Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Dr. Nagaraj P. M.Sc. Ph.D.,

Associate Professor in Chemistry.

MODULE – 1

SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS

SYLLABUS:

Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of Conductometric sensors,

Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric sensors and Optical sensors. Sensors for the
measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals.
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of
biomolecules and pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithium
ion and Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)- Principle,
Properties and Applications.
_________________________________________________________
BLOW UP SYLLABUS:
Sensors: Introduction - Definition and terminologies of Transducer Actuators and Sensors.
Working principle and any four applications of Electrochemical sensors, Working principle
and any four applications of Conductometric sensors (conductometry), thermometric sensors
and Optical sensors (colorimetry).
Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO); With brief
introduction to different sensors, explain the principle, experimental procedure with electrode
reactions.
Electrochemical Sensor for pharmaceuticals; example-Diclofenac, and hydrocarbons;
example-1-hydroxypyrene (explain with electrochemical oxidation reactions),
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx; Working principle with electrode reactions
Disposable sensors (DS); Definition, advantages of DS over Classical sensors. Detection of
biomolecules; Example-Ascorbic acid (AA) explain with Oxidation of AA to
Dehydroascorbic acid, Pesticides; example Glyphosate (explain with electrochemical
oxidation)
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of
Lithium-ion and Sodium-ion batteries Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)-
Principle, Properties and Applications (any four)
___________________________________________________________________________

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Terminologies:
Transducer: A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to
another. The process of converting energy from one form to another is known as
transduction.

Types of transducers:

1) Input Transducer
2) Output Transducer
1) An input transducer or a sensor : It takes in physical energy and converts it into an
electrical signal that can be read.

Eg: A microphone, converts physical sound waves into an electrical signal that can be
transferred through wires.

Parts of a input transducer:

 Sensing element
 Transduction element
Sensing Element or receptor: It is the part of a transducer that responds to the physical
sensation. The response of the sensing element depends on the physical phenomenon.

Transduction Element: The transduction element of the transducer converts the output of
the sensing element into an electrical signal. The transduction element is also called the
secondary transducer.

2) An output transducer, or an actuator: It takes in electrical signals and converts them

into other forms of energy.
Eg: A lamp converts electricity into light and a motor, converts electricity into motion.

A Sensor or input transducer is a device that detects and measures physical input like light,
heat, moisture, pressure or any other environmental phenomena. The output produced by a
sensor is generally a signal that is transmitted electronically over a network for reading or
further processing.

A chemical sensor or input transducer is a device that is capable of giving real time
analytical information about the test sample. It interacts with the analyte, detects it and
produces measurable signal that is proportional to the analyte concentration or quantity.

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Electrochemical sensors:
Working principle:
1 Electrochemical sensors convert the information associated with electrochemical
reactions (the reaction between an electrode and analyte) into measurable signal.
Electrochemical sensors are made up of three essential components: the analyte, the
sensing element or receptor that responds to the analyte, and a transduction element
that converts the output of the sensing element into an electrical signal.

2 In electrochemical sensors, the surface of the electrode which is in contact with

analyte acts as sensing element or receptor where electrochemical reactions takes
place and produces non-electrical signal.
3 The electrode acts as the transduction element because it will convert non-electrical
signal produced by receptor into electrical signal.
4 Electrochemical sensors require a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement.
5 The electrode surface will either oxidize or reduce the analyte producing non -
electrical signals.

The following steps are involved in the working of an electrochemical sensor.

1) Diffusion of the analyte towards the electrode.
2) Adsorption onto the electrode surface
3) Oxidation and reduction of the analyte by electrode to produce non- electrical signal
which is proportional to the concentration of the analyte.
4) Desorption of products from the electrode surface
5) Diffusion of the products away from the electrode to the bulk of electrolyte.
Applications of Electrochemical sensors
 The oxygen sensor is used in detecting dissolved oxygen in water boilers.
 They are used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gas like CO,
H2S, NO, etc.
 They are used in water analysis to measure toxic metal concentration in water.
 They are used in diagnostic and health care application to diagnose the viral illness
such as Coronavirus, HIV, Malaria and Zika virus.

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Conductometric sensors:
Working Principle:
1 Conductometric sensor is considered a type of electrochemical sensor.
2 In conductometric sensor determination of the concentration of analyte is based on the
measurement of changes in the electrolytic conductance of solution.
3 Conductance of the solution is based on
Concentrations (number) of ions in the solutions
Mobility of each type of ions in solution. Mobility of ions depends on its size.
Smaller the size higher is the mobility and hence higher is the conductance.
4 An electrode used in conductometric sensor is called as conductivity cell.
5 It is made of two platinum electrodes with area of cross section 1cm2 and distance
between two electrodes is 1 cm apart. Volume of the solution between the two
electrodes is 1 cm3.
6 Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called specific conductance.
7 There will be change in specific conductance of solution when there is change in
number of ions or type of ions.
8 This change is measured using conductivity cell.
9 The conductivity cell is dipped in the electrolytic solution taken in a beaker and it is
connected to a conductance measuring device called conductivity meter.

Applications of conductometric sensors

 It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.

 Used to check the amount of ionic impurities in waste samples.
 Measure the acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
 In environment monitoring, bio technology and agriculture related applications.

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Thermometric Sensors:
Working Principle:

1 Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the

interaction between the analyte and receptors.
2 Thermal changes are converted to measurable change in the temperature or potential.
3 Thermometric sensors are useful in those processes which generate sufficient heat to
produce a measurable change of temperature.
4 Main components of thermometric sensor are a tubular catalytic reactor fitted with
temperature transducer.
5 Analyte (reactant) is fed in to the reactor.
6 The wall of the reactor is coated with catalyst or enzymes capable of catalysing the
reaction, liberating heat energy.
7 The heat liberated is measured by temperature transducer.
8 The change in temperature is converted to the output voltage by transducer which is
amplified and fed to the data storage and processing unit.
9 In order to convert change in temperature into an electrical signal, two main kinds of
transducers namely resistive transducer and thermocouple are used.

Applications of thermometric sensors:

 Temperature control in chemical reactions: Thermometric sensors are widely used in

chemical reactions to control the temperature of the reaction mixture which is
essential for obtaining the desired product.
 Used to monitor temperatures in industrial processes such as heating and cooling
systems, boilers, and furnaces.
 Used to monitor the temperature of medical equipment such as incubators, blood
warmers, and dialysis machines.
 Environmental monitoring: Thermometric sensors are used to monitor the temperature
of the environment, such as air temperature, soil temperature and water temperature.
This helps to understand the effects of temperature on the environment and to monitor
climate change.
 Medical applications: Thermometric sensors are used in medical applications to
measure body temperature, surface temperature and core temperature. This
information is critical for diagnosing and treating various medical conditions.

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Optical Sensors:
Working Principle:
1. Optical sensor is used to convert the light rays into electronic signals by photoelectric
effect. Optical sensors help in measuring the incident light’s intensity & changing it
into a readable form through an integrated instrument.
2. The working of an optical sensor is based on the interaction of incident light with
analyte sample.
3. In optical sensor, the incident radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, infrared domain is
used for analytical purpose.
4. When light falls on a analyte, it can be absorbed, reflected, scatterd or transmitted.
5. The amount of light absorbed or reflected depends on the structure of the molecule in
the analyte and the wavelength of the penetrating light.
Optical sensors are made up of following components:
1) light source: To pass light on material.
2) Monochromator: To select a light of particular wavelength.
3) Photocell: The light source emits light, which falls on the analyte to be measured. The
photodetector then detects the amount of light that is absorbed, reflected, or
transmitted. This information is then converted into an electrical signal.
4) Recorder: electrical signal is recorded by the recorder that can be used to measure
the properties of the material or concentration of particular component in a
material.

Applications of optical sensors:

 In Medical equipments - Optical sensors are used in medical equipment such as pulse
oximeters, which measure the amount of oxygen in a person's blood. And also
measures the pulse rate by detecting the changes in the amount of light transmitted
through the finger as the heart beats. The heart causes changes in the volume of blood
in the vessels, due to which there is change in the light that is transmitted.
 Air quality monitoring: Optical sensors can be used to monitor air quality by
measuring the amount of light absorbed or scattered by pollutants in the air, such as
dust, smoke, and smog. The sensors can detect the presence of these pollutants by
analysing changes in the amount of light transmitted through the air.
 Water quality monitoring: Optical sensors can be used to monitor water quality by
measuring the amount of pollutants. This is done by analyzing changes in the amount
of light transmitted through the water as light is absorbed by pollutants in the water
 Lighting control: Optical sensors can be used to automatically turn lights on and off
based on the presence of people in a room. By detecting changes in light levels in a
room in the presence of people.

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Dissolved oxygen : The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water can be measured using
a) Polarographic sensors
b) Optical sensors
c) Electrochemical sensors
Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
1. The dissolved oxygen diffuses from the sample across an oxygen permeable
membrane like polyvinyl chloride, into the sensor.
2. The electrochemical DO sensor consists of two electrodes.
3. Zinc or lead is used as anode and silver metal is used as inert cathode.
4. The difference in potential between anode and cathode should be more than 0.5V to
reduce dissolved oxygen without an external applied potential.
5. The electrolytic solution used is sodium chloride or any other inert electrolyte.
6. The reactions
The electrodes are dipped in water to measure its DO.
Anode: 2Zn 2 Z n+2 + 4 e-
Cathode: O2 + 2 H2O+ 4 e- 4 OH-
Over all reaction: 2 Z n + O2 + 2 H2O 2 Zn(OH)2

7. The current or signal produced by the reduction of oxygen at the cathode is

proportional to the concentration or partial pressure of oxygen in the water sample.
8. This signal can be read by recorder to give output.
9. Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 is precipitated out into the electrolyte solution and can effect
sensor performance.
10. When sensor reading are not stable, then electrolyte and zinc anode have to be
replaced to bring the sensor back to working condition.

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Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals ( Eg: diclofenac):

1) Sensors are used for the detection of pharmaceuticals to monitor their concentration

and know their toxic effects.

2) These sensors are fast, low cost, and sensitive.

3) These sensors can be used for on-the-spot analysis.

4) Diclofenac or 2-(2-((2,6-dichlorophenyl)amino)phenyl)acetic acid, which is a non-

steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic effects.

5) In the electrochemical sensor used to detect diclofenac, the sensing (working)

electrode is graphite carbon coated with multi walled carbon nano tubes (MWCNT)

and gold nano particles.

6) In the detection, along with sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference

electrodes are used.

7) when the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, the following oxidation

reaction of diclofenac occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode.

8) The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Electrochemical Sensors for Hydrocarbons (Eg: 1-hydroxypyrene)

1) Hydrocarbon pollutant, polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)are known to be

carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds. Detection of PAHs is essential to monitor
their toxicity and carcinogenic risk.
2) PAHs enter the human body mainly through respiration and diet. After entering the
body some PAHs are metabolised into hydroxyl PAHs which are excreted with
urine.1-hydroxypyrene is commonly found hydroxyPAHs in urine sample.
3) The concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene is used to evaluate PAHs exposure level in the
human body.
4) Electrochemical sensors are developed for detection of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine
sample. These sensors are fast, low cost and sensitive and use disposable strips.
5) The sensors can be used for on spot analysis.
6) The sensor used to detect 1-hydroxypyrene consists of the sensing electrode
PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO nanocomposites [graphene oxide (GO) with chromium-
centred metal–organic framework (Cr-MOF) nanoparticles regulated by
polyamidoamine].
7) In the detection along with sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference
electrode are used.
8) The1-hydroxypyrene structure contains electrochemical active hydroxyl groups,
which is oxidized by the anode active materials used for electrochemical detection.
9) The Oxidation reaction of 1-hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing
electrode.
10) The concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene is determined from the change in potential of
the reaction.

O
OH

1-Hydroxypyrene

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Electrochemical Gas Sensors for NOX and SOX :

1) Electrochemical sensors are used to measure the concentration of pollutant gases like
NO2and NO and SO2.
2) A filter is used to prevent unwanted contaminants.
3) An electrochemical gas sensor generally consists of a sensing electrode, counter and
reference electrode along with a gas-permeable membrane.
4) During sensing operations, it is submerged in an electrolytic liquid(electrolyte).
5) The gas-permeable membrane allows only the gas not liquid.
6) An electrochemical reaction taking place at the working electrode or sensing electrode
is either oxidation or reduction, depending on the type of gas.
7) An oxidation reaction moves electrons from the working electrode to the counter
electrode, while a reduction reaction causes electrons to move from the counter
electrode to the working electrode. In both the cases, the electrical current generated
and is proportional to the concentration of the target gas.
8) The current is then amplified and processed to give the user a reading in either parts
per million (PPM) or percentage volume.
9) Receptor and reactions: The receptor on the surface of electrode (working electrode)
is different for each gas. Reaction that occurs on the surface of the electrode is also
different for each case.
a) Detection of NO2
Detection of NO2 in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the
following electrochemical reduction reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au,
Pt/Nafion is used as sensing electrode with 10 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte.
NO2 + 2H+ + 2e- NO + H2O
b) Detection of NO
Detection of NO an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the
following electrochemical oxiadtion reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au
/NASICON-NaNO2 is used as sensing electrode and electrolyte.
NO + H2O + 2e- NO32- + 4H+ + 3e-
c) Detection of SO2
Detection of SO2 in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the
following electrochemical oxiadtion reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au
/Nafion is used as sensing electrode with 0.5 M H2SO4 as an electrolyte.
SO2 + 2H2O SO42- + 4H+ + 2e-

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Disposable sensors (DS): Portable sensor used for on-the –spot analysis of bioanalyte using
disposable strip with receptor and electrode printed on it, is called disposable sensor.

Advantages of DS over Classical sensors:

i) Disposable sensors utilize inexpensive, sustainable, or biodegradable materials.

ii) They are compact with high modularity and fewer components.
iii) They allow for reliable and low-cost mass production.
iv) They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
iv) They are simple to use or offer automated handling of samples with minimal user
intervention.
v) They operate without or with an affordable, portable instrument.
vi) They deliver precise results in accordance with international quality standards.
vii) The areas of application are numerous, ranging from pharmaceutical, agricultural,
environmental, forensic, and food sciences to wearables and clinical diagnostics,
especially in resource-limited settings.

Disposable sensor for the detection of biomolecules (Eg: Ascorbic acid):

1) Disposable, preactivated screen printing electrodes have been developed for on spot
analysis of Ascorbic acid(vitamin-C).

2) In the disposable strip, active materials of the sensing electrode, counter electrode and
reference electrode are printed on the disposable paper strip using screen printing
technology.
3) Active material coating on sensing electrode must be capable of oxidising ascorbic
acid on its surface.
4) The ascorbate oxidase enzyme immobilised on a screen printed carbon electrode with
poly(ethylene glycol) and diglycidyl ether as a cross linking agent can be used as
sensing electrode in ascorbic acid disposable biosensors.
5) It oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid.
6) Concentration of ascorbic acid is determined from the change in potential of the
oxidation process.

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Disposable sensor for the detection of pesticides (Eg- Glyphosate)

1) Glyphosate is an organophosphorus pesticide, used as herbicide in agriculture.

2) Its residues are present in large amount in agriculture products and enter the
ecosystem in large quantity.
3) It is carcinogen to humans, therefore, there is a need to develop a rapid, reliable and
sensitive method to detect Glyphosate in environmental samples.
4) The glycine oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen-printed carbon electrode is used
as sensing (working) electrode in glyphosate disposable biosensor.
5) It oxidizes glyphosate into amidomethyl phosphoric acid and glyoxylate.
6) Concentration of glyphosate is determined from the change in potential of the
oxidation process.

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ENERGY SYSTEM: An energy system is a system primarily designed to supply energy-

services to end-users Eg: battery, Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells etc.

Battery is a energy storage system consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in
series or parallel or both to obtain higher potential.

CONSTRUCTION, WORKING AND APPLICATIONS OF LITHIUM-ION

BATTERY:

In Lithium-ion battery anode and cathodes are able to insert lithium atoms into their layered
structure reversibly.

Anode: Graphite carbon + PVDF binder

Anode current collector: Copper

Cathode: Li-CoO2 + Carbon Black + PVDF binder

Cathode current collector: Aluminium

Electrolyte: LiPF6 dissolved in mixed organic solvent of ethylene carbonate-dimethyl

carbonate.

Separator: Polypropylene

Representation: C | LiPF6 in Organic Solvent | Li-CoO2

Open circuit Voltage: 3.7V

During discharging of battery, Li atoms present in graphite layer are oxidized,

liberating electrons and Li+. Electrons flow though external circuit to cathode and Li+ flow
through the organic electrolyte towards cathode. At cathode, Li+ are reduced to Li atoms and
are inserted in to the layered structure of cobalt oxide.

During charging of battery, Li atoms present in layered structure of cobalt oxide are
oxidized, liberating electrons and Li+. Electrons flow through external circuit and Li+ flow
through the organic electrolyte towards graphite carbon electrode. At graphite electrode, Li+
are reduced to Li atoms and are inserted into the layered structure of graphite.

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Electrode reactions: During discharge: At anode, Li-C6 → Li+ + 6C + e-

At cathode, Li+ + e- + CoO2→ Li-CoO2
discharge

Net cell reaction: Li-C6 + CoO2 d 6C + Li-CoO2

ir
recharge
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Applications:
cc
hh
It is used in electric vehicles. aa
rr
It is used in cell phones. gg
ee
It is used in laptops.

It is used in toy helicopters.

CONSTRUCTION, WORKING AND APPLICATIONS OF SODIUM-ION

BATTERY:

In Sodium-ion battery anode and cathodes are able to insert sodium atoms into their layered
structure reversibly.

Anode: Hard Carbon

Anode current collector: Aluminium

Cathode: Layered oxides like Fe[Fe(CN)6], Polyanionic compounds like

Na2Fe2(SO4)3

Cathode current collector: Aluminium

Electrolyte: NaPF6 dissolved in mixed organic solvent of ethylene carbonate-

dimethyl carbonate.

Separator: Polymer separators such as Celgard, or fiber-based separators such as

glass fiber.

Representation: Hard Carbon | NaPF6 in Organic Solvent | Na-Cathode

Open circuit Voltage: 1.85 to 3.45 V

During discharging of battery, Na atoms present in hard carbon layer are

oxidized, liberating electrons and Na+. Electrons flow though external circuit to cathode and
Na+ flow through the organic electrolyte towards cathode. At cathode, Na+ are reduced to Na
atoms and are inserted in to the layered structure of cathode.

During charging of battery, Na atoms present in layered structure of cathode are

oxidized, liberating electrons and Na+. Electrons flow through external circuit and Na+ flow
through the organic electrolyte towards hard carbon electrode. At hard carbon electrode, Na+
are reduced to Na atoms and are inserted into the layered structure of hard carbon.

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

Electrode reactions: During discharge: At anode, Na-C → C + Na+ + e-

At cathode, Na+ + e- + Cathode→ Na-Cathode
discharge

Net cell reaction: Na-C + Cathode d C + Na-Cathode

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recharge
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Applications:
cc
hh
1) Used in cellular phones and laptops. aa
2) In electric vehicles and power tools. rr
gg
Quantum dot sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’S) ee
1) A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is uses quantum dots as the absorbing photovoltaic
material. The dimension range of quantum dots lies between 1nm to 10 nm.
2) Quantum dots are zero-dimensional nanostructure with low band gap.
3) The efficiency of QDSSC in conversion of solar energy into electrical energy is very
high compared to conventional solar cell.
Construction

A QDSSCs consist of three components:

a) Photo anode: It is the working electrode in the cell. It is a conducting glass, over which a
large band gap semiconductor like TiO2 is coated. This is further coated with Quantum
dots(QD’s) such as PbS(lead sulphide),PbSe,CdSe, CdS which acts as photosensitizer.

b) Electrolyte: An electrolyte such as Polysulphide is placed between anode and cathode

with also acts as separator.

c) Cathode: Cathode is made up of inert metal which is used to complete the circuit.

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Working

1. QD’s present on photo anode is exposed to sunlight.

2. QD’s absorb solar energy and get exicited,i.e electrons jump from valence band to
conduction band producing electron hole pairs.
QDs + hγ QDs*
QDs* e + h+
-

3. The electrons from QDs are transferred to the conduction band of wide band gap
TiO2semiconductor, leaving holes on the surface of QD’s.
4. Electrolyte takes up holes from the surface of QD’s and gets oxidised.
S2- + 2h+ S
5. Electrons flow from photo anode to cathode through external circuit generating an
electric current.
6. At, cathode electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from the cathode.
S + 2e- S2-

Advantages of Quantum dot solar cells:

 They have a favorable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
 Their power consumption is low.
 There is an increase of electrical performance at low production costs.
 Their use is versatile and can be used in windows, not just roof tops.

Disadvantages of QDSC.
Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature
and require a very stable polymer shell.
Quantum dots solar cell applications
 It is used as light-emitting Diodes.
 It is used as Photo conductors and photo detectors.
 It is used in Drug delivery.
 Biosensors

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Yenepoya Institute of Technology, Thodar, Moodbidri-574227, Mangalore Taluk.

QUESTION BANK

BTL L 1 Questions
1) What is a transducer?
2) What is an actuator?
3) Define a sensor.
4) What is an electrochemical sensor?
5) What are disposable sensors?
6) Define a energy system?
7) What is a battery?
8) What are quantum dot sensitized solar cells?
BTL L 2 Questions
9) Discuss the working principle of electrochemical sensors and write any four
applications of electrochemical sensors.
10) Discuss the working principle of conductometric sensors and write any four
applications of conductometric sensors.
11) Discuss the working principle of thermometric sensors and write any four applications
of thermometric sensors.
12) Discuss the working principle of optical sensors and write any four applications of optical
sensors
13) Discuss the electrochemical sensor for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO).
14) Discuss the electrochemical sensor for pharmaceuticals taking diclofenac as an
example.
15) Discuss the electrochemical sensor for hydrocarbons, taking 1-hydroxypyrene as an
example.
16) Discuss the electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx.
17) Write a note on advantages of disposable sensor over classical sensors.
18) Discuss the disposable sensor for the detection of biomolecules taking ascorbic acid
as an example.
19) Discuss the disposable sensor for the detection of pesticides taking glyphosate as an
example.
20) Discuss the construction, working and applications of Li ion battery.
21) Discuss the construction, working and applications of Na ion battery.
22) Write a note on quantum dot sensitized solar cells and mention any four applications.

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