18EEE403T - HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Dr. R. Femi
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
 Unit-1
• Introduction to Electric Vehicles
• Configurations of Parallel HEV
• History of electric vehicles and hybrid
electric vehicles (Mechanical Coupling)
• Social and environmental importance
of hybrid and electric vehicles • Configurations of Parallel HEV
• Key challenges of hybrid and electric (Torque Coupling)
vehicles
• Basics of EV • Configurations of Parallel HEV
• Basics of HEV, PHEV (Speed Coupling)
• Concept of EV
• Configurations of EV
• Power train components
• Concept of Series HEV • Vehicle model
• Configurations of Series HEV
• Concept of Parallel HEV
• EV power train component sizing
Conventional Vehicles
Introduction to Electric Vehicles
What is an Electric Vehicle (EV)

A Vehicle that runs on

electricity
Internal combustion Engine and Electric vehicle
 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
There are four types of electric vehicles available:
• Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV):Fully powered by electricity. These are
more efficient compared to hybrid and plug-in hybrids.
• Hybrid Electric Vehicle:
– Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV): The vehicle uses both the internal combustion
(usually petrol) engine and the battery-powered motor powertrain. The petrol
engine is used both to drive and charge when the battery is empty. These
vehicles are not as efficient as fully electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles.
– Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Uses both an internal combustion engine
and a battery charged from an external socket (they have a plug). This means the
vehicle’s battery can be charged with electricity rather than the engine. PHEVs
are more efficient than HEVs but less efficient than BEVs.
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV):Electric energy is produced from
chemical energy. For example, a hydrogen FCEV.
 Vehicles
Conventional Hybrid Battery Electric

Fuel Battery Fuel Battery

Motor/ Motor/
Engine Generator
Engine
Generator

Transmission Transmission Transmission

System Architecture of 4 types of electric cars
System Architecture of 4 types of electric cars
 Electric Vehicles
• An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or
more electric motors for propulsion.
• EVs are vehicles that are either partially or fully powered on
electric power.
• Electric vehicles use electricity to charge their batteries instead
of using fossil fuels like petrol or diesel.
• It has less moving parts and also very environmentally friendly.
Therefore requires less maintenance and more efficient.
History of Electric vehicles and Hybrid
Electric Vehicles
Volta Pile Battery
1800, in Italy
Piled up plates of copper and
zinc, separated by pasteboard and
soaked in salt water
Found that there is continuous
current
Cells in series – larger potential
Cells in parallel – larger current
Electric Motors
1821, Michael Faraday
Wired rod when supplied by
Volta Pile woe around a fixed
magnet
Electro magnetic Induction
principle
 Earlier vehicles
• Electrical storage + electric motors  driving wheels (1835)
• (1834 –1836),Thomas Davenport – Electric car
 Earlier vehicles (Contd..)
• (1837) Electrical carriage by R.Davidson in Aberdeen

• (1838) Volta pile powered paddle boat by Moritz Jacobi

 First Road Vehicles

• 1881, In France, Trouve made first EV with

Plante battery (Lead acid)
• EV—tricycle—two siemens motors driving one
large wheel with two chains
• 1/10HP; 160kg; 12kph
 First Road Vehicles (Contd..)

• 1882, In England, William Ayrton and John Perry

made an EV (tricycle) with 10 Plante battery
(Lead acid)
• Battery – 1.5Kwhr giving 20V
• 0.5HP Dc motor under the seat
• Range is 16-40km and max speed – 14km/h
• Speed is adjusted by witching the batteries
 First Road Vehicles (Contd..)

• 1885, Carl Benz, in England, developed IC

engine based tricycle
• First to have electric lighting. Two filament
lamps of four candle power providing 50
lumens of light and are supplied by traction
batteries.
• Max speed – 14km
 First Road Vehicles (Contd..)
Year Inventor Features
1886 Gustave Phillipart (Belgium) Electric bus

1888 Phillip.W.Kart (USA) Designed an EV

1889 Andrew L Ricker (Newyork) Tricycle – 1/6HP, 100lbs battery, Range
upto 48km at 13km/h
Four wheeled EV – 140kg, 0.5HP, 6kg
battery.
Vehicle can carry only one person at
19km/h for 4hrs
1895 Morris and Salom Two seated electric boat-Methodology
was used to build taxis in 1896.
 Setback - First Road Vehicles
Failed to follow”Red Flag ACT” – Severe
restrictions (1896)

IC engines were found to be superior

In 1895, gasoline powered vehicles out

performed electric vehicles during heavy
snow climate

1899, Camille Jenatz, designed a vehicle for

racing with IC engines to travel fast
 Golden Ages (1900 – 1916)
Year Inventor Features
1906 Ford (USA) Model K

1909 Ford (USA) Model T

1912 Ferdinand Porsche Porsche No.1 – Lohner Wagen
Race cars – Lohner Porsche Rennwagen
(180kg)
1912 Hybrid car – century electric Roadster
Costed - $1750
Model T - $550
1916 Wood Wood’s gasoline hybrid car
Cost - $2650
 Dark Ages (1925 – 1960)

EV Manufacturers are out of business –

Less sale due to increase in cost
Gasoline vehicles – Increasing in the
market
Japan – war time – 1937 and 1954
 Modern Era – 1960s
Year Happening Picture
1960 Interest in EV (air pollution by
gasoline vehicles)
Eureka williams corporation
converted gasoline vehicles (Renault
Dauphine) to EV

Mid Scottish aviation Ltd built scamp EV

1960s GM and Ford experimented with the
transition to EV

1966 Enfield 8000 car was designed as an

EV
Car Chasis –steel and holds 8 lead
acid batteries. It had 6kw DC motor;
975 kg weight and max speed is
64km/h
 Modern Era – 1960s (Contd..)
Year Happening Picture
1966 Ford designed Commuta car. Uses
two DC motor each weighing 18kg.

Late GM produced Electrovair and

1960s Electrivan
 Modern Era – 1970s (Contd..)
Year Happening Picture
1972 Sebring vangaurd (Florida) produced
low cost two seater, citicar.

Mid Jet industries, Mc Kee Engg, Electric

1970s Vehicle Associates
185 cars sold in short time
1.Fiat – X1/23B (1975)
2.Globe union Endura (1977)
3.GE continental (1978)
4.GE Chrysler (1979)
Year Happening Picture
1980’s • Ford/GE sponsored by US
Government to develop
vehicles with AC drives.
• Peugeot 205, Citreon C15 –
Electric Vans
How did Electric Vehicles develop?
How did Electric Vehicles develop?
History of electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles

Electrobat-first commercially viable

EV- Philadelphians Pedro Salom and
Henry G. Morris - battery-electric
street cars and boats and got a
patent in 1894
 History of electric vehicles
• Anyos Jedlik a Hungarian inventor, developed an early electrical motor in 1828.
• In 1834, Vermont Blacksmith, Thomas Davenport, built another model electric vehicle that was able to run on a
small, circular, electrical track
• French physicist Gaston Planté developed a rechargeable lead-acid battery in 1859.
• Scientist Camille Alphonse Faure improved on the design in 1881; and inventor Gustave Trouvé tested the first
human-carrying EV with its own power source the very same year in Paris.
• Electric car history was made when an English inventor (clearly a very popular job at the time) named Thomas
Parker built the first production EV in 1884, although German engineer Andreas Flocken is credited with building
the first ―real‖ electric car (―real‖ as in it more closely resembled a car as we know it, rather than a horse-drawn
carriage), the Flocken Elektrowagen, in 1888.
• First successful electric automobile, The Electrobat, was developed by mechanical engineer Henry G. Morris
and chemist Pedro G. Salom in 1894.
• Late-1800s and early-1900s were seen as a ‗golden age‘ for electric cars: London had a fleet of battery-powered
EVs by 1897; across the pond in the US, 38 per cent of all cars where electric-powered.
• In 1959 Henney Kilowatt, an all-electric car from the US that‘s considered to be the world‘s first mass-produced
electric car, even though only a hundred were made.
• Evs have the unique distinction of being the first manned vehicle type in space, with the Lunar Roving Vehicle
EV making tracks on the moon‘s surface during 1971‘s Apollo 15 mission.
• Tesla Motors produced its very first electric car, the Roadster, in 2008.
 History of hybrid electric vehicles

Lohner-Porsche-1900-world's first hybrid car-Dr Woods Dual Power-hybrid-1916 in Chicago-petrol Modern age-Toyota -hybrid or e-car-Prius (above) -top-
Ferdinand Porsche-batteries and petrol and on batteries selling hybrids in Japan & US.

• The hybrid car is more than 100 years old, and the Toyota Prius is just ONE of the many vehicles where this technology has
been reborn in.
• Lohner-Porsche, a front-wheel-drive all-electric car based on the Porsche-invented and also world's first motors positioned in
the wheel hubs- world's first hybrid vehicle-1900.
• The Pieper patents were used by another Belgium firm, though, called Auto-Mixte. It manufactured hybrid commercial
vehicles from 1906 to 1912.
• The Woods Motor Vehicle company introduced the Dual Power in 1915. The Dual Power was a hybrid vehicle powered by an
electric engine as well as a four-cylinder internal combustion engine.
• Dr. Baruch Berman, Dr. George H. Gelb, and Dr. Neal A. Richardson, three engineers working for TRW Automotive, created a
practical hybrid drive module.
• General Motors introduced the GM 512, a hybrid study model that could run on a combination of battery power and a two-
cylinder gasoline engine. Daimler-Benz was also working on dual-power technology, creating the world's first diesel-electric
bus.
• The Mercedes-Benz OE 302 hybrid bus from 1969 had a peculiar powertrain arrangement for those days. It has a passenger
car diesel engine, a generator and a DC shunt motor in the rear, while batteries were mounted between the axles.
Social and Environmental Importance of Hybrid
and Electric Vehicles
• Global warming has numerous effects the planet. The polar ice
caps are melting at an increasing rate causing the seas to rise.
• If this continues at the rate it is going millions of people around
the world will be left homeless due to flooding.
• More deaths due to disease will be unavoidable due to higher
toxin levels in the air; also there is a larger range of disease
carrying insects such as mosquitoes.
• The change in climate will also drastically affect many plants and food crops
needed for human survival.
• Some have also predicted that global warming will be the end of our planet due
to war between countries for the remaining goods after the climate causes them
to become scarce.
• Automobiles also produce other harmful gases other than carbon dioxide. Some
of these include Nitrogen Oxides, Volatile Organic Compounds, volatile matter
and carbon monoxide.
• All of these can lead to ground level smog that damages the respiratory system
and kills plant life.
• Some environmental effects from automobiles will remain a problem even if
automobiles were all electric. First, the power plants would still be releasing
large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere during electricity
generation to charge the cars.
• Less obvious are other effects such as runoff of from oils, washer fluid, and
salt; as well as brake dust. Also another overlooked effect on the environment is
the large amount of energy expended in the actual manufacturing process of
the vehicles. But no gases are emitted from a tail pipe of an electric vehicle.
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ELECTRIC AND
HYBRID VEHICLES
• The social and environmental impacts of electric and hybrid vehicles include effects on
mobility and travel, electricity supply system operation, petroleum and other fuel
consumption, air pollution and traffic noise.
• An estimated 80 per cent of average annual vehicle kilometres can be electrified.
• Electricity supply systems will not need to expand capacity, and will benefit from load
levelling if overnight recharging of electric vehicles is encouraged.
• Petroleum consumption for transportation purposes will decline, but the benefits are
dependent on the type of fuel used to generate recharge electricity.
• The fuel mix used by power stations also determines air pollution impacts, since
decreases in vehicle emissions are accompanied by increases in power plant emissions.
• Improvements in traffic noise are modest, with 100 per cent electrification of light
vehicles producing a 13 per cent decrease in traffic noise impacts.
• Hybrid and electric vehicles play a critical role in reducing global greenhouse gas
emissions, with transport estimated to contribute to 14% of the 49 GtCO2eq produced
annually.
 Societal benefits
• Calculating the energy return on investment of the various technologies based
on the current energy generation mix, hybrid vehicles show the greatest
environmental benefits, although this would change if electricity was made with
high amounts of renewables.
• In an extreme scenario with heavy coal generation, the CO2eq return on
investment can actually be negative for pure electric vehicles, highlighting the
importance of renewable energy generation further.
• Participant benefits include increased property value, aesthetics, comfort,
safety, and noise reduction.
• Societal benefits include reduced healthcare costs, job creation benefits,
and environmental benefits. grid resources.
• Societal benefits for EVs include national security benefits, better air quality and
health, domestic economic development and environmental benefits.
• Participant benefits include reduced energy and maintenance costs for EV
operators.
Six Challenges Moving toward a future society in harmony with automobiles and
nature
Negative Environmental Impacts of Hybrid Vehicles
• Dirty Electricity Sources- power grid is fueled with coal or oil
• Hybrids aren't Emission-Free- expect emissions to be
reduced by approximately 10 percent
• Batteries-environmental hazard- toxic chemical- improperly
disposing of nickel-hydride batteries can pose an
environmental hazard
• More Heavy Metals in the Car Construction- copper must be
mined and is mined either from open pits or underground
mines in a way that can lead to further environmental
degradation
 Key challenges of hybrid and electric vehicles
• Shorter Driving Range
• Degrading Batteries
• High costs,
• EV Reliability is key
• Long charging time,
• Adapting to the Fluctuating Automotive Supply Chain
• Inadequate Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure
• Issues with selection of Power Semiconductors and other
devices
• Vehicle Size
 Challenges to the widespread adoption of EVs
• Longer Recharge Time
• Short Driving Range and Speed
• Inadequate charging infrastructure.
• Risk of grid overload.
• High-carbon grid profile.
• Finite critical minerals and rare earth metals.
• Smart and flexible charging.
• Smart energy management for effective EV load management.
• Battery monitoring, analytics and recycling.
Longer Recharge Time, Short Driving Range and Speed
 Inadequate charging infrastructure
• Compared to traditional petrol stations, charging stations are harder
to find, normally limited by investment costs and difficult
infrastructure development. The cost of installation – from $2,500
for a slower charger to $35,800 for a fast charger – plus
miscellaneous fees, such as permits and regulations, have made
charging stations an expensive investment. Furthermore, enabling
people to charge where they usually park, at home or at work, has
its own challenges, such as dealing with multi-tenant buildings, grid-
connection management, and charging slot availability. This results
in a smaller network of functional charging stations and has deterred
consumers from making the switch to EVs.
 Risk of grid overload

• Power grids are already strained as we deal with a greater RE share

and the challenge of more intermittent energy supply. Increased
adoption of EVs adds further electricity load, potentially requiring
new investment in grid infrastructure to meet this increased
demand. Forecasting when and where this power is needed is a
further challenge faced by utilities and power generators as they
grapple to understand the rapidly growing EV market. However,
there is a lower risk of grid overload if EVs were to be charged during
off-peak hours – that is, late at night or early in the morning.
 High-carbon grid profile
• Grey electricity grids, with their high reliance on fossil fuels,
decrease the effectiveness of EVs as a way for firms and consumers
to cut their emissions. Therefore, it is crucial to decarbonize the grid
as much as possible to convince buyers that their switch to an EV is
worthwhile and reduces carbon emissions.
 Finite critical minerals and rare earth metals

• EVs use about six times more mineral inputs than ICE vehicles. The
IEA’s forecast of 70 million EVs on the road by 2040 will be
accompanied by a 30-fold increase in demand for minerals. There is
no shortage of these resources underground, but rather a concern
as to whether they will be extracted sustainably, in line with social
responsibility governance, and in time to meet demand. It is
anticipated that there will be a shortage of nickel and challenges in
scaling up lithium production. This supply shortage may also cause
manufacturers to use lower-quality mineral inputs, adversely
affecting battery performance.
 Problems with Electric Vehicles in India
• EV and Battery cost
• Beta Version of vehicles
• Poor infrastructure and range anxiety
• Lack of standardization
• Temperature Issues
• Very few academic and local skill awareness
• Less performance
• Will increase the electricity demand at a national level
• Environmental concerns
• Servicing is in danger
 EV cost and battery cost
• The cost is the most concerning point for an
individual when it comes to buying an electric
vehicle. However, there are many incentives
given off by central and state governments. But
the common condition in all policies is that the
incentives are only applicable for up to a certain
number of vehicles only and after removing the
discount and incentives the same EV which was
looking lucrative to buy suddenly becomes
unaffordable. This tells that buying EV’s no more
be cheaper after a certain saturation point.
Battery Cost:
It’s no more hidden from anyone that the Li-ion battery in electric vehicles is
built to last till 6-7 years or hardly 8 years and after the battery decay period of
an electric vehicle battery its user remains with no other choice than to buy a
newer battery which costs nearly 3/4 th of the whole vehicle cost.
Battery cost is going to be a pressing issue for the EV buyers because electric
vehicles are new to both market and customers the battery issue requires at
least 5 years to surface this will going to be impacted in a long run.
 Beta version of vehicles
• Right now, both the technology and companies
are new to the market and the products they are
manufacturing are possibly facing real costumers
for the first time. And it’s nearly impossible to
make such a complex product like an automobile
perfect for the customers in the first go, and as
expected the buyers faced many issues. Vehicles
like RV400, EPluto 7G, Nexon all them has to
update their vehicle up to a very high extent
after customer feedback and reviews.
• Recently Pure EV has made a lot of changes in
their policies, software, hardware, and not even
Tata motors has to upgrade their BMS and regen
software after a lot of complaints from the
customers regarding extremely low range. So,
buying the vehicle from the first batch of the
company’s production would be a bad idea and
can even give you an extremely bad experience.
 Poor Infrastructure and range anxiety
• Poor infrastructure is among the most pressing issue among
people thinking to opt for electric vehicles. Poor infra
doesn’t only include a lack of charging stations but also the
lack of proper charging set up in their home. Charging a
heavier electric car could be a major problem for any
electric car owner if he/she lacks proper setup (Powerful
MCB, wire, and earthing) near their place.
• Range anxiety: This problem of mental pressure comes due
to lack of charging infrastructure which is improving day by
day but still required to improve a lot in this area.
• Many companies are offering mad range for their EVs in
ideal conditions like 200, 180, 150 but in real conditions,
150 km is like a dream and if you are from the category of
an average Indian male with some luggage and riding in a
city like a condition then you should be satisfied with a 100
km driving range. In electric cars, the loading capacity may
not have much impact, but for small vehicles like electric
scooters or electric bikes, even a small difference in driving
conditions can impact your EV range a lot.
 No Universal charger and Ecosystem (Lack of
standardization) Temperature Issues
• Every second electric vehicle-making company has
its own different charging port which is becoming a
hurdle to setting up a proper charging ecosystem.
• Also, many EV users complained about facing moral
trouble for charging their vehicle in different EV-
making company’s charging stations which can • Temperature can affect the
impact the growth of the EV industry. performance of an EV battery at a
• Lack of standardization is a curse to the Indian
electric vehicle industry; it’s damaging the present large extent which makes EV’s
and future of the EV market. Every second electric inappropriate for too cold
scooter has its own different charging port, which
affects the charging station infrastructure because (Uttarakhand, Meghalaya) or too hot
no specific charging station can be built that can regions like (Rajasthan, Kerala). The
charge all types of electric vehicles. Also, the lack
of standardization reduces the EV adoption rate in battery can give its ideal performance
society-based communities. when it’s in use under the temperature
Just like electric cars get a specific charging port
(CCS-2), electric two and three-wheelers should range of 15-40 degrees.
maintain a similar standard to achieve the mass
adoption of electric vehicles.
 Very few academic and local skill awareness
• EV push is necessary along with the
academic awareness and importance to
the students of coming generations.
Because the EV spare part and servicing
industry is another essential part of the
growth of EV’s. When one is stuck with
their broke ICE vehicle, he/she can easily
find a help or costumer support near them
but when it’s about electric vehicles it’s
surely a tedious task to find someone who
can fix their issue or help them.
Less performance for ideal economy
• IC engine-driven vehicles are still way
ahead of electric vehicles when it comes to
performance. In order to make sure that
an EV is giving the promised range it
becomes highly important to drive the
vehicle at lower performance and be
aware of maximum usage of ‘regenerative
breaking‘.
Will increase the electricity demand at a
national level:
• It’s just a matter of assuming the
increment in electricity demand when
everyone in the city is using solely
electricity to charge their vehicle. It’ll be a
horrific increment in the demand for
electricity and as of now, we are majorly
dependent on burning fossils for
generating electricity.
• Until we use renewable sources of energy
for generating electricity the EV revolution
will be of no use.
Environmental concerns:
• The EV revolution is necessary for the most
populated and polluted parts of India like
Delhi, Mumbai, etc. but in such cities the
major chunk of electricity is generated
through burning fossil fuels which are
equivalent to spreading the pollution through
the ICE vehicle smoke, even most of the
charging stations are reportedly operating
upon diesel-driven electricity generator. So,
the only solution to the emission problem is
to use renewable energy sources. (Like Solar
power, wind energy, tidal power, etc).
• Shifting to renewable energy sources is
equally important as shifting to electric
mobility.
 Servicing is in danger
• Servicing and spare parts are some of the most
important parts for any vehicle, especially for
vehicles facing Indian roads. Also, the quality of
material offered in new-age electric vehicles are
of very low quality and upon which the
companies are adding some very high-tech
functionalities like onboard GPS, touch screen
panels, extremely delicate sensors. In some
unfortunate period if even a light or indicators
damages, you won’t have any other choice than
replacing from the company itself (Which will
be extremely costly). Because almost every
company is using their costume made part in a
highly vulnerable product like the vehicle it’ll
cost a lot in a long term for the vehicle owners if
even a very small defect like breaking of light
takes place.
 Advances in technology can help mitigate these
challenges
1. Smart and flexible charging
• Cars are normally idle 95% of the time. Smart and flexible
charging technology utilizes unused power from car
batteries to provide additional electricity supply to the grid
during times of peak demand or, in some cases, just
intelligently pauses or reduces charging power. Conversely, it
enables consumers to recharge during off-peak hours, at
one-third or less of the peak-hour charging price, thus
reducing grid congestion during peak hours and cost for
consumers. By allowing EV owners to schedule charging
based on power constraints, price and priority, and to sell
unused power back to the grid, the charging system can
better anticipate sudden peaks in electricity demand. The
technology also enables the grid to increase capacity, serve
the increased demand from electric vehicles at a lower cost
to consumers, reduce grid system stress and avoid energy
price surges.
2. Smart energy management for effective
EV load management
• Energy management systems orchestrate the
generation assets (such as solar or wind power
installations) and demand assets (such as EV chargers,
heating and cooling systems, and lighting) of an
energy system on an integrated digital platform. This
allows real-time monitoring of asset health and
performance via Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity
and AI-driven algorithms, which in turn maximize
renewable energy consumption, thus reducing
operational costs and system investments. It also
allows EV and stationary storage to be co-optimized
with other assets connected to the grid, providing
additional grid stability services compatible with local
renewable energy resources, to balance the load and
ensure steady energy supply and stable market prices.
3. Battery monitoring, analytics and recycling
• AIoT-enabled battery monitoring and analytics
for EVs and stationary storage enables
predictive maintenance and usage
optimization that can extend battery lifetime,
helping reduce the need for new batteries and
supply chain pressure. Furthermore, data can
support better decisions on when to
repurpose or recycle batteries and identify
individual cells that are damaged (vs scrapping
the entire battery pack) thus simplifying and
optimizing recycling of lithium-ion batteries.
The way forward
• With the transition to EVs well underway, fueled by rising
environmental concerns, government legislation and
financial incentives, the challenges presented by this shift
are only increasing. Fortunately, together with other
hardware, manufacturing and supply chain solutions, AIoT-
assisted technology enables us to overcome many
challenges. Smart charging technology improves charging
infrastructure and customer experience. Smart energy
management improves EV and stationary load
management, reducing the risk of grid overload, and
enables greater consumption of renewable energy. Battery
monitoring, analytics and recycling mitigate supply
shortages faced by rising demand for the needed battery
minerals by extending lifetime and reusability.
• With the global drive to reduce emissions, coupled with
technologies expediting the electrification of transport,
more countries will follow Germany and other nations in
banning sales of combustion engine vehicles. Knowing that
the ban could be enforced as early as 2030, the question
that remains is: are companies, districts and cities ready to
switch to EVs in this decade?
 Shorter Driving Range and Degrading Batteries
• One of the top challenges of vehicle
electrification is the limited driving range of
lithium-ion batteries. These batteries provide a
range of 249 to 311 miles, while most drivers
prefer a range of 435 miles or more.
Additionally, the battery’s design is limited by
the size and mass of the pack. Increased mass
requires more energy for vehicle movement and
negatively affects the vehicle’s handling,
acceleration, and braking. Beyond providing a
limited driving range, all batteries become less
efficient over time. While most auto
manufacturers guarantee that EV batteries will
not degrade below a certain level for around
eight years, the lifespan of the car will likely be
much longer (in which case, it becomes more
likely that the driver will need to replace the
battery).
 Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure
• In the future, we are likely to see increased
charging infrastructure as well as faster
chargers that will make EVs extremely
competitive with gas vehicles. The current
charging infrastructure, however, falls a bit
short. The biggest issue is long-distance travel
(think cross-country road trips), where charging
stations are not always available along your
route. Installing more (and fast) charging
stations to create a more robust charging
infrastructure takes massive investment.
However, daily re-charging in home garages,
workplaces, and/or commercial parking areas
(retail locations, motorway rest areas, etc.)
would mean that EV drivers never have to stop
at filling stations in their everyday lives.
 Selection of Power Semiconductors
• Power conversion systems are essential for modern EVs. For example, a DC-AC
inverter system is used to convert DC from the battery and run an AC induction
motor. A combination of AC-DC converter and DC-DC converter along with
power factor corrector (PFC) is used in charging systems. These power
conversion systems use silicon-based power semiconductor switches such as
power MOSFETs to increase efficiency and minimize energy loss. The downside
is that silicon power MOSFETs are limited in operating voltage up to 250 volts.

• On the other hand, an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) can handle

operating voltage from 400 volts to 1600 volts. However, IGBTs are not used in
high-frequency operations (>30 kHz) due to poor switching performance. Power
MOSFETs with better switching performance are used in frequencies above 200
kHz. To overcome these limitations, wide-bandgap devices such as silicon
carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) must be used. Wide-bandgap devices
can operate in high voltage (> 1200 volts) and high frequency (> 200 kHz) due
to the wide energy bandgap. They also operate with less on-state resistance
and high thermal conductivity. This improves the efficiency by 2%, which is a
great deal in EVs.

• Since the power density and thermal conductivity of a wide-bandgap device are
higher than a silicon device for the same power rating, the size of the device
and thermal management system (heat sink) is also smaller. With the higher
operating frequency, the size of the passive components is also smaller (size
and weight are huge considerations in EVs). SiC diodes are also sometimes
recommended for the PFC to make the charger more efficient and reduce the
size of the components, but wide-bandgap devices are expensive and not many
manufacturers commercially produce them. Therefore, not many EV
manufacturers opt for wide-bandgap devices as it is a premium solution.
 EV Reliability Is Key
• The reliability of powertrain components such as the battery,
motor, and power electronics on the road is a key challenge for
powertrain design engineers as these components are
vulnerable to environmental stresses such as temperature
variation and mechanical shocks. Automotive power IC
designers take the upmost care in the design and
manufacturing of integrated power devices. The design of
thermal management systems is vital in determining the
efficient and reliable operation of e-powertrain components.
Suppliers and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) need
to consider material properties, non-uniform distribution of
current, voltage, magnetic flux, and component temperature.
The performance of one component can impact the flux
distribution in another.

• Another big EV challenge related to reliability is how the

microcontroller can optimize the power efficiency for different
components inside the EV, from high- to low-end designs to
ensure long-term design flexibility. Also, on-chip memory
solutions need to comply with the AEC-Q100 standard to
satisfy the strict operating temperature specifications. The use
of 7nm and 10nm parts creates lots of systematic defects and
integration challenges that haven’t been debugged yet. These
processes still have a lot of maturing to do.
 Adapting to the Fluctuating Automotive Supply
Chain
• The original equipment manufacturer OEM-
supplier relationship varies drastically from gas-
powered vehicles to EVs. There are roughly 3,800
fewer parts in an electric motor vs. an internal
combustion engine. This has many advantages
for the manufacturer and eventual car owner,
including significant cost reduction (and
economies of scale because there are fewer
suppliers), less maintenance, and an overall
reduced cost of ownership. For suppliers,
though, there is a clear downside. They are more
closely tied to the OEM and are almost forced to
rely on the same simulation tools as the OEMs
do. This means that integration is more
important today than it ever has been before.
Robust Design and Electric Vehicle Design
Challenges
Basics of EV, HEV, PHEV
 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
• BEVs are also known as All-Electric Vehicles (AEV). Electric Vehicles using BEV technology run
entirely on a battery-powered electric drivetrain. The electricity used to drive the vehicle is stored
in a large battery pack which can be charged by plugging into the electricity grid. The charged
battery pack then provides power to one or more electric motors to run the electric car.
Main Components of BEV:
• Electric motor, Inverter, Battery, Control Module, Drive train
Working Principles of BEV:
• The power for the electric motor is converted from the DC Battery to AC. As the accelerator is
pressed, a signal is sent to the controller. The controller adjusts the speed of the vehicle by
changing the frequency of the AC power from the inverter to the motor. The motor then connects
and leads to the turning of wheels through a cog. If the brakes are pressed, or the electric car is
decelerating, the motor becomes an alternator and produces power, which is sent back to the
battery
Examples of BEV:
• MG ZS, TATA Nexon, TATA Tigor, Mahindra E20 plus, Hyundai Kona, Mahindra Verito
Battery Electric Vehicle – BEV:
• A Battery Electric Vehicle has no gasoline engine.
• All the car‘s energy comes from the battery, which powers an electric motor.
• BEVs have zero emissions.
• The ―range‖ (or distance you can travel on a charge) varies between models and years, but
most BEVs can get anywhere from 75 – 402 miles on a single charge. (And that number is
growing — and fast!).
• Examples of BEVs include the Tesla Model 3, the Chevy Bolt, and the Nissan LEAF.
• Different models have different ―charge ports‖ (the socket through which you connect a charger
to the car).
DC Series Motor: It was a widely used motor back in the 1990s.
1. This motor is capable of producing high initial torque.
2. The easy speed control and sudden load increase bearing capacity make these motors
a good choice.
3. But the high maintenance due to the brushes and commutators is a major drawback in
the DC series motor which are also known as Brushed DC Motors. These motors are
still in use by the Indian railways.
• Brushless DC Motor (BLDC):
1. These motors are the technically advanced versions of DC series motors. BLDC
2. They don‘t use brushes and commutators.
3. Instead, permanent magnets are used. BLDCs have high starting torque, high efficiency
and low maintenance. BLDCs are widely used these days either as the hub motor or
belt-driven.
• Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM):
1. It is very similar in construction to the BLDCs. But the major difference is in the back
emf.
2. PMSM has a sinusoidal back emf whereas BLDC has trapezoidal one. PMSM
3. They have a high power rating and can be used in high-performance applications such
as sports cars, buses etc. For eg. Nissan Leaf uses a PMSM for propulsion.
• Three Phase Induction Motor
1. Unlike the DC motors, induction motors don‘t have a high starting
torque. It is cheap as compared to the other available options.
But don‘t go with the price.
2. It still has very high efficiency and can withstand rugged
environmental conditions.
3. Tesla Model S uses this type of motor. Even Tata and TVS are
planning to use induction motors in their electric vehicles.
4. Indian Railways have also started using induction motors over
DC motors.

• Comparison - basic parameters related to batteries.

 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
HEVs are also known as series hybrid or parallel hybrid. HEVs have both
engine and electric motor. The engine gets energy from fuel, and the motor
gets electricity from batteries. The transmission is rotated simultaneously
by both engine and electric motor. This then drives the wheels.
Main Components of HEV:
• Engine, Electric motor, Battery pack with controller & inverter, Fuel tank,
Control module
Working Principles of HEV:
• The fuel tank supplies energy to the engine like a regular car. The
batteries run on an electric motor. Both the engine and electric motor
can turn the transmission at the same time.
Examples of HEV: Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion
Hybrid
Hybrid Electric Vehicle – HEV
• HEVs are powered by an internal combustion gasoline engine (or ICE).
• In some HEVs, the ICE both recharges the electric battery and drives the transmission, while in
others the ICE only recharges the battery (which drives the electric motor).
• In both cases, HEVs are gasoline powered cars that emits much lower pollutants than a typical
gasoline car.
• HEV has both an electric motor and a gasoline engine. Both an electric battery and a gas tank are
present.
• Examples include the Toyota Prius, the Honda Insight, and the Ford Fusion Hybrid. Because
HEVs cannot plug in, they will not charge at EVgo (or at any public charging station).
 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
• The PHEVs are also known as series hybrids. They have both engine and a motor. You can choose among the
fuels, conventional fuel (such as petrol) or alternative fuel (such as bio-diesel). It can also be powered by a
rechargeable battery pack. The battery can be charged externally.
• PHEVs can run in at least 2 modes:
– All-electric Mode, in which the motor and battery provide all the car’s energy
– Hybrid Mode, in which both electricity and petrol/diesel are employed
Main Components of PHEV:
• Electric motor, Engine, Inverter, Battery, Fuel tank, Control module, Battery Charger (if onboard model)
Working Principles of PHEV:
• PHEVs start-up in all-electric mode and make use of electricity until their battery pack is depleted. Once the
battery gets drained, the engine takes over, and the vehicle operates as a conventional, non-plug-in hybrid.
PHEVs can be charged by plugging into an outside electric power source, engine, or regenerative braking.
When brakes are applied, the electric motor acts as a generator, using the energy to charge the battery. The
engine’s power is supplemented by the electric motor; as a result, smaller engines can be used, increasing the
car’s fuel efficiency without compromising performance.
Examples of PHEV:
• Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, BMW 330e, Porsche Panamera S E-hybrid, Chevy Volt, Chrysler Pacifica, Ford C-
Max Energi, Mercedes C350e, Mercedes S550e, Mercedes GLE550e, Mini Cooper SE Countryman, Ford Fusion
Energi, Audi A3 E-Tron, BMW i8, BMW X5 xdrive40e, Fiat 500e, Hyundai Sonata, Kia Optima, Volvo XC90 T8.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle – PHEV
• ―Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle‖ — or ―PHEV.‖
• PHEVs have both a gasoline engine and tank, and they also have a charging port to recharge
an electric battery.
• A typical electric range of a PHEV is about 10-40 miles, which is perfect for a commuter who
can recharge at home or on-the-go.
• Once the electric range is depleted, the vehicle reverts to hybrid mode and relies on its
gasoline engine.
• Examples of PHEVs include the Chevrolet Volt, Toyota Prius Plug-in, and the Kia Optima
Plug-in. Unlike HEVs, PHEVs can recharge at AC Level 2 EVgo stations, and some can even
accept a DC Fast Charge.
 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle(FCEV)
• FCEVs are also known as Zero-Emission Vehicles. They employ ‘fuel cell
technology’ to generate the electricity required to run the vehicle. The
chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into electric energy.
Main Components of FCEV:
• Electric motor, Fuel-cell stack, Hydrogen storage tank, battery with
converter and controller
Working Principles of FCEV:
• The FCEV generates the electricity required to run this vehicle on the
vehicle itself.
Examples of FCEV:
• Toyota Mirai, Riversimple Rasa, Hyundai Tucson FCEV, Honda Clarity Fuel
Cell, Hyundai Nexo.
Electric Vehicle Power Train
Concept of EV
Configurations of EV
(a)

• the configuration of the first alternative, in which an electric

propulsion replaces the IC engine of a conventional vehicle
drive train.
• It consists of an electric motor, a clutch, a gearbox, and a
differential.
• The clutch and gearbox may be replaced by automatic
transmission.
• The clutch is used to connect or disconnect the power of the
electric motor from the driven wheels.
• The gearbox provides a set of gear ratios to modify the speed-
power (torque) profile to match the load requirement .
• The differential is a mechanical device (usually a set of
planetary gears), which enables the wheels of both sides to be
driven at different speeds when the vehicle runs along a
curved path.
(b)

• With an electric motor that has constant

power in a long speed range, a fixed
gearing can replace the multispeed
gearbox and reduce the need for a clutch.

• This configuration not only reduces the

size and weight of the mechanical
transmission, but also simplifies the drive
train control because gear shifting is not
needed.
(c)

• the electric motor, the fixed gearing, and

the differential can be further integrated
into a single assembly while both axles
point at both driving wheels.

• The whole drive train is further

simplified and compacted.
(d)

• the mechanical differential is replaced by using two

traction motors.

• Each of them drives one side wheel and operates at a

different speed when the vehicle is running along a
curved path.
(e)

In order to further simplify the drive train, the

traction motor can be placed inside a wheel.
This arrangement is the so-called inwheel
drive.

A thin planetary gear set may be used to

reduce the
motor speed and enhance the motor torque.

The thin planetary gear set offers the

advantage of a high-speed reduction ratio as
well as an inline arrangement of the input and
output shaft.
(f)

• By fully abandoning any mechanical

gearing between the electric motor and
the driving wheel, the out-rotor of a low-
speed electric motor in the in-wheel drive
can be directly connected to the driving
wheel.

• The speed control of the electric motor is

equivalent to the control of the wheel
speed and hence the vehicle speed.

• However, this arrangement requires the

electric motor to have a higher torque to
start and accelerate the vehicle.
 Clutch
• A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages
power transmission, especially from a drive shaft (driving
shaft) to a driven shaft. The function and purpose of a clutch is
to transmit torque from a rotating driving motor to a
transmission. Clutches require a mode of actuation in order to
break the transmission of torque.
 Gear
• A gear is a rotating circular machine part having cut teeth or, in
the case of a cogwheel or gearwheel, inserted teeth (called
cogs), which mesh with another (compatible) toothed part to
transmit (convert) torque and speed.

Why do most EVs get a single-speed gearbox?

The reason for this is firstly the higher rev range of the electric motors. Electric motors
can rev up to 20,000 rpm while, on average, ICE cars go up to 6000-7000 rpm. Secondly,
ICE cars have a narrow power band, which means they generate peak torque and power
within this specific band of engine speed and thus require multiple gears to attain higher
speeds. On the other hand, in the case of electric cars, the power band is much wider as
compared to the ICE cars and the motors have efficient power delivery throughout the
range, producing peak torque even at zero rpm, so a single gear box is sufficient for them
to attain the top-speed.
 Differential
• The differential is a system of gears that allows different drive
wheels (the wheels to which power is delivered from the
engine) on the same axle to rotate at different speeds, such as
when the car is turning.
 Gear Box

• A Gear Box is often called a transmission. Gear boxes simply

refer to a set of gears and their casing, most commonly found
in automobiles. Since most motor vehicle engines have high
operating and idling speeds, transmissions allow the
machinery to operate efficiently and even aid in slowing and
shutting down machinery.
 EV powertrain

• An EV's powertrain is responsible for taking energy stored in

the vehicle's battery system and supplying it to the motors.
The amount of power that it takes to move a fully loaded
vehicle is enormous, and delivery needs to be instantaneous
and predictable.
 Cog
How does a cog work?
• Gears are wheels with teeth that slot together. When one gear is
turned the other one turns as well. If the gears are of different
sizes, they can be used to increase the power of a turning force.
The smaller wheel turns more quickly but with less force, while the
bigger one turns more slowly with more force.
What is a cog on a car?
• . A toothed machine part, such as a wheel or cylinder, that
meshes with another toothed part to transmit motion or to
change speed or direction.
 Drive Train
• In automotive engineering, the drivetrain (also frequently spelled
as "drive train" or sometimes "drive-train") is the group of
components of a motor vehicle that deliver power to the drive
wheels. This excludes the engine or motor that generates the
power.
• Definition of drivetrain

the parts (such as the universal joint and the driveshaft) that
connect the transmission with the driving axles of an
automobile also : power train the drivetrain warranty.
Concept of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Hybrid drive trains supply the required power by an adapted power train.
There are many available patterns of combining the power flows to meet
load requirements as described below:
1. Power train 1 alone delivers power to the load
2. Power train 2 alone delivers power to the load
3. Both power train 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same time
4. Power train 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)
5. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1
6. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1 and load at the
same time
7. Power train 1 delivers power to load and to power train 2 at the
same time
8. Power train 1 delivers power to power train 2, and power train 2
delivers power to load
9. Power train 1 delivers power to load, and load delivers power to
power train 2.
Classification of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Configuration of Series Hybrid Electric Drive Train
 Operating modes of Series hybrid EV
1. Pure electric mode: The engine is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the
batteries.
2. Pure engine mode: The vehicle traction power only comes from the engine-generator,
while the batteries neither supply nor draw any power from the drive train. The electric
machines serve as an electric transmission from the engine to the driven wheels.
3. Hybrid mode: The traction power is drawn from both the engine generator and the
batteries.
4. Engine traction and battery charging mode: The engine-generator supplies power to
charge the batteries and to propel the vehicle.
5. Regenerative braking mode: The engine-generator is turned off and the traction motor
is operated as a generator. The power generated is used to charge the batteries.
6. Battery charging mode: The traction motor receives no power and the engine-
generator charges the batteries.
7. Hybrid battery charging mode: Both the engine-generator and the traction motor
operate as generators to charge the batteries.
 Advantages of series hybrid drive trains
1. The engine is fully mechanical when decoupled from the driven wheels. Therefore, it can be
operated at any point on its speed–torque characteristic map, and can potentially be operated
solely within its maximum efficiency region.
2. Because electric motors have near-ideal torque–speed characteristics, they do not need
multigear transmissions. Therefore, their construction is greatly simplified and the cost is
reduced. Furthermore, instead of using one motor and a differential gear, two motors may be
used, each powering a single wheel. This provides speed decoupling between the two wheels
like a differential but also acts as a limited slip differential for traction control purposes. The
ultimate refinement would use four motors, thus making the vehicle an all-wheel-drive
without the expense and complexity of differentials and drive shafts running through the
frame.

3. Simple control strategies may be used as a result of the mechanical decoupling provided by
the electrical transmission.
 Disadvantages of Series hybrid electric drive

1. The energy from the engine is converted twice (mechanical to

electrical in the generator and electrical to mechanical in the traction
motor). The inefficiencies of the generator and traction motor add
up and the losses may be significant.
2. The generator adds additional weight and cost.
3. The traction motor must be sized to meet maximum requirements
since it is the only powerplant propelling the vehicle.
Configuration of a Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train
 Mechanical Coupling
• A parallel hybrid drive train is a drive train in which the engine
supplies its power mechanically to the wheels like in a
conventional ICE-powered vehicle.
• It is assisted by an electric motor that is mechanically coupled
to the transmission.
• The powers of the engine and electric motor are coupled
together by mechanical coupling,
• The mechanical coupling may be a torque or speed coupling
 Torque-Coupling
• The torque coupling adds the torques of the engine and the
electric motor together
or
• splits the engine torque into two parts: propelling and battery
charging
 Torque-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
If loss is ignored, the output torque and speed can be described by

where k1 and k2 are the constants determined by the parameters of torque coupling.

An optimum design will depend mostly on the tractive requirements, engine size and engine characteristics,
motor size and motor characteristics, etc.
 Classification of torque coupling

• two-shaft design
• one-shaft design

Commonly used coupling devices

• Gear box
• Pulley and chain arrangement
• shaft
Commonly used mechanical torque coupling devices
 Two-axle configuration
• Both transmissions may be single or multigear.
• Two multigear transmissions produce many
tractive effort profiles.
• The performance and overall efficiency of the
drive train may be superior
• provides great flexibilityin the design of the engine
and electric motor characteristics
• two multigear transmissions will significantly
complicate the drive train.
• single-gear transmission 1 and the multigear
transmission 2 may be used.
• The multigear transmission 2 is used to overcome
the disadvantages of the IC engine speed–torque
characteristics (flat torque output along speed).
• The multispeed transmission 2 also tends to
improve the efficiency of the engine and reduces
the speed range of the vehicle — in which an
electric machine alone must propel the vehicle —
consequently reducing the battery-discharging
energy.
 Tractive effort along with vehicle speed with different
transmission schemes
• the maximum tractive effort with
this transmission arrangement may be
sufficient for the hill-climbing
performance
of the vehicle; greater tractive effort
• The use of a single-gear
transmission takes inherent advantage of
the high torque characteristic of electric
machines at low speeds.
 Two-shaft configuration
• the transmission is located between the
torque coupling and drive shaft.
• The transmission functions to enhance the
torques of both engine and electric motor
with the same scale.
• the electric motor to have a different speed
range than the engine; therefore, a high-
speed motor can be used.
 Pre-transmission single-shaft torque combination
parallel hybrid electric drive train

• In the pretransmission configuration,

both the engine torque and motor
torque are modified by the transmission.
• The engine and motor must have
the same speed range.
• This configuration is usually used in the
case of a small motor, referred to as a
mild hybrid drive train, in which the
electric motor functions as an engine
starter, electrical generator, engine
power assistant, and regenerative
braking.
Post-transmission single-shaft combination parallel
hybrid electric drive train
 Separated axle torque combination parallel hybrid
electric drive train

batteries cannot be charged from the engine by running the electric motor as a generator when the vehicle is at a
standstill and the motor is rigidly connected to the driven wheels
Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
 Speed coupling devices
two typical speed-coupling devices:
• one is a planetary gear unit and the other is an electric motor
with a floating stator, called a transmotor.
• A planetary gear unit is a three-port unit consisting of the sun
gear, the ring gear, and the yoke
A planetary gear set is made up of three types of
gears: a sun gear, planet gears, and a ring gear. The
sun gear is located at the center (yellow) and
transmits torque to the planet gears (blue) which are
typically mounted on a moveable carrier (green). The
planet gears orbit around the sun gear and mesh
with an outer ring gear (pink). Planetary gear
systems can vary in complexity from very simple to
intricate compound systems, depending on the
application.
Speed coupling devices
Hybrid electric drive train with speed coupling of
planetary gear unit
Hybrid electric drive train with speed coupling of
electric transmotor
Locks 1 and 2 are used to lock the sun gear and ring gear to the standstill frame of the vehicle in
order to satisfy the different operation mode requirements. The following operation modes can be
satisfied:

1. Hybrid traction: When locks 1 and 2 are released the sun gear and ring gear can rotate and both
the engine and electric machine supply positive speed and torque (positive power) to the driven
wheels.

2. Engine-alone traction: When lock 2 locks the ring gear to the vehicle frame and lock 1 is released
only the engine supplies power to he driven wheels.

3. Motor-alone traction: When lock 1 locks the sun gear to the vehicle frame (engine is shut off or
clutch is disengaged) and lock 2 is released only the electric motor supplies its power to the driven
wheels.

4. Regenerative braking: Lock 1 is set in locking state, the engine is shut off or clutch is disengaged,
and the electric machine is controlled in regenerating operation (negative torque). The kinetic or
potential energy of the vehicle can be absorbed by the electric system.

5. Battery charging from the engine: When the controller sets a negative speed for the electric
machine, the electric machine absorbs energy from the engine.
Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid
Electric Drive Trains
Alternative torque and speed hybrid electric drive
train with a planetary gear unit
Alternative torque and speed coupling hybrid
electric drive train with transmotor
Integrated speed-and torque-coupling hybrid
electric drive train (toyoto Prius)
Integrated speed- and torque-coupling hybrid
electric drive train with a transmotor
Vehicle Model
Road load force
Rolling Resistance
Aerodynamic drag
 EV Powertrain Component Sizing
when we size the powertrain of an EV, we must ensure sufficient
tractive force for the vehicle to:
• accelerate from zero speed to a certain speed within a required
time limit;
• overcome wind resistance force if headwind speed is non-zero;
• overcome aerodynamic force;
• overcome rolling resistance;
• climb a certain slope (grade).
Vehicle Model
Road load force
Rolling Resistance
Aerodynamic drag
 EV Powertrain Component Sizing
when we size the powertrain of an EV, we must ensure sufficient
tractive force for the vehicle to:
• accelerate from zero speed to a certain speed within a required
time limit;
• overcome wind resistance force if headwind speed is non-zero;
• overcome aerodynamic force;
• overcome rolling resistance;
• climb a certain slope (grade).
1 mile = 1609 meter
1 kg = 2.2 lb
1 lbf = 4.55 kg;
1 m = 3.28 ft
Power Train components