q1 now begins to draw
collector current. The voltage at B2 falls and Q2 is switched OFF by regenerative action.
As soon as this happens, the capacitor C begins to charge up to the collector supply
potential through R. After a time, determined by the supply voltage and the RC time
constant of the charging network, B2 becomes sufficiently positive to switch Q2 ON. Q1
is simultaneously switched OFF by regenerative action and stays OFF until the arrival of
the next trigger pulse. The voltage that the base of Q2 must reach to allow Q2 to turn ON,
is slightly more positive than the voltage across the common emitter resistance RE. This
voltage depends on the current flowing through the circuit, which at the time is the collector
current of Q1 (which is then ON).
The collector current, in turn, depends on the base bias, which is governed by the
instantaneous changes in the applied signal voltage. In order words, the applied
modulation voltage controls the voltage to which B2 must rise to switch Q2 ON. Since the
voltage rise is linear, the modulation voltage is seen to control the period of time during
which Q2 is OFF, that is, the pulse duration. This pulse duration is very short compared to
even the highest signal frequencies, so that no real distortion arises through changes in
signal amplitude while Q2 is OFF.
The fundamental bock diagram of generation of pulse width modulation using

comparator is shown below. The Output of PWM signal can be applied to a mono-stable
multi-vibrator Circuit where we can observe shift in the position of pulses which is
named as Pulse Position output.
In comparator model of generating PWM we observe that the comparator circuit

compares the voltage levels of low frequency message signal with respect to reference
ramp signal which is generated by using a ramp generator. If low frequency message
signal voltage is less compared with ramp signal voltage then width of the pulse is
narrow in opposite condition the width of the pulse is wide in such a waay we observe
the variation in pulse width.
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Fig: 2.14.1.2.3PWM generation using Comparator
The message signal which is required to be modulated is given to the summer along with
a saw-tooth sweep wave. The resultant voltage wave is given to the non-inverting input
of a comparator. Here, the comparator acts as a slicer. The inverting input of the
comparator is fixed to a reference voltage. The message wave varies during the sweeping
process. The comparator generates a high output for that duration until the sum signal
becomes less than the reference signal. Hence the duration of the resultant pulse is
proportional to the magnitude of the message signal at the trailing edge of the pulse.
In comparator model of generating PWM we observe that the comparator circuit

compares the voltage levels of low frequency message signal with respect to reference
ramp signal which is generated by using a ramp generator. If low frequency message signal
voltage is less compared with ramp signal voltage then width of the pulse is narrow in
opposite condition the width of the pulse is wide in such a waay we observe the variation
in pulse width.
For generation of PWM signals we can prefer mono-stable circuit operation for better
results we may observe some distortion in the comparator method of generating PWM
signal.
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Fig: 2.14.1.2.4 Generation Process of PWM signal
Demodulation of PWM waves:
Fig: 2.14.1.2.5 Demodulation Process of PWM signal
The received PWM signal is applied as an input to Ramp generator and pulse
generator simultaneously and the result of these two generators are added up by using a
summer circuit. The output of adder is applied to clipper circuit to clip the portion of signal
which is beyond the reference signal and then passed to a low pass filter to remove high
frequency components and produce the desired low frequency message signal as output.
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PULSE POSITIONMODULATION:
In PPM the analog sample values determine the position of a narrow pulse relative to the
clocking time. The width and amplitude of the pulses is kept constant, while the position
of each pulse in relation to the position of a reference pulse train is varied with respect to
the sampled value of the modulatingwave.
Generation of PPM requires synchronisation of transmitter and receiver. It is possible to
obtain PPM from PWM by using a mono-stable multivibrator circuit (pulse generator).
Fig. 2.14.3.1 PPM generation from PWM

The PWM signal generated above is sent to an inverter which reverses the polarity of the
pulses.This is then followed by a differentiator which generates +ve spikes for PWM signal
going from High to Low and -ve spikes for Low to High transition. The spikes generated
are shown in the fourth waveform of figure below. These spikes are then fedto the positive
edge triggered pulse generator, which generates fixed width pulses when a
+ve spike appears, coinciding with the falling edge of the PWM signal. Thus PPM signal
is generated at the output which is shown in the fifth waveform of Fig below, where pulse
position carry the messageinformation.
Fig. 2.14.3.2 PWM and PPM signal generation
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The demodulation of PPM waves is done again by first converting it into PWM wave. This
is done using a bistable multivibrator or flipflop. One Input of the multivibrator receives
trigger input from a local generator which is synchronized by trigger input received from
the transmitter. These triggers are are used to switch off one of the stages of the flipflop.
The PPM pulses are fed to the other input of the flipflop to switch on that stage. The period
of time during which this particular stage is off depends on the time difference between
the two triggers. The resulting pulse thus has a width that depends onthe time displacement
of each individual PPM pulse. The resulting PWM pulse train is given to PWM
demodulator to obtain the message signal.
Fig: 2.14.3.3 PPM Demodulation Block diagram
Difference between PAM, PWM, and PPM:

The below table gives the detailed difference between PWM, PAM, and PPM.
Sr.
No. Parameter PAM PWM PPM
1 Type of Carrier Train of Pulses Train of Pulses Train of Pulses
Variable
Characteristic of
2 the Pulsed Carrier Amplitude Width Position
Bandwidth
3 Requirement Low High High
4 Noise Immunity Low High High
Information
5 Contained in Amplitude Variations Width Variations Position Variations
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Power efficiency
6 (SNR) Low Moderate High
Varies with amplitude Varies with variation in

7 Transmitted of pulses width Remains Constant
Power
Need to transmit
8 synchronizing Not needed Not needed Necessary
pulses
Bandwidth depends Bandwidth depends on
on the width of the Bandwidth depends on the rise time of the
9 Bandwidth pulse the rise time of the pulse
depends on pulse
Instantaneous
transmitter power Instantaneous Instantaneous
varies with the transmitter power transmitter power
amplitude of the varies with the remains constant with
10 Transmitter power pulses amplitude and width of the width of the pulses
the pulses
Complexity of
generation and
11 detection Complex Easy Complex
Similarity with
12 other Modulation Similar to AM Similar to FM Similar to PM
Systems
Table.No.2.14.4 Comparison of Analog Pulse Modulation Techniques
Introduction to Digital Communication:
WHY DIGITAL:
There are two main reasons why digital communication is a good idea:
1. The digital abstraction enables the composition of modules to build large systems.
2. The digital abstraction allows us to us sophisticated algorithms to process data to
improve the quality and performance of the components of a system.
Yet, the digital abstraction is not the natural way to communicate data. Physical
communication links turn out to be analog at the lowest level, so we are going to have to
convert data between digital and analog, and vice versa, as it traverses different parts of
the system between the sender and the receiver.
Why analog is natural in many applications:
To understand why the digital abstraction enables modularity and composition, let us first
understand how analog representations of data work. Consider first the example of ablack-
and-white analog television image.
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Here, it is natural to represent each image as a sequence of values, one per (x, y) coordinate
in a picture. The values represent the luminance, or “shade of gray”: 0 volts represents
“black”, 1 volt represents “white”, and any value x between 0 and 1 representsthe fraction
of white in the image (i.e., some shade of gray). The representation of the picture itself is
as a sequence of these values in some scan order, and the transmission of the picture may
be done by generating voltage waveforms to represent these values. Another example is
an analog telephone, which converts sound waves to electrical signals and back. Like the
analog TV system, this system does not use bits (0s and 1s) to represent data (the voice
conversation) between the communicating parties. Such analog representations are
tempting for communication applications because they map well to physical link
capabilities. For example, when transmitting over a wire, we can send signals at different
voltage levels, and the receiver can measure the voltage to determine what the sender
transmitted. Over an optical communication link, we can send signals at different
intensities (and possibly also at different wavelengths), and the receiver can measure the
intensity to infer what the sender might have transmitted.
Model of digital communicationsystem
Figure 2.15.1.1 Block Diagram of Digital Communication System
Above diagram represents the basic blocks of digital communication system. It mainly
consists of 3 main blocks: Sender/Transmitter, Channel & Receiver. The transmitter
containstheinformationanditprocessesthesignaltotherequiredversionofatransmitted signal.
It majorly focuses on the information security and efficient preprocessing techniques to
get easiest and accurate information extraction at the receiver side. This block contains 5
sections.
Source: It is a device which provides information
Based on the nature of o/p message signal information sources are broadly classified into
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two types.
Continuous information source. Ex:Mice
Discrete information source. Ex:Computer
This source provides the discrete information to the digital communication system. Some
basic technical parameters of source includes
Source Alphabet: These are the letters, digits or special characters used to convey
the information.
Symbol Rate: It is the rate at which the information source generates source
alphabets. It is measured inSymbols/Sec
Source Alphabet Probabilities: Each source alphabet from the source has
independent occurrence rate in the sequence. With this probability measurement we
can improve the utilization of source and symbolrate.
Source Encoder & Decoder:

The Source encoder converts the input i.e. symbol sequence into a binary sequence of 0s and
1s by assigning code words to the symbols in the input sequence. For eg. :- If a source set is
having hundred symbols, then the number of bits used to represent each symbol will be 7
because 27=128 unique combinations are available.
At the receiver, the source decoder converts the binary output of the channel decoder into a
symbol sequence. The decoder for a system using fixed – length code words are quite simple,
but the decoder for a system using variable – length code words will be very complex.
Aim of the source coding is to remove the redundancy in the transmitting information, so
that bandwidth required for transmission is minimized. Based on the probability of the
symbol code word is assigned. Higher the probability, shorter is the codeword.
Channel Encoder & Decoder:

The channel encoder will add extra bits to the original signal to protect the data from errors
during transmission time. Error control is accomplished by the channel coding operation that
consists of systematically adding extra bits to the output of the source encoder. These extra
bits do not convey any information but helps the receiver to detect and
/ or correct some of the errors in the information bearingbits.
Example: Parity bits
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There are two methods of channel coding

Block Coding: The encoder takes a block of k information bits from the source encoder
and adds r error control bits, where r is dependent on k and error control capabilities
desired.
Convolution Coding: The information bearing message stream is encoded in a
continuous fashion by continuously interleaving information bits and error control
bits. The Channel decoder recovers the information bearing bits from the coded binary
stream. Error detection and possible correction is also performed by the channel
decoder.
Digital Modulator & Demodulator:

The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in turns converts the sequence
into electric signals so that we can transmit them onto the channel. The digital modulator
maps the binary sequences into signal wave forms, for example if we represent 1 by sin
x and 0 by cos x then we will transmit sin x for 1 and cos x for0.
Digital modulation is used to transmit digital message signal by modulatedcarrier
signal.
The digital modulator maps the input binary sequence of 1’s & 0’S to
analogsignal waveforms.
Basic Digital Modulation Techniques:
Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
Phase Shift Keying(PSK)
The digital demodulator processes the transmitted waveform which is corrupted by the
channel and reduces the waveform to the sequence of numbers that represents estimates
of the transmitted data symbols. So, here we have to demodulate the received signal that
is coming from the channel. This block receives the analog signal and tries to estimate
what value was transmitted here. So, if it is binary, it will try to estimate what is the bit
that was transmitted here; from the wave form it receives. So, its output will be the bits
stream.
So, if it is binary, it will try to estimate what is the bit that was transmitted here;
from the wave form it receives. So, its output will be the bits stream.
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Figure 2.12.1.2 Basic Digital Modulation Techniques
Channel: The communication channel is the physical medium that is used for transmitting
signals from transmitter to receiver. In wireless system, this channel consists of
atmosphere and for traditional telephony this channel is wired channels. Similarly, optical
channels & under water acoustic channels also exist in present communication world.
The communication channels have only finite Bandwidth, non-ideal frequency response,
the signal often suffers amplitude and phase distortion as it travels over the channel. Also,
the signal power decreases due to the attenuation of the channel. The signal is corrupted
by unwanted, unpredictable electrical signals referred to as noise. The important
parameters of the channel are Signal to Noise power Ratio (SNR), usable bandwidth,
amplitude and phase response and the statistical properties ofnoise.
Advantages & disadvantages of Digital communication systems

Advantages:
1. Digital communication systems are cheaper to implement. It is possible to
manufacture very high speed embedded circuits due to advancements in VLSI
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technology in cost effective manner. Such circuits are used in digital communications.
i. Digital communication allows regeneration the digital signal in
long distance transmission which reduces noiseeffect.
ii. Good processing techniques are available for digital signals such
as source coding (data compression), channel coding (error
detection and correction), equalizationetc.
2. Easy to mix signals and data using digitaltechniques.
3. Privacy is preserved by using data encryption. Using data encryption, only permitted
receivers can be allowed to detect the transmitted data. This is very useful in military
applications.
4. High speed computers and powerful software design tools are available. They make
the development of digital communication systemsflexible.
5. Internet is spread almost in every cities and towns. The compatibility of digital
communication systems with Internet has opened new area of applications.
Disadvantages:
1. More bandwidth is required than that for analog systems.
2. Synchronization is required.
3. High power consumption (Due to various stages of conversion).
4. Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also drawbacks of digital
system
5. As square wave is more affected by noise, That’s why while communicating
through channel we send sin waves but while operating on device we use square
pulses.
Digital representation of analog signals

It mainly consists of 3 stages of processing to convert the analog signal into a digital
format.
Sampling: It is the process of converting a continuous time signal into a discrete time
signal. It is the first stage of processing to convert the analog signal into digital format.
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Quantization: It is the process of applying round off or nearest standard value to the
sampled signal amplitude. For this it divides the total amplitude into fixed number of
amplitude levels. These are called as Quantization Levels. During quantization
process, the original signal may be added/subtracted with some component of the
signal for round off the value. This addition/subtraction of the signal is called
“Quantization Noise”. It is uniformly added to all over samples.
Encoding:It is the process of converting quantized amplitude level into binary levels.
Generally, quantized signal looks like a step wave. Each amplitude level is encoded
into fixed number of binarydigits.
Figure 2.15.3.1 Digital Representation of Analog Signal
Amplitude Shift Keying:

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a
zero level or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the
binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is also named as OOK which represents ON-OFFKeying
technique i.e during bit 1 it acts as ON and during bit zero transmission it acts as OFF
Following is the diagram for ASK modulated waveform along with its input.
Carrier signal output is represented during bit 1 transmission and an absence of carrier
signal is observed during the transmission of bit zero transmission.
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Fig: 2.16.1 ASK Modulated signal response
Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK is
modulated, gives a zero value for LOW input and gives the carrier output for HIGH input.
Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying is
Where, vask(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc= analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2πfct)
In above Equation, the modulating signal [vm(t)] is a normalized binary waveform, where
+ 1 V = logic 1 and -1 V = logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = + 1 V, Equation
2.12 reduces to
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ASK TRANSMITTER:
Fig: 2.16.2 ASK Transmitter
The input binary sequence is applied to the product modulator. The product modulator
amplitude modulates the sinusoidal carrier .it passes the carrier when input bit is ‘1’ .it
blocks the carrier when input bit is ‘0.’
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:

The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input
data applied.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency
of the carrier signal varies according to the discrete digital changes. FSK is a scheme of
frequency modulation.
Following is the diagram for FSK modulated waveform along with its input.
Fig: 2.17.1 FSK Output response
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The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary HIGH input and is
low in frequency for a binary LOW input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space
frequencies.
FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency

modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two
discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform.
Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK). The general expression for
FSK is
vfsk(t)= Vc cos{2π[fc+ vm(t)Δf]t}

where
vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
f=peak change (shift)in the analog carrier frequency(hertz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B= |(fs – fb) – (fm – fb)|

=|(fs– fm)| + 2fb
and since |(fs– fm)| equals 2 f, the minimum bandwidth can be approximated as B=
2( f + fb)
where
B= minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
f= frequency deviation |(fm– fs)| (hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)
FSK TRANSMITTER:
M-ary FSK modulator, which is very similar to a conventional FM modulator and is very
often a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).The center frequency (fc) is chosen such that
it falls halfway between the mark and space frequencies.
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Fig: 2.17.2 FSK modulator
Logic 1 input shifts the VCO output to the mark frequency, and a logic 0 input shifts the
VCO output to the space frequency. Consequently, as the binary input signal changes back
and forth between logic 1 and logic 0 conditions, the VCO output shifts or deviates back
and forth between the mark and space frequencies.
FSK Receiver:
Non Coherent detector:

FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit such as the one shown in Figure below.
The FSK input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both band pass filters
(BPFs) through a power splitter. The respective filter passes only the mark or only the
space frequency on to its respective envelope detector.
Fig: 2.17.3 Non coherent FSK demodulator
The envelope detectors, in turn, indicate the total power in each pass band, and the
comparator responds to the largest of the two powers. This type of FSK detection is
referred to as non coherent detection.
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Coherent detector:
The block diagram for a coherent FSK receiver. The incoming FSK signal is multiplied
by a recovered carrier signal that has the exact same frequency and phase as the transmitter
reference.
However, the two transmitted frequencies (the mark and space frequencies) are not
generally continuous; it is not practical to reproduce a local reference that is coherent with
both of them. Consequently, coherent FSK detection is seldom used.
Fig: 2.17.4 Coherent FSK demodulator
PHASE SHIFT KEYING:
The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of
two types, namely BPSK and QPSK, according to the number of phase shifts. The other
one is DPSK which changes the phase according to the previous value.
Fig: 2.18.1 PSK output response
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the
carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK
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technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along
with RFID and Bluetooth communications.
PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK).
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is also called as 2-phase PSK (or) Phase Reversal
Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and
180°.
BPSK is basically a DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier) modulation scheme,
for message being the digital information.
Following is the image of BPSK Modulated output wave along with its input.
BPSK TRANSMITTER:
The balanced modulator acts as a phase reversing switch. Depending on the logic condition
of the digital input, the carrier is transferred to the output either in phase or 180° out of
phase with the reference carrier oscillator.
Below figure shows the schematic diagram of a balanced ring modulator. The balanced
modulator has two inputs: a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator and the
binary digital data. For the balanced modulator to operate properly, the digital input
voltage must be much greater than the peak carrier voltage.
This ensures that the digital input controls the on/off state of diodes D1 to D4. If the binary
input is a logic 1(positive voltage), diodes D 1 and D2 are forward biased and on, while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and off (Figure 2-13b). With the polarities shown,
the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage
across T1. Consequently, the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator.
If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes Dl and D2 are reverse biased and
off, while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on (Figure 9-13c). As a result, the
carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180° out of phase with the carrier
voltage across T 1. A simplified block diagram of a BPSK transmitter is shown below.
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Fig: 2.18.2 BPSK Transmitter
BPSK receiver:
The below figure shows block diagram of a BPSK receiver. The input signal maybe+ sin
ωct or - sin ωct .The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a carrier signal
that is both frequency and phase coherent with the original transmit carrier.
The balanced modulator is a product detector; the output is the product d the two inputs
(the BPSK signal and the recovered carrier).
The low-pass filter (LPF) operates the recovered binary data from the complex
demodulated signal.
Fig: 2.18.3 BPSK Receiver block diagram
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QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK):

This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four
phase reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
If this kind of techniques is further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values
also, depending upon the requirement. The following figure represents the QPSK
waveform for two bits input, which shows the modulated result for different instances of
binary inputs.
Fig:2.19.1 QPSK Waveform

QPSK transmitter:
A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in Figure 2-17Two bits (a dibit) are
clocked into the bit splitter. After both bits have been serially inputted, they are
simultaneously parallel outputted.
The I bit modulates a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator (hence
the name "I" for "in phase" channel), and the Q bit modulate, a carrier that is 90° out of phase.
For a logic 1 = + 1 V and a logic 0= - 1 V, two phases are possible at the output of the I
balanced modulator (+sin ωct and - sin ωct), and two phases are possible at the output of
the Q balanced modulator (+cos ωct), and (-cos ωct).
When the linear summer combines the two Quadrature (90° out of phase) signals,
there are four possible resultant phasors given by these expressions: + sin ωct + cos ωct,
+ sin ωct - cos ωct, -sin ωct + cos ωct, and -sin ωct - cos ωct.
Fig: 2.19.2 QPSK Transmitter
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QPSK RECEIVER:
The block diagram of a QPSK receiver is shown in Figure below. The power splitter directs
the input QPSK signal to the I and Q product detectors and the carrier recovery circuit.
The carrier recovery circuit reproduces the original transmit carrier oscillator signal. The
recovered carrier must be frequency and phase coherent with the transmit reference carrier.
The QPSK signal is demodulated in the I and Q product detectors, which generate the
original I and Q data bits. The outputs of the product detectors are fedto the bit combining
circuit, where they are converted from parallel I and Q data channels to a single binary
output data stream.
The incoming QPSK signal may be any one of the four possible output phases shown in
Figure below. To illustrate the demodulation process, let the incoming QPSK signal is -
sin ωct + cos ωct. Mathematically, the demodulation process is as follows.
Fig: 2.19.3 QPSK demodulator
In above figure X represents Product Modulator followed by Integrator circuit.
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UNIT-3
TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Major Contents:
Telephones, Telephone system, Paging systems,Internet Telephony.

Networking and Local Area Networks: Network fundamentals, LAN hardware, Ethernet
LANs, Token Ring LAN.
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Telephone System:
A telephone system comprises multiple telephones used in an interconnected fashion that
allows for advanced telephony features such as call handling and transferring, conference
calling, call metering and accounting, private and shared voice message boxes, and so on.
A telephone system can range from just a few telephones in a home or small business up
to a complex private branch exchange (PBX) system used by mid- sized and large
businesses.
.
Fig: 3.1.1 Telephone System Model
Phone systems can function over the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), over the
Internet (Internet telephony or VoIP), or over a combination of the two. Business telephone
systems can also be delivered as a hosted service (typically referred to as a Centrex), which can
free companies from having to invest in costly equipment. The basic telephone system is shown
above.
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PAGING SYSTEMS:
Paging Systems are wireless communication systems that are designed to send brief
messages to a subscriber. It's a one-way messaging system in which Base Station send
messages to all subscribers. The Paging System transmits the message also known as Page,
along with Paging System access number, throughout the service area using Base Station,
which broadcast the page on a radio link. The Paging System transmits the message also
known as Page, along with Paging System access number, throughout the service area
using Base Station, which broadcast the page on a radio link.
Types of Paging Systems:
The Paging Systems can be of two types.
1. Manual Paging System
2. Automatic Paging System
Manual Paging System:
In a manual paging system, a message is sent to the paging operator through telephone call
by the caller. The message is then delivers to the pager through paging network by the
operator.
Automatic Paging System:
In an automatic paging system, the incoming requests are automatically processed by the
paging terminal and then this information is delivers to the pager. Automatic Paging
Systems are mostly used.
Messages in Paging Systems:
One of the following four types of information messages can be delivered in a Paging
System.
Alert Tone Message
Voice Message
Digital String Message
Text String Message
Alert Tone Message:
In the alert tone message, a dedicated telephone number is assigned to the receiver, which
is also known as Tone Pager. The pager is triggered by dialing the number. To generate
tone-type messages, the advantage of tone paging is that it utilizes a small amount of
airtime.
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Voice Message:
In the voice message, a voice message can be transmitted in some tone paging systems
after the beep.
Digital String Message:
In digital string message, the receiver is a Numeric Pager. The string can be the telephone
number of the caller or a coded message. This coded message is generated on request of
the caller by the paging center and is decoded by a codebook built into the pager. This type
of paging takes less amount of airtime.
Text String Message:
In the text string message, the receiver is an Alphanumeric Pager, which has large screen
to display the text strings. This type of messaging is becoming more popular than numeric
messaging.
Internet Telephony:
Definition:
Internet telephony refers to communications services—voice, facsimile, and/or voice-
messaging applications—that are transported via the Internet, rather than the public
switched telephone network (PSTN). The basic steps involved in originating an Internet
telephone call are conversion of the analog voice signal to digital format and
compression/translation of the signal into Internet protocol (IP) packets for transmission
over the Internet; the process is reversed at the receiving end.
Introduction:
The possibility of voice communications traveling over the Internet, rather than the PSTN,
first became a reality in February 1995 when Vocaltec, Inc. introduced its Internet Phone
software. Designed to run on a 486/33-MHz (or higher) personal computer (PC) equipped
with a sound card, speakers, microphone, and modem, the software compresses the voice
signal and translates it into IP packets for transmission over the Internet. This PC-to-PC
Internet telephony works, however, only if both parties are using Internet Phone software.
In the relatively short period of time since then, Internet telephony has advanced rapidly.
Many software developers now offer PC telephony software.
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But more importantly, gateway servers are emerging to act as an interface between the
Internet and the PSTN (see Figure ). Equipped with voice-processing cards, these gateway
servers enable users to communicate via standard telephones.
Figure 3.3.1.1 Topology of PC-to-Phone
A call goes over the local PSTN network to the nearest gateway server, which digitizes the
analog voice signal, compresses it into IP packets, and moves it onto the Internet for
transport to a gateway at the receiving end. With its support for computer-to-telephone
calls, telephone-to-computer calls and telephone-to-telephone calls, Internet telephony
represents a significant step toward the integration of voice and data networks.
Originally regarded as a novelty, Internet telephony is attracting more and more
users because it offers tremendous cost savings relative to the PSTN. Users can bypass
long-distance carriers and their per-minute usage rates and run their voice traffic over the
Internet for a flat monthly Internet-access fee.
Intranet Telephony Paves the Way for Internet Telephony
Although progressing rapidly, Internet telephony still has some problems with reliability
and sound quality, due primarily to limitations both in Internet bandwidth and current
compression technology.
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As a result, most corporations looking to reduce their phone bills today confine their
Internet-telephony applications to their intranets. With more predictable bandwidth
available than the public Internet, intranets can support full-duplex, real-time voice
communications. Corporations generally limit their Internet voice traffic to half-duplex
asynchronous applications (e.g., voice messaging).
Internet telephony within an intranet enables users to save on long-distance bills between
sites; they can make point-to-point calls via gateway servers attached to the local-area
network (LAN). No PC–based telephony software or Internet account is required.
For example, User-A in New York wants to make a (point-to-point) phone call to User-B
in the company's Geneva office. He picks up the phone and dials an extension to connect
with the gateway server, which is equipped with telephony board and compression-
conversion software; the server configures the private branch exchange (PBX) to digitize
the upcoming call. User A then dials the number of the London office, and the gateway
server transmits the (digitized, IP– packetized) call over the IP–based wide-area network
(WAN) to the gateway at the Geneva end. The Geneva gateway converts the digital signal
back to analog format and delivers it to the called party.
This version of Internet telephony also enables companies to transmit their (digitized)
voice and data traffic together over the intranet in support of shared applications and white
boarding.
Technical Barriers
The ultimate objective of Internet telephony is, of course, reliable, high-quality
voice service, the kind that users expect from the PSTN. At the moment, however, that
level of reliability and sound quality is not available on the Internet, primarily because of
bandwidth limitations that lead to packet loss. In voice communications, packet loss shows
up in the form of gaps or periods of silence in the conversation, leading to a clipped-speech
effect that is unsatisfactory for most users and unacceptable in business communications.
The Internet, a collection of more than 130,000 networks, is gaining in popularity as
millions of new users sign on every month. The increasingly heavy use of the Internet's
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limited bandwidth often results in congestion which, in turn, can cause delays in packet
transmission. Such network delays mean packets are lost or discarded.
In addition, because the Internet is a packet-switched or connectionless network, the

individual packets of each voice signal travel over separate network paths for reassembly
in the proper sequence at their ultimate destination. While this makes for a more efficient
use of network resources than the circuit-switched PSTN, which routes a call over a single
path, it also increases the chances for packet loss.
Network reliability and sound quality also are functions of the voice-encoding
techniques and associated voice-processing functions of the gateway servers. To date,
most developers of Internet -telephony software, as well as vendors of gateway servers,
have been using a variety of speech-compression protocols.
Network Fundamentals:
What is a Network?
A network refers to two or more connected computers that can share resources such as
data, a printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these resources.
Milestones in the history of data networking include:
1960s— The first large-scale commercial computer network is created for an airline
reservation application. Also, the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) successfully links computers developed by different
manufacturers, forming what is later described as the origin of today’s
Internet.
1970s— A networking technology for minicomputers called Ethernet is developed.
1980s— The increase in the number of stand-alone desktop microcomputers within
organizations encourages widespread adoption of local area networks (LANs).
1990s— Web-based Internet resources are introduced on a global scale.
2000s— Improved mobile/wireless devices and networks provide the means to connect
to an organizational network from nearly any location in the world.
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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model:

Overview:
Communications on a network takes place at many levels (e.g., applications, diagnostics
and device control). In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
introduced a framework for classifying all of the processes associated with message
exchange on a network. This framework is formally called the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model, but is commonly referred to as the OSI model.
The objective of the OSI model is to provide a structured approach for the development
of all types of networks. The model specifies the sequence of processes required for
network message transfer between applications running on different systems.
Layers:
The OSI model uses an approach called layering to illustrate and explain the
message
exchange process. This approach divides the various functions and services provided by
a network into discrete groupings called layers, as illustrated in Figure below.
Table 3.4.2.1 OSI Layer model

In the OSI model, each layer provides services to the layer above, while hiding from that
layer the processes used to implement the services. Ideally, changes can be made to any
layer without requiring changes to any of the other layers, as long as the inputs and outputs
of the changed layer remain the same.
For example, specifications for transmission over optical fiber cabling can be
incorporated into Layer 1 of an existing Layer 2 network technology (e.g., Ethernet)
without modifying any of the existing Layer 2 specifications. This makes it possible to
take advantage of new technologies within a given layer without sacrificing compatibility
with existing networks.
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The layers in the OSI model are commonly described as being connected to each other
in vertical form, also called a stack or protocol stack. The stack defines how network
hardware and software interact at various levels to transfer messages between devices on
a network and between networks on an internetwork.
Protocol stacks have the following characteristics:
Each layer provides a set of services.
Services of each layer and the stack are defined by protocols.
Lower layers provide services to upper layers.
Service access points (SAPs) are the connection points between layers.
When a message needs to be transferred between two systems, a peer-to-peer relationship

is established between the corresponding layers in the protocol stack of each system—a
given layer at one end communicates with its counterpart at the other endover the
network. The message, along with any control information, is passed down from the
sending layer to the layer below.
This process continues until the lowest layer in the stack is reached. The data is then
transmitted from the lowest layer of the sending system to the lowest layer in the
receiving system, where it is passed up through the layers until it reaches the counterpart,
or peer, of the sending layer, as shown in Figure below.
Message transfer described using the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model:
Functions of Layer’s:
Layer 7 (Application) Services

Layer 7 services make it possible for identical or non-identical applications running on
different systems to use a network to exchange information. Services defined by this layer
include file transfer, message handling, and remote management. For example, various
types and versions of e-mail software can use the same Layer 7 protocols to exchange
messages over the Internet.
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Fig 3.4.2.1 Functional Diagram of OSI model
Layer 6 (Presentation) Services

Layer 6 services are responsible for various forms of data conversion. This layer negotiates
and establishes a common form for data representation, which includes character code
translations, data compression, and message encryption.
Layer 5 (Session) Services
Layer 5 services are responsible for synchronizing and managing data transfer between
network devices. For example, a Layer 5 protocol can direct a device to start, stop, restart,
or abandon data transfer activity.
Layer 4 (Transport) Services
Layer 4 services make it possible to assign various levels of quality to the data transfer
process. When a connection is being established between network devices, the Layer 4
protocol can be used to select a particular class of service. This layer can also monitor the
transfer for billing purposes, ensure that the appropriate service quality is maintained,and
generate an alert if this quality has been compromised.
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Layer 3 (Network) Services

Layer 3 services are responsible for internetwork data transfer (e.g., between five Ethernet
networks linked using the Internet). If multiple routes exist between the networks, a Layer
3 protocol can choose the most appropriate one, based on such criteria as message priority,
route congestion, or route cost.
Layer 2 (Data Link) Services
Layer 2 services are responsible for intra-network data transfer (e.g., between devices on
an Ethernet network). Some of the functions of a Layer 2 protocol include device
identification and managed access to a shared transmission channel.
Layer 1 (Physical) Services
Layer 1 services are responsible for the transfer of bits over various media.
Message Transfer Sequence:
Any successful message transfer between two systems follows a four-step process:
Table: 3.4.2.2 Message Transfer Sequence

Types of Networks:
Networks can be characterized using one or more technical or operational attributes (e.g.,
type of technology or number of connected users and devices). One common attribute used
to categorize networks is geographic area or span, where a network is labeled on the basis
of the physical area it covers. The five most common types of networks in terms of
geographic area from the smallest to the largest are:
1) Personal area networks (PANs).
2) Local area networks (LANs).
3) Campus area networks (CANs).
4) Metropolitan area networks (MANs).
5) Wide area networks (WANs).
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1) Personal Area Networks (PANs):

PANs cover areas generally associated with individual workspaces (e.g., a home office or
an office cubicle). Within these spaces, individual networks connecting two or more
devices may be enabled using wireless technologies, as shown in Figure below.
Fig: 3.5.1 Personal Area Network

2) Local Area Networks (LANs)
LANs cover areas generally associated with some or all of the space within a building. In
most cases, multiple workspace devices are connected to shared devices (e.g., switches,
servers) to form a LAN.
One LAN can serve a single department, multiple groups, or all users within a building.
Cabling, wireless, or a combination of both can be used to link LAN devices, as shown
in Figure below.
Fig: 3.5.2 Local Area Network model
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3) Campus Area Networks (CANs)

CANs are created by linking the LANs located in two or more buildings that are in close
proximity to each other, as shown in Figure 1.8. Connections between the buildings can
be made using cabling or wireless technologies.
NOTE: The term campus LAN is also used to describe a CAN.
Fig: 3.5.3 CAN Model
4) Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

MANs are created by linking the networks located at two or more sites within a city.
Connections can be made using cabling or wireless technologies, with optical fiber
cabling often used to link a customer’s buildings to a facility operated by a
telecommunications provider, as shown in Figure below.
Fig: 3.5.4 MAN Model
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5) Wide Area Networks (WANs)

WANs are created by linking the networks located at two or more sites over geographic
distances that extend beyond the span of a single metropolitan area. These include links
between cities, countries, and in the case of global WANs, continents.
Telecommunications circuits link each building to facilities operated by a

telecommunications provider (same as MANs), as shown in Figure below.
Fig: 3.5.5 Wide Area Network Model
LAN Hardware:
Local Area Networks connects computers together to exchange data. Apart from the
computers, and other devices like printers and faxes, a LAN has to have six essential
components to function.
Network Adapter
A computer needs a network adapter to connect to a network. It converts computer data
into electronic signals. It listens for silence on the network cable and applies the data to
it when it has an opportunity. The network access element of its job is called Media
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Access Control, or MAC. The physical address of every computer on a network is called
its MAC address. The MAC address is the network adapter's serial number. Most
computers are shipped with the network adapter integrated into the motherboard.
However, early PCs didn't include this function and computer owners had to buy it
separately and fit it into an expansion slot on the motherboard. These were called "network
cards" because they were sold on a separate card. Although network adapters are now
integrated, the name network card is still used. The wireless equivalent is called a Wireless
Network Interface Controller.
Network Medium
Wired networks need cable. The most common form of cable used in networks is called
the "Unshielded Twisted Pair." In PC shops, it is generally just referred to as "network
cable" or "Ethernet cable." Ethernet is the most widely implemented set of standards for
the physical properties of networks. UTP is so closely identified with Ethernet that it is
often given that name. Other cable types used for networks are twin-axial, Shielded
Twisted Pair and single-mode and multi-mode fiber optic cable.
Wireless networks don't need cable; they send data on radio waves generated by the
WNIC.
Cable Connectors
In wired networks, the most common form of connector is the RJ45. Every computer with
networking capabilities has an RJ45 port. This is sometimes called a "network port"or an
"Ethernet port." The RJ45 plug looks like a slightly larger telephone plug and connects the
Unshielded Twisted Pair or the Shielded Twisted Pair cable.
Power Supply
Both wired and wireless networks need a power supply. A wireless network uses the
current to generate radio waves. A cabled network sends data interpreted as an electronic
pulse.
Hub/Switch/Router
In wired networks, one computer cannot connect to many others without some form of
splitter. A hub is little more than a splitter. It repeats any signals coming into one of its
ports out onto all its other ports. A cable leads from each port to one computer. A switch
is a more sophisticated version of a hub. It only sends the signal on to the computer with
the address written in the arriving message. Routers are much more complicated and are
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able to forward messages all over the world. Larger networks sometimes use routers for
their LAN traffic. The wireless networking device is called a "wireless router."
Network Software
Software on a communicating computer packages data into segments and puts that data
into a structure called a "packet." The source and destination addresses of the packet are
written into the header of the packet. The receiving computer needs to interpret these
packets back into meaningful data and deliver it to the appropriate application.
Ethernet LAN:
Ethernet has been a relatively inexpensive, reasonably fast, and very popular LAN
technology for several decades. Two individuals at Xerox PARC -- Bob Metcalfe and
D.R. Boggs -- developed Ethernet beginning in 1972 and specifications based on this work
appeared in IEEE 802.3 in 1980. Ethernet has since become the most popular and most
widely deployed network technology in the world. Many of the issues involved with
Ethernet are common to many network technologies, and understanding how Ethernet
addressed these issues can provide a foundation that will improve your understanding of
networking in general.
An Ethernet LAN typically usescoaxial cable or special grades of twisted pair wires.
Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs.
IEEE standards:
IEEE developed a set of network standards. They include:
• IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.
• IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model.
The IEEE divides this layer into two sub-layers -- the logical link control (LLC) Layer and
the media access control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer varies for different network types
and is defined by standards IEEE 802.3 through IEEE 802.5.
• IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This isthe
basis of the Ethernet standard.
• IEEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token-
passingMechanism (token bus networks).
• IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.
• IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).
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Topology:
Topology is the shape of a local-area network (LAN) or other communications system. In
other words, a topology describes pictorially the configuration or arrangement of a
(usually conceptual) network, including its nodes and connecting lines. Topologies are
either physical or logical. Ethernet uses topology to transfer the data.
There are four principal topologies used in LANs.
1) Bus topology: All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone.
Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet
systems use a bus topology.
2) Ring topology: All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop,
so that each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it. Ring
topologies are relatively expensive and difficult to install, but they offer high bandwidth
and can span large distances.
3) Star topology: All devices are connected to a central hub. Star networks are relatively
easy to install and manage, but bottlenecks can occur because all data must pass through
the hub.
4) Tree topology: A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
CSMA/CD:
The acronym CSMA/CD signifies carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection
and describes how the Ethernet protocol regulates communication among nodes. In other
words, CSMA/CD is a set of rules determining how network devices respond when two
devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard Ethernet
networks use CSMA/CD. This standard enables devices to detect a collision. After
detecting a collision, a device waits a random delay time and then attempts to retransmit
the message. If the device detects a collision again, it waits twice as long to tryto re-
transmit the message.
This standard enables devices to detect a collision. After detecting a collision, a
device waits a random delay time and then attempts to re-transmit the message. If the
device detects a collision again, it waits twice as long to try to re-transmit the message.
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Transmission Speed:
10Base-T: The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-T
and provide transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps. Devices are connected to the cable
and compete for access using a Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol.
100BASE-T: Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to
100 megabits per second and is typically used for LAN backbone systems,
supporting workstations with 10BASE-Tcards. The 100BASE-T standardconsists
of five different component specifications. These include the Media Access
Control (MAC) layer, the Media Independent Interface (MII), and the three
physical layers, (100 BASE-TX, 100BASET4, and 100BASE-FX).
Gigabit Ethernet: Gigabit Ethernet provides an even higher level of backbone
support at 1000 megabits per second (1 gigabit or 1 billion bits per second). Used
mostly for backbones, the first IEEE standard (802.3z) for Gigabit Ethernet(GigE)
was defined in 1997 for use over multimode optical fiber. 802.3z providesfull-
duplex operation from switch to end station or to another switch and half- duplex
using CSMA/CD in a shared environment.
10 Gigabit Ethernet:10 Gigabit Ethernet is an upcoming Ethernet technology that
transmits at 10 Gbps. 10Gigabit Ethernet enables a familiar network technology to
be used in LAN, MAN and WAN architectures. However the CSMA/CD method
for gaining access to the physical medium is not employed and half duplex
operation is not supported. 10 Gigabit Ethernet uses multimode optical fiber up to
300 meters and single mode fiber up to 40 kilometers.
Limitations of Ethernet:
There are practical limits to the size of our Ethernet network. A primary concern is the
length of the shared cable. Ethernet networks face congestion problems as they increased
in size. If a large number of stations connected to the same segment and each generated a
sizable amount of traffic, many stations may attempt to transmit whenever there was an
opportunity. Under these circumstances, collisions would become more frequent and could
begin to choke out successful transmissions, which could take inordinately large amounts
of time to complete. One way to reduce congestion would be to split a single segment into
multiple segments, thus creating multiple collision domains.
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This solution creates a different problem, as now these now separate segments are not able
to share information with each other.
To alleviate these problems, Ethernet networks implemented bridges. Bridges connect two
or more network segments, increasing the network diameter as a repeater does, but bridges
also help regulate traffic. They can send and receive transmissions just like any other node,
but they do not function the same as a normal node. The bridge does not originate any
traffic of its own; like a repeater, it only echoes what it hears from other stations.
Token Ring LAN:
A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all computers are connected
in a ring or star topology and pass one or more logical tokens from host to host. Only a
host that holds a token can send data, and tokens are released when receipt of the data is
confirmed. Token ring networks prevent data packets from colliding on a network segment
because data can only be sent by a token holder and the number of tokens available is
controlled. Token ring was once widely used on LANs, but has been nearly entirely
displaced by Ethernet.
How token ring works:

1. Systems in the LAN are arranged in a logical ring; each system receives data frames
from its logical predecessor on the ring and sends them to its logical successor. The
network may be an actual ring, with cabling connecting each node directly to its neighbors,
but more often is a star, with the ring existing only logically in the wiring closet within the
"multi access unit" to which all the hosts connect.
2. Empty information frames are continuously circulated on the ring, along with frames
containing actual data; any node receiving an empty frame and having nothing to send
simply forwards the empty frame.
3. When a computer has a message to send, it waits for an empty frame. When it has one,
it does the following:
a) Inserts a token indicating that it is sending data in the frame -- this may be as simple
as changing a zero to a one in the token section of the frame, although other schemes are
possible, and is said to "hold the token" for that frame.
b) Inserts the data it wants to transmit into the payload section of the frame.
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c) Sets a destination identifier on the frame.

4. When a computer receives a frame containing data (indicated by the token) it knows it
cannot transmit data of its own and so it does the following:
If it is not the sender or the destination, it simply retransmits the frame, sending it
to the next host in the ring.
If it is the destination for the message, it copies the message from the frame and
clears the token to indicate receipt.
If it is the sender (and assuming the destination node has indicated receipt of the
frame by clearing the token) it sees that the message has been received, removes
the message payload from the frame (restoring it to "empty" status) and sends the
empty frame around the ring.
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UNIT-4
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION & OPTICAL
COMMUNICATION
Major Contents:
Satellite Orbits, satellite communication systems, satellite subsystems, Ground

Stations Satellite Applications, Global Positioning Systems,
Optical Principles, Optical Communication Systems, Fiber–Optic Cables,
Optical Transmitters & Receivers, Wavelength Division Multiplexing
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Introduction:
A satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger object in space. For example,
moon is a natural satellite of earth.
If the communication takes place between any two earth stations through a
Satellite, then it is called as satellite communication.
Satellites offer a number of features not readily available with other means of
communications. Because very large areas of the earth are visible from a satellite.
Satellites are also used for remote sensing, examples being the detection of water pollution
and the monitoring and reporting of2 Chapter One weather conditions. Some ofthese
remote sensing satellites also form a vital link in search and rescue operations for downed
aircraft and the like.
Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile
applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, and handheld terminals and
for TV and radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an
assigned region (area) on the earth.
How a Satellite Works:

A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path communication
satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space. It is helpful in
telecommunications, radio and television along with internet applications. A repeater is a
circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and then transmits it. But, this
repeater works as a transponder. That means, it changes the frequency band of the
transmitted signal from the received one. The frequency with which, the signal is sent into
the space is called as Uplink frequency. Similarly, the frequency with which the signal is
sent by the transponder is called as Downlink frequency. The following figure illustrates
this concept clearly.
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Fig. 4.1.1.1 satellite communication uplink and downlink links
The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is called
as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station
through a channel is called as downlink.
Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating with
satellite. The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends it
down to the second earth station. This frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In
similar way, second earth station can also communicate with the first one.
Advantages and disadvantages of satellite communication:

Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:
Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems
Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilities
Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication:

Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.
Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial
systems.
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Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite

system.
Free space loss is more.
There can be congestion of frequencies.
Applications of Satellite Communication:

Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following are the applications
of satellite communication:
Radio broadcasting and voice communications
TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS
applications, Internet surfing, etc.
Military applications and navigations
Remote sensing applications
Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting
Satellite Orbits:
There are many different satellite orbits that can be used. The ones that receive the most
attention are the geostationary orbit used as they are stationary above a particular point on
the Earth. The orbit that is chosen for a satellite depends upon its application. These orbits
are given in table.
Table. 4.2.1 Various satellite orbits with applications
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Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO):

A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be stationary with respect to the earth, hence
the name geostationary. GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking
from a fixed point from Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are
placed in the space in such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to provide
connection throughout the surface of the Earth. GEO satellite travels eastward at the same
rotational speed as the earth in circular orbit with zero inclination. A geostationary orbit is
useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without
their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive. In applications
that require a large number of ground antennas, such as Direct TV distribution, the savings
in ground equipment can more than outweigh the costand complexity of placing a satellite
into orbit.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites:

A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 200 kilometers (120 mi) above
the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of
about 90minutes. Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within
a radius of roughly 1000 kilometers from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in
low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly.
So even for local applications, a large number of satellites are needed if the mission
requires uninterrupted connectivity. s. LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every
spot on earth to provide a high quality communication link. Each LEO satellite will only
be visible from the earth for around ten minutes.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than
geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal
strength (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source,
so the effect is dramatic). Thus there is a tradeoff between the number of satellites and
their cost. In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment
needed to support the two types of missions. One general problem of LEOs is the short
lifetime of about five to eight years due to atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner
Van Allen belt1.
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Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between 8,000 km and 18,000 km above the earth’s
surface. MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality. MEO satellites are
visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 to 8 hours.
MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites.
A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites
are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network. One disadvantage is that a MEO
satellite’s distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite,
though not as bad as a GEO satellite. Due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases
to about 70–80 ms. so these satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for
smaller footprints.
Fig 4.2.1 Satellite Orbital movement
Satellite Sub-systems:
A satellite communications system can be broadly divided into two segments—a ground
segment and a space segment. The space segment will obviously include the satellites,but
it also includes the ground facilities needed to keep the satellites operational, these being
referred to as the tracking, telemetry, and command (TT&C) facilities. In many networks
it is common practice to employ a ground station solely for the purpose of TT&C.
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A satellite communication consists of mainly two segments. Those are space segment and
earth segment. So, accordingly there will be two types of subsystems namely, space
segment subsystems and earth segment subsystems. The following figure illustrates this
concept.
Fig.4.3.1satellitesubsystems
Space Segment Subsystems:

The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment subsystems.
Following are the space segment subsystems.
AOC Subsystem
TTCM Subsystem
Power and Antenna Subsystems
Transponders
Earth Segment Subsystems:

The subsystems present in the ground segment have the ability to access the satellite
repeater in order to provide the communication between the users. Earth segment is also
called as ground segment.
Earth segment performs mainly two functions. Those are transmission of a signal to the
satellite and reception of signal from the satellite. Earth stations are the major subsystems
that are present in earth segment.
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We know that satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the gravitational forces from sun,
moon and other planets. These forces change cyclically over a 24-hour period, since the
satellite moves around the earth.
Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors, which are capable
of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is deviated from the respective orbit.
AOC subsystem is helpful in order to make the antennas, which are of narrow beam type
points towards earth.
We can make this AOC subsystem into the following two parts.
Altitude Control Subsystem
Orbit Control Subsystem
AltitudeControlSubsystem:
Altitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of satellite in its respective orbit.
Following are the two methods to make the satellite that is present in an orbit as stable.
Spinning the satellite
Three axes method
Spinning the satellite:
In this method, the body of the satellite rotates around its spin axis. In general, it can be
rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in order to produce a force, which is of gyroscopic type. Due to
this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the satellite will point in the same direction. Satellites
are of this type are called as spinners.
Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape. This drum is covered with solar
cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this drum.
Communication subsystem is placed on top of the drum. An electric motor drives this
communication system.
The direction of this motor will be opposite to the rotation of satellite body, so that the
antennas point towards earth. The satellites, which perform this kind of operation are
called as de-spin.
During launching phase, the satellite spins when the small radial gas jets are operated.
After this, the de-spin system operates in order to make the TTCM subsystem antennas
point towards earth station.
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Three Axis Method:

In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by using one or more momentum wheels. This
method is called as three-axis method. The advantage of this method is that the
orientation of the satellite in three axes will be controlled and no need of rotating satellite’s
main body.
In this method, the following three axes are considered.
Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in orbital plane.
Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards earth.
Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital plane.
Let XR, YR and ZR are the roll axis, yaw axis and pitch axis respectively. These three
axis are defined by considering the satellite’s position as reference. These three axes
define the altitude of satellite.
Fig. 4.5 satellite's three axis representation

Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian axes. This set of three axis provides the
information about orientation of the satellite with respect to reference axes. If there is a
change in altitude of the satellite, then the angles between the respective axes will be
changed.
In this method, each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the rotation in both
directions of the three axes.
The first gas jet will be operated for some period of time, when there is a
requirement of satellite’s motion in a particular axis direction.
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The second gas jet will be operated for same period of time, when the satellite
reaches to the desired position. So, the second gas jet will stop the motion of
satellite in that axis direction.
Orbit Control Subsystem:

Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its correct orbit,
whenever the satellite gets deviated from its orbit.
The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position of satellite. If there
is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal regarding the correction to Orbit
control subsystem. Then, it will resolve that issue by bringing the satellite into the correct
orbit.
In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite position in the right orbit and
at right altitude during entire life span of the satellite in space.
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is present in both
satellite and earth station. In general, satellite gets data through sensors. So, Telemetry
subsystem present in the satellite sends this data to earth station(s). Therefore, TTCM
subsystem is very much necessary for any communication satellite in order to operate it
successfully.
It is the responsibility of satellite operator in order to control the satellite in its life time,
after placing it in the proper orbit. This can be done with the help of TTCM subsystem.
We can make this TTCM subsystem into the following three parts.
Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem
Tracking Subsystem
Commanding Subsystem
TelemetryandMonitoringSubsystem:
The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the following
operations take place in ‘Telemetry’.
Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to be
measured.
Encoding the electrical signal.
Transmitting this code to a far distance.
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Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly two functions −

receiving data from sensors, and
Transmitting that data to an earth station.
Satellites have quite a few sensors to monitor different parameters such as pressure,
temperature, status and etc., of various subsystems. In general, the telemetry data is
transmitted as FSK or PSK.
Telemetry subsystem is a remote controlled system. It sends monitoring data fromsatellite
to earth station. Generally, the telemetry signals carry the information related altitude,
environment and satellite.
TrackingSubsystem:
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite and its current orbit.
Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and status of space segment
subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink. And, it controls those subsystems using
command uplink.We know that the tracking subsystem is also present in an earth station.
It mainly focusses on range and look angles of satellite. Number of techniques that are
using in order to track the satellite. For example, change in the orbital positionof satellite
can be identified by using the data obtained from velocity and acceleration sensors that are
present on satellite.
The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station keeps tracking of satellite, when
it is released from last stage of Launch vehicle. It performs the functions like, locating of
satellite in initial orbit and transfer orbit.
Commanding Subsystem:
Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the satellite in an orbit and its
working in that orbit.
This subsystem adjusts the altitude and orbit of satellite, whenever there is a deviation in
those values. It also controls the communication subsystem. This commanding
subsystem is responsible for turning ON / OFF of other subsystems present in the satellite
based on the data getting from telemetry and tracking subsystems.
In general, control codes are converted into command words. These command words are
used to send in the form of TDM frames. Initially, the validity of command words is
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checked in the satellite. After this, these command words can be sent back to earth station.
Here, these command words are checked once again.
If the earth station also receives the same (correct) command word, then it sends an execute
instruction to satellite. So, it executes that command.
Functionality wise, the Telemetry subsystem and commanding subsystem are opposite to
each other. Since, the first one transmits the satellite’s information to earth station and
second one receives command signals from earth station.
We know that the satellite present in an orbit should be operated continuously during its
life span. So, the satellite requires internal power in order to operate various electronic
systems and communications payload that are present in it.
Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the power required for working of a
satellite. Mainly, the solar cells (or panels) and rechargeable batteries are used in these
systems.
Ground Stationary Satellite Applications:

The evolution from geo-stationary to low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites has resulted in a
number of proposed global satellite systems, which can be grouped into three distinct types
- Little LEOs, Big LEOs, and Broadband LEOs.
These systems can best be distinguished by reference to their terrestrial counterparts:
paging, cellular, and fiber, as shown in Table. On the ground, paging, cellular, and fiber
services are complementary, not competitive, because they offer fundamentally different
kinds of services.Typical applications of the various types of LEO systems are shown in
Table 2. Of course the Big LEOs can support the Little LEO applications, and the
Broadband LEOs can support both the Big and Little LEO applications.
Table. 4.7.1 Ground stationary satellites
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Application of MEO and GEO Satellites:
Satellites Application
Medium Earth Orbit High-speed telephone signals
Geosynchronous Orbit Satellite Television
Geostationary Orbit Direct broadcast television
Global Positioning System (GPS):

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite. It has created
the revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly used in positioning,
navigation, monitoring and surveying applications.
The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and timing
synchronization. That’s why satellite navigation systems have become an integral part in
most of the applications, where mobility is the key parameter. A complete operational GPS
space segment contains twenty-four satellites in MEO. These satellites are made into six
groups so that each group contains four satellites. The group of four satellites is called as
one constellation. Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60 degrees in
longitude.
The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours. Hence, all
satellites revolve around the earth two times on every day. At any time, the GPS receivers
will get the signals from at least four satellites.
GPS Codes:
Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of different frequencies.
Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position (Latitude, Longitude, Elevation)
of GPS receiver. By using this method, the position of an unknown point can be measured
from three known points.
Following are the two types of GPS codes.

1) Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code
2) Precise code or P code
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Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code
The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is
called as Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code and it is used by the public.
The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is
called as Precise code or P code and it is used in military positioning systems.
Generally,this P code is transmitted in an encrypted format and it is called as Y code. The
P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A code, since the bit rate
of P code is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.
The P and C/A codes are complicated, so complicated that they appear to be noise at first.
In fact, they are known as pseudorandom noise, or PRN, codes. Actually, they are carefully
designed. They have to be. They must be capable of repetition and replication. However,
unlike the Navigation Message, the P and C/A codes are not vehicles for broadcasting
information that has been uploaded by the Control Segment. They carry theraw data from
which GPS receivers derive their time and distance measurements.
P Code:
The P code is called the Precise code. It is a particular series of ones and zeroes
generated at a rate of 10.23 million bits per second. It is carried on both L1 and L2 and it
is very long, 37 weeks (2x1014 bits in code) . Each GPS satellite is assigned a part of the
P code all its own and then repeats its portion every 7 days. This assignment of one
particular week of the 37-week-long P code to each satellite helps a GPS receiver
distinguish one satellite’s transmission from another. For example, if a satellite is
broadcasting the fourteenth week of the P code, it must be Space Vehicle 14 (SV 14). The
encrypted P code is called the P(Y) code.
There is a flag in subframe 4 of the NAV message that tells a receiver when the P code is
encrypted into the P(Y) code. This security system has been activated by the Control
Segment since January of 1994. It is done to prevent spoofing from working. Spoofing is
generation of false transmissions masquerading as the Precise Code. This countermeasure
called Antispoofing (AS) is accomplished by the modulation of a W- Code to generate the
more secure Y-Code that replaces the P code. Commercial GPS receiver manufacturers
are not authorized to use the P(Y) code directly. Therefore, most
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have developed proprietary techniques both for carrier wave and pseudorange
measurements on L2 indirectly. Dual-frequency GPS receivers must also overcome AS.
The Navigation Message can be thought of as the NAV Code, but there are others.
Positioning, one of the primary objectives of GPS, is really the office of the P-Code, the
C/A Code and some others. The P code is the Precise code, The C/A code is the the
Civilian Access code. They're carried on the carrier waves.
The way these codes are modulated onto the carrier is important. For example, when you
listen to a radio in your car and the announcer says you're listening to, let's say, 760
megahertz... well, of course, you're not listening to 760 megahertz. If you could hear it, it
would be a constant buzz. What you hear is the modulation of speech and music onto the
760 megahertz carrier. The same idea is used in GPS. But with a radio, of course, the
modulation is typically a frequency modulation or an amplitude modulation for FM and
AM, respectively. In GPS, the modulation is done differently.
Phase modulation is used. The image here is intending to show that. The P code in the
image is a sine wave. It has particularly sharp peaks, but it is still a sine wave.
Please note that up at the top of the blue line, there's a 1 and a 0 and a 1 and a 1 and
a 0 and a 0. These indicate code chips, a binary code.Please notice the way these code
chips transition from 1 to 0 and back to 1. When there is a transition from a 1 to a 0 or a 0
to a 1, the blue line does not go all the way up to the top and it does not go all the way
down to the bottom. When there is a transition, the blue line stops in the middle and
reverses direction. When that happens, there's a transition from the 1 to the 0 or from the
0 to the
However, when the code chip just goes from a 1 to a 1, or from a 0 to a 0, there is
no interruption of the normal sine wave path. In those cases, the blue line does go all the
way up to the top and it goes all the way down to the bottom.This technique is called phase
modulation.
The P-Code is generated at 10.23 million bits per second. It turns out that this is known
as the fundamental clock rate in GPS. It's a very long code, 37-weeks long. The satellites
are assigned one week pieces of the P-Code. For example, Space Vehicle 14 or SV14 is
named that because it broadcasts the 14th week of the P-Code, and when a receiver can
determine that it's looking at that particular segment of the P-Code, it must be coming from
SV14.
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GPS Services:
Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.
Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
o Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
Precise Positioning Service:
Precise Positioning Service (PPS) is a positioning and timing service provided by way
of authorized access to ranging signals broadcast at the GPS L1 and L2 frequencies. The
L1 frequency, transmitted by all Navstar satellites, contains a coarse/acquisition (C/A)
code ranging signal, with a navigation data message, that is available for peaceful civil,
commercial, and scientific use; and a precision (P) code ranging signal with a navigation
data message, that is reserved for authorized use. The P-code will normally be
cryptographically altered to become the Y-code. The Y-code will not be available to users
that do not have valid cryptographic keys. Navstar satellites also transmit a second P- or
Y-(P(Y)-) code ranging signal with a navigation data message at the L2 frequency.
In order to restrict civilian user access to full system accuracy, the following
protections were introduced:
S/A or Selective Availability: intentional satellite clock degradation (process-δ) and
ephemeris manipulation (process-ε). The effect on horizontal positioning implies going
from about 10m (S/A=off) to 100m (S/A=on). [2] The process-δ acts directly over satellite
clock fundamental frequency, which has a direct impact on pseudoranges to be calculated
by user's receivers. The process-ε consists in truncating information related to the orbits.
A/S or Anti-Spooffing: it consists in P code encryption by combining it with a
secret W code, resulting in the Y code, which is modulated over the two carriers L1 and
L2. This serves the twofold purpose of protecting the code so that it can only be used by
authorised receivers and avoiding adversaries to forge a misleading signal that could
confuse military receivers. The use of A/S does not prevent civil users to take benefit from
the C/A code.
GPS accuracy before and after SA removal Authorised users receive the corresponding
encryption keys to access the PPS free from SA and A-S, and hence obtain the maximum
accuracy from GPS. Should a PPS receiver have not been fed with valid keys, it could
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still behave as a SPS receiver.

The P(Y)-code, which is reserved for military use and authorised civilian users, is
modulated over both carriers L1 and L2, and defines the Precise Positioning Service (PPS):
it is reserved for military use and authorized civilian users. With a chipping-rate of
10Mbps and a wavelength of 29.31 m, the P(Y)-code is repeated every 38 weeks; a weekly
portion, known as PRN, is assigned to each satellite.
Please refer to GPS Performances for more information about the performances
provided by the PPS service.
Standard Positioning Services:

Standard Positioning Services defined by the United States Government is[5] the
GPS Standard Positioning Service (PPS) is a positioning and timing service provided by
way of ranging signals broadcast at the GPS L1 frequency. The L1 frequency, transmitted
by all satellites, contains a coarse/acquisition (C/A) code ranging signal, witha navigation
data message, that is available for peaceful civil, commercial, and scientific use.
The Standard Positioning Service is based on the Coarse/Acquisition code (C/A(t)),
which is modulated only on L1. It has a chipping-rate of 1.023 MHz, and contains 1 023
chips, so that the code is repeated every millisecond and each chip lasts about 1 µs,
meaning a chip-width or wavelength of 293.1 metre.
GPS Receiver:
There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS system.
Hence, the individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS receiver. It is
mainly used to find the accurate location of an object. It performs this task by using the
signals received from satellites.
A GPS receiver is an L-band radio processor. It processes the signal broadcast by GPS
satellites, solves the equations for navigation so that user can easily compute their position,
precise time & velocity.
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Fig. 4.10.1. Block diagram of GPS receiver.
Types of GPS Receivers

1) On the basis of features
2) On the basis of level of accuracy
Types of GPS Receivers on the basis of features- Not-self-contained receivers: also known
as ‘GPS mice’. These are without screen and are need to be connected to a computer for
the purpose of visualization of real position of GPS receiver. Bluetooth (wireless) can be
the link of connection between the GPS and computer. This type is bestused in car-
navigation systems. Self contained receivers: have a screen and is integrated with the
computer itself. Sometimes, additional features e.g. electronic compass, barometer etc. are
found in this type. It is primarily used in boating and aviation. Sophisticated receivers: are
meant for professional use, e.g. in the field of mapping & GIS, transportation safety, crop
& agriculture etc. Though the working principle remains the same as others, the only
important difference is its storage capacity and higher accuracy, which helps to store a
larger amount of data that can be treated later in the office. Types of GPS Receivers on the
basis of different levels of accuracy- C/A Code receivers: These receivers have the
accuracy of 1 to 5 m related to position and differential correction so that getting an
occupation time of 5 seconds.
The recent advancement in the GPS receiver design now enables it to provide sub-meter
accuracy down to 30 cm. Carrier Phase receivers: These receivers provide 10-30 cm GPS
position accuracy with differential correction. The distance from the receiver to the satellite
is measured by determining the total number of waves which supports the C/A code signal,
which is more accurate and takes about 5 minutes of the occupation time. Dual-Frequency
receivers: provide GPS position accuracy according to differential
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correction within sub centimeter & accuracies according to survey grade.

These receivers are presented with the signals from satellites on the basis of two
frequencies at the same time. The use of two frequencies will help in omission of
atmospheric and other errors and thus improving the accuracy. Structure of GPS Receivers
Antenna: A GPS antenna is designed to collect maximum number of signals. It must have
coverage with a wide spatial angle.
The important thing that is needed for GPS antenna is to receive signals via all GPS
satellites above the horizon with an approx 5° elevation angle. The 3-D geometry of
different GPS satellites in the sky, i.e. the spatial arrangement of the satellites (which are
used for positioning) in the space also plays an important role in positioning accuracy.
The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below.

Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a circularly
polarized antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal.
Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate
Frequency (IF) signal.
IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF
amplifier to digital. Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also present
in ADC (Analog to Digital Converter).
DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.
Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the timing
signals in order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It sends the useful
information to Display unit in order to display it on the screen.
Basic optical laws:

Refraction of light:
As a light ray passes from one transparent medium to another, it changes direction; this
phenomenon is called refraction of light. How much that light ray changes its direction
depends on the refractive index of the mediums.
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Fig. 4.11.1 Light ray refraction
Refractive Index:
Refractive index is the speed of light in a vacuum (abbreviated c,
=299,792.458km/second) divided by the speed of light in a material (abbreviated v).
Refractive index measures how much a material refracts light. Refractive index of a
material, abbreviated as n, is defined as
n=c/v
Snell’s Law:
In 1621, a Dutch physicist named Willebrord Snell derived the relationship between the
different angles of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another. When light
passes from one transparent material to another, it bends according to Snell's law
which is defined as:
n1sin(θ1) = n2sin(𝜽2)
where:
n1 is the refractive index of the medium the light is leaving
θ1 is the incident angle between the light beam and the normal (normal is 90° to the
interface between two materials)
n2 is the refractive index of the material the light is entering
θ2 is the refractive angle between the light ray and the normal
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Fig. 4.11.2 Total internal Reflection Phenomenon
Total Internal Reflection:

When a light ray crosses an interface into a medium with a higher refractive index, it bends
towards the normal. Conversely, light traveling cross an interface from a higher refractive
index medium to a lower refractive index medium will bend away from the normal. This
has an interesting implication: at some angle, known as the critical angle θc, light
traveling from a higher refractive index medium to a lower refractive index medium will
be refracted at 90°; in other words, refracted along the interface.
If the light hits the interface at any angle larger than this critical angle, it will not pass
through to the second medium at all. Instead, all of it will be reflected back into the first
medium, a process known as total internal reflection.
The critical angle can be calculated from Snell's law, putting in an angle of 90° for the
angle of the refracted ray θ2. This gives θ1:
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Since θ2 = 90°
So
sin(θ2) = 1
Then
θc = θ1 = arcsin(n2/n1)
For example, with light trying to emerge from glass with n1=1.5 into air (n2 =1), the
critical angle θc is arcsin(1/1.5), or 41.8°.
Optical Communication System:

Any fibre optic data transmission system will comprise a number of different elements.
There are three major elements (marked in bold), and a further one that is vital for practical
systems:
Transmitter (light source)
Fibre optic cable
Optical repeater
Receiver (Detector)
The different elements of the system will vary according to the application. Systems used
for lower capacity links, possibly for local area networks will employ somewhat different
techniques and components to those used by network providers that provide extremely
high data rates over long distances. Nevertheless the basic principles are the same
whatever the system.
In the system the transmitter of light source generates a light stream modulated to enable
it to carry the data. Conventionally a pulse of light indicates a "1" and the absence of light
indicates "0". This light is transmitted down a very thin fibre of glass or other suitable
material to be presented at the receiver or detector. The detector converts the pulses of
light into equivalent electrical pulses. In this way the data can be transmitted as light over
great distances.
Fig. 4.13.1 The block diagram of optical communication system
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Optical Transmitters:
Although the original telecommunications fibre optic systems would have used large
lasers, today a variety of semiconductor devices can be used. The most commonly used
devices are light emitting diodes, LEDs, and semiconductor laser diodes.
The simplest transmitter device is the LED. Its main advantage is that it is cheap, and this
makes it ideal for low cost applications where only short runs are needed. However they
have a number of drawbacks. The first is that they offer a very low level of efficiency.
Only about 1% of the input power enters the optical fiber, and this means thathigh power
drivers would be needed to provide sufficient light to enable long distance transmissions
to be made. The other disadvantage of LEDs is that they produce what is termed incoherent
light that covers a relatively wide spectrum. Typically the spectral width is between 30 and
60 nm. This means that any chromatic dispersion in the fiber will limit the bandwidth of
the system.
In view of their performance, LEDs are used mainly in local-area-network applications
where the data rates are typically in the range 10-100 Mb/s and transmission distances are
a few kilometers.
Where higher levels of performance are required, i.e. it is necessary that the fibre optic link
can operate over greater distances and with higher data rates, then lasers are used. Although
more costly, they offer some significant advantages. In the first instance they are able to
provide a higher output level, and in addition to this the light output is directional and this
enables a much higher level of efficiency in the transfer of the light into the fibre optic
cable. Typically the coupling efficiency into a single mode fibre may be as high as 50%.
A further advantage is that lasers have a very narrow spectral bandwidth as a result of the
fact that they produce coherent light. This narrow spectral width enables the lasers to
transmit data at much higher rates because modal dispersionis less apparent. Another
advantage is that semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies
because of short recombination time for the carriers within the semiconductor material.
Laser diodes are often directly modulated. This provides a very simple and effective
method of transferring the data onto the optical signal. This is achieved by controlling
current applied directly to the device. This in turn varies the light output from the laser.
However for very high data rates or very long distance links, it is more effective to run
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the laser at a constant output level (continuous wave). The light is then modulated using
an external device. The advantage of using an external means of modulation is that it
increases the maximum link distance because an effect known as laser chirp is eliminated.
This chirp broadens the spectrum of the light signal and this increases the chromatic
dispersion in the fibre optic cable.
Fig . 4.13.1.1 Block diagram of Optical transmitter
Optical source (laser or LED) provides the optical carrier.

Carrier frequency varies from 185 to 200 THz (1520 to 1620 nm).
C band: 1530 to 1570 nm; L band: 1570 to 1610 nm.
Modulator creates the optical bit stream.
Direct modulation technique: laser current modulated to produce the bit stream
(no external modulator needed).
Optical Receivers:
Light travelling along a fibre optic cable needs to be converted into an electrical signal
so that it can be processed and the data that is carried can be extracted. The component
that is at the heart of the receiver is a photo-detector. This is normally a semiconductor
device and may be a p-n junction, a p-i-n photo-diode or an avalanche photo-diode. Photo-
transistors are not used because they do not have sufficient speed.
Once the optical signal from the fibre optic cable has been applied to the photo-detector
and converted into an electrical format it can be processed to recover the data which can
then be passed to its final destination.
Fibre optic transmission of data is generally used for long distance telecommunications
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network links and for high speed local area networks. Currently fibre optics is not used for
the delivery of services to homes, although this is a long term aim for many telcos. By
using optical fibre cabling here, the available bandwidth for new services would be
considerably higher and the possibility of greater revenues would increase. Currently the
cost of this is not viable, although it is likely to happen in the medium term.
.Fig. 4.13.2.1. Block diagram of Optical Receiver

Photo detector used for optical-to-electrical conversion.
Demodulator re-creates the electrical bit stream.
Noise added during transmission and at receiver leads to errors.
Bit-error rate (BER) is required to be < 10.
All receivers need a certain minimum power to operate reliably.
This power level is known as the receiver sensitivity.
Fiber-Optic Communication Channel:

Unlike copper wire based transmission where the transmission entirely depends on
electrical signals passing through the cable, the fiber optics transmission involves
transmission of signals in the form of light from one point to the other. Furthermore, a
fiber optic communication network consists of transmitting and receiving circuitry, a light
source and detector devices like the ones shown in the figure.
When the input data, in the form of electrical signals, is given to the transmitter circuitry,
it converts them into light signal with the help of a light source. This source is of LED
whose amplitude, frequency and phases must remain stable and free from fluctuation in
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order to have efficient transmission. The light beam from the source is carried by a fiber
optic cable to the destination circuitry wherein the information is transmitted back to the
electrical signal by a receiver circuit.
Optical fibers are used for transmitting optical bit streams in most terrestrial networks.
Fig.4.13.3.1 Block diagram of Optical communication channel
The Receiver circuit consists of a photo detector along with an appropriate

electronic circuit, which is capable of measuring magnitude, frequency and phase of the
optic field. This type of communication uses the wave lengths near to the infrared band
that are just above the visible range. Both LED and Laser can be used as light sources
based on the application.
Single-mode fibers with low losses (0.2 dB/km near 1550 nm) act as a
communication channel.
Transmission distance is still limited by fiber losses.
Losses compensated periodically using regenerators or amplifiers.
Dispersive and nonlinear effects then limit the total distance.
Optical fiber cables:

Optical fiber construction:
Fiber optic technology relies on the fact that it is possible to send a light beam along a thin
fiber suitably constructed. A fiber optic cable consists of a glass or silica core. The
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core of the optical fiber is surrounded by a similar material, i.e. glass or silica, called the
cladding that has a refractive index that is slightly lower than that of the core.
It is found that even when the cladding has a slightly higher refractive index, the light
passing down the core undergoes total internal reflection, and it is thereby contained
within the core of the optical fiber.
The Outside the cladding there is placed a plastic jacket. This is used to provide protection
to the optical fiber itself. In addition to this, optical fibers are usually grouped together in
bundles and these are protected by an overall outer sheath. This not only provides further
protection but also serves to keep the optical fibers together.
Optical fiber cable types:

There is a variety of different types of fiber optic cable that can be used, and there are a
number of ways in which types may be differentiated. There are two major categories:
Step index fiber optic cabling
Graded index fiber optic cabling
The step index cable refers to cable in which there is a step change in the refractive index
between the core and the cladding. This type is the more commonly used. The other type,
as indicated by the name, changes more gradually over the diameter of the fiber. Using
this type of cable, the light is refracted towards the centre of the cable.
Optical fibers can also be split into single mode fiber, and multimode fiber. Mention of
both single mode fiber and multi-mode fiber is often seen in the literature.
Single mode fiber:

This form of optical fiber is the type that is virtually exclusively used these days. It is
found that if the diameter of the optical fiber is reduced to a few wavelengths of light, then
the light can only propagate in a straight line and does not bounce from side to side of the
fiber. As the light can only travel in this single mode, this type of cable is called a single
mode fiber. Typically single mode fiber core are around eight to ten microns in diameter,
much smaller than a hair.
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Single mode fiber does not suffer from multi-modal dispersion and this means that it has
a much wider bandwidth. The main limitation to the bandwidth is what is termed chromatic
dispersion where different colors, i.e. Wavelengths propagate at different speeds.
Chromatic dispersion of the optical fiber cable occurs within the centre of the fiber itself.
It is found that it is negative for short wavelengths and changes to become positive at
longer wavelengths. As a result there is a wavelength for single mode fiber where the
dispersions is zero. This generally occurs at a wavelength of around 1310 nm and this is
the reason why this wavelength is widely used.
The disadvantage of single mode fiber is that it requires high tolerance to be manufactured
and this increases its cost. Against this the fact that it offers superior performance,
especially for long runs means that much development of single mode fiber has been
undertaken to reduce the costs.
Multimode fiber:
This form of fiber has a greater diameter than single mode fibre, being typically around
50 microns in diameter, and this makes them easier to manufacture than the single mode
fibers.
Multimode optical fiber has a number of advantages. As it has a wider diameter than single
mode fiber it can capture light from the light source and pass it to the receiver with a high
level of efficiency. As a result it can be used with low cost light emitting diodes. In addition
to this the greater diameter means that high precision connectors are not required. However
this form of optical fiber cabling suffers from a higher level of loss than single mode fiber
and in view of this its use is more costly than might be expected at first sight. It also suffers
from multi-mode modal dispersion and this severelylimits the usable bandwidth. As a
result it has not been widely used since the mid 1980s. Single mode fiber cable is the
preferred type.
Attenuation within an optical fiber:

Although fiber optic cables offer a far superior performance to that which can be achieved
with other forms of cable, they nevertheless suffer from some levels of attenuation. This
is caused by several effects:
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Loss associated with the impurities:

There will always be some level of impurity in the core of the optical fibre. This will cause
some absorption of the light within the fibre. One major impurity is water that remains in
the fiber.
Loss associated with the cladding:

When light reflects off the interface between the cladding and the core, the light will
actually travel into the core a small distance before being reflected back. This process
causes a small but significant level of loss and is one of the main contributors to the overall
attenuation of a signal along a fiber optic cable.
Loss associated with the wavelength:

It is found that the level of signal attenuation in the optical fiber depends the wavelength
used. The level increases at certain wavelengths as a result of certain impurities.
Despite the fact that attenuation is an issue, it is nevertheless possible to transmit data
along single mode fibers for considerable distances. Lines carrying data rates up to 50
Gbps are able to cover distances of 100 km without the need for amplification.
Materials used for optical fibers

There are two main types of material used for optical fibers. These are glass and plastic.
They offer widely different characteristics and therefore fibers made from the two different
substances find uses in very different applications.
Fiber optic transmitter:

There are two main types of fiber optic transmitter that are in use today. Both of them
are based around semiconductor technology:
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
Laser diodes
Semiconductor optical transmitters have many advantages. They are small, convenient,
and reliable. However, the two different types of fiber optic transmitter have very different
properties and they tend to be used in widely different applications.
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LED transmitters:
These fiber optic transmitters are cheap and reliable. They emit only incoherent light with
a relatively wide spectrum as a result of the fact that the light is generated by a method
known as spontaneous emission. A typical LED used for optical communications may
have its light output in the range 30 - 60 nm. In view of this the signal will be subject to
chromatic dispersion, and this will limit the distances over which data can be transmitted.
It is also found that the light emitted for a LED is not particularly directional and this
means that it is only possible to couple them to multimode fiber, and even then the overall
efficiency is low because not all the light can be coupled into the fiber optic cable.
LEDs have significant advantages as fiber optic transmitters in terms of cost, lifetime, and
availability. They are widely produced and the technology to manufacture them is
straightforward and as a result costs are low.
Laser diode transmitters:

These fiber optic transmitters are more expensive and tend to be used for
telecommunications links where the cost sensitivity is nowhere near as great.
The output from a laser diode is generally higher than that available from a LED, although
the power of LEDs is increasing. Often the light output from a laser diode can be in the
region of 100mW. The light generation arises from what is termed stimulated emission
and this generates coherent light. In addition to this the output is more directional than that
of a LED and this enables much greater levels of coupling efficiency into the fiber optic
cable. This also allows the use of single mode fiber which enables much greater
transmission distances to be achieved. A further advantage of using a laser is that they
have a coherent light output and this means that the light is nominally on a single frequency
and modal dispersion is considerably less.
A further advantage of lasers is that they can be directly modulated with high data rates.
Although LEDS can be modulated directly, there is a lower limit to the modulation rate.
One of the disadvantages of a laser diode fiber optic
Nevertheless laser diode fiber optic transmitters have some drawbacks. They are much
more expensive than LEDs. Furthermore they are quite sensitive to temperature and to
obtain the optimum performance they need to be in a stable environment. They also do
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not offer the same life as LEDs, although as much research has been undertaken into laser
diode technology, this is much less of an issue than previously.
Fiber optic transmitter summary:

In view of the different characteristics that LEDs and laser diode fiber optic transmitters
posses they are used in different applications. The table below summarizes some of the
chief characteristics of the two devices.
CHARACTERISTIC LED LASER DIODE
Cost Low High
Data rate Low High
Distance Short Long
Fiber type Multimode Multimode &single mode
Lifetime High Low
LEDs tend to be used for the more cost sensitive applications and ones where lower data
rates and shorter distances are required. Local area networks with speeds up to a maximum
of 100 Mbps and distances up to a kilometer or so represent the upper limits. Long distance
telecommunications fiber optic links with Gbps data rates require the use of the more
expensive laser diode fiber optic transmitters.
Fiber optic receiver:
Once data has been transmitted across a fiber optic cable, it is necessary for it to be
received and converted into electrical signals so that it can be processed and distributed
to its final destination.
The fiber optic receiver is the essential component in this process as it performs the actual
reception of the optical signal and converts it into electrical pulses. Within the fiber optic
receiver, the photo detector is the key element.
A variety of semiconductor photo-detectors may be used as fiber optic receivers. They are
normally semiconductor devices, and a form of photo-diode.
The photo-detector is the major element in the fiber optic receiver, the are other elements
to the whole unit. Once the light has been received by the fiber optic receiver and converted
into electronic pulses, the signals are processed by the electronics in the receiver. Typically
these will include various forms of amplification including a limiting
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amplifier. These serve to generate a suitable square wave that can then be processed in
any logic circuitry that may be required.
Once in a suitable digital format the received signal may undergo further signal processing
in the form of a clock recovery, etc. This will undertaken before the data fromthe fiber
optic receiver is passed on.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

One of the most promising concepts for high capacity communication systems is
wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).
Each communication channel is allocated to a different frequency and multiplexed onto a
single fiber. At the destination wavelengths are spatially separated to different receiver
locations. In this configuration the high carrier bandwidth is utilized to a greater extent
to transmit multiple optical signals through a single optical fiber.
Fig.4.17.1 A basic point-point communication configuration
Fig. 4.17.2. A basic point-to -point communication using wavelength division

multiplexing.
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For single frequency point-point links the bit rate is limited ~100 Gb/s due to dispersion.
This is well below the capability of the optical carrier frequency.
• WDM can increase the total bit rate of point-to-point systems.
• For N channels with bit rates B1, B2,…, BN transmitted simultaneously over a
fiber of length L, the bit rate-length product becomes
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UNIT-V
CELLULAR AND MOBILE
COMMUNICATIONS
Major contents
Cellular telephone systems, AMPS, GSM, CDMA, WCDMA, Wireless LAN, PANs and
Bluetooth, Zig Bee.
Wireless networks: Wi -max and MANs, Infrared wireless, RFID communication, UWB
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Cellular Telephone System:

A basic cellular system consists of three parts: a mobile unit, a cell site, and a mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO), as Fig.6 shows, with connections to link the three sub
systems.
1. Mobile units: A mobile telephone unit contains a control unit, a transceiver, and an
antenna system.
2. Cell site: The cell site provides interface between the MTSO and the mobile units. It
has a control unit, radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
3. MTSO: The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites,
contains the cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces with telephone company
zone offices, controls call processing, and handles billing activities.
4. Connections: The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems. Each
mobile unit can only use one channel at a time for its communication link. But the channel
is not fixed: it can be any one in the entire band assigned by the serving area, with each
site having multichannel capabilities that can connect simultaneously to many mobile
units.
The MTSO is the heart of the cellular mobile system. Its processor provides central
coordination and cellular administration. The cellular switch, which can be either analog
or digital, switches calls to connect mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to
the nationwide telephone network.
Dedicated Voice grade circuits are useful for some dedicated transmissions where dat is
stored in handbook or address book where the subscriber identity is checked and then data
is processed to that particular network.With the help of MTSO i.e. Mobile Telephone
Switching Office. The cellular switch may be analog or digital in practice we prefer relay
switches which are automatic.The cellular switch, which can be either analog or digital,
switches calls to connect mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers and to the
nationwide telephone network.
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Fig.5.1 Block diagram of Cellular communication system

It uses voice trunks similar to telephone company interoffice voice trunks. It also contains
data links providing supervision links between the processor and the switch and between
the cell sites and the processor.
The radio link carries the voice and signaling between the mobile unit and the cell
site. The high-speed data links cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone trunks
and therefore must use either microwave links or T-carriers (wire lines). Microwave radio
links or T-carriers carry both voice and data between the cell site and the MTSO
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS):

Advanced mobile phone service (AMPS) is an analog cellular communications system that
uses frequency-division multiple Access (FDMA) for control and frequency division
duplex (FDD) for two transmission.
The AMPS radio channel types include 30 kHz FSK control channels and 30 kHz voice
channels and it operates in the 825 MHz to 890 MHz frequency range. In 1974, 40 MHz
of spectrum was allocated in the United States for cellular service [3] that provided only
666 channels. In 1986, an additional 10 MHz of spectrum was added to facilitate expansion
[4] of the system to 832 channels.
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The frequency bands for the AMPS system are 824 MHz to 849 MHz (uplink) and 869
MHz to 894 MHz (downlink). Of the 832 channels, AMPS systems are divided into A and
B bands to allow for 2 different service providers. There are two types of radio channels
in an AMPS system; dedicated control channels and voice channels. On each system (A
or B), mobile telephones scan and tune to one of 21 dedicated control channels to listen
for pages and compete for access to the system. The control channel continuously sends
system identification information and access control information. Although the control
channel data rate is 10 kbps, messages are repeated 5 times, which reduces the effective
channel rate to below 2 kbps.
Fig.5.2.1 Block diagram of AMPS system
This allows a control channel to send 10 to 20 pages per second. The AMPS cellular system
is a frequency duplex with its channels separated by 45 MHz. The control channel and
voice channel signals are transferred at 10 kbps. AMPS cellular phones havethree classes
of maximum output power. A class 1 mobile telephone has a maximum power output of 6
dBW (4 Watts), class 2 has a maximum output power of 2 dBW (1.6 Watts), and the class
3 units are capable of delivering only -2 dBW (0.6 Watts). The output power can be
adjusted in 4 dB steps and has a minimum output power of -22 dBW (approximately 6
mill watts).
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Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM):

The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a global digital radio system
that uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technology. GSM is a digital cellular
technology that was initially created to provide a single-standard pan-European cellular
system.
The GSM system is a digital- only system and was not designed to be backward compatible
with the established analog systems. GSM began development in 1982, and the first
commercial GSM digital cellular system was activated in 1991. GSM technology has
evolved to be used in a variety of systems and frequencies (900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900
MHz) including Personal Communications Services (PCS) in NorthAmerica and Personal
Communications Network (PCN) systems throughout the world.
When communicating in a GSM system, users can operate on the same radio channel
simultaneously by sharing time slots. The GSM cellular system allows 8 mobile telephones
to share a single 200 kHz bandwidth radio carrier waveform for voice or data
communications. To allow duplex operation, GSM voice communication is conducted on
two 200 kHz wide carrier frequency waveforms.
The GSM system has several types of control channels that carry system and paging
information, and coordinates access like the control channels on analog systems. The GSM
digital control channels have many more capabilities than analog control channels such as
broadcast message paging, extended sleep mode, and others. Because the GSM control
channels use only a portion (one or more slots), they typically coexist on a single
radio channel with other time slots that are used for voice communication.
A GSM carrier transmits at a bit rate of 270 kbps. A single GSM digital radio channel or
time slot is capable of transferring only 1/8th of that, which is about 33 kbps of information
(actually less than that, due to the use of some bit time for non-information purposes such
as synchronization bits).
Time intervals on full rate GSM channels are divided into frames with 8 time slots
on two different radio frequencies. One frequency is for transmitting from the mobile
telephone; the other is for receiving to the mobile telephone. During a voice conversat ion
at the mobile set, one time slot period is dedicated for transmitting, one for receiving, and
six remain idle.
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The mobile telephone uses some of the idle time slots to measure the signal strength of
surrounding cell carrier frequencies in preparation for handover. On the 900 MHz band,
GSM digital radio channels transmit on one frequency and receive on another frequency
45 MHz higher, but not at the same time. On the 1.9 GHz band, the difference between
transmit and receive frequencies is 80MHz.
The mobile telephone receives a burst of data on one frequency, then transmits a burst on
another frequency, and then measures the signal strength of at least one adjacent cell,
before repeating the process.
Fig.5.3. The architecture of GSM system
The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that

interact with themselves and with users through certain network interface. The subsystems
are Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational
Support Subsystem (OSS). Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but it is considered
as a part of BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.
A. Mobile equipment (ME):
It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.
It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
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It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality
of surrounding cells foe optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS canalso be
sent using Mobile Equipment.
B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):
It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
number.
It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It
is protected by password or PIN.
It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to
activate the phone.
It can be moved from one mobile to another.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and
manages radio transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching
Centre (MSC). BSS also manages interface between the mobile station and all other
subsystems of GSM. It consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the
antenna.
It consists of transceiver units.
It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also
communicates with BSC via Abis interface.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all
mobile stations in its area.
It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each
MS radio power control.
It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the
system and allows MSCs to communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN.
It consist of
A. Mobile switching Centre:
It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other
networks.
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It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.

It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and
inter BSS and inter MSC call handoff.
It provides billing information.
MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using
HLR/VLR.
B. Home Location Registers (HLR): - It is a permanent database about mobile
subscriber in a large service area. - Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-
paid, roaming restrictions, supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): - It is a temporary database which updates
whenever new MS enters its area by HLR database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its
area. It reduces number of queries to HLR. - Its database contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN,
MSRN, location, area authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: - It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It
maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND,
SRES, Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.
It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.
4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of
GSM and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of
GSM system. It supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are
used to monitor the performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It
has three main functions:
To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a
particular market.
To manage all charging and billing procedures
To manage all mobile equipment in the system.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – I The CDMA standard was originally
designed by Qualcomm in the U.S. and is primarily used in the U.S. and portions of Asia
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by other carriers. CDMA is a form of spread spectrum transmission technology based

around a scheme called direct sequence spread spectrum.
Note on the DSSS, Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum:
Direct sequence spread spectrum, DSSS is a form of radio transmission used in a
variety of radio transmissions. Data to be transmitted is multiplied with a high data rate bit
sequence and then modulated onto an RF carrier to produce a signal with a much wider
bandwidth than data alone. To reconstitute the data at the receiver the same high data rate
bit sequence is used to extract the data from the signal.
By proving different users with different spreading codes, the different users are
able to utilise the same frequency channel, whilst still being able to individually
communicate with the base station.
The use of CDMA has been likened to being in a room where there are many people
speaking different languages, and being able to understand someone speaking in your
language despite the high level of noise.
A CDMA signal will be able to be decoded when the receiver uses the same code as used
for the transmission despite the presence of other signals with different codes being used
on the same channel.
Salient Features of CDMA:
CDMA has a number of distinguishing features that are key to spread spectrum
transmission technologies:
Use of wide bandwidth: CDMA, like other spread spectrum technologies uses a
wider bandwidth than would otherwise be needed for the transmission of the data.
This results in a number of advantages including an increased immunity to
interference or jamming, and multiple user access.
Spreading codes used: In order to achieve the increased bandwidth, the data is
spread by use of a code which is independent of the data.
Level of security: In order to receive the data, the receiver must have a knowledge
of the spreading code, without this it is not possible to decipher the transmitted data,
and this gives a measure of security.
Multiple access: The use of the spreading codes which are independent for each
user along with synchronous reception allow multiple users to access the same
channel simultaneously.
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CDMA is based on the spread spectrum technique

1. In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
2. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo random digital sequence
and then transmitted.
3. CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data
communications, allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. It is used by Verizon,
and Sprint.
A duplex method whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use two separate
frequency bands –
Uplink − 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz

Downlink − 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz
Bandwidth − each carrier located at center in 5 MHz band
CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each

voice packet with its PN code. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate between
calls. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the maximum number of calls
somewhat lower than this value. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – II In fact,
many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be modulated on the
same carrier to allow many different users to be supported. Using different orthogonal
codes, interference between the signals is minimal.
Fig. 5.4.1.1 The architecture of CDMA system
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Conversely, when signals are received from several mobile stations, the base station is
capable of isolating each because they have different orthogonal spreading codes.
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA):

The first Multiple Access Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Wideband
Code Division networks (WCDMA) were launched in 2002. At the end of 2005, there
were 100 WCDMA networks open and a total of more than 150 operators with licenses
for frequencies WCDMA operation. Currently, WCDMA networks are deployed in UMTS
band of around 2 GHz in Europe and Asia, including Japan and America Korea. WCDMA
is deployed in the 850 and 1900 of the existing frequency allocations and the new 3G band
1700/2100 should be available in the near future. 3GPP has defined WCDMA operation
for several additional bands, which are expected to be commissioned in the coming years.
As WCDMA mobile penetration increases, it allows WCDMA networks to carry a
greater share of voice and data traffic. WCDMA technology provides some advantages for
the operator in that it allows the data, but also improves the voice of base. Voice capacity
offered is very high due to interference control mechanisms, including frequency reuse of
1, fast power control, and soft handover.
WCDMA can offer a lot more voice minutes to customers. Meanwhile WCDMA
can also improve broadband voice service with AMR codec, which clearly provides better
voice quality than fixed telephone landline. In short, WCDMA can offer more voice
minutes with better quality.
In addition to the high spectral efficiency, third-generation (3G) WCDMA provides
even more dramatic change in capacity of the base station and the efficiency of the
equipment. The high level of integration in the WCDMA is achieved due to the broadband
carrier: a large number of users supported by the carrier, and less radio frequency (RF)
carriers are required to provide the same capacity.
With less RF parts and more digital baseband processing, WCDMA can take
advantage of the rapid evolution of digital signal processing capability. The level of
integration of the high base station enables efficient building high capacity sites since the
complexity of RF combiners, additional antennas or power cables can be avoided.
WCDMA operators are able to provide useful data services, including navigation, person
to person video calls, sports and video and new mobile TV clips.
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WCDMA enables simultaneous voice and data which allows, for example,
browsing or email when voice conferencing or video sharing in real time during voice
calls. The operators also offer mobile connectivity to the Internet and corporate intranet
with maximum bit rate of 384 kbps downlink and both uplink. The first terminals and
networks have been limited to 64 to 128 kbps uplink while the latter products provide 384
kbps uplink.
WCDMA-3G:
3G wireless service has been designed to provide high data speeds, always-on data access,
and greater voice capacity. Listed below are a few notable points −
The high data speeds, measured in Mbps, enable full motion video, high-speed
internet access and video-conferencing.
3G technology standards include UMTS, based on WCDMA technology (quite
often the two terms are used interchangeably) and CDMA2000, which is the
outgrowth of the earlier CDMA 2G technology.
UMTS standard is generally preferred by countries that use GSM network.
CDMA2000 has various types, including 1xRTT, 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV. The
data rates they offer range from 144 kbps to more than 2 mbps.
WCDMA is a 3rd generation digital cellular system that uses radio channels that have a
wider bandwidth than 2nd generation digital cellular systems such as GSM or IS-95
CDMA. WCDMA is normally deployed in a 5 MHz channel plan.
The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) oversees the creation of industry
standards for the 3rd generation of mobile wireless communication systems (WCDMA).
The key members of the 3GPP include standards agencies from Japan, Europe, Korea,
China and the United States.
The 3GPP technology, also known as the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS), is based on an evolved GSM core network that contains 2.5G elements, namely
GPRS switching nodes. This concept allows a GSM network operator to migrate to
WCDMA by adding the necessary 3G radio elements to their existing network, thus
creating ‘islands’ of 3G coverage when the networks first launch.
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Fig. 5.5.1.1 The block diagram of WCDMA
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN):

A Local Area Network (LAN) links the devices in a single office, building, or campus.
Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can
be as simple as two personal computers and a printer in someone's home office or it can
extend throughout an enterprise and include audio and video peripherals. LAN size is
typically limited to a few kilometers.
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between workstations. The resources
to be shared can include hardware (e.g., printer), software (e.g., an application program),
or data. For example, in many business environments a LAN links a workgroup of task-
related computers, such as engineering workstations or accounting PCs. Generally, a given
LAN uses only one type of transmission medium. When two or more networks are
connected, they become an inter-network.
IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards:

In 1997, IEEE approved 802.11, the first sanctioned WLAN standard. This first standard
allowed three possible implementations for the physical layer: infrared (IR) pulse position
modulation, or radio frequency (RF) signaling in the 2.4 GHz band using either
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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) or Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

(DSSS). The IR method was never commercially implemented. The RF versions suffered
from low transmission speeds.
IEEE established two networking groups (A and B) to explore alternate implementations

of 802.11. A third group, working group G was set up after these two. Group A explored
the 5 GHz band, using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) to achieve
transmission rates in the range of 54 Mbps. The 802.11a standard was ratified in 1999.
Due to slow availability of cheap 5 GHz components (required for keeping the cost of
products low) and international regulations, the 802.11a WLAN standard did not reach the
market before mid-2002.
Group B explored more sophisticated DSSS techniques in the original 2.4 GHz band. Their
802.11b WLAN standard, published in 1999, can deliver data rates up to 11 Mbps. Most
WLAN systems in the market today follow the 802.11b WLAN standard. Group G began
by exploring a variety of methods to further improve throughput in the 2.4 GHz spectrum
used by the 802.11b standard. In 2003, group G ratified the 802.11g standard adopting
OFDM, the same signaling method used in the 802.11a WLAN standard.
The 802.11g standard provides backward compatibility with the older 802.11b standard,
which uses the same spectrum. Even though 802.11g operates in the same frequency band
as 802.11b, it can achieve higher data rates because of its similarities to 802.11a. The
maximum range of 802.11g devices is slightly greater than that of 802.11b devices, but the
range in which a client can achieve full data rate speed (54 Mbps) is much shorterthan that
of 802.11b. The MAC layers of 802.11a, b, and g protocols are identical.
Each portion of the radio spectrum is called a channel. Most designers use one or more
channels between 1 and 11 for deploying 802.11 WLANs. To overcome signal
degradation, 802.11 WLANs can step down to a slower but more robust transmission rate
when conditions are poor, then step back up again when conditions improve. Data rates
supported by the 802.11 WLAN standards are shown in Table 1.
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Table: .5.7.1 Data rates supported by IEEE 802.11a, b, g
5..1.1 IEEE 802.11 WLAN Components:

IEEE 802.11 networks consist of four major components:
Stations: Stations are computing devices with wireless network interfaces. Typically,
stations are battery-operated laptop or handheld pocket PCs.
Access points: Frames on an 802.11 network must be converted to another type of frame
for delivery to a wired network. Devices called access points (AP) perform the wireless-
to-wired bridging function.
Wireless medium: To move frames from station to station, the standard uses a wireless
medium. Typical WLANs utilize an RF physical layer.
Distribution system: When several APs are connected to form a large coverage area, they
must communicate with each other to handle the movements of mobile stations. The
distribution system (DS) is the logical component of 802.11 used to forward frames to
their destination. Usually, the DS is implemented as a combination of a bridging engine
and a distribution system medium, which is the backbone network used to relay frames
between APs. In most cases, Ethernet is used as the backbone network technology. Most
APs operate as bridges. They have at least one wireless network interface and at least one
Ethernet network interface. The Ethernet side can be connected to an existingnetwork, and
the wireless side becomes an extension of that network.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture: The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two kinds of services: the
Basic Service Set (BSS) and the Extended Service Set (ESS). The BSS is the basic building
block of a wireless LAN.
A BSS consists of stationary or mobile wireless stations and possibly a central base
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station.
Fig.5.7.1.1 Architectures of Structured BSS, Structure less BSS
When a station is in the BSS, it can communicate with the other members of the BSS. The
BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. Such
BSSs are called Independent BSSs (IBSS). See above Figure Typically, IBSSs involve a
small number of stations set up for a specific purpose and for a short period of time (e.g.,
creating a short-lived network to support a single meeting in a conference room). IBSSs
are also referred to as ad hoc networks.
Infrastructure BSSs are distinguished from ad hoc networks by the use of an AP. See above
Figure. APs are used for all communications in an infrastructure BSS, including
communication between mobile nodes in the same service set. An infrastructure BSS is
bounded by the coverage distance from the AP. The coverage area of a single AP is called
a cell.
All mobile stations are required to be within reach of the AP. 802.11 allows wireless
networks of arbitrarily large size to be created by linking BSSs into an ESS. An ESS is
created by chaining BSSs together with a backbone network. All the APs in an ESS are
given the same Service Set Identifier (SSID), which serves as a network name for its users.
APs in an ESS operate in a manner such that the outside world can use the station's
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MAC address to talk to a station without worrying about its location in the ESS. Below
Figure shows three BSSs corresponding to three APs. There is an equal level of overlap
between BSS 1 and BSS 2, and between BSS 2 and BSS 3. Such overlapis
necessary to provide stations with seamless connectivity if they move from one
BSS to another.
In the figure, the router uses the station's MAC address as the destination to deliver frames
to a station; only the AP with which that station is associated delivers the frame. Usually,
mobility support is the primary motivation for deploying an 802.11 network.
IEEE 802.11 allows mobility between BSSs at the link layer. However, it is not aware of
anything that happens above the link layer. When stations move between BSSs, they will
find and attempt to associate with an AP with the strongest signal and the least network.
Fig. 5.8 Block diagram of Distribution system sharing the data using 802.11
IEEE 802.11 Framing:
802.11 framing is complex compared to Ethernet framing. This is because the wireless
medium requires several management features and frame types not found in wired
networks.
Every 802.11 frame has a control field that depicts the 802.11 protocol version, frame
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type, and various indicators, such as whether privacy features are on, power management
is active, and so on. In addition, all frames contain MAC addresses of the source and
destination station (and AP), a frame sequence number, frame body and frame check
sequence (for error detection).
The MAC layer frame format consists of nine fields, as shown in Figure below. Frame
control the frame control is 2 bytes long and defines the type of the frame and control
information. The subfields in the frame control field are as follows:
Protocol version: Indicates which version of 802.11 MAC is contained in the rest
of the frame. Only one version of the 802.11 MAC has been developed: it has been
assigned a protocol number of 0.
Type: Defines the type of information carried in the frame body: management
(00), control (01), or data (10). These frame types are discussed in detail in
Fig.5.7.2.1. IEEE 802.11 frame format

Subtype: Defines the subtype of each management, control, or data frame.
To DS: This bit is set to 1 if the frame was sent to the DS.
From DS: This bit is set to 1 if the frame was sent from the DS.
More fragments: When a higher-level packet has been fragmented by the MAC,
the initial fragment and any following non-final fragments set this bit to 1.
Retry: The retry bit is set to 1 if the current packet is a retransmission of a
previous attempt. This aids the receiving station in eliminating duplicate packets.
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Power management: To conserve battery life, many small devices have the ability
to power down parts of the network interface. A 1 indicates that the station will be
in power save mode, and 0 indicates that the station will be active.
More data: To accommodate stations in a power saving mode, APs may buffer
frames received from the DS. An AP sets this bit to indicate that at least one
frame addressed to a \sleeping" station is available.
WEP: Wireless transmissions are inherently easier to intercept than transmissions
on a wired network. The Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) bit is set to 1 if the
payload of the packet has been encrypted using the WEP algorithm.
Order: Frames and fragments can be transmitted in any order by both the receiving
and sending stations. The bit is set to 1 when the packets must be strictlyordered,
for example, for VoIP.
IEEE 802.11 Frame Types:

Three major frame types exist. Data frames transport data from station to station. Control
frames are used in conjunction with data frames to perform channel acquisition and carrier
sensing maintenance functions, and positive acknowledgement of received data. Control
and data frames work together to deliver data reliably from station to station. Management
frames perform supervisory functions. They are used to join and leave wireless networks
and move associations from AP to AP.
Management Frames:
The following are the common management frame subtypes:
Beacon: Beacon frames announce the existence of a network. They are transmitted
at regular intervals to allow mobile stations to _nd and identify a network and
possibly, join it. In an infrastructure network, the AP is responsible for transmitting
Beacon frames with information such as timestamp, SSID, and other parameters
regarding the AP to stations that are within range.
Authentication: Authentication frames are sent back and forth between thestation
requesting authentication and the station to which it is attempting to assert its
authentic identity. With open system authentication, the station sends only one
authentication frame, and the AP responds with an authentication frame as a
response indicating acceptance or rejection.
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Deauthentication: This frame is an announcement stating that the receiver is no

longer authenticated. It is a one-way communication from the authenticating station
and must be accepted. It takes effect immediately.
Association request: This frame carries information about the station (e.g.,
supported data rates) and the SSID of the network with which it wishes to associate.
After receiving the association request, the AP considers associating with the
station, and (if accepted) reserves memory space and establishes an association ID
for the station. The sender must already be authenticated to obtain asuccessful
association.
Association response: An AP sends an association response frame containing an
acceptance or rejection notice to the station requesting association. If the AP accepts
the station, the frame includes information regarding the association, such as
association ID and supported data rates. If the outcome of the association is positive,
the station can utilize the AP to communicate with other stations on the network and
systems on the DS.
Reassociation request: If a station roams away from the currently associated AP
and finds another AP having a stronger beacon signal, the station will send a
reassociation frame to the new AP. The new AP then coordinates the forwarding
of data frames that may still be in the buffer of the previous AP waiting for
transmission to the station.
Reassociation response: An AP sends a reassociation response frame containing
an acceptance or rejection notice to the station requesting reassociation. Similar to
the association process, the frame includes information regarding the association,
such as association ID and supported data rates.
Disassociation: A station sends a disassociation frame to another station if it wishes
to terminate the association. For example, a station that is shutting down can
“politely" send a disassociation frame to alert the AP that the station is powering
off. The AP can then relinquish memory allocations and remove the radio station
from the association table.
Control Frames:
Some of the common control frame subtypes are as follows:
Acknowledgement (ACK): ACK frames are used to send the positive
acknowledgements required by the MAC for any data transmission. After
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receiving a data frame, the receiving station will utilize an error checking process
to detect the presence of errors. The receiving station will send an ACK frame to
the sending station if no errors are found. If the sending station does not receive an
ACK after a period of time, the sending station will retransmit the frame.
Power-save Poll (PS-Poll): Stations in power save mode wake up periodically to
listen to selected Beacons. If they hear that data is waiting for them, they will awake
more fully and send a PS-Poll frame to the AP to request the transmissionof the
waiting data.
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN- IEEE 802.15):

Definition of WPAN:
WPANs are used to convey information over short distances among a private, intimate
group of participant devices. Unlike a WLAN, a connection made through a WPAN
involves little or no infrastructure or direct connectivity to the world outside the link.
This allows small, power-efficient, inexpensive solutions to be implemented for a wide
range of devices.
Wireless PAN technologies utilize both radio frequencies and infrared light, depending
on the application.
802.15
The IEEE 802.15 standards working group focuses on the development of standards
for wireless PANs and coordinates with other standards, such as 802.11 wireless LANs.
The 802.15 standards working group contains the following elements:
: This working group, Task Group 1, defines a wireless PAN standard
based on Bluetooth v1.1 specifications, which uses frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) and operates at up to 1 Mbps. The 802.15 group published 802.11.1 in June of
2002, and it is meant to serve as a resource for developers of Bluetooth devices.
: The group responsible for this standard, Task Group 2, is defining recommended
practices to facilitate the coexistence of 802.15 and 802.11 networks. An issue is
that both networks operate in the same 2.4 GHz frequency band, making
coordination between operations necessary. The group is quantifying the
interference and proposing methods to counter the interference.
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: This is Task Group 3, which is drafting a new standard for higher-rate wireless
PANs. Data rates include 11, 22, 33, 44, and 55 Mbps. Combined with these higher
data rates, quality of service (QoS) mechanisms make this standard good for
satisfying needs for multimedia applications. This group is also focusing on lower
cost and power requirements. A draft of the 802.15.3 standard is now available for
purchase.
: This group, Task Group 4, is investigating the definition of a standard with low
data rates that leads to extremely low-power consumption for small devices where
it's not practical to change batteries within months or years. For example, sensors,
smart badges, and home automation systems are candidates for this technology.
Data rates include 20, 40, and 250 kbps. A draft of the 802.15.4 standard is now
available for purchase.
Applications of WPAN:
Applications include:
Short-range (< 10 m) connectivity for multimedia applications
PDAs, cameras, voice (hands free devices)
High QoS , high data rate (IEEE 802.15.3)
Industrial sensor applications
Low speed, low battery, low cost sensor networks (IEEE 802.15.4)
WPAN Standards:
Table: 5.8.2.1. Representation WPAN standards
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Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1):

The introduction of Bluetooth in 1998 was the result of several companies, including
Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba, working together to create a solution for
wireless access among computing devices. Bluetooth, which is aspecification and not a
standard, is ideal for small devices with short-range, low-power, and inexpensive radio
links. This makes Bluetooth a good solution for connecting small devices within range of
a person in a small working area. That's why the 802.15 chose Bluetooth as the basis of the
802.15.1 standard.
Basic Features
The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) published the initial version of the
specification in mid-1999. There have been updates since then, but the technical attributes
are essentially the same. Bluetooth transceivers operate at up to 1 Mbps data rate in the
2.4GHz band, using FHSS technology. It constantly hops over the entire spectrum at a
rate of 1,600 hops per second, which is much faster than the 802.11 version of frequency
hopping.
Low-power Bluetooth devices have a range of 30 feet. High-power Bluetooth
devices, however, can reach distances of around 300 feet. The high-power mode, though,
is rare.Bluetooth modules have relatively small form factors. Typical measurements are
10.2 x 14 x 1.6 millimeters, which is small enough to fit in a variety of user devices.
Bluetooth enables automatic connection among Bluetooth devices that fall within
range of each other, but a user has the ability to accept and disallow connections with
specific users. Users, however, should always be aware of whether their Bluetooth
connection is enabled. To ensure security, disable the Bluetooth connection. Encryption
is also part of the specification.
Could Bluetooth Replace Wireless LANs?
Bluetooth has characteristics similar to wireless LANs. Through the use of the high-
power version of Bluetooth, manufacturers can develop Bluetooth access points and
routers with a similar range as 802.11 networks. The current Bluetooth products, however,
are mostly low power and focus on wireless PAN functions. In addition, it would be
difficult for any Bluetooth wireless LAN products to gain a strong foothold in the market
because 802.11 products already have widespread adoption.
The place where Bluetooth falls behind 802.11 is performance and range. 802.11
components can reach data rates of up to 54 Mbps, while Bluetooth lags way behind at
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around 1 Mbps. This might be good enough for most cable replacement applications? such
as an interface between headphones and a PDA? but higher performance is necessary when
surfing the web through a broadband connection or participating on a corporate network.
Also, the range of 802.11 is typically 300 feet inside offices, which ismuch greater than
Bluetooth. Bluetooth would require many access points to fully cover larger areas.
As a result, it's highly unlikely that Bluetooth products will win over 802.11. This
is certainly apparent because electronics stores primarily sell 802.11 (Wi-Fi) solutions for
wireless LAN applications, not Bluetooth.
Could Wireless LANs Replace Bluetooth?
It's possible that 802.11 wireless LANs could have a big impact on the sale of
Bluetooth devices, mostly because 802.11 meets or exceeds nearly all of the characteristics
of Bluetooth. Because widespread adoption of Bluetooth is still lacking, there's time for
802.11 vendors to get their foot in the door with manufacturers needing support for
wireless PANs.
Some modifications would need to be made, however. The size of 802.11
components needs to be smaller, but that is becoming more of a reality as semiconductor
companies strive for miniaturization of their 802.11 chipsets. These smaller components
require less power, making them more competitive for devices, such as mobile phones,
that have smaller batteries. With the 802.15 group defining standards for wireless PANs
based on Bluetooth? and the 802.11 group focusing on wireless LANs? it's likely that both
Bluetooth and 802.11 will continue to coexist and complement each other.
Minimizing Bluetooth Interference

As more wireless products become available, you need to carefully manage
potential frequency interference. Tests have shown significant interference between
Bluetooth and other systems operating in the 2.4 GHz band, such as 802.11 wireless LANs.
A critical problem is that Bluetooth and 802.11b neither understand each other nor follow
the same rules. A Bluetooth radio might haphazardly begin transmitting data while an
802.11 station is sending a frame. This results in a collision, which forces the
802.11 station to retransmit the frame. This lack of coordination is the basis for radio
frequency (RF) interference between Bluetooth and 802.11.
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Because of the potential for collisions, 802.11 and Bluetooth networks suffer from
lower performance. An 802.11 station automatically lowers its data rate and retransmits
a frame when collisions occur. Consequently, the 802.11 protocol introduces delays in the
presence of Bluetooth interference.
The full impact of RF interference depends on the utilization and proximity of
Bluetooth devices. Interference occurs only when both Bluetooth and 802.11b devices
transmit at the same time. Users might have Bluetooth devices in their PDAs or laptops,
but no interference will exist if their applications are not using the Bluetooth radio to send
data.
Some Bluetooth applications, such as printing from a laptop or synchronizing a
PDA to a desktop, utilize the radio for a short period of time. In this case, the Bluetooth
devices are not active long enough to noticeably degrade the performance of an 802.11
network. For example, a user might synchronize her PDA to her desktop when arriving at
work in the morning. Other than that, their Bluetooth radio might be inactive and not cause
interference the rest of the day.
The biggest impact is when a company implements a large-scale Bluetooth network,
such as one that enables mobility for doctors and nurses using PDAs throughout a
hospital. If the Bluetooth network is widespread and under moderate-to- high levels of
utilization, the Bluetooth system will probably offer a substantial number of collisions
with an 802.11 network residing in the same area. In this case, Bluetooth and 802.11 would
have difficulties coexisting, and performance would likely suffer.
In addition to utilization, the proximity of the Bluetooth devices to 802.11 radio
NICs and access points has a tremendous affect on the degree of interference. The transmit
power of Bluetooth devices is generally lower than 802.11 wireless LANs. Therefore, an
802.11 station must be relatively close (within 10 feet or so) of a transmitting Bluetooth
device before significant interference can occur.
A typical application fitting this scenario is a laptop user utilizing Bluetooth to
support connections to a PDA and printer and 802.11 to access the Internet and corporate
servers. The potential for interference in this situation is enormous, especially when the
user is operating within outer limits of the coverage area of the 802.11 network. Figure 5-
11 illustrates this situation. The signal from the Bluetooth device will likely drown out the
weaker 802.11 signal because of the distance of the access point.
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Figure 5.9.1. RF Interference Can Occur Between Bluetooth and 802.11 Wireless LAN
Devices
Here are some tips on how to avoid interference from Bluetooth devices:
Manage the use of RF devices? One way to reduce the potential for interference is
to regulate the types of RF devices within your home or office. In other words,
establish your own private regulatory body for managing unlicensed RF devices.
The extreme measure would be to completely ban the use of Bluetooth; however,
that is not practical or even possible in all cases. For example, you can't feasibly
prohibit the use of Bluetooth in public areas of large offices. For private
applications, you could set company policies to limit the use of Bluetooth to specific
applications, such as synchronizing PDAs to desktops.
Ensure adequate 802.11 coverage? Strong, healthy 802.11 signals throughout the
coverage areas reduce the impact of the Bluetooth signals. If wireless LAN
transmissions become too weak, the interfering Bluetooth signals will be more
troublesome. Perform a thorough RF site survey, and determine the appropriate
location for access points.
Move to the 5 GHz band? If none of the preceding steps solve the problem, consider
using a 5 GHz wireless LAN such as 802.11a. You can completely avoid RF
interference in this band? at least for the foreseeable future.
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IrDA
Bluetooth's primary competitor is Infrared Data Association (IrDA), which has been
defining and publishing since 1993. The IrDA has a charter to create an interoperable, low-
cost, low-power, serial data communications standard for short-range applications. IrDA
has been around for much longer than Bluetooth. In fact, many laptops and cell phones
have been coming equipped with an IrDA interface for years.
Basic Features
The basis for IrDA is infrared light, which doesn't go through walls and other obstacles.
This strictly limits the range of IrDA devices to within an obstacle-free room. This makes
IrDA useful only for point-to-point applications, such as synchronizing PDAs to PCs. An
advantage of IrDA, however, is that there's no worry about RF interference.
The IrDA data standard, which is best for devices such as an MP3 player needing to stream
information, offers up to 4 Mbps data rates. This version of the standard has up to3 feet (1
meter range), but low-power versions significantly conserve battery power and reduce
operation to approximately 8 inches (20 centimeters).
To effectively support wireless computer peripherals, such as a keyboard or mouse, the
IrDA control version of the standard reduces data rates to 75 kbps. In addition, the host
computer can communicate with up to eight peripherals simultaneously.
A widely used WPAN technology is known as Bluetooth (version 1.2 or
version 2.0)
The IEEE 802.15.1 standard specifies the architecture and operation of Bluetooth
devices, but only as far as physical layer and medium access control (MAC) layer
operation is concerned (the core system architecture.
Data rate of 1 Mbps (2 or 3 Mbps with enhanced data rate).
Robust short range communications.
Piconets:
A piconet is a network of devices connected using Bluetooth technology. The
network ranges from two to eight connected devices. When a network is established, one
device takes the role of the master while all the other devices act as slaves.
Piconet gets its name from the word "pico", which means very small. This very
small network is so called because the number is limited to seven devices, plus the master,
which limits network and data sharing capability. Data transfer rates vary from
200 to 2,100 kbps at the application.
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A piconet is sometimes called a personal area network (PAN) because the range
of optimal operation for Bluetooth is 10 meters, about the size of a living room.
Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through
short-range, ad hoc networks known as Pico nets.
Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled
devices enter and leave radio proximity.
Up to 8 devices in one piconet (1 master and up to 7 slave devices).
Max range 10 m.
Scatternet:
A scatternet is a type of network that is formed between two or more Bluetooth-
enabled devices, such as smartphones and newer home appliances. A scatternet is made
up of at least two piconets.
Bluetooth devices are peer units that act as slaves or masters. Scatter nets are formed
when a device in a pico net, whether a master or a slave, decides to participate as a slave
to the master of another pico net. This device then becomes the bridge between the two
piconets, connecting both networks.
Any Bluetooth device can be a master of one piconet and a slave of another
piconet at the same time (scatter net).
Scatter net is formed by two or more Piconets.
Master of one piconet can participate as a slave in another connected piconet.
Fig.5.9.3.1. Structure of Scatternet
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Bluetooth Core System Architecture:
Fig. 5.9.3.2 Architecture of Bluetooth core system
Radio Layer (Physical Layer):

The radio layer specifies details of the air interface, including the usage of the frequency
hopping sequence, modulation scheme, and transmits power.
Baseband Layer:
The baseband layer specifies the lower level operations at the bit and packet levels, e.g.
Forward Error Correction (FEC) operations
Encryption, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) calculations
Retransmissions using the Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Protocol
Link Manager Layer:

The link manager layer specifies the establishment and release of SCO and ACL
links, authentication, traffic scheduling, link supervision, and power management
tasks.
Responsible for all the physical link resources in the system.
Handles the control and negotiation of packet sizes used when transmitting data.
Sets up, terminates, and manages baseband connections between devices.
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Establishes different types of links (SCO / ACL) dependent on requests from the
L2CAP layer.
L2CAP layer:
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) layer handles the
multiplexing of higher layer protocols and the segmentation and reassembly (SAR)
of large packets.
The L2CAP layer provides both connectionless and connection-oriented services
L2CAP performs 4 major functions:

Managing the creation and termination of logical links for each connection through
channel structures.
Enforcing and defining QoS requirements.
Adapting Data, for each connection, between application (APIs) and Bluetooth
Baseband formats through Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR).
Performing Multiplexing to support multiple concurrent connections over a single
common radio interface (multiple apps. using link between two devices
simultaneously).
5.10 ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4):

The Zigbee standard is a standard built on top of IEEE 802.15.4 which provides the
upper layers for control and sensor applications. It has been designed to be very robust so
that it can operate reliably in harsh radio environments, providing security and flexibility.
As an open standard, Zigbee is able to operate using items from a variety of manufacturers.
ZigBee Alliance
As Zigbee is an open standard it is developed and maintained by an industry alliance
called the Zigbee Alliance. This was initially set up in 2002 and since then its membership
has grown considerably as the adoption of the standard has increased.
The Zigbee Alliance has three levels of membership:
Adopter: The Adopter Zigbee Alliance members are allowed access to completed
Zigbee specifications and standards
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Participant: Participant members have voting rights, play a role in Zigbee

development, and have early access to specifications and standards for product
development.
Promoter: The Promoter membership of the Zigbee Alliance provides automatic
voting rights in all work groups, final approval rights on all standards and a seat on
the Alliance Board of Directors.
A further advantage of Zigbee Alliance membership is the benefits of the global marketing
efforts of the Alliance which actively promotes use of Zigbee standards.
ZigBee basics
The distances that can be achieved transmitting from one station to the next extend
up to about 70 metres, although very much greater distances may be reached by relaying
data from one node to the next in a network. The differnet ISO layers in a Zigbee protocol
stack
The main applications for 802.15.4 are aimed at control and monitoring applications
where relatively low levels of data throughput are needed, and with the possibility of
remote, battery powered sensors, low power consumption is a key requirement. Sensors,
lighting controls, security and many more applications are all candidates for the new
technology.
Physical and MAC layers

The system is specified to operate in one of the three license free bands at 2.4 GHz,
915 MHz for North America and 868 MHz for Europe. In this way the standard is able to
operate around the globe, although the exact specifications for each of the bands are
slightly different. At 2.4 GHz there are a total of sixteen different channels available, and
the maximum data rate is 250 kbps. For 915 MHz there are ten channels and the standard
supports a maximum data rate of 40 kbps, while at 868 MHz there is only one channel and
this can support data transfer at up to 20 kbps.
The modulation techniques also vary according to the band in use. Direct sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS) is used in all cases. However for the 868 and 915 MHz bands
the actual form of modulation is binary phase shift keying. For the 2.4 GHz band, offset
quadrature phase shift keying (O-QPSK) is employed.
In view of the fact that systems may operate in heavily congested environments,
and in areas where levels of extraneous interference is high, the 802.15.4 specification
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has incorporated a variety of features to ensure exceedingly reliable operation. These

include a quality assessment, receiver energy detection and clear channel assessment.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) techniques are used to determine when to transmit,
and in this way unnecessary clashes are avoided.
Data transfer
The data is transferred in packets. These have a maximum size of 128 bytes,
allowing for a maximum payload of 104 bytes. Although this may appear low when
compared to other systems, the applications in which 802.15.4 and ZigBee are likely to be
used should not require very high data rates.
The standard supports 64 bit IEEE addresses as well as 16 bit short addresses. The
64 bit addresses uniquely identify every device in the same way that devices have a unique
IP address. Once a network is set up, the short addresses can be used and this enables over
65000 nodes to be supported.
It also has an optional superframe structure with a method for time synchronisation.
In addition to this it is recognised that some messages need to be given a high priority. To
achieve this, a guaranteed time slot mechanism has been incorporated into the
specification. This enables these high priority messages to be sent across the network as
swiftly as possible.
Upper layers (ZigBee)

Above the physical and MAC layers defined by 802.15.4, the ZigBee standard itself
defines the upper layers of the system. This includes many aspects including the
messaging, the configurations that can be used, along with security aspects and the
application profile layers.
There are three different network topologies that are supported by ZigBee, namely
the star, mesh and cluster tree or hybrid networks. Each has its own advantages and can
be used to advantage in different situations.
The star network is commonly used, having the advantage of simplicity. As the
name suggests it is formed in a star configuration with outlying nodes communicating with
a central node.
Mesh or peer to peer networks enable high degrees of reliability to be obtained.
They consist of a variety of nodes placed as needed, and nodes within range being able
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to communicate with each other to form a mesh. Messages may be routed across the
network using the different stations as relays. There is usually a choice of routes that can
be used and this makes the network very robust. If interference is present on one section
of a network, then another can be used instead.
Finally there is what is known as a cluster tree network. This is essentially a
combination of star and mesh topologies.
Both 802.15.4 and ZigBee have been optimised to ensure that low power
consumption is a key feature. Although nodes with sensors of control mechanisms towards
the centre of a network are more likely to have mains power, many towards the extreme
may not. The low power design has enabled battery life to be typically measured in years,
enabling the network not to require constant maintenance.
ZigBee is the name given to a specific suite of high level communication protocols using
low power digital radios, based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for Wireless Personal Area
Networks (WPANs).
A ZigBee network links a number of electronic devices (nodes). Each node in the network
forms part of the transmission chain, receiving messages, deciding if the messages are for
local use, and re-transmitting them to other nodes in the network if not.
A common use of ZigBee is to form ‘sensor area networks’. For example in a factory
environment many ZigBee nodes can be quickly installed to provide complete low power
wireless coverage of the many sensors needed in a factory for fire and burglar alarm
systems.
Comparison of Wireless Technologies:
Comparing ZigBee with other wireless technologies:
ZigBee:
was formally adopted in December 2004
is targeting control applications in industry, which do not require high data rates,
but must have low power demand, low cost and offer ease of use (remote controls,
home automation, etc.);
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offers data rates of 250 Kbits at 2.4 GHz, 40 Kbps at 915 MHz, and 20 Kbps at
868 MHz with a range of 10-100m;
Currently offers three levels of security;
Costs around half that of Bluetooth;
can network up to 256 devices;
has power requirements much less than Bluetooth;
Uses star, tree or mesh topology.
Bluetooth:
• is designed for voice and higher data-rate applications;
• Also operates in the 2.4 GHz spectrum;
• operates typically over a distance of 10 metres;
• allows for three modes of security;
• has a range of ~10 meters;
• has power requirements of - 40 to 100mW per device;
• can network up to 8 devices;
• Costs around £2 per chip.
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11.x technologies)
is typically three times more expensive than Bluetooth implementations;
uses around five times the power consumption of Bluetooth devices;
is certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance;
802.11a uses OFDM, in the 5GHz band with data rates up to 54Mbps;
802.11b uses DSSS, in the 2.4GHz band with data rates up to 11 Mbps;
802.11g uses OFDM, in the 2.4GHz band with data rates up to 54Mbps;
802.11n is likely to operate in the 5GHz band with data rates over 100Mbps.
Reasons for choosing ZigBee include:

• Low cost
• High reliability
• Very long battery life
• High security
• self-healing properties
• Large number of nodes supported
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• ease of deployment
• guaranteed delivery
• Route optimization.
ZigBee Applications:
ZigBee technologies offer a way to realize ‘Smart’ buildings, whether at work or at
home. These can be either pre-programmed or operated by remote control.
A ZigBee-enabled control system offers:
• Automatic control of lighting systems to create adaptable workplaces;
• Versatile control of heating and ventilation to personalize the environment;
• Security systems, both inside and outside the building;
• Automatic environmental control of grounds and gardens.
Wireless Mesh Networks (WMN):

A wireless mesh network is a multihop wireless network formed by a number of
stationary wireless mesh routers. These routers are connected wirelessly using a mesh- like
backbone structure. Some of the routers function as a wireless access point for clients
(e.g., laptops and smart devices with wireless access) to attach themselves to the network.
The clients transmit and receive data via the backbone mesh network. To connect to
external networks such as the Internet, one or more routers are connected to the wired
network and serve as gateways.
A wireless mesh network is made up of two or more wireless radios working
together to share routing protocols in order to create an interconnected RF pathway. A
wireless mesh network, no matter how many radios it includes, creates only a single name
identifier, or Single Set Identifier (SSID) and could also create a single IP address for the
entire mesh, clearly distinguishing the mesh from another wireless or mesh network.
Wireless mesh networking includes three types of topologies based on requirements and
LOS. Those three solutions are:
Point-to-point topology
Point-to-multipoint or multipoint-to-point topology
Multipoint-to-multipoint topology
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Although point-to-point and point-to-multipoint network topologies have been the

standard for fixed wireless deployments, mesh networking has overcome some
disadvantages in the traditional wireless topologies.
Point to Point (PtP)

Mesh radios can provide a simple point-to-point solution (much like a laptop radio
connecting to an AP for shared Internet access), creating a wireless backhaul between two
wired Ethernet locations or adding a security camera from a remote location with only
power available into the DVS. Point-to-point solutions offer an option for any location,
regardless of data connectivity.
A point-to-point network is simply a wireless network in which two radios, each
with high-gain antennas, directly communicate with each other to provide high-
performance, high-bandwidth dedicated connections. These links are quick to deploy
individually, but they do not easily scale to creating a large network.
Point to Multipoint (PtMP)
A point-to-multipoint network includes a number of wireless radios pointing to a
centralized uplink radio, with access to a fiber or Ethernet network. This type of network
is easier to deploy than a point-to-point one, simply by adding a new radio node to the
existing “spoke-and-wheel” topology. The new radio node obviously must be within the
signal range, with clear line of sight to the uplink base station. Trees, buildings, poles, and
other LOS obstructions make PtMP difficult within urban environments. A PtMP network
provides an uplink backhaul, high-speed connection to the wired network and onto the
VMS software and archives.
Before delving deeper into mesh networking, it is important to make clear that not
all mesh networking equipment is alike. The lack of a current standard has allowed a
plethora of individual, proprietary solutions to flourish, and the open experimentation has
created some failures as well as some outstanding products that add to the magic of
wireless.
Mesh Architecture
The primary benefit of a wireless mesh network is the extended bandwidth and
redundancy. A wireless mesh radio can communicate only with another wireless mesh
radios using similar protocols, such as SSID, end-to-end encryption, wireless encryption,
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etc., but mesh radios, although they may use Wi-Fi chipsets, do not function as wireless
APs and communicate only with other wireless mesh radios in that SSID and mesh ID
network. It provides added security at the physical layer, more so than even a wireless
camera or AP, which allows any client machine (smartphone, laptop, tablet, etc.) to
connect.
The way this works is that the mesh radios, which provide the same bandwidth as
802.11a/g radios, become RF extensions of a wired network, providing a link in and out
of an Ethernet network. The mesh radios are invisible to the end user, just another Layer
2 switch but without wires. As Figure 5.12 depicts, redundancy comes into play when the
signal between two radios is interrupted or corrupted or the radio loses power and themesh
network “self-heals” by redirecting the traffic through another radio in the “mesh.”
WMN general characteristics:

WMNs – can be seen as an extension of multi-hop Ad-Hoc networks; each node
can communicate directly or indirectly with one or more peer nodes.
WMN do not require centralized access points to mediate the wireless connection
WMN Multi-hop feature – increases the coverage area and link robustness of
existing Wi-Fi’s; ( if the correspondent nodes are not in the wireless transmission
range of each other)
WMNs wireless nodes: mobile or fixed
Basic types of nodes: mesh routers (MR) and mesh clients (MC), where MR –
establishes an infrastructure backbone for clients.
The WMN may be connected to: The Internet through gateway/routers other
networks through Gateways/Bridges.
Wi-MAX:
WiMAX is one of the hottest broadband wireless technologies around today.
WiMAX systems are expected to deliver broadband access services to residential and
enterprise customers in an economical way.
Loosely, WiMax is a standardized wireless version of Ethernet intended primarily
as an alternative to wire technologies (such as Cable Modems, DSL and T1/E1 links) to
provide broadband access to customer premises.
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More strictly, WiMAX is an industry trade organization formed by leading

communications, component, and equipment companies to promote and certify
compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless access equipment that conforms
to the IEEE 802.16 and ETSI HIPERMAN standards.
WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi, but at higher speeds over greater distances
and for a greater number of users. WiMAX has the ability to provide service even in areas
that are difficult for wired infrastructure to reach and the ability to overcome the physical
limitations of traditional wired infrastructure.
WiMAX was formed in April 2001, in anticipation of the publication of the original
10-66 GHz IEEE 802.16 specifications. WiMAX is to 802.16 as the WiFi Alliance is to
802.11.
The ‘World Interoperability for Micro Access, Inc. (WiMAX)’ forum, an
industry group, focuses on creating advanced technology solution for high speed
wide area internet access.
The WiMAX product certification program ensures interoperability between
WiMAX equipment from vendors worldwide.
WiMAX can serve as a backbone for 802.11 hotspots for connecting to the internet.
Alternatively, users can connect mobile devices such as laptops and handsets
directly to WiMAX base stations. Mobile devices connected directly can achieve
a range of 4 to 6 miles.
There are 2 types of WiMAX, fixed WiMAX (IEEE 802.16d-2004) and mobile
WiMAX (IEEE802.16e-2005). Fixed WiMAX is a point-to-multipoint technology,
whereas mobile WiMAX is a multipoint-to-multipoint technology, similar to that
of a cellular infrastructure.
Some of the salient features supported by WiMAX are:

i. High data rates:
WiMAX can typically support data rates from 500 Kbps to 2 Mbps. - The inclusion
of multi-input multi-output(MIMO) antenna techniques along with flexible sub-
channelization schemes, advanced coding and modulation all enable mobile to
support peak downlink data rates of 63 Mbps per sector and peak uplink data rates
of up to 28 Mbps per sector in a 10 MHz channel.
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ii. Quality of service (QoS):

WiMAX has clearly defined QoS classes for applications with different
requirements such as VoIP, real time video streaming, file transfer and web traffic.
iii. Scalability:
Mobile WiMAX is designed to able to work in different channelization from 1.25
to 20 MHz to comply with varied world-wide requirements.
iv. Security:
There is support for diverse set of user credentials like SIM/USIM cards, smart
cards, digital certificates, username/password schemes.
All this is based on relevant ‘extensible authentication protocol (EAP)’ methods
for credential type.
v. Mobility:
Mobile WiMAX supports optimized handoff schemes with latencies less than
50ms to ensure that real time applications such as VoIP can be performed without
service degradation.
Flexible key management schemes assume that security is maintained during
handoff.
Spectrum Allocation for WiMAX:
i. The biggest spectrum segment for WiMAX is around 2.5GHz.
ii. The other bands are around 3.5HZ, 2.3/2.5GHz, or 5GHz, with 2.3/2.5GHz.
Other features:
iii. The mesh mode of WiMAX enables subscriber stations to relay traffic to one
another. Thus, a station that does not have line-of-sight with the base station can get
its traffic from another station.
iv. WiMAX technology can provide fast and cheap broadband access to markets that
lack infrastructure (fiber optics, copper wire), such as rural areas and unwired
countries. WiMAX can also be used in backup during disasters, which may lead
the wired networks to get broken down.
v. As mobile WiMAX is scalable in both radio access and network architecture, it
provides flexibility in network deployment options and service offerings.
vi. Mobile WiMAX based on 802.16e uses OFDMA in which carriers are divided
among users to form sub channels. The coding and modulation are adapted
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separately for each sub channel.

vii. SOFDMA is an enhancement of OFDMA that scale the number of subcarriers in a
channel with possible values of 128, 512, 1024, and 2048.
viii. 802.16e includes power-saving and sleep modes to extend battery life if mobile
devices.
ix. 802.16e also supports hard and soft handoff to provide users with seamless
connections as they move across coverage areas of adjacent cells.
Difference between Wi-Fi and WiMAX:

S.No Wi-Fi WiMAX
1. Wi-Fi technology is based on IEEE WiMAX technology is based on

802.11 standards. IEEE 802.16 standards.
2. 802.11a-OFDM,maximum 802.16-OFDM, maximum
rate=54Mbps.,802.11b- rate=50Mbps.,802.16e-OFDM,
DSSS,maximum maximum rate~30Mbps.
rate=11Mbps.,802.11g-
OFDM,maximum rate=54Mbps.
3. The stations gain access to media There is time slot for each station
based on CSMA/CA and back off and there is scheduling algorithm
algorithm schemes. used by base station.
4. Range is less than 100 meters. A kilometer non-line-of-sight,

more with line-of-sight.
5. Indoor Environment. Outdoor Environment.
6. No Quality of Service. Five Quality of service enforced

by base station.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic area such as cities or
districts. By interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic area,
information is easily disseminated throughout the network. Local libraries and
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government agencies often use a MAN to connect to citizens and private industries. It may
also connect MANs together within a larger area than LAN. The geographical limit of a
MAN may span a city.
In MAN, different LANs are connected through a local telephone exchange. Some of the
widely used protocols for MAN are RS-232, X.25, Frame Relay, Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), OC· 3 lines (1.55 Mbps),
ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) etc. These protocols are quite different
from those used for LANs.

Fig. 5.14.1 Structure of Metro politan Area Network
IR wireless (infrared wireless):

IR wireless is the use of wireless technology in devices or systems that convey data through
infrared (IR) radiation. Infrared is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength or wavelengths
somewhat longer than those of red light. The shortest-wavelength IR borders visible red
in the spectrum; the longest-wavelength IR borders radio waves.
Some engineers consider IR technology to be a sub-specialty of optical technology. The
hardware is similar, and the two forms of energy behave in much the same way. But strictly
speaking, "optical" refers to visible electromagnetic radiation, while "infrared" is
invisible to the unaided eye. To compound the confusion, IR is sometimes called "infrared
light."
IR wireless is used for short- and medium-range communications and control. Some
systems operate in line-of-sight mode; this means that there must be a visually
unobstructed straight line through space between the transmitter (source) and receiver
(destination). Other systems operate in diffuse mode, also called scatter mode. This type
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of system can function when the source and destination are not directly visible to each
other. An example is a television remote-control box. The box does not have to be pointed
directly at the set, although the box must be in the same room as the set, or just outside the
room with the door open.
IR wireless technology is used in intrusion detectors; home-entertainment control units;
robot control systems; medium-range, line-of-sight laser communications; cordless
microphones, headsets, modems, and printers and other peripherals.
Unlike radio-frequency (RF) wireless links, IR wireless cannot pass-through walls.
Therefore, IR communications or control is generally not possible between different rooms
in a house or between different houses in a neighborhood (unless they have facing
windows). This might seem like a disadvantage, but IR wireless is more private than RF
wireless. Some IR wireless schemes offer a level of security comparable to that of hard-
wired systems. It is difficult, for example, to eavesdrop on a well-engineered, line-of-
sight, IR laser communications link.
RFID communication:
RFID technology is used to track and locate items using simple low cost RFID tags
that can be attached to goods or any other items. These tags are most widely seen in shops
where they help prevent shoplifting theft. However RFID is also used in many other areas
helping track items in production environments, provide asset tracking in warehouses and
also it can be used in very many other areas including vehicle management and a host of
other areas.
As a result, RFID technology is now an indispensable tool for many areas of business,
providing a low cost effective solution to many inventory management and tracking
requirements.
Development of RFID
RFID can trace its history back the work of many researchers in a number of
different organisations in the 1970s. In one development a US patent was granted for an
active RFID tag with a rewritable memory in January 1973.
RFID technology overview
RFID technology provides many benefits for organisations to use the system. RFID
provide an easy way in which data can be collected and assets tracked:
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RFID technology provides a low cost form of data collection and asset
management.
RFID technology is widely used and therefore the economies of scale can be
utilised to advantage.
RFID technology enables data collection in environments that are unsuitable for
workers as RFID tags can provide data in harsh environments.
RFID is able to provide many reads and write functions per second, although it is
not a very high data rate system, it is sufficient for most data monitoring
applications.
Data on an RFID tag can be altered repeatedly.
RFID technology can be used with existing systems including bar codes and Wi-
Fi
As a result, RFID technology is being used increasingly as organisations need automatic
methods of tracking assets and collecting data.
RFID applications:
RFID systems can be used in a variety of ways. There are many RFID applications which
have gained popularity over the past years:
Store product identification - RFID technology can be used within shops and stores
as a form of alert for goods that have / have not been paid for.
Asset tracking - RFID systems can monitor when RFID tags pass given points and
in this way track the assets.
Airline baggage identification - airlines need to monitor where baggage is and
route it to the required destination. RFID tags can be attached to the bags to
automate baggage routing
Parts identification - Data can be written to an RFID tags defining the identity of
a part. This can then be used within a manufacturing, stock holding or other process
to identify and locate parts.
Production control - when items are manufactured they pass through many stages.
RFID tags can be attached to items. These can be updated each time the item passes
through a stage in production. This will enable the manufacturing system to track
all items and know what stage they are at, and any other information such as test
failures, etc.
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Employee access control - many companies today require intelligent access control
systems. RFID technology is able to provide control as well as tracking, noting
when cards pass particular access points, etc.
Supply chain control - with manufacturing working to much tighter timescales with
items such as Just-In-Time techniques being involved tracking of the items in a
supply chain becomes more critical. RFID tags can be added to items to enable this
to be undertaken accurately and more quickly.
Vehicle tracking - RFID technologycan be used to determine when vehicles have
passed particular points and in this way their location can be approximately
determined.
Livestock identification - RFID tags can be injected into animals, under the skin
and this enables accurate determination of which animal is which so that injections,
etc can be given to the correct animal.
RFID technology - Basics:

RFID technology is a simple method of exchanging data between two entities
namely a reader/ writer and a tag. This communication allows information about the tag
or the element carrying the tag to be determined and in this way it enables processes to be
managed more easily.
An RFID system comprises a number of elements:
RFID reader / writer: The reader write is used to communicate with the tags that
may pass within range. The RFID reader writer will normally be located in a fixed
position and will be used to interrogate an RFID tag. Dependent upon the
application and the format of the system and the RFID reader / writer, data may
also be written to the RFID tag
RFID tag: RFID tags may also be called RFID transponders and are typically
located on items that are mobile. They are small and generally cheap so that they
can be attached to low cost (or high cost) items that need to have information
associated with them. They are also generally considered as being disposable. The
RFID tag contains data that is relayed to the reader, and in some systems it may
also be possible to update the data within the tag to indicate that the tag and hence
the item has undergone a specific stage in a process, etc.
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RFID application software: Like all systems these days, RFID systems need
application software to run the overall system. With many systems there will be a
number of different reader / writers and the data to and from these needs to be
coordinated and analysed. Application software will be required for these.
Although each RFID system will vary according to its requirements, these are the
main elements which can be found.
RFID, radio frequency identification technology is used in a huge number of areas
and it has become a real industry standard for many applications where asset tracking and
location is required. It use has taken off in shops and retail outlets, but this is only a small
part of its use. Being low cost, simple and easy to use, it has quietly become a real success.
RFID = Radio Frequency Identification.
RFID system components.
Fig. 5.15.1.1 Block diagram RFID communication
RFID Tags:
Tags can be attached to almost anything:
Items, cases or pallets of products, high value goods
vehicles, assets, livestock or personnel
Passive Tags:
Do not require power – Draws from Interrogator Field
Lower storage capacities (few bits to 1 KB)
Shorter read ranges (4 inches to 15 feet)
Usually Write Once Read Many/Read Only tags
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Cost around 25 cents to few dollars

Active Tags:
Battery powered
Higher storage capacities (512 KB)
Longer read range (300 feet)
Typically can be rewritten by RF Interrogators
Cost around 50 to 250 dollars
Fig.5.15.1.2 Block diagram of RFID tag
RFID tag memory:
Read only tags

Tag ID is assigned at the factory d9uring manufacturing
• Can never be changed
• No additional data can be assigned to the tag
+
Write once, read many (WORM) tags
Data written once, e.g., during packing or manufacturing
Tag is locked once data is written
Similar to a compact disc or DVD
Read/Write
Tag data can be changed over time
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• Part or all of the data section can be locked
RFID readers:
Reader functions:
Remotely power tags
Establish a bidirectional data link
Inventory tags, filter results
Communicate with networked server(s)
Can read 100300 tags per second
Readers (interrogators) can be at a fixed point such as
o Entrance/exit
o Point of sale
RFID Features:
The following are the key features of RFID:
i. No line-of-sight: To read or write RFID tags doesn’t require line of sight.
ii. Robust: Because RFID systems do not need to be visible, they can be encased
within rugged material protecting them from the environment in which they are
being used. This means they can be used in harsh fluid and chemical environments
and rough handling situations.
iii. Read speed: Tags can be read from significant distances and can also be read very
quickly - for example, on a conveyor.
iv. Reading multiple items: A number of tagged items can be read at the same time
within an RF field. This cannot be done easily with visual identifiers.
v. Security: Because tags can be enclosed, they are much more difficult to tamper
with. A number of tag types now also come programmed with a unique identifier
(serial identification) which is guaranteed to be unique throughout the world.
vi. Programmability: Many tags are read/write capable, rather than read only. This
means that information can be written to the tag.
IEEE 802.11.3a-ultra wide Band (UWB):
Ultra-wideband (UWB), a 132-year-old communication, is now being revitalized
for wirelessly connecting devices over short distances. Many industry observers claim
UWB could prove more successful than Bluetooth because it has superior speed, is
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cheaper, uses less power, is more secure, and provides superior location discovery and
device ranging.
Ultra-wideband (UWB) is a short-range wireless communication protocol—like
Wi-Fi or Bluetooth—uses radio waves of short pulses over a spectrum of frequencies
ranging from 3.1 to 10.5 GHz in unlicensed applications.
The term UWB is used for a bandwidth (BW) that is larger or equal to 500 MHz or a
fractional bandwidth (FBW) greater than 20% where FBW = BW/fc, where fc is the
center frequency.
History of UWB:
The history of UWB technology dates back to the time of the first man-made radio
when Marconi used spark-gap (short electrical pulses) transmitters for wireless
communication.
In 1920, UWB signals were banned from commercial use. UWB technology was
restricted to defense applications under highly classified programs for secure
communication. It was not until 1992 that UWB started receiving noticeable attention in
the scientific community.
Developments in high-speed microprocessors and fast switching techniques have
made UWB commercially viable for short-range, low-cost communication. Early
applications include radar systems, communication, consumer electronics,wireless
personal area networks, localization, and medical electronics. Since that time, detailed
knowledge of UWB electromagnetics, components, and system engineering have been
developed.
In 2002, the US Federal Communication Commission (FCC) was the first
organization worldwide to release UWB regulations allowing the unlicensed use of the
allocated spectrum. However, the allowable power limit was set very low to avoid
interference with other technologies that operate in this frequency band such as WiFi,
Bluetooth, etc.
The Advantages of Ultra-Wideband Technology:

The very wide bandwidth of UWB signals enables superior indoor performance
over traditional narrow-band systems.
Some of this bandwidth's features are highlighted below:
The wide bandwidth provides immunity against the channel effect in a dense
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environment and enables very fine time-space resolutions for highly accurate indoor
positioning of the UWB nodes, e.g., the new iPhone 11.
The low spectral density, below environmental noise, ensures a low probability of
signal detection and increases the security of communication.
High data rates can be transmitted over a short distance using UWB.
UWB systems can co-exist with already-deployed narrowband systems.
UWB Transmission:
Two different approaches are adopted for data transmission:
Ultra-short pulses in the picosecond range, which covers all frequencies simultaneously

(also called impulse radios)
Subdividing the total UWB bandwidth into a set of broadband Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) channels
The first approach is cost-effective at the expense of degraded signal to noise ratio.
In general, impulse radio transmission does not require the use of a carrier, which means
reduced complexity compared to traditional narrowband transceivers (i.e., simpler
transceiver architecture) as the signal is directly radiated via the UWB antenna. Gaussian
monocycle or one of its derivatives is an example of a UWB pulse that's easy to generate.
The second approach exploits the spectrum more efficiently and offers better performance
and data throughput at the expense of increased complexity (i.e., requires signal
processing), and power consumption.
The choice between the two approaches depends on the applications.
i. Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) devices transmit over small distances.
Hence, the loss in signal propagation is small.
ii. Greater capacity can be achieved through greater bandwidth. The use of ultra wide
bandwidth (UWB) under FCC guidelines offers tremendous capacity potential over
short ranges (<10m).
iii. For UWB, the power radiated must be low however. The mean effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP) should be -41.3dBm/MHz.
iv. The FCC defines UWB signals as having a fractional bandwidth of greater than
0.2 (i.e. bandwidth greater than 500 MHz).
v. UWB bandwidth is defined as frequency band bounded by the points that are 10dB
below highest radiated emission.
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vi. The FCC ruling allows UWB communication devices to operate in an unlicensed
spectrum from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz.
vii. The IEEE 802.15.3a has set out to develop a flexible standard which enables high
data WPAN (110mbps at 10m, 200mbps at 4m, 480 mbps at 2m) using a cost
effective architecture.
The standard enables a broad range of applications including wireless transmission
of images and video.
viii. The IEEE 802.15.a focuses on physical layer for UWB technology and uses some
MAC sub layer as IEEE 802.15.3.
There are two options for UWB channel utilization: ‘orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM)’ based multiband approach and a dual band impulse
radio (IR) spread spectrum approach.
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Short Answer Questions and Answers

UNIT-1
What is amplitude modulation?
Ans: The process of amplitude modulation consists of varying the peak amplitude of a sinusoidal
carrier wave in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal.
What are the main components needed for a communication?
Ans: Sender, Transmission line and Receiver.
What is Radio communication?
Ans: Radio communication uses electrical energy to transmit information. Radio transmitter
converts audio (sound) signals to electrical signals that are sent over wires or through space. A
radio receiver converts the electromagnetic waves so that the information can be found out.
Range of Audio Frequency?
Ans: 20Hz to 20 KHz
Range of Radio Frequency?
Ans: 10 KHz to 1000GHz.
What is modulation?
Ans: Modulation is the process of changing the characteristics of the carrier signal with respect
to that of the message signal.
What are the principle forms of modulation?
Ans: Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
What are the types of angle modulations?
Ans: FM and PM
What is a mixer?
Ans: An electronic circuit that combines two frequencies.
What is known as Bandwidth?
Ans: Bandwidth is the frequency range, in hertz (Hz), between the upper and lower frequency
limits.
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What is Harmonics?
Ans: Harmonics is the signals with frequencies that are an integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency.
What is the range of frequency in commercial AM broadcasting?
Ans: 540 KHz to 1600 KHz has a 10 KHz bandwidth.
Range of frequency in AM baseband?
Ans: 100KHZ to 5 KHz.
What is baseband?
Ans: It is a band of frequencies occupied by a message signal.
What you mean by frequency translate?
Ans: It is the process of displaying the frequency contents of a signal to another place in the
frequency spectrum.
Modulation index?
Ans: Modulation index (m) is the ratio between the amplitude of the message signal to the
amplitude of the un modulated carrier signal.
What is percentage of modulation?
Ans: The modulation index (M) is expressed as a percentage.(%m)
Transmission efficiency?
Ans: It is the ratio of the total AM power to that of the sideband.
What is envelope detector?
Ans: A circuit containing a diode in series with an RC network, used to perform demodulation.
An envelope detector, which demodulates an AM signal
What is centre frequency?
Ans: Centre frequency is the frequency of the un modulated FM carrier signal.
What is frequency deviation?
Ans: Frequency deviation – the maximum frequency change between a modulated and un
modulated carrier signal.
What is discriminator?
Ans: Discriminator is a device that demodulates an FM signal.
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What is Quadrature?
Ans: Quadrature is the phase relationship between two equal frequency signals that are 90° out
of phase.
FM modulation index?
Ans: FM modulation index – the ratio of frequency deviation to the message signal frequency.
What is signal to noise ratio?
Ans: A signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of the magnitude of the signal to that of noise (often
expressed in decibels).
What is Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)?
Ans: Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) is shifting an analog signal’s frequency between two values
to represent the binary states high and low of a digital signal. A modem uses FSK to transmit
digital signals over analog telephone lines.
What is noise?
Ans: An unwanted signal that will disturb the transmission or processing of signals in
communication systems. Eg. Shot noise, Thermal noise.
What is modulation?
Ans: A process by which some characteristic of a carrier is varied in accordance with a

modulating wave (baseband signal).
There are, Amplitude modulation
Angle modulation (Phase modulation, Frequency modulation).
What is Transmission Bandwidth?
Ans: Transmission bandwidth of an AM wave,
For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM wave

equals fc + W, and the lowest frequency component equals fc – W.
The difference between these two frequencies defines the transmission

bandwidth BT for an AM wave.
Limitations of Amplitude Modulation?
Ans: Waste of power in the information-less “with-carrier” part.
Wasteful of power and bandwidth
What is Angle Modulation?
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Ans: The angle of the carrier is varied in accordance with the base band signal.
Commonly used angle modulation
Phase modulation (PM)
Frequency modulation (FM)
What is frequency translation?

Suppose that a signal is band limited to the frequency range extending from a frequency
f1 to a frequency f2. The process of frequency translation is one in which the original signal is
replaced with a new signal whose spectral range extends from f1‘ and f2‘ and which new signal
bears, in recoverable form the same information as was borne by the original signal.
Define depth of modulation.

It is defined as the ratio between message amplitude to that of carrier amplitude.
m=Em/Ec
What are the degrees of modulation?

Under modulation. m<1
Critical modulation m=1
Over modulation m>1
What is the need for modulation?
Needs for modulation:
Ease of transmission
Multiplexing
Reduced noise
Narrow bandwidth
Frequency assignment
Reduce the equipments limitations
What are the types of AM modulators?

There are two types of AM modulators. They are
Linear modulators
Non-linear modulators
Linear modulators are classified as follows
Transistor modulator
There are three types of transistor modulator.
Collector modulator
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Emitter modulator
Base modulator
Switching modulators
Non-linear modulators are classified as follows
Square law modulator
Product modulator
Balanced modulator
What is the difference between high level and low level modulation?
In high level modulation, the modulator amplifier operates at high power levels and
delivers power directly to the antenna. In low level modulation, the modulator amplifier performs
modulation at relatively low power levels. The modulated signal is then amplified to high power
level by class B power amplifier. The amplifier feeds power to antenna.
Define Detection (or) Demodulation.
Detection is the process of extracting modulating signal from the modulated carrier.
Different types of detectors are used for different types of modulations.
Define Amplitude Modulation.
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied according to
variations in amplitude of modulating signal.
The AM signal can be represented mathematically as, eAM = (Ec + Em sinωmt) sinωct
and the modulation index is given as,m = Em /EC (or) Vm/Vc
Define Demodulation.
Demodulation or detection is the process by which modulating voltage is recovered from the
modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation. The devices used for demodulation or
detection are called demodulators or detectors. For amplitude modulation, detectors or
demodulators are categorized as,
a) Square-law detectors
b) Envelope detectors
Define Multiplexing.
Multiplexing is defined as the process of transmitting several message signals
simultaneously over a single channel.
Define Frequency Division Multiplexing.
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Frequency division multiplexing is defined as many signals are transmitted

simultaneously with each signal occupying a different frequency slot within a common
bandwidth.
What is BW for AM wave?

The difference between these two extreme frequencies is equal to the bandwidth of the AM
wave.
Therefore, Bandwidth, B = (fc + fm) - (fc - fm) B = 2fm
What do you understand by narrowband FM?

When the modulation index is less than 1, the angle modulated systems are called low index. The
bandwidth requirement of low index systems is approximately twice of the modulating.
Define frequency modulation.

Frequency modulation is defined as the process by which the frequency of the carrier wave is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating or message signal.
Define modulation index of frequency modulation.

It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the modulating
What do you meant by multi tone modulation?

Modulation done for the message signal with more than one frequency component is called multi
tone modulation.
Define phase modulation.

Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of the carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
What are the types of Frequency Modulation?

Based on the modulation index FM can be divided into types. They are Narrow band FM and
Wide band FM. If the modulation index is greater than one then it is wide band FM and if the
modulation index is less than one then it is Narrow band FM
What is the basic difference between an AM signal and a narrowband FM signal?

In the case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an AM signal and a
narrowband FM signal is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in the narrow band
FM is reversed.
What are the two methods of producing an FM wave?

Basically there are two methods of producing an FM wave. They are,
i) Direct method: In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose frequency varies as
function of the modulating source. It is used for the generation of NBFM
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ii) Indirect method: In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose phase is a function
of the modulation. Normally it is used for the generation of WBFM where WBFM is generated
from NBFM.
Compare WBFM and NBFM.
Give the average power of an FM signal.

The amplitude of the frequency modulated signal is constant .The power of the FM signal is
same as that of the carrier power.
Define phase deviation.

The maximum phase deviation of the total angle from the carrier angle is called phase
deviation.
Define frequency Deviation.

The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency is called
frequency deviation.
State the Carson‘s rule.

An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM Signal generat ed by a single
tone-modulating signal of frequency f m (max) is defined as
∴ BW=2[δ + fm(max)]
What are the disadvantages of FM system?

1. A much wider channel is required by FM.
2. FM transmitting and receiving equipments tend to be more complex and hence it is expensive.
What are the types of FM detectors?

The types of FM detectors are
(i) Slope detector and (ii) Phase discriminator.
Differentiate phase and frequency modulation.
Phase Modulation:
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Phase of the carrier varies as per amplitude variations of modulating signal.

Instantaneous phase deviation, (t ) = k em (t )
Modulation index = k Em
Frequency Modulation:
Frequency of the carrier varies as per amplitude variations of modulating signals.
Instantaneous frequency deviation, ∆ (t ) = k em (t )
Modulation index = k Em
What are the advantages of Analog Communications?

Transmitters and Receivers are simple
Low bandwidth requirement
FDM can be used
What are the disadvantages of analog communication?
Noise affects the signal quality
It is not possible to separate noise and signal
Repeaters can‘t be used between transmitters and receivers
Coding is not possible
It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information
UNIT-2
What are the types of Digital Modulation Techniques? Explain.
Ans. basically, digital modulation techniques may be classified into coherent or non-coherent
techniques, depending on whether the receiver is equipped with a phase-recovery circuit or not.
The phase-recovery circuit ensures that the oscillator supplying the locally generated carrier wave
to the receiver is synchronized to the oscillator supplying the carrier wave used tooriginally
modulate the incoming data stream in the transmitter.
(i) Coherent Digital Modulation Techniques
Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent detection.
In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier
at the transmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and locally
generated carrier. The coherent detection is a synchronous detection.
(ii) Non-coherent Digital Modulation Techniques
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Non-coherent Digital Modulation Techniques are those techniques in which the detection
process does not need receiver carrier to be phase locked with transmitter carrier.
The advantage of such type of system is that the system becomes simple. But the drawback of
such system is that the error probability increases.
State various continuous wave (CW) modulation systems.
Ans. ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, MSK, M-ary PSK etc.
Represent ASK mathematically.
Ans. VASK(t) = d(t) sin (2πfct) where d(t) = 1 or 0 .
State the bandwidth requirement of ASK system.
Ans. Maximum bandwidth Bmax = 2 fb Hz.
Why is PSK always preferable over ASK in coherent detection?

Ans. ASK is on-off signaling where as the modulated carrier is continuously transmitted in
PSK. Hence peak power requirement is more in ASK, where it is reduces in PSK.
Differentiate between coherent and non-coherent detection

Ans. In coherent detection the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the
carrier at the transmitter. Hence it is also called synchronous detection. In non coherent detection
the local carrier generated at the receiver not be phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter.
It is simple, but it has higher probability of error.
Define QPSK.
Ans. In QPSK two successive bits in the data sequence are grouped together. This
combination of two bits forms four distinct symbols. When the symbol is changed to next symbol
the phase of the carrier is changed by 450(or π/4).
Because of combination of two bits there will be four symbols. Hence the phase shift will
be π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 or 7π/4.
QPSK reduces amplitude variations and required transmission bandwidth.
Define Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Amplitude Shift Keying is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect
to the binary information or digital signal.
Define Phase Shift Keying (PSK).

Phase Shift Keying is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect to
the binary information or digital signal.
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Define Frequency Shift Keying (FSK).

Frequency Shift Keying is defined as changing the amplitude of the carrier signal with respect
to the binary information or digital signal.
What are the advantages of QPSK?

Very good noise immunity
Effective utilization of available bandwidth
Low error probability
Very high bit rate data transmission
UNIT-3
What is VoIP?
Ans: VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol or Voice over IP. VoIP technology makes
it possible to convert analog voice signal into digital data and transmits it over the Internet. (There
are more likely possible pronunciations, as well as vo-ipp, have been used, but generally, the
single syllable - voyp, as in voice - may be the most common within the industry.)
Why VoIP is better than traditional phone services?
Ans: Due to its cost efficiency, VoIP is more and more popular largely over traditional telephone
networks. VoIP cuts companies’ monthly phone bill by approximately fifty percent. In addition
to its cost efficiency, VoIP technology ensures many advanced features, like conference calling,
IVR, call forwarding, automatic redial, call recording, etc. without extra fees.
VoIP offers cheaper international long distance rates that are generally one-tenth of what is
charged by traditional phone companies. Due to its portability VoIP is a really good option to
avoid expensive hotel phone and cell phone roaming charges.
Only a high speed broadband connection (and a plugged adapter) is needed and anyone can reach
you at your local number - independently of your location. Most of the times in network calls to
other VoIP service subscribers are free even if the calling parties are located in differentparts of
the world.
By using Internet connection for both data traffic and voice calls, it is possible to get rid of one
monthly payment that are usually charged by most Internet service providers. In addition, the
Internet based voice and data transmission enables to avoid wireless roaming fees and long
distance rates.
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What are the advantages of VoIP?
Ans: In addition to its cost efficiency, the feature-rich services and the metaphorical
disappearance of geographical boundaries as that were mentioned above; VoIP has many other
benefits as follows:
VoIP technology enables to detect and process touch tones and DTMF responses
VoIP systems can be automated easily
VoIP systems allow to use more than one codec
VoIP provides rich media service as more file formats can be used with these systems
VoIP ensures a much more flexible system than hardware based solutions
Most VoIP service providers provide a user control interface, typically a web GUI, to their
customers
so that they can change features, options, and services dynamically. VoIP protocols run on
the application layer and are able to integrate or collaborate with other
Applications such as email, web browser, instant messenger, social-networking applications,

etc.
How does VoIP work?
Ans: VoIP is usually based on the SIP system that is the recognized standard. Any SIP compatible
device can talk to any other. Any SIP telephone can call another over the Internet - any additional
equipment is not needed for this. You only need to plug your SIP phone into the Internet
connection, configure it then dial the other person. You can also connect traditional analog phones
to your VoIP network – in this case and ATA device is needed.
In VoIP systems, your analog voice is converted into packets of data (as little files), and then
transmitted to the recipient through the Internet and decoded back into your voice at the other
end. To make it quicker, these packets are compressed before transmission, a bit like zipping a
file (it will be decompressed of course at the other party).
The advantages of converting analog signals into digital data can be summarized as follows:
Digital format can be better controlled as it can be compressed, routed, converted, etc. In addition,
digital signals are more noise tolerant than analog signals. Quality of Service (QoS) ensures real-
time errorless data streaming that allows interactive data voice exchange as well.
Is it possible to replace the current traditional corporate PBX with a VoIP one?
Ans: Definitely yes. VoIP is a very cost-effective option for those companies who want to
upgrade their old PBX systems and VoIP ensures new features that traditional PBX systems
simply do not. To change to a VoIP system, companies can buy an IP PBX, but it is also possible
to add some VoIP functionalities into an existing phone system.
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What kind of equipments do I need for creating a VoIP system?
Ans: Getting started with VoIP is fairly simple. Assuming that you already have the 2 most
important ingredients (a Windows PC or Mac computer and a broadband Internet connection),
all you need to get started is the following: Some telephone or messaging software
A microphone
Headphones or speakers
You can use a headset of course rather than a microphone and speaker to leave your hands free.
In order to choose which software to use, it is worth to consider the followings. Using
voice chat in GTalk or Yahoo Messenger could be regarded as VoIP, so could the highly
publicized Skype; but these are all proprietary systems. You can download them free of charge,
but to talk to someone using GTalk, the person at the other end also needs G-Talk.
The same applies to Yahoo and, to a great extent, to Skype. They use their own special
system that is not open and will not connect to other systems easily. So – especially for corporate
using – it is rather recommended to use such a softphone as Conter Path X-Lite witha SIP
enabled IP PBX or access to an Internet Service Provider.
What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security.
Performance of the network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium,
and the capabilities of the connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w.
Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from
the failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
Group the OSI layers by function?

The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups.
Physical, data link and network layers are the network support layers; they deal with the
physical aspects of moving data from one device to another.
Session, presentation and application layers are the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission.
What are header and trailers and how do they get added and removed?
Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. This
information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are added to the message at the
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layers 6,5,4,3, and 2. A trailer is added at layer2. At the receiving machine, the headers or trailers
attached to the data unit at the corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions appropriate
to that layer are taken.
What are the features provided by layering?

Two nice features:
· It decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable components.
· It provides a more modular design.
Why are protocols needed?

In networks, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two entities
cannot just send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication, the
entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.
What are the two interfaces provided by protocols?

· Service interface
· Peer interface
Service interface- defines the operations that local objects can perform on the protocol.
Peer interface- defines the form and meaning of messages exchanged between protocol peers to
implement the communication service.
Mention the different physical media?

· Twisted pair (the wire that your phone connects to)
· Coaxial cable (the wire that your TV connects to)
· Optical fiber (the medium most commonly used for high-bandwidth, long-distance links)
· Space (the stuff that radio waves, microwaves and infra red beams propagate through)
What are the responsibilities of data link layer?

Specific responsibilities of data link layer include the following. a) Framing b) Physical
addressing c) Flow control d) Error control e) Access control.
What are the ways to address the framing problem?

· Byte-Oriented Protocols (PPP)
· Bit-Oriented Protocols (HDLC)
· Clock-Based Framing (SONET)
What are the functions of MAC?
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MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains synchronization, flag,
flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to another,
as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet.
What are the functions of LLC?

The IEEE project 802 models take the structure of an HDLC frame and divides it into 2 sets of
functions. One set contains the end user portion of the HDLC frame – the logical address, control
information, and data. These functions are handled by the IEEE 802.2 logical link control (LLC)
protocol.
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a multiple-access network, meaning that a set of nodes send and receive frames over
a shared link.
Define the term carrier sense in CSMA/CD?

All the nodes can distinguish between idle and a busy-link and “collision detect” means that a
node listens as it transmits and can therefore detect when a frame it is transmitting has interfered
(collided) with a frame transmitted by another node.
Define Repeater?
A repeater is a device that forwards digital signals, much like an amplifier forwards analog
signals. However, no more than four repeaters may be positioned between any pairs of hosts,
meaning that an Ethernet has a total reach of only 2,500m.
Define collision detection?

In Ethernet, all these hosts are competing for access to the same link, and as a consequence, they
are said to be in the same collision detection.
Why Ethernet is said to be an I-persistent protocol?

An adaptor with a frame to send transmits with probability ‘1 ‘whenever a busy line goes idle.
What are the functions of MAC?

MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains synchronization, flag,
flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to another,
as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet.
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a multiple-access network, meaning that a set of nodes send and receive frames over
a shared link.
Define the term carrier sense in CSMA/CD?
All the nodes can distinguish between idle and a busy-link and “collision detect” means that a
node listens as it transmits and can therefore detect when a frame it is transmitting has interfered
(collided) with a frame transmitted by another node.
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Define Repeater?
A repeater is a device that forwards digital signals, much like an amplifier forwards analog
signals. However, no more than four repeaters may be positioned between any pairs of hosts,
meaning that an Ethernet has a total reach of only 2,500m.
Define collision detection?

In Ethernet, all these hosts are competing for access to the same link, and as a consequence, they
are said to be in the same collision detection.
Why Ethernet is said to be an I-persistent protocol?

An adaptor with a frame to send transmits with probability ‘1 ‘whenever a busy line goes idle.
Unit-4
What is Satellite?
An artificial body that is projected from earth to orbit either earth (or) another body of solar
systems. Types: Information satellites and Communication Satellites
Define Satellite Communication.
It is defined as the use of orbiting satellites to receive, amplify and retransmit data to earth
stations.
State Kepler’s first law.
It states that the path followed by the satellite around the primary will be an ellipse. An ellipse
has two focal points F1 and F2. The center of mass of the two body system, termed the bary
center is always centered on one of the foci.
e = [square root of (a2 – b2 ) ] / a
State Kepler’s second law.
It states that for equal time intervals, the satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane,
focused at the barycenter.
State Kepler’s third law.
It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is perpendicular to the cube of the mean
distance between the two bodies. a 3= 3 / n2 2 Where, n = Mean motion of the satellite in
rad/sec. 3 = Earth’s geocentric gravitational constant. With the n in radians per sec. the orbital
period in second is given by, P = 2 / n
Define apogee.
The point farthest from the earth.
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Define Perigee.
The point closest from the earth.
What is line of apsides?
The line joining the perigee and apogee through the center of the earth.
Define ascending node.
The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north.
Define descending node.
The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south.
Define Inclination.
The angle between the orbital plane and the earth’s equatorial plane. It is measured at the
ascending node from the equator to the orbit going from east to north.
Define mean anomaly.
It gives an average value of the angular position of the satellite with reference to the perigee.
Define true anomaly.
It is the angle from perigee to the satellite position, measured at the earth’s center.
What is meant by azimuth angle?
It is defined as the angle produced by intersection of local horizontal plane and the plane
passing through the earth station, the satellite and center of earth.
Give the 3 different types of applications with respect to satellite systems.
• The largest international system (Intelsat)
• The domestic satellite system (Dom sat) in U.S.
• U.S. National oceanographic and atmospheric administration’s (NOAA)
Mention the 3 regions to allocate the frequency for satellite services.
• Region1: It covers Europe, Africa and Mongolia
• Region2: It covers North & South America and Greenland.
• Region3: It covers Asia, Australia and South West Pacific.
Give the types of satellite services.
• Fixed satellite service
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• Broadcasting satellite service
• Mobile satellite service
• Navigational satellite services
• Meteorological satellite services
Define Mode-field diameter.
The fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber is the mode-field diameter. This can be
determined from the mode field distribution of the fundamental LPo1 mode.
What is Snell’s law?
The relationship at the interface is known as Snell’s law and is given by
n1sinΦ1=n2 sinΦ2
What is the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber?
a) To provide proper light guidance inside the core
b) To avoid leakage of light from the fiber
c) To avoid mechanical strength for the fiber
d) To protect the core from scratches and other mechanical damages
What are the uses of optical fibers?
a) To transmit the information which are in the form of coded signals of the telephone
communication, computer data, etc.
b) To transmit the optical images (Example: Endoscopy)
c) To act as a light source at the inaccessible places.
d) To act as sensors to do mechanical, electrical and magnetic measurements.
What is the principle used in the working of fibers as light guides?
The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used to guide the light in the optical fiber.
To get total internal reflection, the ray should travel from denser to rarer i.e. from core to clad
region of the fiber and the angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the
critical angle of that medium.
What are step index and graded index fibers?
In the case of graded index fiber, the refractive index of a core is a constant and is larger
than the refractive index of the cladding. The light propagation is mainly by meridional rays. In
the case of graded index fiber (GRIN fiber) the refractive index of the core varies parabolically
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from the center of the core having maximum refractive index to the core-cladding interface
having constant minimum refractive index. Here the light propagation is by skew rays.
Why do we prefer step index single mode fiber for long distance communication?
Step index single mode fiber has
a) Low attenuation due to smaller core diameter
b) Higher bandwidth and
c) Very low dispersion.
Define relative refractive index difference.
Thus relative refractive index difference is the ratio between the refractive index difference (of
core and cladding) and refractive index of core.
What are meridional rays?
Meridional rays are the rays following Zig Zag path when they travel through fiber and for
every reflection it will cross the fiber axis.
What are skew rays?
Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis when they travel
through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any time.
What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
a) Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
b) The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle of the denser medium.
Give the relation between numerical aperture of skew rays and meridional rays.
(N.A) skew = cosγ(N.A)meridional when the fiber is placed in air. Here γ is the half of the
angular change in every reflection.
Define cutoff wavelength of the fiber.
The cutoff wavelength is defined as the minimum value of wavelength that can be
transmitted through the fiber. The wavelengths greater than the cutoff wavelength can be
transmitted.
λ cutoff = 2∏a (N.A) / V
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Mention the rule distinguishing ‘mode’ and ‘order’.
The rule states that the smaller the modes propagating angle, the lower the order of the
mode. Hus the mode traveling precisely along the fiber’s central axis is zero mode.
What is fiber birefringence?
Imperfections in the fiber are common such as asymmetrical lateral stress, non-circular
imperfect variations of refractive index profile. These imperfections break the circular
symmetry of ideal fiber and mode propagate with different phase velocity and the difference
between their refractive index is called fiber birefringence.
B=ko (ny-nx)
UNIT-5
What is meant by frequency reuse?
If an area is served by a single Base Station, then the available spectrum can be divided into
N frequency channels that can serve N users simultaneously. If more than N users are
to be served, multiple BSs are required, and frequency channels have to be reused in different
locations. Since spectrum is limited, the same spectrum has to be used for different wireless
connections in different locations. This method of reusing the frequency is called as frequency
reuse.
What are the trends in cellular radio systems?
The trends in personal cellular radio systems are:
i. PCS – Personal Communication Services
ii.PCN – Personal Communication Networks
What do you mean by forward and reverse channel?
Forward channel is a radio channel used for transmission of information from base station to
mobile. Reverse channel is a radio channel used for transmission from mobile to base station.
What is the function of control channel? What are the types?
The function of control channel is to transmit call setup, call request, call initiation and Control.
There are two types of control channels,
i. Forward control channel

ii. Reverse control channel
What is channel assignment? What are the types?
Page 183
For efficient utilization of radio spectrum a frequency reuse scheme with increasing capacity and
minimizing interference is required. For this channel assignment is used. The types of channel
assignment are.
i. Fixed channel assignment
ii. Dynamic channel assignment.
What is fixed channel assignment?
If the channels in each cell are allocated to the users within the cell, it will be called as fixed
channel assignment. If all channels are occupied, the call will be blocked.
What is dynamic channel assignment?
If the voice channels are not allocated permanently in a cell, it will be called as dynamic
channel assignment. In this assignment, channels are dynamically allocated to users by the
MSC.
What is infrared (IR) transmission?
Infrared light transmission is one of the important technologies used in wireless LAN. It is
based on the transmission of infrared light at 900 nm wavelength.
What is the principle behind infrared technology?
Infrared technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls, furniture etc. Or directed light when
line of sight (LOS) exists between sender and receiver.
What are the advantages of infrared technology?
Shielding is easy and no need for license for infrared technology. Electrical devices do not
interfere with infrared transmission.
What are the disadvantages of infrared transmission?
Low bandwidth cannot penetrate through walls or other obstacles.
Define – Spread Spectrum
Spread spectrum involves spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit data. The main
advantage of using spread spectrum is the resistance to narrow interference.
What are the spread spectrum techniques?
There are two basic methods for spread spectrum transmissions. Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
What are the major issues in WLAN?
Two major issues in WLAN are as follows Hidden station problem Exposed station problem
Page 184
List out the applications of WLAN.
Transfer of medical images Remote access to patient records Remote monitoring of patients
Remote diagnosis of patients at home or in an ambulance In telemedicine Surveillance Internet
supporting database.
What is IEEE 802.11?
The IEEE 802.11 is the first WLAN standard that has secured the market in large extent. The
primary goal of the standard was the specification of a simple and robust that offers time
bounded and asynchronous services.
What is the advantage of Piconet /Scatternet?
The advantage of the Piconet / Scatternet scheme is that it allows many devices to share the
same physical area and make efficient use of bandwidth.
What are the states of Bluetooth?
Bluetooth specifies four states; they are Master-M, Slave- S, Standby- SB, Parked- P
List the two major states in the operation of Bluetooth.
The major states in the operation of Bluetooth are Standby state Connection state
What is Piconet and Scatternet?
Bluetooth specification defines a small cell called as Piconet which has up to 8 devices
grouped together. Two or more piconets grouped together know as Scatternet.
What type of modulation used in Bluetooth?
Bluetooth uses Gaussian-shaped Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK) modulation with a nominal
modulation index of K = 0.3
What is the data rate of Bluetooth?
The maximum data rate is 721Mbps for asymmetric mode.
What is the need for WIMAX?

The main reason for the development of WIMAX( World Interoperability Microwave
Access ) is the demand of high data rates not only the faster downloading
Page 185
Multiple Choice Questions with Answers
UNIT-1 & 2
1. In an Amplitude Modulation
a. Amplitude of the carrier varies
b. Frequency of the carrier remains constant
c. Phase of the carrier remains constant
d. All of the above
ANSWER: (d) All of the above
2. What is the maximum transmission efficiency of an AM signal?

a. 64.44%
b. 33.33%
c. 56.66%
d. 75.55%
ANSWER: (b) 33.33%
3. AM demodulation techniques are

a. Square law demodulator
b. Envelope detector
c. PLL detector
d. Both a and b are correct
ANSWER: (d) Both a and b are correct
4. If modulation index is greater than 1

a. The baseband signal is not preserved in the envelope of the AM signal
b. The recovered signal is distorted
c. It is called over modulation
d. All of the above
5. Examples of low level modulation are

a. Square law diode modulation
b. Switching modulation
c. Frequency discrimination method
d. Both a and b
ANSWER: (d) Both a and b
6. Frequency components of an AM wave (m = modulation index) are

a. Carrier frequency (ωc ) with amplitude A
b. Upper side band (ωc + ωm) having amplitude mA/2
c. Lower side band (ωc – ωm) having amplitude mA/2
d. All of the above
7. Example of continuous wave analog modulation is
Page 186
a. PCM
b. DM
c. AM
d. PAM
ANSWER: (c) AM
8. In Frequency Modulation –
a. Amplitude of the carrier remains same
b. Frequency of the carrier varies in accordance with the modulating signal
c. The number of side bands are infinite
d. All of the above
9. Frequency deviation in FM is
a. Change in carrier frequency to the frequency above and below the centre frequency
b. Formation of side bands
c. The variation of the instantaneous carrier frequency in proportion to the modulating signal
d. All of the above
10. The amount of frequency deviation in FM signal depends on

a. Amplitude of the modulating signal
b. Carrier frequency
c. Modulating frequency
d. Transmitter amplifier
ANSWER: ( a) Amplitude of the modulating signal
11. Drawbacks of using direct method for generation of FM signal are

a. Does not give high stability to FM signal frequency
b. Distorted FM signal is generated due to harmonics of modulating signal
c. Cannot be used for high power FM generation
d. Both a and b
ANSWER: (d) Both a and b
12. Disadvantages of FM over AM are

a. Prone to selective fading
b. Capture effect
c. Poorer signal to noise ratio at high audio frequencies
d. All of the above
13. According to Carson’s rule, Bandwidth B and modulating frequency fm are related
as
a. B = 2(Δf + fm) Hz
b. B = fm Hz
c. B < 2fm Hz
d. B > 2fm Hz
ANSWER: (a) B = 2(Δf + fm) Hz
14. What is the maximum frequency deviation allowed in commercial FM
broadcasting?
Page 187
a. 100 KHz
b. 75 KHz
c. 15 KHz
d. 120 KHz
ANSWER: (b) 75 KHz
15. What is the maximum modulating frequency allowed in commercial FM

broadcastings?
a. 40 KHz
b. 75 KHz
c. 15 KHz
d. 120 KHz
ANSWER: (c) 15 KHz
16. The ratio of actual frequency deviation to the maximum allowable frequency
deviation is called
a. Multi tone modulation
b. Percentage modulation
c. Phase deviation
d. Modulation index
ANSWER: (b) Percentage modulation
17. The range of modulating frequency for Narrow Band FM is

a. 30 Hz to 15 KHz
b. 30 Hz to 30 KHz
c. 30 Hz to 3 KHz
d. 3 KHz to 30 KHz
ANSWER: (c) 30 Hz to 3 KHz
18. Which FSK has no phase discontinuity?
a) Continuous FSK
b) Discrete FSK
c) Uniform FSK
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a
19. In non coherent reception is measured.
a) Phase
b) Energy
c) Power
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
UNIT-3
1. BSS stands for
A. Basic Signal Set

B. Basic Service Set
C. Beacon Service Set
D. Basic Strong Set Ans: (B)
Page 188
2. A Piconet network can have up to
A. 9 Station
B. 8 Station
C. 7 Station
D. 6 Station Ans: (B)
3. Multiple piconets form a network called a
A. small area
B. scatter net
C. network allocation vector
D. gadgets Ans: (B)
4. The field of the MAC frame that alerts the receiver and enables it to synchronize is known as
A. SFD
B. preamble
C. source address
D. destination address
5. The maximum length of 1000BaseSX is
A. 550 m
B. 25 m
C. 100 m
D. 5000 m
6. In 10Base2, the cable is
A. Thick
B. Thin
C. Twisted Pair
D. None of the above
7. Preamble contains
A. 6 Bytes
B. 4 Bytes
C. 2 Bytes
D. 7 Bytes
8. The maximum length of optical fiber in 10BaseF is
A. 100 meter
Page 189
B. 185 meters
C. 500 meter
D. 2000 meter
9. A destination address can be
A. Unicast
B. multicast
C. broadcast
D. all of the above
10. In Ethernet frame, both destination and sender addresses are of length
A. 1 Byte
B. 2 Bytes
C. 4 Bytes
D. 6 Bytes
UNIT-4
1. A television (TV) transmission is an example of which type of transmission?
a) Simplex b) Half duplex c) Full duplex d) None of the above
2. INTELSAT stands?
a) International Telecommunications Satellite
b) India Telecommunications Satellite
c) Inter Telecommunications Satellite
d) None of the above
3. Kepler’s first law states?
a) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an ellipse.
b) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an circle.
c) The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an sphere
4. For an elliptical orbit?
a) 0 <e< 1.
b) e=0
Page 190
c) e= 1
5. Kepler’s second law states?
a) If t2-t1=t4-t3, then A12=A34.
b) If t2+t1 = t4+t3, then A12=A34.
c) If t2/t1=t4/t3, then A12=A34.
6. Apogee?
a) The point farthest from earth
b) The point nearest from earth
c) The point smallest from earth
7. Perigee?
a) The point farthest from earth
b) The point longest from earth
c) The point closest approach to earth
8. Ascending node?
a) The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north
9. Argument of perigee?
a) The angle from ascending node to perigee, measured in the orbital plane at the earth’s
center, in the direction of satellite motion.
10. True anomaly?

a) The true anomaly is the angle from perigee to the satellite position, measured at the
earth’s center.
11. The down link frequency in the C band transponder is

(A) 6 GHz (B) 4 GHz (C) 14 GHz (D) 11 GHz
12. The carrier to noise ratio for a satellite depends upon

(A) Effective Isotropic Radiated power
Page 191
(B) Bandwidth.
(C) Free space path losses
(D) All of them
13. The multiple access technique suitable only for digital transmission is (A) TDMA
(B)FDMA (C)Both (A)and (B) (D)Packet Access
14. What is application of satellite systems?

a) whether forecasting
b) Terrestrial communication
c) point to point communication
15. Mention the different services of satellite systems.

a) Broadcasting satellite services
b) Signal transmission
c) Information transmission
16. Define Polar-orbiting Satellites.

(a) Polar orbiting Satellites orbit the earth in such a way as to cover the north & south
Polar Regions.
b) Orbiting Satellites orbit the earth in such a way as to cover the east & west Polar Regions
c) Either (a) & (b)
17. What is meant by azimuth angle?

(a) It is defined as the angle produced by intersection of local horizontal plane & the plane
passing through the earth station, the satellite & center of earth.
(b) It is defined as the angle produced by intersection of local vertical plane & the plane
passing through the earth station, the satellite & center of earth.
(c) It is defined as the angle produced by intersection of local horizontal plane & center of
earth.
(d) None of above
18. In an optical fiber communication system, which among the following is not a typical
transmitter function?
a. Coding for error protection
b. Decoding of input data
c. Electrical to optical conversion
d. Recoding to match output standard
ANSWER: (d) Recoding to match output standard
19. In single-mode fibers, how does the fraction of energy traveling through bound mode
appear in the cladding?
a. As a crescent wave
b. As a gibbous wave
c. As an evanescent wave
d. All of the above
ANSWER: (c) As an evanescent wave
Page 192
20. What is the typical value of refractive index for an ethyl alcohol?
a. 1
b. 1.36
c. 2.6
d. 3.4
ANSWER:(b) 1.36
21. If a light travels in a certain medium and it gets reflected off an optically denser
medium with high refractive index, then it is regarded as
a. External Reflection
b. Internal Reflection
c. Both a and b
d. None of the above
ANSWER: (a) External Reflection
22. In an optical fiber, the concept of Numerical aperture is applicable in describing the
ability of
a. Light Collection
b. Light Scattering
c. Light Dispersion
d. Light Polarization
ANSWER: (a) Light Collection
23. During the design of FOC system, which among the following reasons is/are
responsible for an extrinsic absorption?
a. Atomic defects in the composition of glass
b. Impurity atoms in glass material
c. Basic constituent atoms of fiber material
d. All of the above
ANSWER: (b) Impurity atoms in glass material
24. Which among the following represent/s the measure/s to minimize the in
homogeneities for Mie scattering reduction?
a. Extrusion Control
b. Increase in relative R.I. difference
c. Removal of imperfections due to glass manufacturing process
d. All of the above
25. Which among the following is regarded as an inelastic scattering of a photon?

a. Kerr Effect
b. Raman Effect
c. Hall Effect
d. Miller Effect
ANSWER: (b) Raman Effect
26. Which kind/s of misalignment assist/s in the reduction of overlap region in fiber?
a. Angular
b. Longitudinal
c. Lateral
d. All of the above
ANSWER: (c) Lateral
Page 193
UNIT-5
1. An interconnected collection of Piconet is called
a) Scatternet
b) micro net
c) mininet
d) none of the mentioned
Answer: a
2. Bluetooth is the wireless technology for

a) local area network
b) personal area network
c) both (a) and (b)
Answer: b
3. Bluetooth uses
a) frequency hoping spread spectrum
b) orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
c) time division multiplexing
Answer: a
5. In the Piconet of Bluetooth one master device

a) cannot be slave
b) can be slave in another Piconet
c) can be slave in the same Piconet
Answer: b
6. Bluetooth transceiver devices operate in band.

a) 2.4 GHz ISM
b) 2.5 GHz ISM
c) 2.6 GHz ISM
d) 2.7 GHz ISM
Answer: a
7. WiMAX stands for

a) wireless maximum communication
b) worldwide interoperability for microwave access
c) worldwide international standard for microwave access
Page 194
Answer: b
8. WiMAX provides
a) simplex communication
b) half duplex communication
c) full duplex communication
Answer: c
9. Which one of the following modulation scheme is supported by WiMAX?

a) binary phase shift keying modulation
b) Quadrature phase shift keying modulation
c) Quadrature amplitude modulation
d) all of the mentioned
Answer: d
10. WiMAX is mostly used for

a) local area network
b) metropolitan area network
c) personal area network
Answer: b
11. Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
A. Satellite Word Station

B. Satellite System
C. Satellite Signal
D. Satellite Solution
12. Global Positioning Service (GPS) uses 24 satellites in
A. 9 Orbits
B. 8 Orbits
C. 7 Orbits
D. 6 Orbits
13. Global Positioning Service (GPS) is based on a principle called
A. Arbitration
B. Trilateration
C. Orbiteration
D. Globalization
Page 195
14. The trilateration of Global Positioning Service (GPS) means using
A. 7 Distance
B. 5 Distance
C. 3 Distance
D. 2 Distance
Page 196
Important Long Answer Questions
UNIT – I
1) What is the Need for Modulation?
2) Explain briefly about Frequency translation.

3) Explain in detail about Electromagnetic spectrum.
4) Define and explain about Gain, Attenuation and decibels.
UNIT – II
1) Explain briefly about Analog Modulation.
2) Define AM and explain its modulation and demodulation techniques.
3) Define FM and explain its modulation and demodulation techniques.
4) Explain briefly about Pulse Modulation
5) Define and explain about PAM modulation and demodulation
6) Define and explain about PWM modulation and demodulation
7) Define and explain about PCM modulation and demodulation
8) Explain briefly about Digital Modulation
9) Define and explain about ASK modulation and demodulation
10) Define and explain about FSK modulation and demodulation
11) Define and explain about PSK modulation and demodulation
12) Define and explain about QPSK modulation and demodulation
UNIT – III
1) Explain briefly about Telephones Telephone system
2) Explain about Paging systems
3) Explain about Internet Telephony
4) Explain about LAN hardware
5) Explain briefly about Ethernet LANs
6) Explain about Token Ring LAN.
UNIT – IV
1) Explain briefly about Satellite Orbits
2) Explain about satellite communication systems

3) Explain about satellite subsystems
4) Explain briefly about Ground Stations Satellite Applications
5) Explain briefly about Global Positioning systems.
6) Explain about Optical Principles
7) Explain about Optical Communication Systems
8) Explain briefly about Fiber –Optic Cables
9) Explain about Optical Transmitters & Receivers
10) Explain briefly about Wavelength Division Multiplexing.
Page 197
UNIT – V
1) Explain briefly about Cellular telephone systems.
2) Explain about AMPS.
3) Define and explain about GSM.
4) Explain briefly about CDMA.
5) Explain about WCDMA.
6) Explain about Wireless LAN and PANs.
7) Define and explain about Bluetooth.
8) Explain about ZigBee and Mesh Wireless networks.
9) Explain briefly about WiMAX and MANs.
10) Explain about Infrared wireless.
11) Explain briefly about RFID communication.
12) Explain briefly about UWB.
Page 198
Tutorial Problems
An 80 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of 1V amplitude

and the frequency sensitivity is 100 Hz/V. Find the approximate bandwidth of the
FM waveform if the modulating signal has a frequency of 10 kHz.
Ans: Frequency Sensitivity = 100 Hz/ volt.

Amplitude of modulating signal = 1V
Hence maximum frequency deviation, δ =100 Hz / volt ×1V= 100 kHz
Frequency of modulating signal, fm = 10kHz

∴ BW = 2 [δ + fm (max)]= 2 [100 +10×103 ]
Page 199
BW = 20.2 kHz
What is the required bandwidth according to the Carson’s rule, when a 100 MHz
carrier is modulated with a sinusoidal signal at 1KHz, the maximum frequency
deviation being 50 KHz.
a. 1 KHz
b. 50 KHz
c. 102 KHz
d. 150 KHz
ANSWER: (c) 102 KHz
Explanation:
According to Carson’s rule, bandwidth of FM is given by 2(Δf+ fm) where Δf is the deviation
in frequency and fm is the frequency of sinusoidal signal. The required bandwidth is therefore
calculated as
2 * (50KHz + 1KHz)
= 2 * 51 KHz
= 102 KHz
The audio signal having frequency 500Hz and voltage 2.6V, shows a deviation of
5.2KHz in a Frequency Modulation system. If the audio signal voltage changes to
8.6V, calculate the new deviation obtained.
a. 17.2 KHz
b. 19.6 KHz
c. 25.6 KHz
d. 14.6 KHz
ANSWER: (a) 17.2 KHz
Explanation:
Deviation in FM is given by Δf = kf * Am
Therefore, kf = Δf/ Am
= 5.2/2.6
=2
When voltage changes to 8.6V = Am
New frequency deviation Δf = kf * Am
= 2* 8.6
= 17.2 KHz
What is the change in the bandwidth of the signal in FM when the modulating
frequency increases from 12 KHz to 24KHz?
a. 40 Hz
b. 58 Hz
c. 24 Hz
d. Bandwidth remains unaffected
ANSWER: (c) 24 Hz
Explanation:
According to Carson’s rule, the bandwidth required is twice the sum of the maximum
frequency deviation and the maximum modulating signal frequency. Or,
B=2(Δf +fm) Hz
B= 2(Δf +12) Hz = 2 Δf + 24 Hz (1)
Assuming Δf to be constant,
B = 2 Δf + 48 Hz (2)
(2)-(1),
= 24Hz
Therefore the bandwidth changes by 24Hz.
Page 200
A modulating signal m(t)=10cos(2π×103t)m(t)=10cos⁡(2π×103t) is amplitude

modulated with a carrier signal c(t)=50cos(2π×105t)c(t)=50cos⁡(2π×105t). Find the
modulation index, the carrier power, and the power required for transmitting AM
wave.
Solution:
Given, the equation of modulating signal as
m(t)=10cos(2π×103t)m(t)=10cos⁡(2π×103t)
We know the standard equation of modulating signal as

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)
By comparing the above two equations, we will get
Amplitude of modulating signal as Am=10voltsAm=10volts

and Frequency of modulating signal as
fm=103Hz=1KHzfm=103Hz=1KHz
Given, the equation of carrier signal is

c(t)=50cos(2π×105t)c(t)=50cos(2π×105t)
The standard equation of carrier signal is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
By comparing these two equations, we will get
Amplitude of carrier signal as Ac=50voltsAc=50volts

and Frequency of carrier signal as fc=105Hz=100KHzfc=105Hz=100KHz
We know the formula for modulation index as
μ=Am/Ac
Substitute, Am and Ac values in the above formula.

μ=10/50=0.2
Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of modulation is 20%.
The formula for Carrier power, Pc is

Pc=Ac2/2R
Assume R=1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above formula.

Pc= (50)2/2(1)=1250W
Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 1250 watts.
Page 201
We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is

⇒Pt=Pc(1+μ2/2)
Substitute Pc and μ values in the above formula.

Pt=1250(1+(0.2)2 /2)=1275WPt=1250(1+(0.2)2/2)=1275W
Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.
Page 202
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B. Tech Sem-II(R-19) MID Model Question Paper

A.Y:2020-2021
Branch: CSE Subject Name: PEC
YEAR/SEC: II/ A, B, C&D Max Marks: 40
Date of Exam:DD/MM/YY Time of Exam:
Answer FOUR of following Questions
S. No. Question Marks BTL CO

a) What is Modulation and Explain need for
5 Remember CO1
modulation?
1
b) Draw block diagram of communication
5 Remember CO1
system and explain each block
a) Generate Amplitude modulation by using
5 Understand CO3
Square law modulator
b) A carrier signal of 10 cos 4π x 105t is
2 amplitude modulated by a message signal of 6
cos π x 104t Find all possible parameters of 5 Apply CO3
AM, plot AM spectrum and identify the
spectral components
a) Explain Pulse Width Modulation process
5 Remember CO3
3 using Mono-stable Multi-Vibrator circuit
b) How FM and PM signals are inter related? 5 Understand CO3
a) What are paging systems and explain their
5 Analyze CO4
types
4
b) State the general operation of a cordless
5 Understand CO6
telephone
a) Draw and describe the various frequency
ranges in the electromagnetic spectrum with 5 Analyze CO1
5 its applications
b) Explain the concept of frequency
5 Understand CO4
translation with suitable example
a) Discuss about PSK generation and
5 Understand CO4
Degeneration with neat sketch
6 b) Write advantages and disadvantages of
Digital communication system over analog 5 Understand CO5
communication system
Page 203
Code No: 135CX

R16
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
B. Tech III Year I Semester Examinations, November/December - 2018
(Common to CE, EEE, CSE, EIE, IT)
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 75
Note: This question paper contains two parts A and B.

Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A. Part B
consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit. Each question carries
10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.
PART - A
(25 Marks)
1.a) Draw the block diagram of a communication system. [2]

b) Explain how baseband transmission is different from broad band transmission? [3]
c) Define amplitude modulation. [2]
d) Write the advantages of digital modulation schemes. [3]
e) Explain the operation of a bridge. [2]
f) Explain the operation of a NIC. [3]
g) Define numerical aperture. [2]
h) Draw the block diagram representing the basic elements of a fiber optic communication
system. [3]
i) What is handoff? [2]
j) Discuss common Zigbee network topologies. [3]
PART - B
(50 Marks)
2. Write short notes on:

a) Gain
b) Attenuation
c) Decibels. [10]
OR
3. Why modulation is used in communication circuits? Discuss. [10]
4.a) Draw the block diagram of PCM system and explain.

b) Define PWM and explain the concept of PWM using relevant waveforms. [5+5]
OR
5.a) Explain the basic principle of frequency modulation. Also explain a method to generate
FM signal.
b) Explain a method to demodulate AM signal. [5+5]
6.a) Explain the operation of a paging system using a block diagram.

b) Classify computer networks and explain. [5+5]
OR
7. Discuss the topology, encoding and transmission media used in Ethernet LANs. [10]
8.a) Explain the operation of telemetry, command and control subsystems of satellite.
b) Explain the operation of a GPS receiver using a block diagram. [5+5]
OR
9.a) Draw the general block diagram of an earth station and explain.
b) Explain single mode step index and multimode graded index fiber optic cables. [5+5]
10.a) Draw the block diagram of a RFID tag and explain.

b) Discuss GSM system in detail. [5+5]
OR
11.a) Discuss the basic forms of UWB wireless and also different types of UWB
modulations.
b) Discuss WCDMA in detail. [5+5]
---ooOoo---
Code No: 135CX

R16
B. Tech III Year I Semester Examinations, May/June - 2019
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 75

10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.
PART - A
(25 Marks)
1.a) The signal power at the input to a receiver is 6.2 nW and the noise power at the input to
that receiver is 1.8 nW. Find SNR and SNRdB. [2]
b) Define modulation and classify? [3]
c) Mention any two differences between ASK and FSK. [2]
d) An FM wave is given by s(t)=20cos(8π×106t+9sin(2π×103t)). Calculate the frequency
deviation, bandwidth, and power of FM wave. [3]
e) Mention the advantages of LAN. [2]
f) Discuss briefly about local loop in telephones. [3]
g) What is trilateration principle? [2]
h) Mention the differences between LEDs and laser diodes with respect to performance
characteristics. [3]
i) What are the functions of Mobile Station? [2]
j) Discuss about infrared wireless technology. [3]
PART - B
(50 Marks)
2. Define the terms Gain, attenuation and decibels. And explain their importance in
communications, with examples. [10]
OR
3.a) Illustrate electromagnetic spectrum and clearly indicate all the bands.
b) A power amplifier with a 40 dB gain has an output power of 100 W. What is the input power
in dBs and in normal units? [5+5]
4.a) Define PWM and explain the modulation process with neat diagram.
b) A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied
to FM generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency
deviation, modulation index, and bandwidth. [6+4]
OR
5.a) Define ASK and describe the modulation process with neat diagram.
b) Explain the frequency discrimination method of FM demodulation. [5+5]
6.a) Explain about electronic telephones.

b) Describe Internet Telephony. [5+5]
OR
7.a) Discuss briefly about LAN hardware.
b) Discuss about Ethernet LANs in detail. [5+5]
8.a) Explain about satellite sub systems.

b) Describe the process for determining look angle. [5+5]
OR
9.a) Describe the operation and application of laser diodes.
b) Discuss the differences between the various types of optical detectors with respect to
performance characteristics. [5+5]
10. Draw and explain GSM architecture in detail. [10]

OR
11. Write short notes on the following.
a) RFID communication
b) UWB. [5+5]
---ooOoo---
Code No: 135CX R16

B. Tech III Year I Semester Examinations, December - 2019
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 75

10 marks and may have a, b as sub questions.
PART – A
(25 Marks)
1.a) Express Pout=12.3 dBm in watts. [2]

b) An amplifier has a gain of 45,000, which is too much for the application. With an input
voltage of 20 μV, what attenuation factor is needed to keep the output voltage from
exceeding 100 mV? Let A1= amplifier gain = 45,000; A2 = attenuation factor; AT =
total gain. [3]
c) Define ASK and PSK. [2]
d) Write AM equation. Define modulation index, and percentage modulation. [3]
e) Describe the modulation and data rate used in caller ID. [2]
f) What is the main purpose of a LAN? What is the upper limit on the number of users on
a LAN? [3]
g) State the effects on a satellite signal if the angle of elevation is too low. [2]
h) Define what is meant by bandwidth as it applies to fiber-optic cable. What units are
used to express bandwidth? [3]
i) List the operating frequency ranges of ZigBee and the maximum data rates for each.
[2]
j) Define personal-area network (PAN) and wireless local area network (WLAN). [3]
PART – B
(50 Marks)
2.a) A power amplifier with a 40-dB gain has an output power of 100 W. What is the input
power?
b) Explain the concept of frequency translation with suitable example. [5+5]
OR
3. Draw and describe the various frequency ranges in the electromagnetic spectrum with
its applications [10]
4.a) Find the percentage of power saved in SSB when compared with AM system.
b) What is PCM? Illustrate the PCM transmitter and receiver with a diagram. [5+5]
OR
5.a) Discuss about the spectra of PWM and PPM signals
b) Compare the characteristics of AM with FM. [5+5]
6.a) Explain about paging systems.

b) Describe how repeaters, hubs, bridges, routers and gateways are used in LANs. [5+5]
OR
7.a) State the general operation of a cordless telephone.
b) Explain the working of Token ring with neat diagram. [5+5]
8.a) Explain the block diagram of optical fiber communication system with transmitter and
receiver.
b) State the operative physical principles of launching a satellite and maintaining its orbit.
[5+5]
OR
9.a) Explain the operation of LED. Also explain different types of LED's and its different
structures.
b) Describe the concept and operation of the Global Positioning System. [5+5]
10.a) Discuss about 3G standards – WCDMA/UMTS for wireless network

b) What is RFID? What is the most recent version of RFID standards? State the Operating
frequency range, advantages and benefits. [5+5]
OR
11.a) Identify the features, benefits, applications, and operation of ultra wide band (UWB).
b) Describe the access mode and modulation type used in the original version of
Bluetooth. [5+5]
---ooOoo---

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lOMoARcPSD|203 633 05

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Dr. K.SRAVAN ABHILASH

CMR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

1. To develop ability to analyze system requirements of

1. Able to analyze and design various modulation and demodulation analog

Optical Communication: Optical Principles, Optical Communication Systems, Fiber –Optic

III. Telecommunication Systems

5.4.1 Salient Features of CDMA 124

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Introduction to communication system, What is meant by modulation, Need for

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Communication means sending, receiving and processing of information between two or

Block Diagram of Communication system:

Fig 1.1.1 Block diagram of Communication System

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig 1.1.2: An electronic communications system using electronic signals

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

NEED FOR MODULATION:

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted.

H =λ/4= 𝑐 3 𝑋 108 = 5000 mt

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

1. Avoids mixing of signals

2. Increase the Range of Communication

4. Improves Quality of Reception

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig: 1.4.1 Upward Frequency Translation

Fig: 1.4.2 Output Response of Band Pass Filter

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig: 1.5.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency and Wavelength:

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig: 1.5.2.1Representation of Frequency & Wavelength

Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 30–300 Hz.

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Table: 1.6.1.1Conversion from power loss/gain as a ratio to loss/gain in decibels:

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig: 1.7.1 Reduction in signal strength due to attenuation

Decibel formula for power comparisons:

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig: 2.1.1.1 Modulation Process

Demodulation is the opposite process of modulation. Modulator is a part of signal

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Fig: 2.1.2.1 Demodulation Process

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Time domain Representation:

Fig: 2.2.1.(a) Low frequency Message signal

Fig: 2.2.1. (b) High frequency Carrier signal

Fig: 2.2.1. (c) Amplitude modulated signal

Principles of Electronic Communication (PEC) Dept. of ECE

Frequency domain Representation of AM:

Fig: 2.2.1. (d) Message signal in Frequency domain