18EEE403T - HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Charging of EV

Dr. R. Femi
EEE
INTRODUCTION TO CHARGING AND
REQUIREMENTS OF CHARGING SYSTEM
 Charging system
• The charging system powers the electrical components of a vehicle. In
modern engines, it consists of the alternator, battery, wiring and electronic
control unit (ECU).
• Charging system is a set of components working to keep a charge and
provide electrical energy for the vehicle electrical devices. Modern vehicles
are now designed with many electrical parts which makes them required a
large amount of electrical energy. The charging system powers the
headlights, dashboard indicators light or warning lamps, fuses, relays,
engine plugs, brainbox, ECU, radio, control screen, fuel injector system,
sensors etc. All these components are interconnected to the car battery
which is charged by the alternator.
 Functions of Charging System
• The primary purpose of the charging system is to provide power to all
electrical components in a vehicle.
• It comprises alternator that maintains and keep the vehicle’s battery
charged.
• Charging system supplies electrical current to fire the spark plugs, which
ignite the air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber,
• Alternators help to charge dead batteries, while the engine is running.
• Charging system help to send the engine mechanical issue to the engines
ECU using a sensing device.
• Vehicles electrical components are powered when the engine is not
running.
 Charging system Requirements
• Supply the current demands made by all loads.
• Supply whatever charge current the battery demands.
• Operate at idle speed.
• Supply constant voltage under all conditions.
• Have an efficient power-to-weight ratio.
• Be reliable, quiet, and have resistance to contamination.
• Require low maintenance.
• Provide an indication of correct operation.
 Principles of Charging System
• A vehicle charging system has three blocks, i.e. the alternator, battery
and vehicle loads. When engine is not running, the alternator voltage is
less than the battery voltage so current flows from the battery to the
vehicle loads and the alternator diodes prevent current flowing into the
alternator. When engine is running, the alternator output is greater than
the battery voltage, so current flows from the alternator to the vehicle
loads as well as the battery. This implies that alternator output voltage
must always be above the battery voltage during operation of the
engine. However, the actual voltage used is critical and depends on a
number of factors.
ALTERNATORS AND CHARGING CIRCUITS
 Alternator
• An alternator is one of the major and inevitable parts in
automobile charging system as it plays the best role. The
electrical power that charges the battery is from the alternator,
but the current produced is alternating current (AC). This AC
power is immediately converted to direct current (DC) because
automobiles use a 12-volt DC electrical system. The dead
battery does not mean there is something wrong with it. it just
that being deprive of charge, this is why alternator is also
checked if a car is not starting.
 Voltage Regulator
• The voltage regulator controls the alternator’s power output.
Though this device is often located in the alternator, as it
regulates the charging voltage that the alternator produces. It
keeps the voltage between 13.5 and 14.5 volts to protect the
electrical parts in the vehicle. in modern vehicles that use ECU
to sense when the battery needs to be charged as controls the
volt supplied. The warning lamp in the dashboard indicates
something is wrong with the charging system. Often time the
warning lamp is indicating faulty alternator, resulting in an
uncharged battery.
 Battery
• The battery is another essential of the automobile charging
system, as it serves as a reservoir of electrical power. the
engines starter motor is directly connected to the positive
terminal. It helps to crank the component making the engine
to start. As the engine is running, alternator directly charges
the battery. The battery can also supply power to the electrical
components when the engine isn’t running.
 Fuse and Fusible links
• Fuse and fusible links have different functions even though have the same
shape. Fusible link can be called as main fuse which is placed near the
battery positive terminal. The function of this fuse is to protect the entire
electrical system of the car from excessive currents. Generally the fusible
link has a capacity of up to more than 60 Ampere.

• While the function of the fuse is as a safety of a series of specific electrical

wiring, in conventional charging system there are two fuse with same
capacity (its about 10-15 Ampere). A fuse is used as a voltage regulator
fuse and another fuse is used to secure the CHG and
 CHG Lights
• CHG lamp or commonly also called “charging warning light” is
an indicator light to indicate the presence failure of charging
system. When the ignition key ON then this light will light up
normally, as well as when the engine life of this lamp should
turn on, if it is dead then it could mean the charging system
failure.
 Ignition key
• The ignition key works as a switch. The charging system will be activated
automatically when the engine is running, but to generate a magnetic field
on the rotor coil must be done by a switch.

• Ignition switch is used as a switch to connect anddisconnect power

(positive battery curents) from battery to rotor coil. When the ignition key
is ON, then the electricity from the battery to the coil rotor will be
connected. However, when the ignition key is turned OFF then the power
supply will be cut off. So it is not possible the altenator generates
electricity when the ignition key is OFF even the engine crankshaft is
rotate.
 Charging Wires
• The function of charging wires are to connect every component of
the charging system, there are at least two types of wires: standard
wire and B + wire. The standard wire has a small diameter like the
car’s electrical wiring in general, the function of this wire is
connecting each terminal on the entire charging system.

• While the B + wire has a larger diameter than the standard wire
and almost matches the stater wire. The function of this wire is to
connect the terminal B altenator with Battery.
DIAGNOSING CHARGING SYSTEM FAULTS
Common symptoms and faults of a charging system
malfunction
 Diagnosing charging system faults
Six stages of fault-finding
1. Verify the fault.
2. Collect further information.
3. Evaluate the evidence.
4. Carry out further tests in a logical sequence.
5. Rectify the problem.
6. Check all systems
1. What is the condition of the battery?
• A visual inspection and a performance test of the battery must
always be performed before inspecting the charging system. The
battery must be fully charged (12.6 volts) and the battery cables,
terminals and case in good, clean condition. This includes the frame
and body grounds as well (refer to Battery Visual Inspection and
Performance Testing).

2. Are any fuses open?

• Check the fuses in all the fuse box(es). An open fuse indicates
circuit problem(s) that may have an effect on the charging circuit.
Check the owner’s manual or the manufacturer’s service manual
for the location of each fuse box.
3. Is the fusible link(s) open?

• There may be several fusible links controlling battery voltage to the

vehicle’s electrical circuits. If a fusible link is open, supply voltage will be
completely lost to all electrical systems or to the electric circuit(s) that
the open fusible link controls. Check the owner’s manual or the
manufacturer’s service manual for the location of each fusible link.

4. Is the alternator’s drive belt tension within specification?

• Too loose – If the drive belt is too loose, it will slip around the pulley
causing the alternator to charge irregularly or not at all.
• Too tight – If the drive belt is too tight, internal bearing damage will
cause premature alternator failure.
5. Is the alternator’s drive belt in good condition and the proper size?

• Worn or too narrow – If the alternator’s drive belt is worn or too narrow, it will slip
around the pulley, causing the alternator to charge irregularly or not at all.
• New drive belt – The life of a new alternator drive belt is approximately 10
minutes. It is important to check and adjust the belt’s tension to the “used”
specification after the initial 10 minutes of operation.

• 6. Has the vehicle been modified or additional equipment installed after it left the
factory?

• Accessories – Non-factory accessories such as phones, computer outlets,

televisions, refrigerators, stereo equipment or lights, among others, can
overburden alternator performance and cause premature failure.
• Improper accessory installation – Improper accessory installation procedures can
cause charging problems. Some of these problems may include poor ground points,
loose connections or improper wiring.
RECTIFIERS/INVERTERS FOR HEV
 The Function of an Inverter
• Broadly speaking, an inverter is an electrical device that
converts electricity derived from a DC (Direct Current) source
to AC (Alternating Current) of the type that can be used to
drive a device or appliance. In a solar power system, for
example, the power stored by batteries charged by solar
panels is converted to standard AC power by the inverter,1
which provides the power to plug-in outlets and other
standard 120-volt devices.
• An inverter serves the same kind of function in a hybrid or EV car, and
the theory of operation is relatively simple.

• DC power, from a hybrid battery, for example, is fed to the primary

winding in a transformer within the inverter housing. Through an
electronic switch (generally a set of semiconductor transistors), the
direction of the flow of current is continuously and regularly flip-flopped
(the electrical charge travels into the primary winding, then abruptly
reverses and flows back out). The in/outflow of electricity produces AC
current in the transformer's secondary winding circuit. Ultimately, this
induced alternating current electricity provides power for an AC load—
for example, an electric vehicle's (EV) electric traction motor.
 Rectifier (Converter)
• A rectifier is a similar device to an inverter except that it does the
opposite, converting AC power to DC power.
• More properly called a voltage converter, this electrical device
actually changes the voltage (either AC or DC) of an electrical
power source. There are two types of voltage converters: step up
converters (which increases voltage) and step down converters
(which decreases voltage). The most common use of a converter is
to take a relatively low voltage source and step-it-up to high
voltage for heavy-duty work in a high power consumption load, but
they can also be used in reverse to reduce voltage for a light load
source.
 Rectifier/Inverter
• An inverter/converter is, as the name implies, one single unit that
houses both an inverter and a converter. These are the devices
that are used by both EVs and hybrids to manage their electric
drive systems. Along with a built-in charge controller, the
inverter/converter supplies current to the battery pack for
recharging during regenerative braking, and it also provides
electricity to the motor/generator for vehicle propulsion. Both
hybrids and EVs use relatively low-voltage DC batteries (about 210
volts) to keep the physical size down, but they also generally use
highly efficient high voltage (about 650 volts) AC
motor/generators. The inverter/converter unit choreographs how
these divergent voltages and current types work together.2
Power electronics converters/inverters/rectifiers
used in a series HEV.
• In this configuration, the internal combustion engine (ICE) drives a
three‐phase permanent magnet synchronous generator, whose
output is a three‐phase voltage with variable frequency and
variable voltage. This output needs to be rectified to DC.
• The front wheels are driven by an induction motor which needs to
be controlled by a voltage source inverter (VSI) or a current source
inverter (CSI). An energy storage system is connected to the DC bus,
between the generator/rectifier output and the inverter. However,
there is a bidirectional DC–DC converter that manages the
charge/discharge of the battery, as well as controlling the DC bus
voltage.
Battery chargers
 AC charging
• AC charging and direct current (direct current) charging are
simple concepts that might become fuzzy because of the
aforementioned reasons. In essence, the difference lies in the
mode of transfer of the power into the charging port of the
vehicle (not into the battery). In AC charging mode, the AC
power from the grid is delivered into the car via an AC outlet or
charging stall. The car will manage the AC/DC power
conversion via the On-Board Charger (OBC) – here properly
named charger as there is power conversion − and deliver DC
voltage and current to the batteries
 DC charging
• in DC charging mode, the AC−DC conversion is carried out outside
the vehicle by an off−board charger–again we talk about the
charger. Figure 5 illustrates different charging alternatives for an EV.
There is a broad spectrum of DC charging power ratings, as space,
weight and thermal restrictions are much more relaxed outside the
vehicle. Therefore, DC charging might range from even below 11
kW and up to 400 kW. Of course, the use cases falling within these
ranges might be very different. Another point worth noting is that
not all vehicles accept charging in high DC power levels. The
majority of releasing vehicles nowadays can typically support at
least 50 kW rates in DC mode.
 On-board or off-board charging
• There are two types of charging – on-board and off-board. The
definition relates to where the conversion to DC is performed.
On-board chargers take AC from the wall outlet or charging
point into the vehicle where an on-board charger converts this
to DC for charging the battery. Conversely, off-board chargers
convert to DC internally and then provide DC to the vehicle
which charges the battery directly.
On-board or off-board charging
• In this system, a boost converter charges the battery in Electric
Vehicles (EV). A conventional OBC (onboard charging system)
has a bridge rectifier to convert the input AC voltage to DC but,
during the rectification process, there is high conduction, and
switching losses and heating issues are also attached to it.
 Levels of EV charging
• Level 1 charging is typically done via a domestic AC power socket that offers between 2.4-3.7kW of power,
which equates to taking between five and 16 hours to fully charge a battery (per hour of charging, you’ll be
getting 10-20km of driving range).

• Level 2 charging is done via either a domestic or public AC wallbox charger that offers 7kW of power, which
equates to 2-5 hours to fully charge a battery (per hour of charging, you’ll be getting 30-45km of driving
range).

• Level 3 charging is done via a DC fast charger at a public EV battery charging station. This offers around 11-
22kW of power, which equates to taking 20-60 minutes to fully charge a battery (per hour of charging, you’ll
be getting 250-300km of driving range).

• Level 4 is super-fast charging done at a public DC charging station for electric cars. This offers around 120kW
of power, which equates to taking 20-40 minutes to fully charge a battery (per hour of charging, you’ll be
getting 400-500km of driving range).

• There’s also ultra-fast charging (extreme fast charging) public charging available, where 350kW of power can
get a battery charged in 10-15 minutes, and deliver a staggering 1000km of driving range per hour.
High frequency transformer based Bidirectional DC-
DC Converter
 DC-DC converters
• About DC to DC converter:
A dc-dc converter is electronic circuit. The main function of this circuit is
to modify one potential difference(i.e. voltage) level to the another
potential difference level. It is basically a voltage regulator consisting of
switches, inductor and capacitor for power conversion. There are
numerous applications of DC-DC converter.
• DC-DC converters are divided into following types based on isolation
between input and output circuits.
– Isolated DC-DC converter
– Non-isolated DC-DC converter

Isolated DC-DC converters are further divided into following sub types.
• Fly-back • Forward • Half bridge • Full bridge • Push Pull
 Half-Bridge DC-DC Converters

• The half-bridge topology as applied to a DC-DC converter uses two

transistors to initiate switching action, which will deliver current
pulses to a load. Alongside rectification and smoothing with a
capacitor bank, this DC-DC converter topology provides pulses that
can be smoothed to a nominal DC power value. This topology can
be isolated, where output power is coupled through a transformer
or optocoupler. Isolation might be implemented inside the gate
driver circuit (if present as an IC), which might be done through
junction isolation. Non-isolated topologies might also use
transformer coupling to step up or down the output voltage, but
these are run at lower output currents for safety purposes.
Half-Bridge DC-DC Converters
Benefits or advantages of Half bridge converter
• Following are the benefits or advantages of Half bridge
converter:
– Magnetic cores are small.
– No gap of the magnetic path.
– Less stray magnetic field
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Half bridge converter
• Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages of Half bridge
converter:
– They are functioning at 1/2 the supply potential where the switching
transistors are operational two times the collector current as in
comparison with the basic push-pull scheme.
– It is not suitable for current mode control.
Isolated half bridge LLC resonant converter
Full bridge DC-DC converter
Full bridge DC-DC converter
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION OF DC DC
CONVERTER
Bi-directional half-bridge DC-DC converter (a)
topology (b) G2V mode (c) V2G mode
Circuit Topology of Bi-Directional Battery Charger
FLYBACK CONVERTER
Schematic of a flyback converters
• In the on-state, the energy is
transferred from the input voltage
source to the transformer (the output
capacitor supplies energy to the
output load). In the off-state, the
energy is transferred from the
transformer to the output load (and
the output capacitor).
• When the switch is closed, the primary of the transformer is
directly connected to the input voltage source. The primary
current and magnetic flux in the transformer increases, storing
energy in the transformer. The voltage induced in the secondary
winding is negative, so the diode is reverse-biased (i.e., blocked).
The output capacitor supplies energy to the output load.
• When the switch is opened, the primary current and magnetic
flux drops. The secondary voltage is positive, forward-biasing the
diode, allowing current to flow from the transformer. The energy
from the transformer core recharges the capacitor and supplies
the load.
Waveform - using primary side sensing techniques -
showing the 'knee point'.
CELL BALANCING CONVERTERS ACTIVE AND
PASSIVE BALANCING METHODS
 Cell balancing
Cell balancing is a technique that improves battery life by maximizing the capacity of a
battery pack with multiple cells in series, ensuring that all of its energy is available for use. A
cell balancer or regulator is a functionality in a battery management system that performs
cell balancing often found in lithium-ion battery packs electric vehicles and ESS applications.

Cell Imbalance & Balance

 The Need for Cell Balancing
• When you need several cells grouped together to power a device, you
need to do some sought of balancing. The reason is that battery cells are
fragile things that die or get damaged if they are charged or discharged too
much. For your cells that have different SoC and you start using them, their
voltage starts dropping until the cell with the least amount of energy
stored in it reaches the discharge cut off voltage of the cell.
• At that point, if the energy keeps flowing through the cell, it gets damaged
beyond repair. Now, if you attempt to charge this group of cells to the
correct combined voltage, the healthy cells get overcharged and thus get
damaged as they will take the energy that the already dead cell is no
longer able to store. Imbalanced lithium-ion cells die the first time you try
to use them. This is why balancing is absolutely required.
 Other reasons for cell balancing
Thermal Runaway
• Battery cells, especially lithium cells are very sensitive to overcharging and over-discharging. This leads to thermal runaway when the rate of
internal heat generation exceeds the rate at which the heat can be released. By the use of cell balancing, every non-defective cell in the battery
pack should be balanced to the same relative capacity as the other non-defective cells. Other than using cell balancing, you can keep the pack cool
since heat is one of the primary factors that lead to thermal runaway. This minimizes the retention of heat in the pack. You should maintain the
battery environment at room temperature.
Cell Degradation
• When a lithium cell is overcharged even slightly above its recommended value the energy capacity, efficiency, and life cycle of the cell reduces. Cell
degradation is mainly caused by:
• 1. Mechanical degradation of electrodes or loss of stack pressure in pouch-type cells.
2. Growth of solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on the anode. SEI is seen as a cause for capacity loss in
most, if not all, graphite-based Li-ion when keeping the charge voltage below 3.92v/cell.
3. Formation of electrolyte oxidation (EO) at the cathode that may lead to sudden capacity loss.
4. Lithium-plating on the surface of the anode generated by high charging rates.
• Cell degradation is a serious economic problem that varies according to how the battery is being used.
Incomplete Charging of a Cell Pack
• Batteries are charged at a constant current of between 0.5 and 1.0 rate. The battery voltage rises as the charging progressesto peak when fully
charged then subsequently falls. Consider three cells with 77 Ah, 77 Ah, and 76 Ah respectively and 100 percent SoC and all cells are then
discharged and their SoC goes down. You can figure out quickly that cell 3 becomes first to run out of energy since it has the lowest capacity.
• When power is put on the cell packs and the same current is flowing through the cells, once again, cell 3 lags behind during charging and may be
considered fully charged as the other two cells are fully charged. This means that cells 3 have a low Coulometric Efficiency (CE) due to the cell’s self-
heating that results in cell imbalance.
Incomplete Use of Cell Pack Energy
• Drawing more current than the battery was designed for or short-circuiting the battery is most likely to cause premature failure of the battery.
When discharging the battery pack, the weaker cells discharge faster than the healthy cells whereas they reach the lowest voltage more quickly
than other cells. Providing regular rest periods during operation of the battery allows the chemical transformations in the battery to keep track of
the demand for current.
 Types of Cell balancing
• Active cell balancing
• Passive cell balancing
Active cell balancing
redistributes charge during
the charging and discharging
cycle
passive cell balancing
dissipates charge during the
charge cycle.
 Active Cell Balancing
• An active cell balancer generally transfers energy from one cell
to another. That is from high voltage/ high SoC to a cell with a
lower SoC. The purpose of an active balancer is that if you have
a pack of cells with lower capacity, you can extend the life or
the SoC that you have on the pack by moving energy from one
cell in the pack with more energy than the other cell.
• Instead of wasting all that energy as heat, an active cell
balancer efficiently balances cells with tiny converter circuits
that pass energy from the highest voltage cells to the lowest
voltage cells.
• There are two different categories of active cell balancing
methods: charge shuttling and energy converters. Charge
shuttling is used to actively transport charges from one cell to
another to achieve equal cell voltage. Energy converters use
transformers and inductors to move energy among the cells of
a battery pack.
 Active cell balancing circuits
Active cell balancing circuits are typically based on capacitors, inductors or transformers, and power electronics interface. These entail:

Based on capacitors
• Single capacitors – this method is simple because it uses a single capacitor regardless of the number of cells connected in the battery.
However, this method requires a large number of switches and intelligent control of the switches.
• Multiple capacitors – this method with multiple capacitors connected to each battery transfers unequal cell energy by multiple
capacitors. It does not require a voltage sensor or closed-loop control.

Based on inductors or transformers

• Single/ multiple inductors – a cell balancing circuit with a single inductor has a small volume and low cost while multiple inductors
have fast balancing speed and decent cell balancing efficiency.
• Single transformer – this method has a fast balancing speed with low magnetic losses.
• Multiple transformers – this cell balancer has a fast equalizing speed. However, it requires an expensive and complex circuit that
prevents the transformer from being flooded.

Based on Power Electronics Interface

• Flyback/ forward converter – the energy of a high voltage cell is stored in the transformer. This cell balancer has high reliability.
• Full-bridge converter – this cell balancer has fast equalization speed and high efficiency.
• Active balancers are capable of pushing a lot of current from one cell to another.
 Flying capacitor cell balancing topology

• flying capacitors can be used for cell-to-cell balancing.

The capacitor is initially connected to the higher
voltage cell to charge, then switched to the lower
voltage cell to discharge. Since the charge is being
shuttled between this method is sometimes referred
to as charge shuttling. There are several disadvantages
to using charge shuttling; charge can only be
transferred between adjacent cells, it is less efficient
since it involved energy loss during charging and
discharging of the capacitor and any switching losses in
the switch, and the charging, switching, discharging
cycle takes more time compared with alternative
methods.
Capacitor cell balancing
• inductors can be used in place of the capacitors to move the
charge between adjacent cells. While this method is generally
faster and more efficient than capacitor shuttling, it still suffers
from several disadvantages; charge can be transferred only
from higher cells to lower cells. There are still switching losses
and a diode voltage drop to be considered.
Inductive Equalizer
Cuk Equalizer
Multi winding transformer equalizer
Multiple transformer equalizer
Inductive cell balancing circuit
 Inductive converter (Buck Boost method)
• The charge from the high
voltage cell is pumped in
the inductor and then
discharged into the low
voltage cell by using the
buck boost converter. The
below figure represents an
Inductive converter with
only two cells and single
buck boost converter.
• In the above circuit charge can be transferred from cell 1 to cell 2 by
switching the MOSFETS sw1 and sw2 in the following manner. First the
switch SW1 is closed this will make the charge from cell 1 to flow into the
inductor with current I-charge. Once the inductor is fully charged the
switch SW1 is opened and the switch sw2 is closed.

• Now, the inductor which is fully charged will reverse its polarity and begin
to discharge. This time the charge form the inductor flows into the cell2
with current I-discharge. Once the inductor is fully discharged the switch
sw2 is opened and the switch sw1 is closed to repeat the process.
• During the time t0 the switch sw1 is closed (turned on) which leads to the
current I charge to increase and the voltage across inductor (VL) to
increase. Then once the inductor is fully charged at time t1 the switch sw1
is opened (turned off) which makes the inductor to discharge the charge
that it accumulated in previous step. When a inductor discharges it
changes its polarity hence the voltage VL is shown in negative. When
discharging the discharge current (I discharge) decrease from its maximum
value. All this current enters the cell 2 to charge it up. A small interval is
allowed from time t2 to t3 and then at t3 the whole cycle repeats again.
• This method also suffers from a major disadvantage that charge could be
transferred only from higher cell to lower cell. Also the loss in switching
and diode voltage drop should be considered. But it is faster and efficient
than the capacitor method.
 Inductive converter (Fly back based)
• buck boost converter method
could only transfer charges
form the higher cell to the
lower cell. This problem can
be avoided by using a Fly
back converter and a
transformer. In a flyback type
converter the primary side of
the winding is connected to
the battery pack and the
secondary side is connected
to each individual cell of the
battery pack as shown below
• the battery operates with DC and the transformer will have no effect until the
voltage is switched. So to begin the charging process the switch on the primary
coil side Sp is switched. This converts DC to pulsed DC and the transformer
primary side is activated.
• Now on the secondary side each cell has its own switch and the secondary coil.
By switching the mosfet of the low voltage cell we can make that particular coil
to act as a secondary for the transformer. This way the charge form the primary
coil is transferred to the secondary coil. This causes the overall battery pack
voltage to discharge into the weak cell.
• The biggest advantage of this method is that any weak cell in the pack can be
easily charged from the pack voltage and not particular cell is discharges. But
since in involves a transformer, it occupies a large space and the complexity of
the circuit is high.
Flyback-based cell-to-pack active cell balancing
Advantages of Active Cell Balancing:
• It improves capacity usage. It performs great when you have different cell
capacities in a series.
• It increases energy efficiency. It saves energy instead of burning the excess
energy in a cell by transferring the excess energy to a lower energy cell.
• Lifetime extension. It improves the life expectancy of a cell.
• Fast balancing.
Disadvantages of Active Cell Balancing:
• When you transfer energy from one cell to another, approximately 10-20% of
the energy is lost.
• The charge could be transferred only from higher cell to lower cell.
• Although an active cell balancer has high energy efficiency, its control
algorithm may be complex and its production cost is expensive because each
cell should be connected with an additional power electronics interface.
 Passive Cell Balancing
• A passive system potentially burns off excess energy from
the high cells through a resistive element until the charge
matches the lower energy cells in the pack. If you have cells
packed in series and you notice that some of the cells have
higher energy than the other lower energy cells, you can
balance the cells in burning energy of the top cells simply
by attaching a resistor to the cells which releases the energy
into heat thereby equalizing the cell energy of the battery
pack.

• Initially, you burn off the excess energy until you have
balanced cells. Passive cell balancing allows all cells to
appear to have the same capacity. There are two different
categories of passive cell balancing method: fixed shunting
resistor and switching shunting resistor. A fixed shunting
resistor circuit is usually connected to the fixed shunting to
prevent it from being overcharged. With the help of the
resistors, the passive balancing circuit can control the limit
value of each cell voltage without damaging the cells.
Energy consumed by these resistors for balancing a battery
may result in thermal losses in the BMS. This, therefore,
proves the fixed shunting resistor method to be an
inefficient cell equalizing circuit.
• The switch shunting resistor cell balancing circuit is currently
the most common method in cell equalizing. This method has
a continuous mode and a sensing mode, where the continuous
mode all switches are controlled to be turned on or off at the
same time and in the sensing mode, a real-time voltage sensor
is required for each cell. This cell balancing circuit consumes
high energy through a balancing resistor. This cell balancing
circuit is suitable for a battery system that requires a low
current when it is charged or discharged.
 Resistive Equalizers
• Resistive equalizers simply burn the excess
power in higher voltage cells, as depicted in
Fig. Consequently, they represent the cheapest
option, and are widely utilized for laptop
batteries.
• Obviously, due to inherent heating problems,
resistive equalizers tend to have low equalizing
currents in the range of 300–500 mA, and
work only in the final stages of charging and
flotation.
• Due to the virtual nonexistence of energy
recovery, the efficiency is 0 %. Also, because
the battery should avoid working at high
temperatures and because in this
configuration, all the equalizing current is
transformed into heat, this equalizer
configuration is not recommended for high
reliability battery packs .
Advantages of Passive Cell Balancing:
• You should never have to balance a pack that is working perfectly.
• A cell cannot waste energy that it does not have. As soon as the energy bank is
full, that is only when the cell has enough energy to balance.
• It allows all cells to have the same SoC.
• It provides a fairly low-cost method for balancing the cells.
• It can correct for long-term mismatch in self-discharge current from cell to cell.
Disadvantages of Passive Cell Balancing:
• Poor thermal management.
• They do not balance during the full SoC. They only balance through the top of
each cell at around 95%. This is because if you have different cell capacities, you
are forced to burn off the excess energy.
• Its energy transmission efficiency is usually low. Electrical energy is dissipated as
heat in the resistors and the circuit also accounts for switching losses. In other
words, it results in a high amount of energy loss.
• It does not improve the run-time of a battery-powered system.
WIRELESS CHARGING
 Wireless charging
The basic feature of the wireless charger is the same
as the transformer. While using wireless charging, one
must know that a transmitter and a receiver will be
there. This receiver generally converts 220v 52Hz AC
power into high-frequency AC, which boosts the
transmitter coil and thus generates a magnetic field.
The receiver coil then generates the current flowing in
it. For effective wireless charging, it is necessary to
maintain the resonance frequency for both the
transmitter and the receiver. Here, a type of
compensation network is added to it to maintain the
balanced frequency. Next, the AC power source is
converted into DC power and feeds the battery with
sufficient power. There are mainly two types of
wireless charging systems – static wireless charging
and dynamic wireless charging.
 Types of wireless charging
The capacitive wireless charging system
• As per the name, the car will be recharged once it is parked. The
energy transmission between the transmitter and the receiver is
achieved by causing changes in the electric field. Coupling
capacitors are used by replacing the magnets or coils, as these
capacitors are used to receive and then transmit the power
The inductive wireless charging system
• The wireless transmission is possible by mutual induction and
creating the magnetic field between the receiver coil and the
transmitter coil. During the application of the AC power on the
transmitter coil, the magnetic field moves and creates the power.
 Static and Dynamic Wireless Charging
1. Static Wireless Charging
• As the name indicates, the vehicle gets charged when it remains static. So here
we could simply park the EV at the parking spot or in garage which is
incorporated with WCS. Transmitter is fitted underneath the ground and receiver
is arranged in vehicle’s underneath. To charge the vehicle align the transmitter
and receiver and leave it for charging. The charging time depends on the AC
supply power level, distance between the transmitter & receiver and their pad
sizes.
2. Dynamic Wireless Charging System (DWCS):
• As the name indicates here vehicle get charged while in motion. The power
transfers over the air from a stationary transmitter to the receiver coil in a
moving vehicle. By using DWCS EV's travelling range could be improved with the
continuous charging of its battery while driving on roadways and highways. It
reduces the need for large energy storage which further reduce the weight of the
vehicle.
Capacitive Wireless Charging
Capacitive Wireless Charging Circuit
Capacitive Wireless Charging : LCLC circuit topology
Inductive Wireless Charging
Capacitive Wireless Charging
Capacitive Wireless Charging Circuit
ADVANCED CHARGING SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY
Dynamic Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles in Motion
Dynamic Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles in Motion
Charging by Pantograph
Charging by Pantograph
 Fast charging Technology
Fast-charging station customers require that chargers be small,
rugged, reliable, and highly efficient while also delivering less-
than-30-minute charge times. The typically 3- to 7-kW on-board
chargers take four hours or more to charge today’s EVs. To
reduce charging time, fast off-board chargers must deliver much
higher power — anywhere between 80 kW and 350 kW.
 Extreme Fast Charging Converter Technology
• Five minutes to charge the battery
• Advanced Electrochemical Modeling for Batteries
• SiC or GaN based power electronics converters
Extreme Fast Charging Battery Technology
Solid-State
Batteries
Advancing
Toward
Promise of
Fast Charging,
Long Life,
Safer Use
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN CHARGING SYSTEM
 New developments in charging system
Smart EV Charging
• Smart EV charging delivers reliable, safe, renewable, and cost-effective energy to EVs
while meeting the needs of drivers and local grids. It depends on sophisticated back-
end software that captures data from EVs, networked chargers, and the grid. That data
is used to optimize charging of EVs, integrate power from storage and renewable
sources, and minimize impact on the grid. For buildings and fleets, site-level energy
needs are also factored in. Advanced algorithms balance all these elements to
dynamically distribute the lowest-cost energy when and where it’s needed without
compromising either local energy needs or EV charging.
Self-Healing Algorithms for EV Charging Management
• EV drivers are challenging EV charge point operators and e-mobility service
providers to do a better job of managing charger availability and stability and deliver a
seamless charging experience. Self-healing algorithms built into an EV charging
management platform can fix up to 80% of the software-related operational issues
that render EV chargers unusable by drivers. Real-time issue discovery and automated
self-repair maximize chargers uptime and optimize EV owners’ charging experience.
Vehicle-to-X (V2X)
• The idea of using the energy stored in EV batteries for other
purposes started with vehicle-to-grid (V2G). V2G envisions using smart EV charging to
control a two-way flow of energy between EVs and the grid. Instead of generating more
power during peak times, utilities would purchase stored energy from EV owners and
distribute it over the grid. During non-peak times, the EVs would draw energy for
recharging. V2X extends the idea to include different use cases and destinations for
power drawn from EVs, such as vehicle-to-home (V2H), vehicle-to-building (V2B),
vehicle-to-farm (V2F) and vehicle-to-load (V2L).
EV Battery Technology
• No blog on EV technology innovations would be complete without touching on EV
batteries. Efforts continue to find an alternative to today’s lithium-ion batteries that is
lower cost, faster to charge, longer-lived, and does not depend on scarce minerals.
New chemistries such as sodium-ion offer promise of incremental improvement.
Innovators looking for significant gains are exploring solid state batteries and new form
factors such as blades. What the industry needs is that big breakthrough technology
shift. Will it be quantum batteries that can charge fully in three minutes?
Megawatt Charging System for Big Trucks
• Current ultra-fast charging solutions — 250kW and, coming soon, 350-
500kW DC fast chargers — are getting passenger vehicles and light-duty
trucks or vans back on the road quickly. Depending on the car, you
can add 60 miles of driving with five minutes of charging or get to 80%
charged in 20 – 30 minutes.
• Medium- and heavy-duty trucks need a lot more power. Following four
years of development, the global EV standards non-profit CharIN has
launched a standards-based Megawatt Charging System fast-charging
connector for heavy-duty vehicles. It’s designed for DC charging of up to
3,750kW, so trucks can add about 200 miles range in a half-hour charging
session. That gets electric trucks close to the 500-mile range needed for
a single run.
Smart Battery Management
• EV batteries consist of thousands of cells, which are grouped into
modules, which are connected so they act as one battery. When enough
cells degrade to the point where the battery is no longer useful for
powering electric vehicles, smart battery management technology can
give those batteries a second life. They can be “racked and stacked” so
that multiple EV batteries can act as one very large battery that can be
used for local storage of energy from the grid or from renewable
sources. The technology that makes this possible combines software,
sensors, and hardware to correct for non-functioning cells, optimize
charging, and communicate with smart EV charging and energy
management software. In this way, energy from renewables can be
captured when conditions are good, stored, and integrated back into the
local grid or the local EV charging infrastructure.