Gender Studies

 Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the complex

interaction of gender with other identity markers such as race, ethnicity,
sexuality, nation, and religion.
 Gender studies is a field of study that looks at the world from the perspective
of gender.
 It examines how societies construct and interpret gender roles, identities, and
norms, as well as how these constructs intersect with various factors such as
race, class, sexuality, and more.
 This field includes women's studies (concerning women, feminism, gender,
and politics), men's studies and LGBT studies. Sometimes, a gender study is
offered together with study of sexuality. These disciplines study gender and
sexuality in the fields of literature, language, geography, history, political
science, sociology, anthropology, cinema, media studies, human development,
law, and medicine. It also analyzes how race, ethnicity, location, class,
nationality, and disability intersect with the categories of gender and sexuality.
 The academic study of gender emerged in late 1960s. It was triggered by the
second wave of feminism. The second wave of feminism focused on how
personal relationships and economic and political roles of women in the
society were suffering from inequalities.

Gender has multiple meanings. How do you deconstruct the word “GENDER”
Deconstructing "gender" involves recognizing it as a spectrum rather than a binary concept. It involves
understanding:

Identity: This refers to how individuals perceive themselves, whether they identify as male, female, a
combination of both, neither, or something else entirely.

Expression: This relates to how one presents themselves in terms of clothing, behavior, and mannerisms,
which may align with societal expectations of masculinity or femininity or may exist outside those norms.

Roles: Gender roles are societal expectations or norms dictating how individuals of a particular gender
should behave, think, or feel. These roles vary across cultures and time periods.

Social Constructs: Gender is also a social construct, meaning that society shapes and defines what it means
to be masculine, feminine, or non-binary. These constructs can influence behavior, opportunities, and
expectations.

Deconstructing "gender" involves acknowledging its complexity and fluidity, understanding that it's not
solely based on biology but also on personal experiences, societal norms, and cultural influences.
 Multi-disciplinary nature of Gender Studies

Gender studies is multidisciplinary in nature as seeks to study different

disciplines/ social sciences i.e. anthropology, economic, politics, sociology, and
others from the perspective of gender.

1.Sociology and Gender studies

Gender studies and sociology are correlated as the study of gender
identification in a society cannot be explained without delineating the role of
gender in society. The sociology of gender examines how society influences
social construction of the gender, role observance our understandings and
perception of differences between masculinity and femininity.

2. Anthropology
Gender studies is a branch of cultural anthropology as it deals with cultural
norms that dictate the lives of people belonging to the masculine and feminine
gender. The cultural norms and values that are prevalent in society dictate how
a female or male behaves in a social setting. Gender studies analyzes the growth
of the individual and his or her evolving roles in the society as a male, female or
queer.

4. Economics
It explains the economic role played by women at both the household and
national levels. Participation of women in the labor force, wage differentials,
and occupational distribution by gender, as well as determinants of women’s
active economic participation, and their contribution to national development.
Gender differences are pronounced in the economic sector with men securing
highly paid jobs and women facing a crunch in the financial sector. The financial
dependence of women on their male family members limits their freedom and
their choice of a career. Whereas gender studies tries to understand the
different ways in which one section of society is marginalized based solely on their
sexual orientation.

5. Political Science
Gender studies analyzes the emerging role, from a feminist perspective, socio-
political barriers that have made women the “majority minority” or “silenced
majority.” Includes barriers such as discriminatory legislation, political
folkways, sex and gender roles, and myths that have created and perpetuated a
male dominated society and hurdles for women in politics.

5. Literture
Gender and literature are closely related because literature promotes women’s
writing of famous women authors depicting social problems of society.

Difference between women studies and gender studies.

Gender studies is a field that focouses on gender identity, gender roles ,, while
Women studies is a field that focouses on the roles , experiences , and
achievements of women in society .

Autonomy vs. Integration Debate in Gender Studies

The autonomy vs integration debate started in the 1980s. Basically the
proponents of Women studies and gender studies struggle to decide whether
the disciplines should remain autonomous or be integrated into other areas of
studies as a subfield.

Timeline and History of Autonomy Versus Integration Debate

The debate about the autonomy versus integration of gender and women's
studies has been ongoing since the 1970s. Proponents of both sides have
made compelling arguments, and the debate is likely to continue for many
years to come.
Timeline
• 1960s: The first women's studies programs are established in the United
States.
• 1970s: The debate about the autonomy versus integration of women's
studies begins.
• 1980s: The debate becomes more heated, as proponents of both sides make
their arguments.
• 1990s: The debate begins to subside, as more universities offer women's
studies programs and as the field of gender studies becomes more
established.
• 2000s: The debate continues, but it is no longer as heated as it once was.
• 2010s: The debate continues to evolve, as new perspectives on gender and
women's studies are introduced.
Arguments for Autonomy
• Women's studies is a distinct field of study with its own unique theoretical
framework.
• Autonomy allows women's studies to focus on the specific experiences of
women and to challenge the male-dominated status quo.
• Autonomy allows women's studies to develop its own curriculum and
pedagogy.
Arguments for Integration
• Gender is a central issue in all disciplines, and integrating gender studies
into other disciplines can help to mainstream gender issues.
• Integration can help to challenge the male-dominated status quo in other
disciplines.
• Integration can help to build bridges between women's studies and other
disciplines.
Status of Gender Studies in Pakistan – Historic view
 Social Construction of Gender

The idea that gender difference is socially constructed is a view present in many
philosophical and sociological theories about gender. According to this view,
society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal
or appropriate behaviour for a person of that specific gender. Stronger versions
argue that the differences in behavior between men and women are entirely
Social conventions.
Social constructivists propose that there is no inherent truth to gender; it is
constructed by social expectations and gender performance.

Social constructionism is the notion that people’s understanding of reality is

partially, if not entirely, socially situated. Gender is a social identity that needs
to be contextualized.

Scholars generally regard gender as a social construct—meaning that it does

not exist naturally, but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and
societal norms. Gender socialization begins at birth and occurs through major
agents of socialization like family, education, peer groups, and mass media.

Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge that holds that characteristics

typically thought to be immutable and solely biological—such as gender, race,
class, ability, and sexuality—are products of human definition and
interpretation shaped by cultural and historical contexts.
Theories of Social Construction of Gender

1. Historicism;- Assign major significance to a specific historical event in the

development of certain systems.

 Gerda Lerner ;(Author Philosopher), (The creation of patriarchy book); System of

male dominance was created at a specific time in the history out of many
complex processes involving many factors;
 Demographics,
 Ecological
 Cultural
 Historical
 1. Early division of labour in Hunter Gatherer societies
2. Man in herder tribes Domesticated animals Neolithic age
3. The realized importance of women in producing offspring
4. The notion of private property developed ownership of herds
5. Wanted to pass their herds to their own blood progeny
6. Enforced chastity of women----- emphasized on virginity 0f women

Claude Levi-Straus, ;(Author Philosopher) (Exchange of Women Book); Women being

treated as commodity.

a) Marriage alliance between tribes

b) Forcing women to participate in festivals
c) Enforced prostitution/Sex slavery

1. In Agrarian Era , women’s reproductive ability became an important

economic asset More children meant more people to manage the
ever-expanding farmland.
2. This ‘‘domesticated’’ women and fixed their role as Child-givers.

This all Resulted in ;-

1. Legal codes subsequently differentiated between respectable and non

respectable women

Male historian, emperors and scholars have created most of the;

o belief systems
o heroes and stories
o cultural beliefs
o Political system and legal codes
 2. Ethno methodology & Symbolic Interactionism;

Ethno methodology ;;-How does social life ,individual identities and interpersonal
relationships that characterize it are achieved or accomplished through
interaction and language?

Men and women learn their roles in societies

How does socialization agents socialize genders differently?

Prenting ; Names , toys labels

Schooling; Curriculum, sports and other activities

Peer groups; Pressure to conform

Media Portrayals ; Heroes, politicians , ideal gender

Judith Butler; - Gender Performativity Doing Gender

‘‘Nobody is born one gender or the other .We act, walk, speak and talk in ways that
consolidate an impression of being a man of woman’’ (Judith Butler - Gender Trouble)

Simone de Beauvior; ;(Author Philosopher) Civilization as a whole produces

woman

1. Men define themselves w.r.t. characteristics of power;

 Strong , Influential, authoritative, leaders
2. Women defined in opposition to these traits;; Frail, fragile and submissive
3. Social institutions reinforce these behaviors expectations

Nancy Chodorow;(Author Philosopher) Differentiated experience in infancy orient

girls and boys towards different development path;

a) Boys identify with fathers social power

b) Girls developing their sense of self in relation to mother
 Queer Theory
Queer theory is a field within gender studies and critical theory that challenges
and questions traditional ideas about gender, sexuality, and identity. It emerged
in the 1980s and 1990s as a response to the limitations of traditional feminist
and gay/lesbian studies, aiming to broaden the scope of inquiry into these
areas.

At its core, queer theory seeks to destabilize and deconstruct fixed notions of
gender and sexuality, recognizing them as social constructs that are fluid,
dynamic, and influenced by power structures, culture, and history. It critiques
the idea of binary gender norms (male/female) and challenges the
heteronormative assumption that heterosexuality is the norm against which all
other forms of sexuality are measured.

A Brief History of Queer Theory

Early queer theorists took their cues and key concepts from several
sources, including the gay identity politics that grew out of the activism
of the AIDS epidemic, feminist theory, and cultural studies. Here’s a
rundown of some of the texts and thinkers central to its development:

 Sexuality as a social construct: During the 1970s, in works like The History
of Sexuality (1976), philosopher and historian Michel Foucault
questioned how society treated sexuality as an essential truth
rather than a social construction. In his theorizing, Foucault
posited that identity is not innate and that politics generally rely
on hierarchies of desire as a means of oppression.
 Sexual behavior hierarchy: Gayle Rubin’s essay “Thinking Sex” (1984)
examined how society places certain sexual behaviors above
others. According to Rubin, this normative framework then served
as the basis of marginalization and oppression.
 The gendering of sexuality: Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick’s seminal
book Epistemology of the Closet (1990) explored how society genders
sexuality—for example, by defining your sexual identity primarily
by the gender identities of the people who attract you.
 Sex and gender as performance: In 1990, Judith Butler published Gender
Trouble, which suggests sex and gender are performative elements
of identity rather than innate characteristics.
 The birth of queer theory: Teresa de Lauretis became the first writer to
coin the phrase “queer theory.” De Lauretis outlined a complete
 rethinking of sexuality divorced from the binaries and standards
defined by heterosexual power structures—structures that Michael
Warner would later refer to as “heteronormativity’’.

Key concepts within queer theory include:

Performativity: Coined by Judith Butler, performativity suggests that

gender is not an inherent trait but rather something performed and
constructed through repeated social behaviors and actions. It challenges
the idea of a fixed, innate gender identity.

Fluidity and Intersectionality: Queer theory emphasizes the fluid nature

of identities, acknowledging that they can change over time and can
intersect with various social categories like race, class, ability, and more.

Critique of Normativity: It critiques societal norms and structures that

privilege certain identities over others, highlighting how these norms
reinforce inequality and marginalization.

Resistance and Subversion: Queer theory often focuses on resistance

against oppressive structures and explores ways individuals and
communities can subvert dominant norms to create more inclusive and
diverse understandings of gender and sexuality.

Politics of Identity: It examines the political implications of identity

constructions, advocating for social and political change to challenge
existing power dynamics and create more equitable societies.

Core issue? Sexuality is socially constructed or biological driven? Gender and

sexuality are not just personal identities; they are social identities.

Contains
 All concepts linking sexual behaviors to sexual identities, all categories of
sexual normative and deviant sexualities are social constructs and create
certain type of social meaning. Includes Lesbian, gay, bisexual and
 transgender people and deviant, cross dressing, gender ambiguity and
gender corrective surgery.
 Rejects traditional theory of gender and sexuality.
 Queer aimed to challenge the hegemony of heterosexual norms
 Focuses on mismatch among sex, gender and desire.

Is “Sex” socially determined, too?

Generally it is believed that sex is biological and gender is social . Feminist
however have different opinion than this matter…

What Feminist Say?

According to feminist sex is too socially determined . In support of their
argument they present following points..
(a)Categories of Sex;.
Generally accepted categories of sex are two that are MALE AND FEMALE. It is
taught in school that XX chromosomes make female and XY chromosome males.
On the basis of these two categories of sex , genders are developed which
according to feminist is nit correct , According to them sex itself is socially
constructed category
To support their argument feminist quote the example of Caster Semeenya, a
South African athlete who won world champion in 2009 . Continue winning of
races grow controversies about their sex and it was debated critically whether
she is she or really he?

(b)Sex- a collection of different characteristics;

Sex of a person is generally decided on the basis of genitalia but according to
feminists it is wrong too because sex is not a one single ambiguous trait. It is
rather a combination of different characteristics most of which are biological.

According to feminist it is impossible that a person may have some

characteristics of one sex category and some of other. Take for example of the
case of Trans people who share the characteristics of both sexes.

(c)Sex may Alter;

In some cases sex of a person alter upon reaching a certain age . For example a
condition called 5 Alpha Reductase Deficiency causes male infants to appear
female yet upon reaching puberty they developed into fully functioning males.
(d)Category can be changed;
According to feminists sex being a category can be changed by changing the
social position of an individual. A person can change his or her sex through
surgery or hormones treatment. Take the example of reality star Jazz Jennings
who claim to be woman and which is correct because she is a perfect woman on
every perspective though she transgender.
GENERAL Argument
It’s a human idea. So “sex is a social construct” in the sense that sex is an idea people discussed
together (social) and built up (constructed). Of course we constructed sex using observations of “real
things” in the world, gonads and so on. Being socially constructed doesn’t deny that.
Masculinities and Femininity
Masculinities are those behaviours, languages and practices, existing in
specific cultural and organisational locations, which are commonly associated
with men, thus culturally defined as not feminine.
Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors,
and roles associated with men and boys.
Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles
generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as
socially constructed.
Masculinity and femininity refer to an individual’s gender in terms of maleness
and femaleness, respectively. Gender roles are those socially ascribed
normative behaviors with respect to a given gender.

Theoretical debates on the construction of masculinity and femininity.

Biological Determinism vs. Social Constructionism:

Biological Determinism: Some argue that certain traits associated with

masculinity and femininity is rooted in biology. Evolutionary psychology
suggests that certain behaviors and characteristics evolved to serve
reproductive or survival purposes. For example, traits like aggression or
nurturing instincts are often attributed to biological differences between sexes.
However, critics argue that reducing gender behaviors solely to biology
oversimplifies complex human behaviors.

Social Constructionism: This perspective emphasizes that masculinity and

femininity are primarily social constructs shaped by cultural norms, values, and
socialization processes. For instance, gender socialization within families,
education systems, media, and peer groups reinforces specific behaviors and
attributes associated with being masculine or feminine. For example, the
expectation that men should be assertive and tough while women should be
nurturing and empathetic is largely socially constructed.

Real-life Examples:
Toy Marketing: Children's toys often reinforce gender stereotypes. Toys
marketed towards boys typically focus on action, building, and competition,
promoting qualities associated with traditional masculinity. Conversely, toys
marketed towards girls often emphasize domesticity, nurturing, and beauty,
aligning with traditional femininity. This perpetuates the social construction of
gender roles from an early age.

Workplace Dynamics: In many professional settings, masculine traits such as

assertiveness and dominance are often rewarded and associated with
leadership roles, while feminine traits like collaboration and empathy may be
undervalued. This reflects societal norms and expectations regarding gendered
behavior in the workplace.

Gendered Language and Expectations: Language itself can reinforce gender

stereotypes. For example, terms like "man up" or "act like a lady" perpetuate
specific gendered expectations, reinforcing social constructs of masculinity and
femininity.

Cultural Variations: Masculinity and femininity can vary significantly across

cultures. What is considered masculine or feminine in one society may differ in
another. For instance, certain cultures may value emotional expressiveness in
men, challenging traditional Western notions of masculinity.

The definitions of femininity and/or masculinity are fortified through the following:
● Family
○ Repository of all the men’s tension and stress, child bearer
○ Use of blue or pink dresses to indicate the sex of the infant
● Media
○ Depression among young girls who desire the thin, twiggy ideal body shape
○ Reduces femininity into body parts
○ Women are also shown as more confident, hosting TV shows, etc.
○ Shows masculinity as hostile, brutal, aggressive.
● Social stratification
○ Femininity is for male entertainment and possession.
○ Active life of a women is not for a middle-class and/or poor woman, or for a woman of lower
class groups.
○ A poor women from lower castes has to fight discrimination not only from the males within the
family, but also from both males and females from other classes and castes. It is the right,
possibly, of rich women or women belonging to the upper caste groups.
● Religion
○ Feminism argues that most institutionalized modern religions are patriarchal.
○ All religious scriptures and texts assign particular roles to each gender. Women are wives and
daughters - homemakers, while men are breadwinners.
● Education
○ It is believed that girls are not good at maths / science, but are excellent at languages, social
sciences and arts.
○ Regard reading art and music as feminine and mathematics, athletics and mechanical skills as
masculine.
● Work culture
○ In the organized sector, women are concentrated in clerical and non-managerial positions. Very
few women top the promotional bar.

Nature versus Culture: A Debate in Gender

Development
Gender development means the evaluation and blooming of a gender in a society.
Both Nature and Nurture have an important role in this regard.

Role of Nature in gender development

(1) Hereditary differences;-

Both male and female possesses a number of hereditary differences, some of
which are present at the time of birth while others appears upon reaching the
age of puberty.
(2) Role of Hormones;-
Hormones have also a major role in this regard. They give gender specific
characteristics to a person, for example Hormones causes boys to have strong
muscles composition taller height and strong voice than girls
(3) Genetics Influences;-
Genetics too have an important influence over the personality creation and sex
of a person.

Role of Nurture/Culture in gender development

(1) Social influence -;-

Though sex of a person is shaped by genetics but it is society that decided the
gender of person and his / her role in society. In society children are taught
explicitly and implicitly how to be real men and women
(2) Gender specific Behaviour
Gender is also developed and promoted by society by assigning gender specific
role to a person. Similarly society also helped in promoting specific behavior in
a person based on culture and traditions.
(3)Gender Stereotyping
Gender stereotyping too has a major role in gender development. It begins even
before a baby is born. Gender stereotyping sometimes make it difficult to decide
which behavior is biological and which is nurtured through social beliefs about
gender.

Feminist Theories and Practice

What is Feminism?
Feminism is a social and political movement advocating for the equal rights,
opportunities, and treatment of all genders, particularly advocating for
women's rights.
It’s about respecting diverse women’s experiences, identities, knowledge and
strengths, and striving to empower all women to realise their full rights.
It’s about levelling the playing field between genders, and ensuring that diverse
women and girls have the same opportunities in life available to boys and men .
Feminist political activists campaign in areas such as reproductive rights,
domestic violence, fairness, social justice, and workplace issues such as family
medical leave, equal pay, and sexual harassment and discrimination.

Basic Feminist Ideas.

 Working to increase equality , critical of status quo and advocates
change towards equality.
 Expanding human choices, reintegration of humanity, not just two
spheres, female and male sphere.
 Eliminating gender stratification. Law and rights equal for all
irrespective of sex.
 Ending sexual violence
 Promoting sexual freedom, ,0pen’s control over their sexuality and
reproduction.

Feminist theory has several purposes:

 To understand the power differential between men and women. Do away
with the superiority of the men over women based on their biological
differences.
  To understand women's oppression - how it evolved ,Friedrich Engels
said that with the emergence of private property and economy, there was
a shift from matriarchal to patriarchal and this is where oppression of
women began,, how it changes over time, how it is related to other forms
of oppression, how to overcome oppression. Feminist Theorization has
been the result of women's movement.

Feminist Theory;-
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical
fields. Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on
gender politics, power relations, and sexuality.
Feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and
interests.
Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping,
objectification, oppression, and patriarchy.

In 1983, Alison Jaggar published Feminist Politics and Human Nature where she defined four theories
related to feminism:
 Liberal feminism
 Marxism
 Radical feminism
 Socialist feminism

Kinds of Feminism/Schools of thought on

Feminism.
(1) Liberal Feminism;-
 Focuses on achieving gender equality through changes within the
existing societal and legal systems.
 Seeks to address gender inequalities by advocating for reforms and
policies that promote equal opportunities for women within these
structures.
 Emphasize the importance of legal and political reforms to grant
women equal rights and opportunities. This includes advocating for
laws that protect against gender discrimination in employment,
education, and other areas.
 Gender equality and equality in women’s representation ,reforming the
system, equality in the public and private sphere ,equality in the
workplace
 Inspired by the liberal thoughts of western society during the 19th
century Enlightenment period, coinciding with first wave of feminism.
 It was concerned with extending to women the liberal values of liberty,
equality and justice through legal and social reforms, so that women
have more access to education, polity which were considered as
domains of men only.
 The key battle is key to education, if access to education made possible
then gender equality can be achieved.

General Criticism

o The main problem of liberal feminism is its tendency to accept male

values as universal values.
o All women should want to become like men, to aspire to masculine
values.
o Liberal feminism often did not include an analysis of class or sexuality
o No difference between sex and gender, it came later in feminism.
o Liberal feminism is reformist in nature -- it tries to open public life
equally to women and men without actually challenging the patriarchal
structure of the society itself.

Criticism from Radical Feminists

o Argue that a woman is different from men and to argue to equality
implies that they aspire to be like men who are responsible for war,
violence, hierarchy, and the exploitation of nature and their fellows.

Criticism from Social Feminists

o Object that liberal feminism ignores the problems of the working-class
women. It neglects the questions of production and reproduction that lies
at the heart of human activity.

Key principles of Liberal Feminism

 The principle of individualism
 Equal possession of reason and rationality by men and women
 No discrimination on the basis of sex
 Institutional constraints as the root cause of inequality
 Liberty- the core concern of egalitarian feminists

(2) Radical Feminism;-

 Radical feminism is a branch of feminism that seeks to dismantle the
traditional patriarchal power and gender roles that keep women
oppressed.

 Radical feminists believe that the cause of gender inequality is based on

men’s need or desire to control women.
 The definition of the word ‘radical’ means ‘of or relating to the root’.

 Radical feminists thus see patriarchy as the root cause of inequality

between men and women
 They aim to address the root causes of oppression through systemic
change and activism, rather than through legislative or economic change.

 Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical

re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social
and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are
also affected by other social divisions such as in race, class, and sexual
orientation.

 The ideology and movement emerged in the 1960s.

 Radical feminists assert that global society functions as a patriarchy in
which the classes of men are the oppressors of the class of women.
 Radical feminists believe that men are the enemy and that marriage and
family are the key institutions that allow patriarchy to exist.
 For radical feminists in order for equality to be achieved patriarchy needs
to be overturned. They argue that the family needs to be abolished and a
system of gender separatism needs to be instituted for this to happen.
(2) Marxist/Socialist Feminism;-
 Marxist or socialist feminism is a feminist perspective that merges Marxist
and socialist theories with feminist analysis. It focuses on the ways in which
capitalism and the class system intersect with gender oppression.
 Marxism recognizes that women are oppressed, and attributes the
oppression to the capitalist/private property system. Thus they insist that
the only way to end the oppression of women is to overthrow the capitalist
system.

What is the difference between Marxist and socialist feminism?

Marxist and socialist feminism can often be confused and sometimes used interchangeably. While they
may be similar, a way to distinguish between them is by their view on women’s oppression. Marxist
feminism considers capitalism to be the root cause of women’s exploitation, which is analyzed through
the construct of social classes. However, socialist feminism takes both class and gender factors into
account when it studies how patriarchy-capitalism articulate (Cottais, 2020).

Marxist feminism primarily examines how capitalism and the economic system intersect with
gender oppression. It emphasizes the exploitation of women within capitalist structures, highlighting
issues like unpaid domestic labor, the gender wage gap, and how capitalism reinforces traditional
gender roles. Marxist feminists believe that addressing economic inequalities is crucial to achieving
gender equality.
On the other hand, socialist feminism looks at the intersection of gender and other forms of
oppression like race and class. It combines aspects of Marxist theory with feminist theory, aiming to
dismantle both capitalist and patriarchal structures. Socialist feminists argue that oppression is
intertwined and can't be fully understood or addressed by focusing solely on economic or gender
factors.

(2) Psychoanalytical Feminism;-

 Psychoanalytic feminism is a theory of oppression that asserts that men

have an inherent psychological need to subjugate women. The root of
men's compulsion to dominate women and women's minimal resistance
to subjugation lies deep within the human psyche.

 it contends that gender is not based on biology but rather on an individual's

psycho-sexual development

 Psychoanalytic feminism is a social movement based on the work Sigmund

Freud and his psychoanalytic theories. It maintains that gender is not
biological but is based on the psycho-sexual development of the individual.
Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early
childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine,
and women to believe themselves feminine. It is further maintained that
gender leads to a social system that is dominated by males, which in turn
influences the individual psycho-sexual development. As solution it was
suggested to avoid the gender-specific structurization of the society by male-
female coeducation.
 Psychoanalytic Feminism stresses on psyche of people and considered it the
basis gender inequality. It says that women’s subjugation is the psychological
need of men. It is based on Freud’s theory of personality development that is
centered on Oedipus Complex- detachment from the mother . It has following
main points.

Men’s Double Standard Behavior; - Psychoanalytic Feminism believed that

the main source of men’s domination of women is men’s unconsciousness
need for women’s emotionality and rejection of them as potential castrators.
Women submit to men because of their unconscious desires for emotional
connectedness.

Oedipus Complex;- Though infants irrespective of their sex are connected

more closely with their mother than father but boys upon reaching a certain
age are detached from mother in order to establish their masculinity.

Identity Generation; - Boys and girls upon reaching a certain age are trained
to establish their identity as being a man or boy and a women or a girl.
 Ego development; - According to Psychoanalytical feminism in our society
boys are trained to develop strong ego boundaries and a capacity of
independency, objectivity and rational thinking and behavior. Girls on the
other hand are trained to develop fluid ego boundaries that make them
sensitive , empathic and emotional .

How to Change the Common Psyche?

To change the common psyche of people and to break the cycle of the reproduction
of gendered personality structures, Psychoanalytic Feminism suggests shared
parenting and the development of nurturing capabilities in men.

Conclusion

According to psychoanalytic feminists the chain of psyche can be broken only by

encouraging parenting in society.
(Psychoanalytic feminists explain women’s oppression as rooted within psychic structures and
reinforced by the continual repetition or reiteration of relational dynamics formed in infancy and
childhood. They wanted to alter the experiences of early childhood and family relations, as well as
linguistic patterns, that produce and reinforce masculinity and femininity.)

Postmodern Feminism

Postmodern feminism is a type of feminism that emerged in the late 20th

century. It is marked by a rejection of traditional feminist ideas and an embrace
of postmodern philosophy.

Postmodern feminism is critical of essentialism, patriarchy, and binary

thinking. Instead, it emphasizes the importance of social context and power
relationships in understanding gender.

Postmodern feminists believe that gender is not determined by biology, but

rather by culture and society.

They argue that women have been oppressed not because they are biologically
inferior to men, but because they have been socially and politically
marginalized.

Postmodern feminism began in the 1970s as a reaction to second-wave

feminism. Second-wave feminism was based on the belief that women were
oppressed due to their biology (i.e., their sex). This led to a focus on issues like
reproductive rights and equal access to education and employment.
The goal of postmodern feminism is to destabilize the patriarchal norms
entrenched in society that have led to gender inequality.

Examples Of Postmodern Feminism Theory

Judith Butler
Judith Butler is an American philosopher and gender theorist whose work has been extremely
influential within the field of postmodern feminism.

Butler’s most famous work is Gender Trouble, in which she challenges the idea that there is a natural,
essential difference between men and women.

Instead, Butler argues that gender is something that is performed. This means that it is not something
that people are born with, but something they do (Salih & Butler, 2004).

For Butler, the performativity of gender is related to power. She argues that gender is not simply
imposed on by society; rather, people continually reproduce and reinforce it through their actions and
words. In other words, people perform gender every time they speak or act in a gendered way.

Butler also criticizes the distinction between biological sex and socially constructed gender. She argues
that this distinction reinforces the idea that there is a natural, essential difference between men and
women. This, in turn, justifies men’s dominance over women.

Feminist Movements

Feminist movements encompass a wide range of efforts and ideologies focused on

achieving gender equality, challenging gender-based oppression, and advocating for
women's rights.

First wave of feminism;-

First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought that occurred
during the 19th and early 20th century throughout the Western world. It focused on
legal issues, primarily on securing women's right to vote. …First wave feminism -
women’s fight for equal contract and property rights (1830’s -early 1900’s)

The idea behind the movements was that women should enjoy the same
legal and political rights as men.
The first wave of feminism ended with the acceptance of female suffrage, first
introduced in New Zealand in 1893. In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment of the
US constitution granted American women the right to vote.

Success of first wave

  Spread of women's consciousness
 Suffrage (right to vote) in the USA
 Opening of higher education for women
 Married women's property right recognized in the Married Women
Property Act of 1870
 Widening of access to profession such as medicines

Limitations of first wave

 Confined to white-middle class women.

 Focused specifically on right to vote & education
 Issues of differences among women from different race and class ignored
 Limited influence after gaining rights, was sidelined by other progressive
movements

 Women started organising again after the end of the Second World War,
and they soon gained equal political rights in most European countries,
with women’s emancipation becoming an important aim and most
women being allowed to take on full-time jobs, divorce their husbands
and go to university.

Second wave of feminism;-

The women’s movement of the 1960s and ’70s, the so-called “second wave” of feminism,

Second-wave feminism broadened the debate to include a wider range of

issues: sexuality, family, domesticity, the workplace, reproductive rights, de
facto inequalities, and official legal inequalities.

It was a movement that was focused on critiquing patriarchal, or male-

dominated, institutions and cultural practices throughout society.

Second-wave feminism also drew attention to the issues of domestic violence

and marital rape, created rape crisis centers and women's shelters, and brought
about changes in custody laws and divorce law.

Second wave of feminism aimed to achieve ‘women’s liberation.

Different groups had different ideas about how this should be done. Liberal feminists wanted
better equality laws and reform of institutions such as schools, churches and the media.
Radical feminists argued that the root cause of women’s inequality is patriarchy: men, as a
group, oppress women. They also focused on violence against women by men and started to
talk about violence in the family, and rape. Socialist feminists argued that it is a combination
of patriarchy and capitalism that causes women’s oppression.

Inspired by the Civil Rights movement and protests against the Vietnam War
Success of Second wave

Victories in this era including, Roe v. Wade in 1973, and other S-Court cases.

The second wave of feminism also resulted in new areas of science: women’s
studies became a discipline to be studied at university, and books began to be
published about women’s achievements in literature, music and science, and
recording women’s previously unwritten history.

Finally, the women’s movement played an important role in the drafting of

international documents about women’s rights, such as the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Elimination of all
Forms of Discrimination against Women.

Third wave of feminism;-

Third-wave feminists sought to question, reclaim, and redefine the ideas,

words, and media that have transmitted ideas about womanhood, gender,
beauty, sexuality, femininity, and masculinity, among other things. Emerged in
the mid-1990s.

The third wave of feminism mainly refers to the American movement in the
1990s, and was a reaction to the backlash of conservative media and
politicians announcing the end of feminism or referring to ‘post-feminism’. The
term ‘backlash’ was popularised by Susan Faludi in her book Backlash. The
Undeclared War against Women, published in 1991, and describing the negative
reaction of the patriarchal system towards women’s liberation.

In the 1980s, institutionalised forms of attacks on women’s rights grew

stronger. The third wave of feminism can be characterized by an increased
awareness of overlapping categories, such as race, class, gender, sexual
orientation. More emphasis was also placed on racial issues, including the status
of women in other parts of the world (global feminism). This was also a
moment when a number of feminist non-governmental organizations were
established, but focusing on specific feminist issues, rather than claiming to
represent general feminist ideas.

Third wave actively uses media and pop culture to promote its ideas and to run
activities

The main issues that third wave feminists are concerned about include: sexual
harassment, domestic violence, the pay gap between men and women, eating
disorders and body image, sexual and reproductive rights, honor crimes and female
genital mutilation.

Purpose/Aims: Sexual liberation, freedom of expression and resistance to

objectification, ending discriminatory words, changing connotation of words
Issues taken up by Third Wave Feminism

 Focus on individual empowerment of women and less on activism. It is shift from

issues of polity, education to women per say.
 It celebrated the multiple and contradictory identity of women - accepting diversity
among women. All women do not have same problems.
 Dealt with issues that limited women's participation in social, economic and political
life.
 Advocated the need to change stereotypes portrayed by media and language.

Fourth wave of feminism;-

Cyber feminism and networked feminism (fourth-wave feminism)

Fourth wave of feminism began about 2012, with a focus on sexual harassment,
body shaming, and rape culture, among other issues. A key component was the
use of social media to highlight and address these concerns .

It is characterized by a focus on the empowerment of women,the use of internet

tools, and intersectionality. The fourth wave seeks greater gender equality by
focusing on gendered norms and the marginalization of women in society.

Fourth-wave feminism focuses on sexual abuse, sexual harassment, sexual

violence, the objectification of women and sexism in the workplace.

It also advocates for equal incomes regardless of sex and challenges traditional
gender roles for men and women, which it believes are oppressive.

It does share several similarities such as focus on women's empowerment,

intersectional experiences, and LGBTQ+ rights. However, it also advocates for
trans-inclusivity and body positivity.
 Feminist Movements in Pakistan.
Feminist and women’s rights consciousness in Pakistan has historically been shaped in response to
national and global reconfigurations of power including colonialism, nationalism, dictatorship,
democracy and the Global War on Terror.

Pre-Partition age;-

 Advocacy for women’s rights began even during the colonial period,When
British laws were unfavorable to women’s rights. The Muslim personal
law passed in 1937 helped women achieves their rights. Sir Sayed Ahmed
and other proponents played a crucial role in granting rights to women.

 Anjuman e Hamayat Islam opened schools for Girls in 1885

 Women’s education training school was opened in Calcutta in 1889

 Sir Muhammad Shafi and his daughter Jahan Ara opened the first
organization for women

 Anjuman-e-Khawateen-e-Islam opened for women in Lahore in 1908

 Girls Hostel by Begum of Bhopal was opened in 1915 in Aligarh

 Women also joined Muslim League in 1915

 Memorandum of equality represented by Begum Jhan Ara in round tble

conference in 1930 demanding rights for all without discrimination on
the basis of caste , color or creed.

 Six million women were liberated under the government of India Act
1935 to make it possible for them to participate in the council of state and
provincial assemblies.

 Fatima Jinnah led millions of women to fight for their rights

No Nation can be worthy of its existence that can’t take its women along with them .No
struggle can ever succeed without women participating side by side with man. (FATIMA
JINNAH)

Pre-Partition Scenario;-
The desired to achieve the status granted to women by Islam motivated women
to keep feminist moments alive even after partition. As a result of their efforts, a
number of initiative to ensure women’s socio-economic and political rights
were launched in newly born-Pakistan.

 All Pakistan women's Associations (APWA) was founded by Begum Raana

Liaquat Ali Khan in 1949.

 In 1951, Agricultural rights were granted to women for which they were
fighting1948.

 United front was established under the stewardship of Begum Jahan Ara,
which proved the mouthpiece for women in 1955.

 Chief justice of Pakistan made it possible to legally recognize the rights of

marriage and divorce.

 Constitution of 1956 granted rights to women.

 Women Action forum (WMA) was established in 1981, the purpose of

which was to disclose the conspiracies against women’s rights.

 Glimpse the Era of Field Marshall Ayub khan (1958-1968)

In the era of Ayub Khan, the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance (MFLO) was
passed in 1961. This particular ordinance gave rights with regard marital
life, divorce and the custody of children. The act was passed owing to the
particular efforts of the All Pakistan Women's Association (APWA). In
addition Fatima Jinnah campaigned for feminist causes in the 1965
presidential elections against military dictator Ayub Khan .

 Contributory efforts under Bhutto’s era (1972-1977)

In Bhutto era, the 1973 constitution proved to be the cornerstone for providing
rights to women. A number of articles in the 1973 constitution privileged
women by granting them rights without any discrimination on the basis of
cast, color or creed.

Article 25;-

1. All citizens are equal before the law and are entitled to equal protection of the law.
 2. There will be no discrimination on the basis of caste color or e creed or other than on
basis of sex. Besides this, other special provisions under article 25 provide protection
to women and children

Article 27;-

It stated that there would be no discrimination based on gender caste or religion in

apartments to Pakistan military.

Article 32;-

It is of the Basic principles of State policy guaranteed the reservation of seats for
women.

Article 35;-

This article stipulates that the state shall protect marriage, family, and mother and
child. Besides, The Pakistan people’s party established a woman’s wing under the
stewardship of Nusrat Bhutto. Under this 5% of seats were introduced for women in
the provincial assembly and 10% in the national assembly.

 Zia ul Haq’s period , the triggering one (1977-1988)

The Zia ul Haq era was essentially the catalyst for the women's movement
to take off. The law that sparked the women's movement at the time was
an offence under Zina. The enforcement of the Hadood ordinance 1979
by Zia ul Haq gave power to Pakistan's feminist movements. This
ordinance empowered women to become feminist activist. Basically, the
Zina ordinance conflicted rape with adultery. That Hadood ordinance
asked the victim to present for witnesses before the court for the claim to
be accepted by women. This ordnance has erased the basic difference
between the two and the made it impossible for women to prove rape.
Not only had this, but the victim’s failure to prove the adultery made her
the culprit. That ordinance made the actual rapist go scot-free instead of
being behind bars.

Regime’s harsh punishments

Zia-Ul-Haq introduced the harshest punishment under the contacts of islamisation.

1. He introduced punishments such as flogging, execution ,torture and

execution and sentencing by military courts.
 2. Initiated controversial execution of the Hudood ordinance.

3. Banned woman from participating in sports and from being audiences of

sports.

4. Suspended all constitutional rights including the rights to freedom, on the

basis of no discrimination.

Initiatives by Women Action Forum

Women's action form contested a huge number of protest in the 1980's period
against the implementation of the law of evidence.

That association also played a pivotal role in exposing the misinterpretation of

Islam under the Pseudo-scholars and its cursory role in the modern world.
Furthermore, that association added more to the contributory efforts by
making ways possible for women to play an active role in socio-political
domains. With the passage of time, Women Action Forum became the
mouthpiece of the wave of feminism emerging in Pakistan. Dupatta Jalao
movement 1982 was launched in Lahore against the remonstrations of Zia up
Haq. It was filed under the ordinance and it encouraged women to safeguard
and preserve the few rights that have been given to them, Adding more to the
triggering factors, Pakistan Women Lawyers marched with the collaboration of
Women Action Forum towards the high court. The purpose was to abolish the
law of evidence. Then the government tried to overcome protest through
different restraining acts such as using tear gas and filing charges against the
feminist groups. The wave didn't restrict Lahore only but took other major
cities of Pakistan into the whirlpool of the feminist wave trigger feminist
movement in Pakistan.

Case in Point;-

1. Fahamida and Allah Baksh case 1982

In this case Allah baksh had married Fahmidah against the wishes of her family
and he was punished with 100 lashes on the charge of adultery.

Proponents

The writings of prominent feminist activists prove to be the cornerstone for

granting women's rights. Kishwar Naheed's Hum Gunahgar Aurtain (We sinful
women) and Fahmida Riaz's Chaadar or Chardiwari (the veil and four walls)
mushroomed the growth of the movement in Pakistan. These writings and
poems became the anthem of the feminist movement all around Pakistan. Not
only had that, but a numerous organization, through their contributions made
the road equality smooth. Among them, the Surat Foundation, Rozan, and
Bedari were the most significant.

 Benazir Era-Cornerstone to women’s rights

Women-friendly policies were implemented during Bhutto's two tenures years

and remarkable periods (1988-1990 and 1993-1996).These includes:-

1. Establishing women's study centers.

2. Initiation of separate public universities for women.

3. Setting up the first woman's Bank

4. Establishing a separate police station for women

5. Representation by Benazir Bhutto at the 4th World Conference on Women in Beijing

China

6. Pakistan became a signatory to the convention on the elimination of all

forms of discrimination against women. (CEDAW)

 Musharaf Era; an era of modernism as Kemalists principles (1999-2007)

A number of initiatives took place during the Musharraf regime. Musharraf, a

supporter of Mustafa Kamal Atatü rk, and his modernist ideology fueled the
flames of equality. There were major factor in Musharraf's regime that truly
granted women's rights.

 33% historic representation of women

 17% of seats are reserved for women in both provincial and national
assemblies

 Shamshad Akhtar was appointed as the first female governor of the State
Bank
  Establishing the national commission on the status of women (2000) as
statutory body.

 Gender Reforms Action Plan (GRAP) to make it obligatory for

governments to ensure gender equality.

 Enactment of the Women's Protection Bill (2006).

 Replaced some of the Hadood ordinance

 Rape was taken out of the Hadd (maximum) penalty and added to
Pakistan's Criminal Procedure code. The confusion between rape and
adultery was cleared up.

 The rape case was treated in the same manner in other countries.

 Except for terrorism and murder, approximately 1300 women were

released in 2006.

 In 2006, the Cabinet approved a 10% quota for women in the Central
Superior Services(CSS)

 Besides it , women cadets from the military academy Kakul assumed

charge as guards at Mazar-e-Jinnah.

 Zardari period; a period of collaborative efforts to trigger the feminist

movements .(2006-2013)

The governmental period of Zardari gave impetus to the spirit of feminism

while also displaying the plight of women. It is the Zardari's era in which 12
year old Malala Yusuf was shot down for her outstanding contribution to
women's rights. It was during this period that Chand Bibi, a 17 year old girl, was
publicly flogged by the Taliban for having an illicit relationship with neighbor.
Further, Zardari's regime contributed by passing the number of legislation.
Includes;

1. Law against acid attacks

2. Protection of women from sexual harassment in the workplace.

3. Sharmeen obaid Chinoy’s documentary on acid attacks gave impetus to to

legislation against acid attacks.
 4. Fahmidah Mirza was appointed as the first female speaker of the National
Assembly in South Asia.

5. Hinna Rabani Khar was appointed as the first female foreign minister.

6. The Law of Inheritance was passed in 2011

7. A domestic violence bill was implemented in 2012

8. The ministry of women's development was established at the federal

level

9. The sexual harassment act was passed on 2010.

Gender and Development

Colonial and Capitalistic Perspective of Gender;-

Colonization itself was a gendered act, carried out by imperial workforces,

overwhelmingly men, drawn from masculinized occupations such as soldiering
and long- distance trade. The rape of women of colonized societies was a
normal part of conquest. – (Raewyn Connell)

The husband represents the proletariat, and the wife represents the
bourgeoisie.

(Frederick Engle).

 Colonialism gave rise to Capitalism

 In the history of modern globalization, beginning with the expansion of

England and other European countries in colonial conquest, agents of
globalization, leaders and troops, have been men, but not just any men.
They have been particular men whose locations within gendered social
relations and practices can be captured by the concept of masculinity.

 As corporate capitalism developed, Connell argue, a hegemonic

masculinity based on claims to expertise developed along with
masculinities still organized around domination.
  The concept of gender was introduced by Western colonizers and became
a tool for domination that designates two binary oppositions and
hierarchical social categories; women became defined by their
subordinate relation to men in all categories.
 Gender has been a resource for globalizing firms as they seek out new
sources of low-wage labor.
 In global cities the work of provisioning, cleaning the offices, child
tending, caring for bodies and homes must be done so that global
managers and other members of the global elite can go easily about their
business. The labor power for these tasks is to a large extent provided by
immigrants, disproportionately women, from Third World countries.

 Increased labor participation by women can be viewed as a positive

result by capitalism but it has come at a cost of lower wages than men
and poorer working conditions. A large number of women are still
dependent on both their employers and their husbands.

Connotation of Feminism

In the connotation of feminism, Capitalism is such a system where,under the

principle of exploitation , matriarchal systems are replaced by Patriarchal
systems, opportunities are replaced by adversities , and rights for women are
replaced by duties of women.

Strands of exploitation and suppression under Capitalism

 A strong Nexus among Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Exploitation

 Women-the source of reproductive labor
 Women-powerless domestic slaves of slaves
 Women-doubly oppressed victims
 Patriarchy – an ideology in the capitalist system

The colonialist perspective of Gender

Positive impacts of Colonialism;-
 Allowed the widow to remarriage (WIDOW REMARRIAGE ACT 1856)
 Granted the rights of inheritance to women
 Right to own property (MARRIED WOMEN’S PROPERTY ACT III 1874)
 Prohibition on child marriage
 Termination of immortal practices such as sati (SATI ABOLITION ACT 1820)
  Growth of organization for women’s rights and fundamental rights

Negative impacts of Colonialism;-

 Introduce the concept patriarchy
 Created a dual social category system
 Europeans implemented their ideas of sex and gender into the native
people Prostitutes were provided cards for identification and work
provided to soldiers.

The Capitalistic perspective of Gender

Positive impacts of Capitalism;-

 More and more people were incorporated into industries

 It encouraged efficient people to come forward
 People stood against opposition and demanded their rights
 Consumers enjoy a wider choice of product and service.

Negative impacts of Capitalism;-

 The exploitation of the working class majority especially women

 Exposure to violence objectification and social economic equality lead to
anxiety depression low self esteem among gender
 Increased in child marriage, teenage pregnancy , sexual abuse, racism and
domestic violence
 Poor access to healthcare, education and lack of Representation
existed in society.

Gender Analysis of Development Theories;

Three theories have been used by global economy and development theorists to explain the
differing levels of development and inequality between countries: modernization, dependency,
and world system theory.
These theories mainly explore the impact of the global economy on inequality.
The original conceptions of modernization, dependency, and world system theory have all
neglected to incorporate gender into an analysis of international development and global
inequality.
What is Gender analysis?
 Gender analysis is a type of socio-economic analysis that uncovers how
gender relations affect a development problem.
 Gender analysis refers to the variety of methods used to understand the
relationships between men and women, their access to resources, their
activities, and the constraints they face relative to each other.
 Gender Analysis basically examines the differences in women’s and men’s
lives, including those which lead to social and economic inequities for
women and applies this analysis to understand policy development and
service delivery.
 The Main aim of gender analysis is to achieve positive change for women.

What is Gender analysis?

 Gender analysis recognizes that women and men are different
so their experiences, need, issues, and priorities are also
different
 Women’s lives are not all the same
 Gender analysis aims to achieve equity rather that equality.

Background of development theories.

 These theories for stimulated during mid 20th century when
decolonization occurred and economic disparity between European and
countries and underdeveloped countries became obvious.
 Consequently, social, political, and economic aspects were included in
theories of economic development
 There is a primary concept in each theory which is considered as a driver
of economic development.

(1) Modernization Theory

 Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a "pre-

modern" or "traditional" to a "modern" society.
 Modernization theory finds its origin in the ideas of Max Weber, the German
sociologist who discussed the role of irrationality and rationality in a
traditional society’s transition into a modern society.
 Modernization theory was developed in the late 1940s, and it sought to
address poverty, especially in 3rd world countries with an evidently non-
communist solution that embraced a capitalist model of industrialized
development and Western democratic values.
 Modernization theory blames internal cultural factors for women’s
subordination in the developing world. It is argued that some traditional
 cultures, and especially the religious ideas that underpin the values,
norms, institutions and customs of the developing world, ascribe status
on the basis of gender. In practice, this means that males are accorded
patriarchal control and dominance over a range of female activities and,
consequently, women have little status in developing societies.
Modernization theory argued that cultural norms of impoverished
countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia constitute the primary
impediments to their progress.
 Modernization theorists note that gender equality is generally greater in
more developed countries and believe that there is relationship between
modernization, economic growth and greater gender equality.
 Modernization theory is one of the theories of economic development, It
stresses on cultural features of each society such as Political, Religion, and
Culture.
 This theory uses a systematic process to move underdeveloped countries
to a more sophisticated level development.
 This theory explains inequality within or between states by identifying
different values, systems, and ideas held by different nation states.

Theoretical perspective of how countries should develop.

Rostow believed that the initial injection of aid from the West in the form of
training, education, economic investment etc, would be enough to jolt society
into economic growth overcoming these cultural barriers. Rostow suggested
that development should be seen as an evolutionary process in which countries
progress up 5 stages of a development ladder.

Rostow’s five stage model of development;-

1. Stage 1 – Traditional Stage;-

Traditional societies have mostly subsistence-based economies. These society's

have little money to invest and little access to contemporary business and
technology. Cultural hurdles stand in the way of development according to
Rostow

2. Stage 2 – The precondition for take-off;-

The stage in which Western aid packages bring Western values, practices and,
expertise into the society. This can take the form of

 science and technology- to improve agriculture

 Infrastructure- improving roads and cities communications
 Industry- Western companies establishing factories

These provide the conditions for investment, attracting more companies into
the country.

3. Stage 3 – The take off stage;-

At this stage rise of new industries witnessed in the society. New industrial
techniques and rise of technology witnesses in the society. This creates more
wealth; which then trickles down to the populace as a whole, enabling them to
purchase new goods made by local and international new industries.

4. Stage 4 – The drive to maturity;-

More economic growth and investment in education, media, and birth control.
This stage involves widespread application of technology in its full range. The]
society now uses latest technology.

5. Stage 5 – The age of mass consumption;-

This is where economic growth and production are at Western levels. Country
sought development aid and foreign support. At the time of writing, Rostow
believed that Western countries, most notably the USA, occupied this last
‘‘developed’’ stage. Here, a country’s economy flourishes in a capitalist system,
characterized by mass production and consumerism.

(2) World System Theory

The world systems theory, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallenstein, is
an approach to world history and social change that suggests there is a world
economic system in which some countries benefit while others are exploited.

Key Points
 Immanuel Wallerstein developed World Systems Theory and its three-
level hierarchy: core, periphery, and semi-periphery.
 Core countries are dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral
countries for labor and raw materials.
 Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital and
have underdeveloped industry.
 Semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and
peripheral countries.

Key Terms
 Peripheral: These countries lack a strong central government and
may be controlled by other states and, these countries export raw
materials to the core countries, Peripheral countries are dependent on
core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry.
 Core: Describes dominant capitalist countries which exploit the
peripheral countries for labor and raw materials.
 Semi-peripheral: Countries that share characteristics of both core
and periphery countries. Semi peripheral countries are those that are
midway between the core and periphery. Because of this, they have to
keep themselves from falling to the category of peripheral nations and
at the same time strive to join the category of core nations.

Theory in Gender perspective

 World-system theory has also been applied and adapted within gender
studies to analyze how global economic systems intersect with and
influence gender dynamics worldwide.
 It helps in understanding how gender roles, power structures, and
inequalities are shaped by the global economy.
 This theory emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.
  Modern nation states exist within a broad economic, political, and
legal framework which Immanuel calls a world system.
 The status of women in core countries is totally different then the
women in periphery and semi-periphery countries
 This theory argues that as a single individual’s behavior cannot be
understood without reference to their surroundings, experience, and
culture similarly a Nation’s economic system cannot be understood
without reference to the world of which it is part.

(3) Dependency Theory

 The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory. According to

dependency theorists, the lagging development of poor countries is the
effect of long-standing “unequal exchanges” between poor and rich
countries.
 The unequal exchanges between these countries have resulted in a
handful of rich, economically-developed countries and a larger number of
poor countries that have not benefited from the global economic system.
 Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery"
of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states,It came in
system during 1960 to 1970s.
 This Theory rejects the concept of modernization theory which says that
internal resources are very important which determine economic
capabilities development.
 It says that besides internal factors there are external factors also. This
theory gives more important to external factors like How one country is
doing trade with which countries it is doing trade? How it is exploiting
the other countries?
 Dependency theorists define development as ability of countries to being
free from exploitation and being able to define development according to
their own needs and not directed by external pressures.
 It argues that trade between core and peripheral countries is characterized by
unequal exchange, where the prices of raw materials from the periphery are
kept low while the prices of manufactured goods from the core are high.
 Dependency theorists argue that the development of wealthy nations
often leads to the underdevelopment of poorer nations. This is because
the economic structures and relationships established by colonialism and
later maintained through neocolonialism benefit the core nations while
hindering the development of the periphery.
 Gender analysis of Dependency theory
 Men use patriarchal system to keep women in the state of dependency
towards men. It is socially constructed that society makes women
dependent on men.
 This theory explains how tradition feudal structures of exploitation were
used by present developed countries. It does not examine how power
relations of gender within colonies matter for development.
 It argues that underdeveloped countries are not only older versions of
developed countries, but in fact the wealthier countries of today have
become wealthier by exception.

Criticism
Though the dependency/world system perspective has been a more critical
framework than Modernization theory, it too initially ignored issues related to
gender and treated development as a Gender-neutral process.

(4) Structural Functionalism.

 Structural functionalism refers to a quantitative theory that views society
as a linked system, with each component performing a specific role in the
system.
 This theory examines how different social institutions (such as family,
education, economy, and religion) contribute to the overall stability and
functioning of society. Each institution serves a purpose or function, and
these functions are interdependent.
 According to theory of Structural functionalism, society is made up of
bunch of moving parts that move together as one.
 Focous of structural functionalism is on having an order in society.It has
problem with change.

Gender analysis of Structural functionalism

 Structural functionalism says that gender roles arise from the need to
establish a division of labour that will help maintain the smooth running
of the family and contribute to the stability of society.
  The functionalist perspective of gender roles suggests that gender roles
exist to maximize social efficiency
 This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to
create a division of labor, or as a social system in which a particular
segment of the population is clearly responsible for certain acts of labor
and another segment is clearly responsible for other labor acts.
 Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the
pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities
outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of
the domestic responsibilities in or around the home. These roles were
considered functional because women were often limited by the physical
restraints of pregnancy and nursing and were unable to leave the home
for long periods of time. These roles were passed on to subsequent
generations, since they served as an effective means of keeping the
family system functioning properly.
 Structural functionalism examines how gender roles are established and
maintained within society. It suggests that these roles serve a purpose in
maintaining social order and stability. For instance, within a traditional
family structure, it might emphasize the role of women as caregivers and
homemakers, while men are seen as breadwinners. According to this
perspective, these roles contribute to the smooth functioning of the
family unit.

Gender Approaches to Development:

Gender approaches to development refer to frameworks and strategies that aim to
address gender inequalities and promote gender equality within the context of
development initiatives. These approaches recognize that development programs and
policies can have different impacts on men and women and seek to ensure that these
initiatives are inclusive and beneficial for all genders.

1. Women in Development (WID);-

 The term “women in development” was originally coined by a
Washington-based network of female development professionals in
the early 1970s who sought to question trickle down existing
theories of development by contesting that economic development
had identical impacts on men and women.
 Women in development (WID) is an approach to development that
focuses on the role of women in economic and social development.
It emphasizes the need to address gender inequality and to
promote the participation of women in all aspects of development.
  WID is the role of women in the progress of the nation. That means
how they are giving their input for the progress and development
of state.
 Women in development means the role of women in the
development of a nation or a country particularly it is focused on
contribution of women in the progress and development of country.
 This approach focuses on economic participation and access of
women . This approach asked to apply modernization theory.
 The first development theory that included gender was dubbed
“women in development” (WID), which was an extension of the
modernization approach.

The main principles and goals of the Women in

Development (WID) approach are:
1. Gender equality: The WID approach recognizes that gender equality is an
essential component of sustainable development and seeks to address the
systemic inequalities that disadvantage women and girls.
2. Empowerment of women: The WID approach seeks to empower women by
promoting their active participation in all aspects of development,
including decision-making processes, and by addressing the social,
economic, and political barriers that limit their agency.
3. Recognition of women’s rights: The WID approach advocates for the
recognition and protection of women’s rights, including their reproductive
rights, their rights to education and employment, and their rights to
participate in public life.
4. Integration of a gender perspective: The WID approach emphasizes the
importance of integrating a gender perspective into all development policies
and programs, in order to ensure that the needs and priorities of both
women and men are taken into account.
5. Capacity-building for women: The WID approach seeks to build the
capacity of women through education, training, and other forms of
support, in order to enable them to fully participate in development
processes and to realize their full potential.

The successes and challenges of the WID approach

There have been many successes and challenges associated with the Women in Development
(WID) approach. Some of the successes include:
1. Increased awareness of gender inequality: The WID approach has contributed to an
increased awareness of the importance of gender equality in development, and has
 helped to bring issues such as women’s empowerment and reproductive rights to the
forefront of the development agenda.
2. Improved access to education and employment: The WID approach has led to greater
access to education and employment for women in many countries, which has in turn
contributed to increased economic opportunities and independence for women.
3. Greater participation in decision-making: The WID approach has helped to increase the
participation of women in decision-making at all levels, including in local
communities, national governments, and international organizations.
4. Enhanced livelihoods: The WID approach has contributed to the enhancement of
livelihoods for women in many parts of the world, through initiatives such as
microfinance programs and entrepreneurship support.

Some of the challenges associated with the WID approach include:

1. Resistance to change: There has been resistance to the WID approach in some
quarters, particularly from those who view it as a threat to traditional gender roles and
power dynamics.
2. Limited resources: The WID approach has often been underfunded, which has
limited its ability to achieve its goals and to scale up successful initiatives.
3. Lack of gender-disaggregated data: There has often been a lack of accurate and
comprehensive data on the situation of women and girls, which has made it difficult to
measure the impact of the WID approach and to identify areas in need of
improvement.
4. Limited institutional support: There has often been a lack of institutional support for
the WID approach, both within governments and international organizations, which
have made it difficult to mainstream a gender perspective into development policies
and programs.
2 Women and Development (WAD);-
 As a result of criticisms of the WID approach, the Women and
Development (WAD) approach arose in the latter part of the 1970s.
Adopting a Marxist feminist approach, the main argument of WAD was
that women had always been part of the development processes. WAD
asserts that women have always been important economic actors.
 WAD highlighted the importance of integrating women into
development initiatives, emphasizing their roles as active
contributors to economic, social, and cultural development.
 Women and development (WAD) is a theoretical and practical approach
to development. It was introduced into gender studies scholarship in the
second half of the 1970s, following its origins, which can be traced to the
First World Conference on Women in Mexico City in 1975, organized by
the UN.
 WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women’s role in development,
and concerns about the explanatory limitations of modernization theory.
While previous thinking held that development was a vehicle to advance
women, new ideas suggested that development was only made possible
 by the involvement of women, and rather than being simply passive
recipients of development aid, they should be actively involved in
development projects.
 WAD took this thinking a step further and suggested that women have
always been an integral part of development, and did not suddenly
appear in the 1970s as a result of exogenous development efforts.
 The WAD approach suggests that there be women-only development
projects that were theorized to remove women from the patriarchal
hegemony that would exist if women participated in development
alongside men in a patriarchal culture.
 Rather than focus specifically on women’s relationship to development,
WAD focuses on the relationship between patriarchy and capitalism.
 WAD was very persuasive in raising the debate that women have a role
not only in reproduction but in production as well. For development to be
meaningful for women both these roles have to be acknowledged.

Criticism
 Some of the common critiques of the WAD approach include concerns that the women-only
development projects would struggle, or ultimately fail, due to their scale, and the marginalized
status of these women.
 The WAD perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a class, and pay little attention to
the differences among women including race and ethnicity, and prescribe development endeavors
that may only serve to address the needs of a particular group.
3 Gender and Development (GAD);-
 The scholarly framework called “gender and development” (GAD)
emerged in the 1980s, as a critique of the WID perspective.
 GAD researchers focused on why women have been systematically
positioned in inferior and/or secondary roles. Moreover, the community
of GAD scholars began to question the meaning of development and the
goal of integrating women into the economic development process.
 GAD focuses on understanding the roles, needs, and contributions of both
men and women, considering their diverse experiences and
circumstances. The goal is to create more inclusive and equitable
societies by promoting gender equality and empowering women.
 As a development approach, GAD seeks to equalize the status and
condition of and relations between women and men by influencing the
process and output of policy-making, planning, budgeting,
implementation and monitoring and evaluation so that they would
deliberately address the gender issues and concerns affecting the full
development of women
 GAD is really important regarding the development. it is a way of looking
at how social norms and power structures impact on the lives and
 opportunities available to different groups of men and woman .globally
more woman are living in the poverty then
 They importance of GAD lies in the matter that it helps in analyzing the
social norms and power structures which put impacts on man and
woman.
 According to GAD all the gender especially women and men are involved
in the process of progress and development
 GAD emphasizes on equal access to resources. men and women should
have equality in the matters related to the access to resource
 GAD sees women as agent of change rather than mere recipient of
development. It says that women are not just demanding the
development, but they are those who can bring development.
 The focus of GAD remained on gender relation. it talks about all the
genders and their mutual relation.
 GAD talks about the participation of women in politicization, socialization
and economic activities
 GAD opposes the male dominance in the society but keep in mind that it
does not only oppose the patriarchy but also the matriarchy.
 GAD aims to strengthen women legal rights and reforms law that
discriminate women so it basically talks more about the actual rights for
women and all the other gender.

Status of Women in Pakistan

“No nation can rise to the height of glory unless their women are side by side with them…It is crime
against humanity that our women are shut up with in the four walls of the houses as prisoners. There
is no sanction anywhere for the deplorable condition in which our women have to live.”

- Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Father of the Nation

 The World Economic Forum in its Global Gender Gap Report, 2017 placed
Pakistan 143rd out of 144 countries, worst in the South Asian region that has
an average remaining gender gap of 34% as note by the index.
 Pakistan ranks 135 out of 174 in UNDP’s gender related development index,
2017.
 Article 34 of the Constitution of Pakistan requires that ‘steps shall be taken to
ensure full participation of women in all the spheres of national life’.

The Ideology of Pakistan is based on Islam. During 1400 year, Islam is the only
religions which granted different rights to women. Islam has granted social
political and economical rights to women. She has allowed choosing her life
partner and her consent is mandatory for marriage. In addition, Women can
work out of the home under Islamic terms and condition. Many other rights
have also been granted such law of inheritance, equality between men and
women, education and domestic rights. Despite granting of rights to women,
the Islamic state is responsible for the protection of her right under the lights of
Quran and Sunnah. However, the deteriorating condition of women in the
world and Pakistan is miserable. In past, a liberation movement laid in the west,
which compelled to accept equality of women. Further, it worked for the
protection of women around the world. The male and female ratio is not
balance in Pakistan. Many factors are influencing it, such as Target Killing,
sectarian riots, and suicide attacks. Nevertheless, Male is dominant in all sphere
of life. During the early years of Pakistan, Women were allowed to work on
equality basis. But the social backwardness of the people restrained them to
liberate women in the environment. Mohtrama Fatima Jinnah and other female
freedom fighters are explicit example. In the regime of Ayoub and Bhutto,
Women education was obliged. The 1973 constitution accepted the equality of
women and their rights.
However, the Zia regime abandoned all the law of 1973, which guard the basic
rights of women. The controversial Hadood-ordinance devastated the social life
of women in the country. It was called the laws of Islam. All the punishment was
according to the Islamic law, such as stone to death on the charges of adultery,
as well as punishment of lashes, diat, Qisas. However, it failed to adopt fair and
non-controversial process of prosecution. Many cases were reported which
demonstrate the incapability of Federal Sharia court to judge the case of rape
and adultery. In addition, women were deprived of their basic rights. Due to the
criticism by civil society, Federal Sharia Court had to reverse its few decision
regarding rape and adultery.
The first woman Prime Minister promised to abolish such controversial laws.
But, she could not succeed in her ambition, due to complex legislation of this
law. It required approval from both the houses and then judicial review.
Similarly, Nawaz Sharif could not do any remarkable progress for the
development of women. In 2001, President General Musharraf suspended few
controversial articles of Hadood Ordinance and release 1300 women from the prison,
who were not arrested in any criminal case. The regime of Musharraf was the
regime of women liberation. Women were inducted in army and air force. A
cricket team of women were organized. In 2006, women protection bill
distinguished between Zinah-Bil-Jabar and Zina-Bil-Raza. Despite the protest of
religious parties, this law was enforced and effectively implemented. The
Ministry of women Development was established in this regime. All NGOs of
women right were free to perform their activities.
After the revival of democracy, the Government of Pakistan adopted the policy
of ex-Government. In 2011, Anti-women bill was passed in Assembly. Despite
all the legislation, women conferred different problems. In northern area, the
practices of vani is strongly adopted as punish to convicted family. In practice of
vani, a girl from convicted family will marry with a male with another family. In
this regard, The Punchyat does not consider the age difference between male
and female. Often, it is noted that girl was less than 14 years and the age of male
from 25-45 years.

Watta-Satta is the given-take rule, in which a family will give a girl and will
take a girl from other family. Such kind of practice denies the basic rules
granted under Islamic laws to women. Islam has appreciated the austerity in
daily life. But, the practice of bulk dowry deteriorated the economic status of
people. It has been compulsory to give bulk dowry to newly bride at the time of
marriage. The repercussions are sever for the middle class people, who spend
their all saving for the marriage of his daughter or sister. In result, they suffer in
economic problems. In this context, the practice of dowry has become an abuse
for the social life of people in Pakistan.
In different areas of Sindh, the people perform an illegal practice by marrying
with Quran. There is not any kind of evidence to prove such practice according
to Quran and Sunna. It is against the teaching of Islam. Another social crime
practiced by the people of Sindh is honor killing of woman. According to the
sources and survey, it has been revealed that honor killing is done, because of
property, enmity and adultery rather than love marriages. In Islam, the right of
consent with woman is granted and woman may select her life partner.
The act of acid throwing is prevailing around the country. Due to the forced
love, marriage, enmity and domestic violence, this kind of act evolve in the
society. It is a humiliating act which shattered feelings of the people around the
world. Te victims of this act are women. Miss Sharmin Obed Chinoy has
highlighted the issue in international community by her documentary movie
Saving Face..
In addition, the parliament has passed a bill to punish the culprits of acid
throwing. In Pakistan, Woman trafficking business also is operated by
indigenous people. Many women from different countries are brought and sell
in Pakistan. In addition, women kidnapped from different parts of the country
are sold in other parts of the country.
Pakistan is dominated by the tribal tradition in Northern areas, Fata,
Baluchistan and Sindh. The tribal mindset people exploit the people in his
favor.. Furthermore, these tribal mindset people oblige the torture on women.
Even in Urban areas, the status of women is blemish for the social society.
Where, the women restricted to get education. Due to lack of education, women
fail to get their right and they suffer in domestic violence and sexual
harassment cases.
 The role of both women and men is important in the development of strong
society. In this context, women problems may be eliminated from social life. It
needs few measures to adopt. For better Islamic society, People must
understand the true spirit of Islam. Nowadays, the role of media is excellent in
promoting education for women. Other different method must be adopted to
increase the importance of female education, especially in tribal areas.
The Government of Pakistan initiated many developments programs for the
women in terms of education, training, and financial support. Other bodies of
social life such as NGOs and Human Rights organization should arrange
program for counseling the people about the status of women and in social life.
They should also highlight the equality of gender and consent over marriage
decision with girl. In art and entertainment, Sharmin Obed Chinoy has received
Oscar award for her documentary film .Saving Face..
Nevertheless, women suffer in miserable problems. These problems may be
social, political and economical. A healthy and educated woman can build a
strong society. During present decade, The Government of Pakistan launched
many development programs to boost the women status in the country. The
law enforcement agencies passed different laws to provide security to women
in the country. In civil service of Pakistan, Women have granted 10% of quota.
But it is also compulsory to counsel people about the right status of women in
the society. In this regard, the Electronic Media can perform an excellent part .

Violence against women in Pakistan

 Pakistan is a society burdened with the legacy of colonial rule, and
presently dominated by the landed aristocracy, bureaucracy, a strong
army with ruthless powers and eyes fixed on taking over the government,
as well as the Muslim religious parties, who wish to dictate all matters of
an individual’s life.

Acts of violence Include;

1. Custodial rape and abuse Pakistan’s Additional Police Surgeon Dr Zulfiqar Siyal revealed
that on average 100 women are raped every 24 hours in Karachi city alone. Rape and sexual
harassment in police custody remains a big problem, and few cases result in prosecution.
According to a report by Human Rights Watch, more than 70 percent of women in police
custody experience physical or sexual abuse at the hands of their jailers. Reported abuses
include beating and slapping; suspension in mid-air by hands tied behind the victim’s back; the
insertion of foreign objects, including police batons and chilli peppers, into the vagina and
rectum; and gang rape
2. Domestic violence;-In a 2008 survey, 70% of women respondents reported that they
experienced domestic violence. According to a 2009 Human Rights Watch report, 70-90% of
Pakistani women suffered with some kind of domestic violence. About 5,000 women are killed
annually from domestic violence in Pakistan, with thousands of other women maimed or
disabled.
3. Forced conversion of minority girls;-In Pakistan, Hindu and Christian girls are
kidnapped, raped, forcibly converted to Islam and forced to marry Muslim men. About 1,000
non Muslim girls are forcibly converted to Islam in Pakistan every year.
4. Honour killing;-Historically, honour killings have occurred in sub-continent for hundreds
of years and authorities in the country, legally obligated to treat such incidents as a crime of
homicide, often ignore such killings. As of 2019, thousands of honour killings occurred
annually in Pakistan.
5. Rape and sexual violence;-The topic of sex is a taboo subject in Pakistan, therefore
women often refrain from reporting their experiences with rape. According to a study
carried out by Human Rights Watch there is a rape once every two hours and a gang rape
every hour.
6. Transgender women;-Between 2015 and 2020, according to Trans Action Alliance
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, 68 transgendered people were murdered in the province of Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa, and in 2018 alone, 479 transgender women were attacked in the province.
7. Acid Attacks: These horrific attacks are often carried out by rejected suitors or spouses,
resulting in disfigurement and severe physical and psychological trauma.
8. Cyber Harassment: Women face online abuse, stalking, and threats, impacting their mental
well-being and safety.

Existing laws

Article 25 of the 1973 Pakistani constitution states: "All citizens are equal before law and
are entitled to equal protection of law. There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex.
Nothing in this Article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the
protection of women and children."
Article 23 of the 1973 Constitution states: "Provision as to property. Every citizen shall
have the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property in any part of Pakistan, subject to the
Constitution and any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the public interest."
Article 310A states: “Punishment for giving a female in marriage or otherwise in badla-e-
sulh, wanni or swara.- Whoever gives a female in marriage or otherwise compels her to enter
into marriage, as badal-e-sulh, wanni, or swara or any other custom or practice under any
name, in consideration of settling a civil dispute or a criminal liability, shall be punished with
imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years but shall not
be less than three years and shall also be liable to fine of five hundred thousand rupees.”
 Women related laws in Pakistan

 Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill 2009

 Acid Control and Acid Crime Prevention Act 2010
 The Dowry And Bridal Gifts Act
 The Protection Against Harassment of Women at the workplace Act ( 2010)
 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2010
 The Prevention of Anti-Women Practices Act ( 2011)
 The Women in Distress and Detention Fund ( 2011)
 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2011( Prevention of Acid crimes incidents)
 The Domestic Violence Prevention and Protection Bill 2012
 National Commission on Status of Women Act 2012
 National Commission for Human Rights Act 2012
 Women, Violence and Jirgas Act

Gender quotas in politics have both advantages and disadvantages:

Pros:

Increased Representation: Quotas ensure a more balanced representation of genders in

politics, addressing historical underrepresentation and giving a voice to women in decision-
making roles.

Diverse Perspectives: Women bring diverse perspectives and priorities to policymaking,

which can lead to more comprehensive and inclusive governance.

Role Model Effect: Visible female leaders inspire other women and girls to participate in
politics, encouraging greater political engagement among women.

Policy Outcomes: Studies suggest that female representation correlates with policies that
address social issues like healthcare, education, and family welfare.

Cons:

Tokenism Concerns: Critics argue that quotas may lead to the selection of unqualified
candidates solely based on gender, undermining merit-based selection.

Resistance and Backlash: Quotas might face resistance and backlash from those who
perceive them as unfair or discriminatory against men.

Institutional Challenges: Implementing quotas may face challenges within political

parties or electoral systems, leading to insufficient enforcement.

Impact on Other Minorities: Quotas based solely on gender may not account for other
marginalized groups within the society.
 Status of Women’s health in Pakistan

The state shall secure the well-being of the people, irrespective of sex, caste, creed or race…
provide basic necessities of life, such as…medical relief, for all such citizens…as are permanently
or temporarily unable to earn their livelihood on account of infirmity, sickness or unemployment…

- Constitution of Pakistan, 1973, Article 38(a) and

(d)

Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself
and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social
services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood,
old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.- Universal Declaration of
Human Rights Article 25(1)

 Health is a state of complete mental, physical, and social well-being and does
not mean the mere absence of disease or infirmity. Women in Pakistan face
multiple health challenges. The health issues range from the highest
mortality rate among women to the burgeoning cases of breast cancer. The
lack of attention authorities pay to improving the public healthcare system
further exacerbates the issue because women often use the service owing to
their reproductive duties. Furthermore, the issue of women’s health,
particularly in rural areas, is often ignored because of cultural constraints.
As per the UN report, 48 percent of women in Pakistan have no say in their
own health matters.
 “Around 55 percent of pregnant women in Pakistan do not have access to trained staff or
lady health visitors and most of them give birth to their children at home,” Dr Yasmin
Rashid said, who is one of the leading gynecologists’ of the country and has served as the
head of the obstetrics & gynecology department at King Edward Medical University.
 On average, 48.1 percent of women and girls aged between 15 and 49 years in Pakistan
have no say in decisions regarding their own health care, but rates vary significantly by
location, wealth and ethnicity.- Report by UN for the year 2017.
 Only in Sindh maternal mortality is six to eight per thousand live births. They tend to
marry at younger ages around six to seven and the fertility rates average at six births
per woman.

Some of the serious health issues confronted by women in Pakistan are given as follows:
1. Maternal mortality: Maternal mortality refers to the death of women during
childbirth or due to complications from pregnancy. Pakistan has one of the highest
maternal mortality rates in the world. According to the 2019 World Population
Report, 178 women out of every 100,000 die while giving birth.
2. Breast Cancer; In Asia, Pakistan has the highest rate of breast cancer. It is the
second-leading cause of death among women. According to the Pakistan Medical
Association, around 83,000 cases of breast cancer are reported each year, and
approximately 40,000 women die from it in Pakistan.
 3. Iron deficiency; Iron deficiency is among the major health issues facing women in
Pakistan. The problem becomes complicated during pregnancy. According to the
global anemia survey, approximately 85% of women in South Asia are anemic during
pregnancy, making it the leading cause of maternal mortality. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), about 50 percent of women in Pakistan are iron deficient.
Besides, as per the findings of the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2017–
2018, nearly 44% of women aged 15–49 in Pakistan are anemic. The principal causes
of iron deficiency in women are their limited access to nutritious food owing to
poverty and their unawareness about taking iron supplements during pregnancy.
4. HIV and Hepatitis; According to the National AIDS Control Program of Pakistan, an
estimated 160,000 people are living with HIV in the country, with women accounting
for nearly 37% of all cases. Hepatitis is more common in women. According to one
lady doctor working at the Shaikh Zaid women’s hospital in Larkana, approximately
half of the women who visit the hospital for childbirth are diagnosed with hepatitis.
5. Depression; According to the Pakistan Association of Mental Health, about 34 percent
of women in Pakistan are affected by depression. According to Huma Yusuf, a
renewed columnist and scholar, women are more prone to depression as compared to
men. One of the most significant risks associated with depression is suicide. According
to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 800,000 people die by
suicide every year, and depression is a significant risk factor for suicide.
6. Heart Diseases; Contrary to popular belief, breast cancer is not the leading cause of
death among women. According to studies, heart disease is the main cause of death
for women over 55. The following are some typical risk factors for heart disease in women:
 Diabetes: High blood sugar affects the arteries, putting people at greater risk of
developing plaque.
 Menopause: Researchers believe that the abrupt decline in estrogen during menopause
may be the reason for the association between menopause and heart disease.
 Hypertension: high blood pressure stresses the arteries by making the heart work
harder than usual. Other risk factors include obesity, long periods of inactivity,
smoking, and genetics.

Core components of the right to health

The right to health includes 4 essential, interrelated elements: availability, accessibility,
acceptability and quality.

Availability; refers to the need for a sufficient quantity of functioning health facilities, goods
and services for all. Availability can be measured through the analysis of disaggregated data
to different stratifies including by age, sex, location and socio-economic status and
qualitative surveys to understand coverage gaps.

Accessibility; requires that health facilities, goods, and services must be accessible to
everyone. Accessibility has four dimensions: non-discrimination, physical accessibility,
economic accessibility and information accessibility. This is particularly important for
persons with disabilities who often encounter significant barriers to health related to the
inaccessibility of services, facilities and health information.
 Assessing; accessibility requires analysis of physical, geographical, financial and other
barriers to health systems and services, and how they may affect people who are
marginalized. It requires the establishment or application of clear norms and standards in
both law and policy to address these barriers.

Acceptability; relates to respect for medical ethics, culturally appropriate, and sensitivity to
gender. Acceptability requires that health facilities, goods, services and programmes are
people-centered and cater to the specific needs of diverse population groups and in
accordance with international standards of medical ethics for confidentiality and informed
consent.

Quality; extends to the underlying determinants of health, for example safe and potable
water and sanitation as well as requiring that health facilities, goods, and services are
scientifically and medically approved.

Quality is a key component of universal health coverage (UHC). Quality health services should be:

 safe: avoiding injuries to people for whom the care is intended;

 effective: providing evidence-based services to those who need them;
 people-centred: providing care that responds to individual needs;
 timely: reducing waiting times and harmful delays;
 equitable: providing care that does not vary in quality on account of age, gender,
ethnicity, disability, geographic location, and socio-economic status;
 integrated: providing a full range of health services throughout the life course; and
 Efficient: maximizing the benefit of available resources and avoiding waste .

What are the Steps Needed to Improve Women’s Health in Pakistan?

According to a new World Bank research, Pakistan needs to put more of an emphasis on
reproduction as part of a comprehensive healthcare strategy that would improve the state of
women’s health in the nation.

The research highlights the necessity of:

 Increasing access to community-based family planning services, especially in remote regions,

Educating and assisting female healthcare professionals
 Expanding private sector services like NGOs’ outreach efforts and social marketing
campaigns.
 Status of women in education
 The education sector of Pakistan is not getting its real agendas in any aspects
and the main reason is the misplaced priorities of the government at large
scale. The status of women in education level got the real time boast but after
the unfortunate event of Malala Yousafzai that show the real and some
 reckless picture of Pakistan in front of International media. The full time
media intention for the women education in Pakistan made the availability of
women across the fields in Pakistan specifically. Now the Pakistani woman is
the artisan and even the trade sector is showing some traces of women in the
complete meaning full way. (dawn.com, 2015)
 Article 25A of the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan says that
education is a fundamental right of every citizen
 According to Global Gender Gap Report 2018 by World Economic Forum
Pakistan ranks overall 139/149 in educational attainment
 There are more enrollments of men in educational institutions then women
 Gap between enrollment of men and women is less from primary to higher
secondary education but it is more at degree level
 There are 38 % and 62 % girls in the public sector universities
 96% boys and only 4% girls are enrolled in private sector universities.

Causes of educational disparity in Pakistan

1. Patriarchal Gender roles;-
Household resources are allocated in favour of sons due to their role in society
outside home. They are expected to financially take care of family as well while
daughters would be married of another
2. Socioeconomic hurdles;-
Women are expected to do all the domestic work at home without any payment.
On the other hand men are responsible for earning money for the family. So
such a division forces women to stay home instead of going out to get
education.
3. Terrorism;-
710 schools were destroyed by Militants in KPK. 401 schools were damaged in
Swat; Militants are against the education of women

4. Rural Urban divide

Literary rate in rural women is only 12%, Only 3% women of 17-24 age group
have access to higher education.
 Cultural Norms and Traditions and Hatred for co education
 Early Marriage and Cultural Practices
Pakistan Government’s Policies:
The Pakistan Government has endorsed the new Sustainable Development Goal
(SDG) on Education. It is to ensure all girls and boys complete free, equitable, and quality
primary and secondary education by 2030. However, the education budget was short $565
million. It was not enough to be able to provide 12 years of education for all children in
Pakistan in 2015. However, public expenditures on education amount to only 2.7% of the
GDP of the country.

According to Article 37 of the Constitution of Pakistan 1973, “Women’s education in

Pakistan is a fundamental right of every female citizen”.

What Government is Doing?

Pakistan is the signatory to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women, as well as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) which have commitments to improving women’s socio-
economic conditions in the country and promoting gender equality.

The National Plan of Action, National Policy for Development, and Women’s
Empowerment are consistent with international gender commitments. Legislation against
gender-based violence has improved in Pakistan between 2000 and 2016. The government is
committed to facilitating women so that they can play a positive role in the development of
the country. However, special initiatives have been taken to ensure women’s empowerment.

Some of the initiatives are given as under:

1. The government has launched the Youth Business Loan Scheme, with 50% of loans
reserved for females.
2. The Punjab government has announced special budget allocations for the women’s
empowerment package in the provincial budget.
3. Under the Sindh Government’s Landless Farmers Project, of the total
beneficiaries, 70.6% of land titles were given to women farmers.
4. The government has established a 10% quota for women’s employment in civil services
by Punjab Government. It was done under the Punjab Fair Representation of
Women Act 2014.
5. Women’s Ombudsperson offices have been established at the federal and provincial
levels to ensure the implementation of the protection against harassment.
6. An amount of Rs 2.7 billion has been proposed for women’s empowerment and their
socio-economic development for the 11-Year Plan.
7. The government has also started the national women transfer scheme and Benazir
Income Support Programme (BISP) which facilitates women providing a source of
income.

Women and Employment

The state shall ensure the elimination of all forms of exploitation and the gradual
fulfillment of the fundamental principle, from each according to his ability, to each
according to his work.-(Constitution of Pakistan, Article 3)

One out of five women in Pakistan is part of labour force: UN report, 2017.

Only around 25% of women with a university degree in Pakistan are working (Asian
Development Bank)

Women’s reported share of the national income in Pakistan is less than 20 %, and
their participation in the formal labour force is 22 %.( International Labour Organization)

Reasons for the low rate of participation in the workforce

 Normative Barriers: Marriage, Mobility, Safety, and Attitudes

 Limited mobility; - Limited mobility is also associated with women’s
ability to participate in the labor force. According to the labor skills
survey of 2019, only 30% of women could go to local markets or a local
health facility alone, while 13% said they never go to local health
facilities. This lack of mobility for women constrains their flexibility to
travel to work and conduct business, thus affecting their labor force
participation. Women who are able to go to local markets alone or
accompanied are more likely to be in the labor force. According to the
FLFP 2018, 17% of women who could travel to local markets alone are in
the labor force compared to 9% of women who reported they could never
go to the market.
 Safety concerns
 Household Constraints83% of women who do not work outside
their homes cites housework as the main reason for not working.
 Harassment in Workplaces, lack of Education & Skills
 Women are generally paid less than men in private sector.
 Women find it difficult to accept transfers because of family
considerations.

Recommendations

Role of Media: The spread of media has positively affected

women’s empowerment. Evidence suggests that exposure to
 visible role models of women working or in leadership roles can
change norms.

Increasing Demand for Female Workers in Sectors with

Attractive Jobs: On the demand side, policies can be targeted to
increase labor demand in particular types of jobs in which women
are more likely to work, such as textile and apparel and white-
collar jobs

Educational Opportunities: Since education increases access to

these jobs, secondary and tertiary education would be essential
for increasing women’s labor force participation.

Security and Criminal Justice: Improving public safety for

women is crucial to improving their mobility. Institutionally,
women’s representation is also important; when women get into
leadership positions, they create more opportunities for women to
grow.

Transport: There is no state-provided transportation in most

cities, and it is completely absent from rural areas. Transport
infrastructure needs to be improved for improved mobility and
participation in the labor force for women.

Constitutional Rights of Women

Article 25 (1),(2) and (3)

 25 (1) declares all citizens to be equal before law and entitled to equal protection of law
 25 (2) states that there shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex alone.
 25 (3) Allows the State to create special laws and rules for specific issues facing women
and children, which are being ignored.

Article 34
 Ensures full participation of women in all spheres of national life.
18th Amendment
 Devolves most social issues to provinces and gives them responsibility for legislation and
initiatives regarding those women’s rights issues that fall within the purview of provinces.
18th Amendment has increased resources to provinces to work on women's empowerment.

Gender and Governance

Governance; - Governance encompasses the system by which an organisation
is controlled and operates, and the mechanisms by which it, and its people, are
held to account. Ethics, risk management, compliance and administration are all
elements of governance.
 Governance does not refer only to political participation but is defined
(by the United Nations DP) as “the exercise of political, economic and
administrative authority in managing a country’s affairs. It comprises the
mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and
groups articulate their interests; exercise their legal rights, meet their
obligations and mediate their differences.
 This term is defined as “the manner in which power is exercised in the
management of a country’s economic and social resources for
development”.

 The World Bank identified three distinct aspects of governance:

 The form of the political regime
 The process by which authority is exercised in the management of
a country’s economic and social resources for development
 The capacity of governments to design, formulate and implement
policies and discharge functions.

 According to International Development Association (IDA), the four major

pillars against which governance can be judged are stated to be:
 Accountability: At the macro level this includes financial accountability,
in terms of an effective, transparent and publicly accountable system for
expenditure control and cash management, and an external audit system. At
the micro level it requires that managers of implementing and parastatal
agencies be accountable for operational efficiency.
 Transparency: Private-sector investment decisions depend on public
knowledge of the government’s policies and confidence in its intentions, as
well as in the information provided by the government on economic and
market conditions.
 The rule of law: A fair, predictable and stable legal framework is essential
so that businesses and individuals may assess economic opportunities and
act on them without fear of arbitrary interference or expropriation.
 Participation: Good governance requires that civil society has the
opportunity to participate during the formulation of development strategies
and that directly affected communities and groups should be able to
participate in the design and implementation of programmes and projects.

UNDP’S WORK ON WOMEN’S POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT: UNDP’s

projects focus on the following objectives to achieve women’s political
empowerment:
1. Increase the number of women in public office
 2. Enhance women’s leadership by helping to reform electoral processes,
change political parties, and strengthen parliaments, judiciaries and the
civil service
3. Strengthen women’s organizations ability to advocate and implement
projects that promote women’s rights
4. Promote judicial reform to ensure equal legal protection to poor women
and men
5. Ensure that essential public services like health and education benefit
poor women, men, girls and boys equitably
6. Promote the ratification, implementation, and reporting on women’s
international and regional women’s instruments such as the CEDAW
7. Reduce gender-based violence

 Gender and Governance is all about the participation of women, men, and
even other genders in decision making structures. Participation of gender
in governance varies from country to country.

Suffragist Movement
The women’s suffrage movement, which began during a time of great social
change in the mid 1800s, was closely linked with a women’s rights movement,
sometime called the first wave of feminism. As they would during the women’s
liberation movement, which peaked during the 1970s, almost a hundred years
later, lesbian and bisexual women led the American movement for women’s
suffrage.
One of the first public appeals for women suffrage came in 1848. Two
reformers Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton adopted a Declaration of
Sentiments modeled on the Declaration of Independence of 1776. The 1776
document declared that “all men are created equal.” The 1848 declaration
proclaimed that “all men and women are created equal.”
The event that marked the beginning of the women's suffrage movement in the
USA was the Seneca Falls Convention, held in the New York State on July 19 and
20, 1848.
Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, and attended by about
250 women and 40 men, the convention addressed many issues of women's
rights, including right to vote.
Many of the activists in the budding women’s suffrage movement were also
strong abohlionists, who worked to end slavery in the United States. During the
civil war years (1861-1865) most stopped their activities
Many suffragists believed that once the war was won and black slaves become
citizen with the full right, both black and white women would be given full
suffrage as well. However, when the war ended many national leaders continue
to argue against giving woman the right to vote. Many suffragists regarded this
as betrayal, and they reacted with bitter disappointment. The different
priorities concerning votes for women and votes for black men led split within
the movement.

From the National Women’s Suffrage Association to the League of women Voters
Some Suffragists leaders, such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
accused the Republican Party of abandoning support for the rights of women in
favour of the rights of black men. In May 1869, they formed a group called the
National Women's suffrage Association.
Other members of the movement including Julia Ward Howe and Thomas
Wentworth Higgins on disagreed with the confrontational tactics of the NWSA
and prioritized the legislation of the rights of former slaves. They formed the
American Women's Suffrage Association in November 1869. By 1870, the worst
fears of the NWSA had been confirmed: the 15th amendment to the US
Constitution was passed, granting the right to vote to black men, with no
mention of women.
Stanton and Anthony responded by sending a petition to Congress in 1871
requesting female suffrage. When that did not work, Anthony led a group of
women to an 1872 election site to attempt to vote. She was arrested for
"knowingly, wrongfully, and unlawfully’’ voting. By 1890, the two US Women's
Suffrage organizations merged, forming the National Americans Women's
Suffrage Association, which in 1919 became the League of Women Voters

Outcome of Suffrage Movement

 Equal Rights
Equal rights became the primary focus of the National Womens Party during
the 1920s. The National League of Republican Colored Women lobbied with the
NWP in 1924 and proposed legislation granting men and women of all races
equal rights socially politically and economically .The bill was not passed, but
women did succeed in getting one state-level equal rights bill was passed in
Wisconsin. The early efforts of the NWP and NLRCW put political pressure on
Democrats and Republicans to include women in equal rights legislation.

 Social outcomes
The suffrage movement created higher expectations for women. By the early
20th century, women were able to attend college and to train for professions,
although not in the same numbers as man. They begin to enter male dominant
professions like law, medicine clergy and corporate. Also women initiated a
bunch of new institutions. The women’s suffrage movement allowed for women
to secure their place in society and take a closer step to complete equality
amongst the people of America.

 Economic outcomes
In the aftermath of the Women's Suffrage Movement, women's economic roles
increased in the society. Since there were more educational opportunities for
women it led more and more women to sense their potential for meaningful
professional careers. Also women's salaries increased but not to the amount
that main received. However this still was a huge success for women because it
was such a big step from what it had been before.

 Political outcomes
 Territorial legislature of Wyoming granted women the right to vote in
1869. In December 1869, women won vote in the territory of Wyoming.
 When the USA entered the war in 1917 a woman suffrage amendment
was submitted in the House of Representatives. By 1919, it had passed
both houses of Congress and was soon rectified by the necessary 36 State.
Finally the women of America achieved justice when the 19th
amendment also called the Susan b Anthony amendment became law in
the August 1920.

Gender Issues in Women as Voters

“There never will be complete equality until women themselves help to make laws
and elect lawmakers.”….(Susan B. Anthony)

“No nation can rise to the height of glory unless your women are side by side with
you; we are victims of evil customs. It is crime against humanity that our women
are shut up within the four walls of the houses as prisoners. There is no sanction
anywhere for the deplorable condition in which our women have to live. You
should take your women along with you as comrades in every sphere of life”.
(Muhammad Ali Jinnah, 1944)

Major obstacles in women’s registration as voters;-

Out of 127 million registered voters in Pakistan, 10 million more men than
women have registered to vote in the general election for February 8, 2024.
 Structural Obstacles
The discursive frameworks built on the ideology of the sexual division of labour
that defines women's role exclusively in the private arena of home and men’s
role in the public sphere is the key structural barrier to women's participation
in public life. . The nature of the post-colonial state of Pakistan that is still
struggling after 70 years of independence to define its identity and decide
whether it is a theoretic or a secular state also plays a part in restricting women
from participating in public life.
 Institutional barriers
Political parties are dominated by males from the elite class, and this together
with dynasty control over leadership positions has discouraged democratic
parties within the mainstream political parties and contributed to blocking
women’s entry in politics.
Another key institution the Election Commission of Pakistan not only has a huge
gender imbalance in its workforce, it has until very recently continued to
neglected to gender issues and concerns despite pressure from women's rights
groups and despite technical support from the donor agencies for the past
many years
 Functional barriers
Women often lack education, economic resources, confidence, knowledge,
ambition and political skill to enter into politics.
 Social and Cultural Norms
Societal norms often relegated women to the domestic sphere, leading to
perceptions that women's involvement in politics was unnecessary or even
inappropriate. Cultural beliefs about gender roles also played a significant role
in suppressing women's participation in public affairs.

Gender issues in Women as Voters: Case of Pakistan

 The National Assembly has 60 seats reserved for women and women
make 48.8 percent of the total population of Pakistan
 In Pakistan, there is no constitutional bar on the political participation of
women as voters or as candidates. However, women’s representation in
the National legislature has never moved beyond 10% until 2001 when
the gender quota was restored by the military regime at the local,
provincial and national level. Through a legislative provision 33% seats
were reserved for women in local government and 17%in the National
and Provincial assemblies and senate.
 According to Global Gender Gap Report 2017, Pakistan ranks 95 / 144 in
respect of Political Empowerment Index. Interestingly, the USA ranks 96 /
144 in the list.
  The gap between registered men and women voters is too big to be
acceptable, the difference being 11 million in 2013 and 12 million in
2018. Its primary cause seems to be the requirement of holding a
Computerized National Identity Card (CNIC) in order to be eligible to
vote.
 ● According to an estimate provided by the National Commission on the
Status of Women, it would take 18 years to bridge the gap between
registered men and women voters even if 6,000 new ID cards are issued
to women every day.
Requirement of 10%turnout of women voters
 The 2018 election of PK-23 Shangla was declared void because only 5%
of the voters were women against the required number of at least 10
percent according to the Election Act 2017 to validate the result.

Gender Issues in Women as Candidates

 Women as candidates face several barriers, ranging from lack of party
support to financial constraints.
 Women are denied party tickets on the plea that they lack social and
financial capital, and are expected to run their election campaigns from
their own resources, as are the men. The attitude of the leadership and
the culture within political parties generally mirror the male patriarchal
attitudes that prevail in the private sphere of the home.
 In political party structures, women wings are not very well-connected to
the decision-making circles within the party, so the primary barrier to
women’s political participation via the political structure has been the
patriarchy within the political party where the decisions are made by
powerful men.
 “Somebody is going to say ‘oh, you are my daughter or sister and we will
go on your behalf and talk to the voters’,” policy analyst Azeema
Cheema says. “That reduces the women’s agency; it cuts her out a bit.
Hence they are not able to establish the kind of influence a man does.”
 A total of 176 women candidates were in the run for general seats of the
National Assembly in the 2018 elections.

Steps taken to address issues of women as candidates

 Section 206 of the Election Act 2017 states that a political party shall
“ensure at least 5 % representation of women candidates” when it makes
the selection of candidates on general seats for national and provincial
assemblies.
  However, most of the women candidates have been fielded to contest for
the national and provincial assembly seats where there is less or no
chance of winning.
 Pakistan’s National Assembly already has 60 seats reserved for women in
addition to the 272 general seats for which direct elections are held.

Gender Issues in Women as Representatives

 Though more women are now contesting on general seats, women’s
representation in the National and Provincial assemblies and in the Senate
is essentially achieved through a gender quota that is filled indirectly by
nomination. These indirectly elected women lack a power base because
they are not accountable to a constituency, which reinforces their
dependency on the party leadership. And though women elected indirectly
on reserved seats have played a critical role in pushing through pro-
women legislation and highlighting human rights issues, they are generally
considered less important in comparison to their directly elected female
colleagues.
 The contradictory reality of a country with a higher number of women in
the parliament and a rise in gender-based violence is undoubtedly linked
with the rising trends in poverty, militancy, crime and violence in the
country and a weak criminal justice system that allows perpetrators of
violence to escape punishment. Therefore, any initiative that enables
women parliamentarians are to play a greater role in supporting measures
that promote/protect women’s human rights demands a comprehensive
and nuanced understanding of the larger context that shapes women’s
participation and representation in legislation and policy making.
 Women remained politically very visible during Pakistan movement and
participated actively in subsequent political and constitutional processes.
Ms. Fatima Jinnah, Begum Shaista Ikramullah, Begum Ra’ana Liaqat Ali,
Begum Shah Nawaz, Lady Abdullah Haroon, Lady Hafeezullah, Begum
Hafeezudin, are the few to name.
 In the current politics Benazir Bhutto (late), Fehmida Mirza, Sherry
Rehman, Hina Rabani Kher, Marvi Memon, Maryam Nawaz and many more
hold the important portfolios in different governments.
 However, most of them belong to politically influential families with a very
strong support of their men who are already in politics.
 According to the census 2017, women make up half the Pakistan’s
population of 207 million citizens, and of the overall 97 million registered
voters, 42 million is women. Ironically, Pakistan implements somewhat
unjust and distorted model of proportional representation for the election
 of women. The number of reserved seat for women to a party are allocated
in proportion to general seats won, which at the moment stands 17%. This
system does not provide women elected to the reserved seats with any say
to influence the decision-making or policy forming process, and they are
not allocated development funds.
 To enable women to play a powerful and influential role in decision-
making or policy forming process in the country, they should be given
political representation directly proportional to their registered votes or
women’s votes polled in the elections after some reforms in the system of
election to reserved seats are introduced.
 The reasons behind the limited political empowerment of women have to
do with socio-cultural practices and the economic dependency of women
on the male counterpart of their household.
 Currently, political indicators of women’s political empowerment are due
entirely to top-down approaches, like the quota, which are affected
through the legislative measures.

Steps taken to improve women’s political representation:

 For the first time and under military rule, in 2000, the quota for women’s
political participation was raised to 33% at the local government level.
This quota was effective at three levels of the local government, namely
the union council, the tehsil, and the district level.
 Before the 2002 election, the number of women was increased to 17% in
both the national and provincial assemblies (with 61 out of 342 members
in the national assembly being women).
Impact of Political Quota in Pakistan
 One critical way of removing historical discriminations against women
and mainstreaming them into politics is to introduce legislative or
political quotas for them through affirmative action measures by the
governments and political parties.
 The quota is seen as a mechanism for achieving a significant increase
nnnvc in the level of representation of women in the
political process and a means for ensuring that women’s political
interests are represented and safeguarded. Dzx xz
History of womens quota in Pakistan
o Women were given 10 reserved seats in the constitution of 1956.
o Women were given 6 reserved seats in the constitution of 1962.
o Women were given 10 reserved seats in the constitution of 1973.
o In, 1985 during Zia’s era seats for women were increased to 20.
o Women got 60 reserved seats in 2002 during the period of Musharraf.
 Election Act 2017
 According to this act, it is mandatory for all the political parties to give 5%
tickets to female on general seats.
 It also criminalized the act of creating hurdles on the way of the
participation of women in politics.

Arguments against the quota system

 Those who oppose quota systems argue that quotas are against the
principle of equal opportunity for all. Since in these systems women are
given preference over men, as such they are undemocratic.
 Quotas are also called undemocratic, as they take away voters’ right to
decide who is elected.
 It is also argued that quotas imply that politicians are elected because of
their gender and not because of their qualifications; and in this way more
qualified candidates are pushed aside. Thus quotas violate the principles
of liberal democracy.

Arguments in favour of the quota system

 Proponents of the quota system argue that quotas for women do not
discriminate, but compensate for actual barriers that prevent women
from their fair share of the political seats.
 Quotas imply that there are several women together in a committee or
assembly, thus minimizing the stress often experienced by the token
women. It is also argued that quotas are justified as women as citizens
have the right to equal representation.
 In response to the arguments that women are generally less qualified and
experienced in politics it is stated that election is about representation
and not educational qualifications.
 In response to the objection that quotas are undemocratic, because voters
do not decide who is elected, it is argued that in actual practice the
political parties control the nominations and they are not primarily the
voters who decide who gets elected; therefore quotas are not violations of
voters' rights.

Types of quotas
1. Reserved seats (constitutional and/or legislative)
Constitutional or legislative quotas normally try to reserve a number of places on
electoral lists for female candidates or reserve a number of seats in an assembly for
women. It is done through a clause in the constitution or by legislation which
stipulates that a certain percentage or number among those elected must be women.
In Pakistan, Article 51 of the Constitution states that 60 seats shall be reserved for the
women in National Assembly.
2. Legislated candidate quotas (constitutional and/or legislative)
This type of quota set a minimum proportion of women on candidate lists, as a
constitutional or legal requirement. Such quota provisions are stipulated in the
national legislation or electoral laws of a country. It is done through a clause in
the electoral law which states that a certain percentage or number among those
elected must be women.
In Pakistan, the Electoral Act 2017 makes it mandatory for the political parties
to nominate at least 5% of the seats for women in the national and provincial
assemblies.
3. Political party quotas (voluntary)
This type of quota set a minimum proportion of women on candidate lists, as a
measure written into the statutes of individual political parties.

Impacts Of political quota in Pakistan

 Reserved seats for women encourage women to come out to participate
in the political activities
 Women who come on reserved seats usually become role model for other
women.
 Due to quota system women usually remain dependent on reserved seats
only. They give their best to grab the reserved seats which are limited.
They don’t go out of the trap of reserved seats
 The introduction of gender quota systems is highly influenced by
recommendations from international organizations and cross-country
inspiration. In 1995, the Beijing Platform for Action called on
governments to take measures to ensure woman’s equal access to, and
full participation in, power structures and decision-making bodies, and to
set specific targets and implement measures to increase substantially the
number of women, through positive action, among other means.

Positive impacts
 Woman’s presence in elected political institutions in Pakistan at the
national and provincial level in such a substantial number has had a hugely
positive impact in transforming the socio-political perceptions about
 recognizing and legitimizing women’s entitlement to citizenship and
governance, as well as their inclusion in the public domain.
 It has resulted in unleashing a process to make women’s concerns a visible
priority on the national agenda.
 Even women who came on general seats were treating women on gender
quota as lesser parliamentarians. There was an arrogance of being elected
directly. Over the years, the situation has changed. Now active women on
reserved seats command a lot of respect too. They are neither a frill nor
frivolous. Parties have also improved the representation on quota seats.
 Gender quota is a critical strategy to bridge the gender gap in politics.
Gender quota in politics has created role models of women as politicians.
Women’s numerical strength and physical visibility in the parliament,
media and at the constituency level inspired many more women to enter
formal politics. Veeru Kohli, a Hindu bonded labourer, belonging to a
schedule caste decided to contest in the 2013 election on provincial
assembly seat PA-50 in Hyderabad, Sindh
Negative impacts
 Many if not most remain preoccupied with chatting and gossiping with each
other, treating the proceedings more as a social gathering than a legislative
session, thereby undermining the very purpose of women’s quota in
electoral process.
 Most of the women filling the reserved seats are relations of important men,
granting the seats on the basis of political favour. This marginalizes the
true representation of women in national legislature, especially that of the
rural areas.
 Indirect modality of election on quota seats is identified as the key mechanism
through which women dependence on male leadership of political parties
has been reinforced. Indirect election deprives women of any opportunity
to develop their own constituency/power base.
 In the absence of criteria for women to be nominated on gender quota seats,
political parties select women of their choice, belonging to their own
families, elite background and those who are willing to toe the party line
rather than push for women’s agenda.

Gender Based Violence

Defining Gender Based Violence?
 Gender-based violence is violence directed against a person because of that
person's gender or violence that affects persons of a particular gender
disproportionately.

 Violence against women is understood as a violation of human rights and

a form of discrimination against women and shall mean all acts of gender-
based violence that result in, or are likely to result in

 physical harm,
 sexual harm,
 psychological,
 or economic harm
 or suffering to women.

It can include violence against women, domestic violence against women, men
or children living in the same domestic unit. Although women and girls are the
main victims of GBV, it also causes severe harm to families and communities.

Forms of gender-based violence

Gender-based violence can take various forms:

 Physical: it results in injuries, distress and health problems, and may even lead
to death in certain cases. Typical forms of physical violence are beating,
strangling, pushing, and the use of weapons. Case in point; - Noor Muqaddam
Case.
 Sexual: it includes uncommented sexual acts, attempts to obtain a sexual act,
acts to traffic, or acts otherwise directed against a person’s sexuality without
the person’s consent. Case in point;- Mukhtaran Mai Case
 Psychological: includes psychologically abusive behaviors, such as controlling,
coercion, economic violence and blackmail. Case in point;- Asma Aziz Case
 Domestic violence;- case in point;- Madiha case

Examples of gender-based violence

 Domestic violence; includes all acts of physical, sexual, psychological and
economic violence that occur within the family, domestic unit, or between
intimate partners. These can be former or current spouses also when they don’t
share the same residence. 22 % of all women who have (had) a partner have
experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a partner since the age of 15.
 Sex-based harassment; includes unwelcome verbal, physical or other
non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature with the purpose or effect of
violating the dignity of a person
 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is the ritual cutting or removal of
some or all of the external female genitalia. It violates women’s bodies
and often damages their sexuality, mental health, well-being and
participation in their community. It may even lead to death. Today, more
than 200 million girls and women alive worldwide have undergone
female genital mutilation.
 Forced marriage; refers to marriage concluded under force or coercion –
either physical pressure to marry or emotional and psychological
pressure. It’s closely linked to child or early marriage, when children are
wed before reaching the minimum age for marriage.
 Online violence is an umbrella term used to describe all sorts of illegal
or harmful behaviors against women in the online space. They can be
linked to experiences of violence in real life, or be limited to the online
environment only. They can include illegal threats, stalking or incitement
to violence, unwanted, offensive or sexually explicit emails or messages,
sharing of private images or videos without consent, or inappropriate
advances on social networking sites.

‘’Gender-based violence refers to any type of harm that is

perpetrated against a person or group of people because of their
factual or perceived sex, gender, sexual orientation and/or gender
identity.’’
 Gender-based violence is based on an imbalance of power and is carried
out with the intention to humiliate and make a person or group of people
feel inferior and/ or subordinate.
 Gender-based violence can be sexual, physical, verbal, psychological
(emotional), or socio-economic and it can take many forms, from verbal
violence and hate speech on the Internet, to rape or murder.
 Gender-based violence (GBV) is violence committed against a person
because of his or her sex or gender. It is forcing another person to do
something against his or her will through violence, coercion, threats,
deception, cultural expectations, or economic means. Although the
majority of survivors of GBV are girls and women, LGBTIQ+, boys and
men can also be targeted through GBV.
 Theories of Violence against Women
In terms of gender studies, theories of violence against women refers to the set
of ideas that try to explain why men use physical, emotional, and sexual
violence against women.

1. Social learning theory:-

Social learning theory, one of the most popular explanatory frameworks for
violence against women, suggests that individuals learn how to behave through
both the experience of and exposure to violence.

This theory posits that individuals learn behaviors, including violent ones,
through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. In the context of violence
against women, it suggests that exposure to violent behavior, either in the
family or through media, can normalize and perpetuate such actions. It
emphasizes the role of socialization and environment in shaping individuals'
behaviors, including violent tendencies towards women.

According to this theory, violence against women is socially constructed. It is

not naturally inherited in men but taught to him by society and culture. For
instance, when a boy sees his father inflicting violence on his mother, he adopts
the same behavior against his wife in the future. He learns the violence and
considers it a method to solve problems and exert control over women. Since
the violence is witnessed and learnt, there seems no taboo on carrying out it
against women.

Criticism: Critics argue that while social learning theory provides insights into
how behavior is acquired, it may overlook deeper societal norms and power
structures that drive violence against women.

 This behavior is:

 Learned through observation
 Learned through experience and reinforcement
 Learned in culture, families
 Learned in communities, such as schools, peer groups, workplaces
 And Domestic Violence is not caused by:
 Illness, Genetics. Anger, Stress
 Alcohol or drugs
 Loss of control of feelings
 Behavior of victim
 Problems in a relationship
2. Loss of Control Theory:-
 Violence against women occurred you to loss of control
 There can be various reasons behind this loss of control they include
alcohol frustration anger etc
 Target of such lost temperament men are not powerful people or
things. Their target is always women who are not able to retaliate the
abuser.
 This theory is closely related to the “learned behavior” theory where
the theories described violence as the result of a loss of control. For
example, many believed that men are abusive when they drink
because the alcohol causes them to lose control. Others explained
men’s violence as a result of an inability to control their anger and
frustration.
 These theorists argued that gendered societal expectations prevented
men from expressing anger and frustration; these feelings would build
up until the man lost control and released his feelings through the use
of violence.
 Abusers also follow their own “internal rules and regulations about
abusive behaviors.” They often choose to abuse their partners only in
private or may take steps to ensure that they do not leave visible
evidence of the abuse.
 They often choose to abuse their partners only in private or may take
steps to ensure that they do not leave visible evidence of the abuse.

Criticism;

If Men really do violence on women when they loss control then they
should also behave in the same manners against the other men in such a
condition. If they are not doing so then it is not true to say that men do
violence on women because they loss control. If it would be so, then he
must too violence on men also. But men always do violence on women
only in such a condition which shows that there are some other factors
behind such behaviours towards women. This is not true to say that loss
of control is the reason behind men's violence on women.
 3. Biological theory:

As per the biological theory, violence against women is natural and caused by
the biological difference between men and women. The theory suggests that
men have high levels of the testosterone hormone, which makes them more
rational and aggressive. On the other hand, women are naturally emotional.
Besides, the chemistry of their brain is also different. Thus, it is a natural
phenomenon for a man to inflict violence on a woman.

The biological theories of violence against women examine the potential role of
biological factors in contributing to aggressive or violent behavior directed at
women. These theories often explore various biological aspects, such as
genetics, hormones, brain structure, and evolutionary psychology, to
understand violent tendencies

 Genetic Predisposition:

Some studies suggest that genetic factors might contribute to aggressive

behavior. Certain genetic variations or predispositions could potentially
increase the likelihood of aggressive tendencies in individuals. However, linking
specific genes directly to violence against women is highly complex and
controversial.

 Hormonal Influence:

Hormones, particularly testosterone, have been studied in relation to

aggressive behavior. Higher levels of testosterone have been correlated with
increased aggression in some individuals. However, the relationship between
testosterone and violence against women is not straightforward and needs to
be understood within a broader context rather than as a sole determinant.

 Evolutionary Psychology:

Some evolutionary psychologists propose theories suggesting that certain

behaviors, including aggression or dominance, might have evolved as strategies
for survival and reproduction. These theories often delve into concepts like
sexual selection and competition for mates, which could, in some
interpretations, intersect with violence against women.
 4. The Cycle of Violence Theory

The Cycle of Violence Theory, proposed by Lenore Walker in the 1970s, seeks to
explain patterns often observed in abusive relationships, particularly in the
context of intimate partner violence.

. This theory was based on the belief that men did not express their frustration
and anger because they had been taught not to show their feelings.

The man’s tension built until he exploded and became violent. The tension was
released, and the couple enjoyed a “honeymoon” period, during which the
husband was apologetic and remorseful.

Explanation:

Phases of the Cycle:

Tension-Building Phase: This phase is characterized by increasing tension,

minor conflicts, and a sense of walking on eggshells. The victim may try to
placate the abuser to prevent escalation.

Explosion or Acute Battering Phase: This is when the actual violence or abuse
occurs. It can involve physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. The level of violence
can vary, ranging from verbal aggression to severe physical harm.

Honeymoon or Reconciliation Phase: Following the violent episode, the

abuser often displays remorse, apologizes, and seeks reconciliation. This phase
might involve promises to change, gifts, or gestures to regain the victim's trust.

Main Ideas:

Repetition: The cycle tends to repeat itself, with the phases occurring
repeatedly in a pattern that might escalate in severity over time.

Cyclical Nature: The phases often follow a predictable sequence, with tension
building, an explosive incident, and then reconciliation, before tension starts to
build again.
 5. Ecological Theory

The Ecological Theory, also known as the Social Ecological Model, is a

framework used in various fields, including sociology, psychology, and public
health, to understand human behavior within multiple levels of influence.
Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory explores how individuals'
interactions with their environments shape their actions and behaviors.

Donald Dutton advocated this theory, and it focuses on the individual’s

personality development rather than family structure. It advocates the
individual learns that violence through his experience in the social setting.
Dutton identifies four levels of systemic social context that shape individual
behaviour. The macro-system is composed of broad cultural values and belief
systems. The exo-system is composed of the groups and institutions that
connect the family to the more inclusive environment. The micro-system is the
family unit itself. Finally, ontogenetic factors refer to an individual’s personal
development. Dutton asserts that factors from all four of these systemic levels
come to bear on any given intimate partner violence scenario.

Application to Violence against Women:

In understanding violence against women, the Ecological Theory provides a

comprehensive framework to analyze the multiple levels of influence
contributing to such behavior:

Microsystem: This includes examining familial relationships, intimate

partnerships, and immediate social circles where violence might occur.

Mesosystem: Understanding how conflicts in one setting (like home) might

spill over to affect other areas of life, such as work or community interactions.

Exosystem: Examining how societal attitudes, legal systems, media

representations, and community responses either perpetuate or prevent
violence against women.

Macrosystem: Analyzing cultural norms, gender expectations, and power

structures that might normalize or condone violence against women.

Chronosystem: Considering how changes over time, such as societal shifts in

attitudes or policy reforms; impact the prevalence and response to violence
against women.
 Structural and Direct Forms of Violence

Direct Violence;-

Direct violence against women includes physical, sexual, psychological and

economic violence. A comprehensive picture of the different form of direct
violence against women is outland in the EU Council Conclusion of 5 and 6 June
2014. The conclusions refer to the following as forms of gender-based violence
against women.

 Violence in close relationship

 Sexual violence (including rape , sexual assault and harassment in all
public and private spheres of life)
 Trafficking in human beings, slavery, and sexual exploitation
 Harmful practices such as child and forced marriage ,female genital
mutilation and crimes committed in the name of so called "honour"
 Emerging forms of violence h is online harassment where is farmhouse
sexual abuse instigated or facilitated through the use of information and
communication technology, stalking, and bullying.

Violence can take many forms. In its classic form, it involves the use of
physical force, like killing or torture, rape and sexual assault, and beatings.
Verbal violence, such as humiliation or put downs, is also becoming more
widely recognized as violence. Peace and conflict studies scholar Johan
Galtung describes direct violence as the 'avoidable impairment of
fundamental human needs or life which makes it impossible or difficult for
people to meet their needs or achieve their full potential. Threat to use force
is also recognized as violence.

Indirect Violence;- Structural violence

Structural violence exists when some groups, classes, genders, nationalities, etc
are assumed to have, and in fact do have, more access to goods, resources, and
opportunities than other groups, classes, genders, nationalities, etc, and this
unequal advantage is built into the very social, political and economic systems
that govern societies, states and the world. These tendencies may be overt such
as Apartheid or more subtle such as traditions or tendency to award some
groups privileges over another. Indirect or structural violence refers to the
ways in which social structures or social institutions may cause harm to
individuals or disadvantage them. Structural violence includes the use of
political or economic power to commit violent acts or constrain/restrict an
individual or a specific group of people. This includes social problems like
racism, sexism, heterosexism, xenophobia and even elitism. With this kind of
violence there is no specific person who can be held accountable for the harm
done, but rather, the problem lies in the entire society and the beliefs that the
society holds.

Structural violence is displayed when, as a result of social stratification

processes, there is damage in the satisfaction of basic human needs: survival,
welfare, identity, freedom, etc. It is caused by a set of structures, both physical
and organizational, which do not allow the satisfaction of those needs and is the
worst of the three violence because it is the origin of all and kills and affects
more people. It is also a form of indirect violence and sometimes even
unintentional: the actions that cause hunger,

Cultural Violence

Cultural violence is the prevailing attitudes and beliefs that we have been
taught since childhood and that surround us in daily life about the power and
necessity of violence. Consider the telling of history which glorifies records and
reports wars and military victories rather than people's nonviolent rebellions
or the triumphs of connections and collaboration. Nearly all cultures recognize
that killing a person is murder, but killing tens, hundreds or thousands during a
declared conflict is called 'war'.

Cultural violence is a symbolic violence that is expressed in countless media —

religion, ideology, language, art, science, media, education, etc. — and serves to
legitimize direct and structural violence and to inhibit or suppress the response
of the victims. It even offers justifications for humans, unlike other species, to
destroy each other and to be rewarded for doing so: it is not strange to accept
violence in the name of country or religion. There is a culture of violence in
which schools and other instruments of transmission and reproduction of
culture show History as a succession of wars; it is usual to suppress conflicts by
unquestioned parental authority or authority of the male over the female; mass
media sell armies use as the main way of solving international conflicts, etc. So
life goes on in an atmosphere of constant violence, manifested daily in all areas
and at all levels.
 Strategies to Eliminate Violence against Women
A staggering 32% of women have experienced physical violence in Pakistan and 40% of ever
married women have suffered from spousal abuse at some point in their life
(The Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2012-2013)
 Changes in the education curricula
 Public policy; consistent enacting and implementation of gender
responsive policies and laws in all public and private sector forums.
 Capacity Building; of stake holder and sensitization of clergy, politicians
and decision makers.
 Men need to be engaged in frameworks to address gender-based violence.
 Economic empowerment of women.
 Addressing cultural and religious constraints
 Creating awareness and educating women about their rights
 Foster partnerships among government, civil society and private sector:
 Increase the visibility of young women and girls in discussions
concerning their sexual and reproductive healthcare and rights
 Stand up against the normalization of sexual violence in all its forms
 Take time to educate yourself on gender-based issues
 Hold yourself and other people accountable
 Share success stories, positive role models and solutions that work
 Protect women and girls in digital spaces
 Create safe spaces to discuss gender-based violence
 Challenge beliefs on masculinity
 Fund women’s organizations; investing in women’s movements matters.
 Call for better responses and services; - Services for women and girls
experiencing violence can be the difference between life and death
 Support for women’s leadership.
 Build solidarity with other movements; - We’re stronger when we work
together.

Globally, an estimated 736 million women—almost one in three—have been

subjected to physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence, non-partner sexual
violence, or both at least once in their life -UNO

A global survey showed that 73 per cent of women journalists have experienced
online violence. Twenty per cent said they had been attacked or abused offline in
connection with online violence they had experienced.-UNO
Worldwide, almost one third (27%) of women aged 15-49 years who have been
in a relationship report that they have been subjected to some form of physical
and/or sexual violence by their intimate partner.- WHO