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 Brief Contents
Preface xvii

Part 1 Understanding Marketing Management 2

Chapter 1 Defining Marketing for the New Realities 3
Chapter 2 Developing Marketing Strategies and Plans 35

Part 2 Capturing Marketing Insights 66

Chapter 3 Collecting Information and Forecasting Demand 67
Chapter 4 Conducting Marketing Research 99

Part 3 Connecting with Customers 126

Chapter 5 Creating Long-Term Loyalty Relationships 127
Chapter 6 Analyzing Consumer Markets 157
Chapter 7 Analyzing Business Markets 189
Chapter 8 Tapping into Global Markets 217

Part 4 Building Strong Brands 244

Chapter 9 Identifying Market Segments and Targets 245
Chapter 10 Crafting the Brand Positioning 275
Chapter 11 Creating Brand Equity 299
Chapter 12 Addressing Competition and Driving Growth 335

Part 5 Creating Value 366

Chapter 13 Setting Product Strategy 367
Chapter 14 Designing and Managing Services 399
Chapter 15 Introducing New Market Offerings 429
Chapter 16 Developing Pricing Strategies and Programs 461

Part 6 Delivering Value 492

Chapter 17 Designing and Managing Integrated Marketing Channels 493
Chapter 18 Managing Retailing, Wholesaling, and Logistics 527

Part 7 Communicating Value 556

Chapter 19 Designing and Managing Integrated Marketing Communications 557
Chapter 20 Managing Mass Communications: Advertising, Sales Promotions, Events
and Experiences, and Public Relations 585
Chapter 21 Managing Digital Communications: Online, Social Media, and Mobile 615
Chapter 22 Managing Personal Communications: Direct and Database Marketing and
Personal Selling 635

Part 8 Conducting Marketing Responsibly for Long-Term

Success 656
Chapter 23 Managing a Holistic Marketing Organization for the Long Run 657

appendix: Sonic Marketing Plan and Exercises a1

Endnotes E1
Glossary G1
Name Index I1
Company, Brand, and Organization Index I5
Subject Index I18
vi
Contents
Preface xvii
Part 1 Understanding Marketing
Management 2
Chapter 1 Defining Marketing for the New
Realities 3
The Value of Marketing 3
Marketing Decision Making 3
Winning Marketing 4
The Scope of Marketing 5
What Is Marketing? 5
What Is Marketed? 5
Who Markets? 7
Core Marketing Concepts 9
Needs, Wants, and Demands 9
Target Markets, Positioning, and
Segmentation 9
Offerings and Brands 10
Marketing Channels 10
Paid, Owned, and Earned Media 10
Impressions and Engagement 10
Value and Satisfaction 11
Supply Chain 11
Competition 12
Marketing Environment 12
The New Marketing Realities 13
Technology 13
Globalization 14
Social Responsibility 14
MarkEtING INSIGht Getting to
Marketing 3.0 15
A Dramatically Changed Marketplace
New Consumer Capabilities 16
New Company Capabilities 17
Changing Channels 19
Heightened Competition 19
Marketing in Practice 19
Marketing Balance 19
MarkEtING MEMO Reinventing Marketing
at Coca-Cola 20
Marketing Accountability 20
Marketing in the Organization 20
Company Orientation toward the
Marketplace 20
The Production Concept 20
The Product Concept 21
The Selling Concept 21
The Marketing Concept 21
The Holistic Marketing Concept 21
Updating the Four Ps 25
MarkEtING INSIGht Understanding the
4 As of Marketing 26
Marketing Management Tasks 27
Developing Marketing Strategies and
Plans 27
Capturing Marketing Insights 28
Connecting with Customers 28
Building Strong Brands 28
MarkEtING MEMO Marketers’ Frequently
Asked Questions 28
Creating Value 29
Delivering Value 29
Communicating Value 29
Conducting Marketing Responsibly for
Long-Term Success 29
Summary 29
applications 30
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Nike 30
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Google 32
Chapter 2 Developing Marketing Strategies
and Plans 35
Marketing and Customer Value 35
The Value Delivery Process 35
The Value Chain 36
Core Competencies 36
The Central Role of Strategic Planning 37
16
Corporate and Division Strategic Planning 38
MarkEtING MEMO What Does It Take
to Be a Successful CMO? 39
Defining the Corporate Mission 39
Establishing Strategic Business Units 42
Assigning Resources to Each SBU 42
Assessing Growth Opportunities 42
Organization and Organizational Culture 46
Marketing Innovation 47
MarkEtING INSIGht Creating Innovative
Marketing 47
Business Unit Strategic Planning 48
The Business Mission 49
SWOT Analysis 49
vii
 MarkEtING MEMO Checklist for Evaluating
Strengths/Weaknesses Analysis 51
Goal Formulation 52
Strategic Formulation 52
Program Formulation and
Implementation 53
MarkEtING INSIGht Businesses Charting
a New Direction 54
Feedback and Control 55
The Nature and Contents of a Marketing
Plan 55
MarkEtING MEMO Marketing Plan
Criteria 55
The Role of Research 56
The Role of Relationships 56
From Marketing Plan to Marketing
Action 57
Summary 57
applications 58
Sample Marketing Plan: Pegasus Sports
International 61
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Cisco 58
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Intel 59
Part 2 Capturing Marketing
Insights 66
Chapter 3 Collecting Information and
Forecasting Demand 67
Components of a Modern Marketing
Information System 67
Internal Records 69
The Order-to-Payment Cycle 69
Sales Information Systems 69
Databases, Data Warehousing, and Data
Mining 69
MarkEtING INSIGht Digging into Big
Data 70
Marketing Intelligence 70
The Marketing Intelligence System 70
Collecting Marketing Intelligence on the
Internet 72
Communicating and Acting on Marketing
Intelligence 72
Analyzing the Macroenvironment 72
Needs and Trends 73
Identifying the Major Forces 73
The Demographic Environment 74
viii
MarkEtING MEMO Finding Gold at the
Bottom of the Pyramid 75
The Economic Environment 77
The Sociocultural Environment 78
The Natural Environment 79
MarkEtING INSIGht The Green Marketing
Revolution 81
The Technological Environment 82
The Political-Legal Environment 83
MarkEtING INSIGht Watching Out for Big
Brother 85
Forecasting and Demand Measurement 85
The Measures of Market Demand 86
A Vocabulary for Demand Measurement 87
Estimating Current Demand 89
Estimating Future Demand 91
Summary 93
applications 94
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Microsoft 94
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Walmart 95
Chapter 4 Conducting Marketing
Research 99
The Scope of Marketing Research 99
Importance of Marketing Insights 99
Who Does Marketing Research? 100
Overcoming Barriers to the Use of Marketing
Research 101
The Marketing Research Process 102
Step 1: Define the Problem, the Decision
Alternatives, and the Research
Objectives 102
Step 2: Develop the Research Plan 103
MarkEtING MEMO Conducting Informative
Focus Groups 105
MarkEtING MEMO Marketing
Questionnaire Dos And Don’ts 108
MarkEtING INSIGht Getting into the
Heads of Consumers 109
MarkEtING INSIGht Understanding Brain
Science 111
Step 3: Collect the Information 113
Step 4: Analyze the Information 113
Step 5: Present the Findings 113
MarkEtING INSIGht Bringing Marketing
Research to Life with Personas 114
 Step 6: Make the Decision 114
Measuring Marketing Productivity 115
Marketing Metrics 115
MarkEtING MEMO Measuring Social
Media ROI 117
Marketing-Mix Modeling 118
Marketing Dashboards 118
MarkEtING MEMO Designing Effective
Marketing Dashboards 119
Summary 121
applications 121
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE IDEO
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Intuit
Part 3 Connecting with
Customers 126
Chapter 5 Creating Long-Term Loyalty
Relationships 127
Building Customer Value, Satisfaction, and
Loyalty 127
Customer-Perceived Value 128
Total Customer Satisfaction 131
Monitoring Satisfaction 133
Product and Service Quality 134
MarkEtING INSIGht Net Promoter and
Customer Satisfaction 135
Maximizing Customer Lifetime Value 136
Customer Profitability 137
Measuring Customer Lifetime
Value 138
Attracting and Retaining Customers 138
MarkEtING MEMO Calculating Customer
Lifetime Value 139
Building Loyalty 142
Brand Communities 143
Win-Backs 146
Cultivating Customer Relationships 146
Customer Relationship Management 146
MarkEtING INSIGht The Behavioral
Targeting Controversy 147
Summary 152
applications 152
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Nordstrom 153
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Tesco
Chapter 6 Analyzing Consumer Markets 157
What Influences Consumer Behavior? 157
Cultural Factors 157
Social Factors 159
Personal Factors 161
MarkEtING MEMO The Average U.S.
Consumer Quiz 162
Key Psychological Processes 165
Motivation 165
Perception 167
MarkEtING MEMO The Power of Sensory
Marketing 167
122
Learning 169
124
Emotions 170
Memory 171
The Buying Decision Process: The Five-Stage
Model 172
Problem Recognition 173
Information Search 174
Evaluation of Alternatives 175
Purchase Decision 176
Postpurchase Behavior 178
Moderating Effects on Consumer Decision
Making 180
Behavioral Decision Theory and Behavioral
Economics 180
Decision Heuristics 181
Framing 182
Summary 183
applications 183
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Disney 184
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE IKEA 185
Chapter 7 Analyzing Business Markets 189
What Is Organizational Buying? 189
The Business Market versus the Consumer
Market 189
Buying Situations 192
Participants in the Business Buying
Process 193
The Buying Center 194
Buying Center Influences 194
Targeting Firms and Buying Centers 195
MarkEtING INSIGht Big Sales to Small
Businesses 196
The Purchasing/Procurement Process 197
Stages in the Buying Process 198
154 Problem Recognition 198
ix
 General Need Description and Product
Specification 199
Supplier Search 199
Proposal Solicitation 201
Supplier Selection 201
MarkEtING MEMO Developing Compelling
Customer Value Propositions 202
Order-Routine Specification 204
Performance Review 204
Developing Effective Business-to-Business
Marketing Programs 204
Communication and Branding Activities 204
Systems Buying and Selling 206
MarkEtING MEMO Spreading the Word
with Customer Reference Programs 207
Role of Services 207
Managing Business-to-Business Customer
Relationships 208
The Benefits of Vertical Coordination 208
MarkEtING INSIGht Establishing
Corporate Trust, Credibility, and
Reputation 209
Risks and Opportunism in Business
Relationships 209
Institutional and Government Markets 211
Summary 212
applications 213
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Accenture 213
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE GE 214
Chapter 8 Tapping into Global Markets 217
Competing on a Global Basis 217
Deciding Whether to Go Abroad 219
Deciding Which Markets to Enter 220
How Many Markets to Enter 220
Evaluating Potential Markets 221
Succeeding in Developing
Markets 221
Deciding How to Enter the Market 226
Indirect and Direct Export 227
Licensing 227
Joint Ventures 228
Direct Investment 228
Acquisition 228
Deciding on the Marketing Program 229
Global Similarities and Differences 230
Marketing Adaptation 231
Global Product Strategies 232
x
Global Communication Strategies 235
Global Pricing Strategies 235
Global Distribution Strategies 237
Country-of-Origin Effects 238
Building Country Images 238
Consumer Perceptions of Country of
Origin 239
Summary 240
applications 241
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Twitter 241
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE L’Oréal 242
Part 4 Building Strong
Brands 244
Chapter 9 Identifying Market Segments and
Targets 245
Bases for Segmenting Consumer
Markets 246
Geographic Segmentation 246
Demographic Segmentation 249
Psychographic Segmentation 258
Behavioral Segmentation 259
How Should Business Markets Be
Segmented? 261
Market Targeting 262
Effective Segmentation Criteria 263
Evaluating and Selecting the Market
Segments 264
MarkEtING INSIGht Chasing the Long
Tail 267
MarkEtING MEMO Protecting Kids
Online 269
Summary 269
applications 270
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE HSBC 270
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE BMW 272
Chapter 10 Crafting the Brand Positioning 275
Developing a Brand Positioning 275
Understanding Positioning and Value
Propositions 275
Choosing a Competitive Frame of
Reference 276
Identifying Potential Points-of-Difference
and Points-of-Parity 278
 Choosing Specific POPs and PODs 282 Summary 330
Brand Mantras 285 applications 330
Establishing a Brand Positioning 287 MarkEtING ExCEllENCE McDonald’s 331
MarkEtING MEMO Constructing a Brand MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Positioning Bull’s eye 287 Procter & Gamble 332
Alternative Approaches to Positioning 291
Brand Narratives and Storytelling 291
Cultural Branding 292 Chapter 12 Addressing Competition and
Driving Growth 335
Positioning and Branding for A Small
Business 292 Growth 335
Summary 295 Growth Strategies 335
applications 295 Growing the Core 336
Competitive Strategies for Market
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Louis
Vuitton 296 Leaders 337
Expanding Total Market Demand 338
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE American Protecting Market Share 339
Express 296 Increasing Market Share 341
Other Competitive Strategies 342
Market-Challenger Strategies 342
Chapter 11 Creating Brand Equity 299 Market-Follower Strategies 344

How Does Branding Work? 299 MarkEtING INSIGht The Costs and
The Role of Brands 300 Benefits of Fast Fashion 345
The Scope of Branding 301 Market-Nicher Strategies 346
Defining Brand Equity 302 MarkEtING MEMO Niche Specialist
Brand Equity Models 304 Roles 348
MarkEtING INSIGht Brand Bubble
Product Life-Cycle Marketing Strategies 348
Trouble 306
Product Life Cycles 348
Building Brand Equity 309 Style, Fashion, and Fad Life Cycles 349
Marketing Strategies: Introduction Stage and
MarkEtING MEMO The Marketing Magic of
the Pioneer Advantage 351
Characters 310
MarkEtING INSIGht Understanding
Designing Holistic Marketing Activities 310
Double Jeopardy 352
Leveraging Secondary Associations 312
Internal Branding 314 Marketing Strategies: Growth Stage 353
Measuring Brand Equity 315 Marketing Strategies: Maturity Stage 354
Marketing Strategies: Decline Stage 355
MarkEtING INSIGht The Brand Value
Chain 315 MarkEtING MEMO Managing a Marketing
Crisis 356
MarkEtING INSIGht What Is a Brand Evidence for the Product Life-Cycle
Worth? 317 Concept 358
Managing Brand Equity 318 Critique of the Product Life-Cycle
Brand Reinforcement 318 Concept 359
Brand Revitalization 319 Market Evolution 359
Devising a Branding Strategy 321 Marketing in a Slow-Growth Economy 359
Branding Decisions 322 Explore the Upside of Increasing
Brand Portfolios 323 Investment 359
Brand Extensions 325 Get Closer to Customers 360
Review Budget Allocations 360
Customer Equity 328
Put Forth the Most Compelling Value
MarkEtING MEMO Twenty-First-Century Proposition 360
Branding 329 Fine-Tune Brand and Product Offerings 361
xi
 Summary 362
applications 362
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Samsung 363
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE IBM
Part 5 Creating Value 366
Chapter 13 Setting Product Strategy 367
Product Characteristics and
Classifications 367
Product Levels: The Customer-Value
Hierarchy 367
Product Classifications 369
Differentiation 370
Product Differentiation 371
Services Differentiation 372
Design 374
Design Leaders 374
Power of Design 375
Approaches to Design 375
Luxury Products 376
Characterizing Luxury Brands 376
Growing Luxury Brands 376
Marketing Luxury Brands 377
Environmental Issues 378
MarkEtING MEMO A Sip or A Gulp:
Environmental Concerns in the Water
Industry 379
Product and Brand Relationships 379
The Product Hierarchy 380
Product Systems and Mixes 380
Product Line Analysis 381
Product Line Length 382
MarkEtING INSIGht When Less Is
More 383
Product Mix Pricing 386
Co-Branding and Ingredient
Branding 387
MarkEtING MEMO Product-Bundle Pricing
Considerations 388
Packaging, Labeling, Warranties, and
Guarantees 390
Packaging 390
Labeling 392
Warranties and Guarantees 393
Summary 393
applications 394
xii
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Caterpillar 394
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Toyota 396
364
Chapter 14 Designing and Managing
Services 399
The Nature of Services 399
Service Industries Are Everywhere 399
Categories of Service Mix 400
Distinctive Characteristics of Services 402
The New Services Realities 406
A Shifting Customer Relationship 406
MarkEtING MEMO Lights! Cameras!
Customer Service Disasters! 408
Achieving Excellence In Services
Marketing 409
Marketing Excellence 409
Technology and Service
Delivery 410
Best Practices of Top Service
Companies 411
Differentiating Services 413
MarkEtING INSIGht Improving Company
Call Centers 414
Managing Service Quality 417
Managing Customer Expectations 418
MarkEtING MEMO Recommendations for
Improving Service Quality 419
Incorporating Self-Service Technologies
(SSTS) 421
Managing Product-Support Services 422
Identifying and Satisfying Customer
Needs 422
Postsale Service Strategy 423
Summary 423
applications 424
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
The Ritz-Carlton 424
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Mayo Clinic 426
Chapter 15 Introducing New Market
Offerings 429
New-Product Options 429
Make or Buy 429
Types of New Products 430
 Challenges in New-Product
Development 431
The Innovation Imperative 432
New-Product Success 432
New-Product Failure 433
Organizational Arrangements 434
Budgeting for New-Product Development 434
Organizing New-Product Development 435
Managing the Development Process: Ideas 438
Generating Ideas 438
MarkEtING MEMO Ten Ways to Find Great
New-Product Ideas 438
MarkEtING INSIGht P&G’S Connect +
Develop Approach to Innovation 439
MarkEtING MEMO Seven Ways to Draw
New Ideas from Your Customers 440
MarkEtING MEMO How to Run a
Successful Brainstorming Session 442
Using Idea Screening 443
Managing the Development Process: Concept
to Strategy 445
Concept Development and Testing 445
Marketing Strategy Development 448
Business Analysis 448
Managing the Development Process:
Development to Commercialization 450
Product Development 450
Market Testing 451
Commercialization 453
The Consumer-Adoption Process 454
Stages in the Adoption Process 454
Factors Influencing the Adoption
Process 454
Summary 456
applications 457
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Apple 457
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Salesforce.com 459
Chapter 16 Developing Pricing Strategies
and Programs 461
Understanding Pricing 461
Pricing in a Digital World 462
A Changing Pricing Environment 462
MarkEtING INSIGht Giving It All Away 463
How Companies Price 464
Consumer Psychology and Pricing 465
Setting the Price 467
Step 1: Selecting the Pricing Objective 467
MarkEtING INSIGht Trading Up, Down,
and Over 468
Step 2: Determining Demand 470
Step 3: Estimating Costs 472
MarkEtING MEMO How to Cut Costs 474
Step 4: Analyzing Competitors’ Costs, Prices,
and Offers 474
Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method 475
Step 6: Selecting the Final Price 480
MarkEtING INSIGht Stealth Price
Increases 481
Adapting the Price 482
Geographical Pricing (Cash, Countertrade,
Barter) 482
Price Discounts and Allowances 482
Promotional Pricing 483
Differentiated Pricing 484
Initiating and Responding to Price
Changes 485
Initiating Price Cuts 485
Initiating Price Increases 486
Anticipating Competitive Responses 486
Responding to Competitors’ Price
Changes 487
Summary 488
applications 488
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE eBay 489
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Southwest Airlines 490
Part 6 Delivering Value 492
Chapter 17 Designing and Managing Integrated
Marketing Channels 493
Marketing Channels and Value
Networks 494
The Importance of Channels 494
Multichannel Marketing 494
Integrating Multichannel Marketing
Systems 495
Value Networks 497
The Digital Channels Revolution 498
The Role of Marketing Channels 499
Channel Functions and Flows 500
Channel Levels 501
Service Sector Channels 502
xiii
 Channel-Design Decisions 503
Analyzing Customer Needs and Wants 503
MarkEtING INSIGht Understanding the
Showrooming Phenomena 503
Establishing Objectives and Constraints 504
Identifying Major Channel Alternatives 505
Evaluating Major Channel
Alternatives 507
Channel-Management Decisions 508
Selecting Channel Members 508
Training and Motivating Channel
Members 508
Evaluating Channel Members 509
Modifying Channel Design and
Arrangements 510
Channel Modification Decisions 510
Global Channel Considerations 510
Channel Integration and Systems 512
Vertical Marketing Systems 512
Horizontal Marketing Systems 514
E-Commerce Marketing Practices 514
Pure-Click Companies 514
Brick-and-Click Companies 515
M-Commerce Marketing Practices 516
Changes in Customer and Company
Behavior 517
M-Commerce Marketing Practices 517
Privacy 518
Conflict, Cooperation, and Competition 518
Types of Conflict and Competition 519
Causes of Channel Conflict 519
Managing Channel Conflict 519
Dilution and Cannibalization 521
Legal and Ethical Issues in Channel
Relations 521
Summary 521
applications 522
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Amazon.com 522
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Costco 524
Chapter 18 Managing Retailing,Wholesaling,
and Logistics 527
Retailing 527
Types of Retailers 528
MarkEtING MEMO Innovative Retail
Organizations 529
The Modern Retail Marketing
Environment 532
xiv
MarkEtING INSIGht The Growth of
Shopper Marketing 534
Marketing Decisions 535
MarkEtING MEMO Helping Stores to Sell 540
Private Labels 541
Role of Private Labels 542
Private-Label Success Factors 542
MarkEtING INSIGht Manufacturer’s
Response to the Private-Label
Threat 543
Wholesaling 543
Trends in Wholesaling 545
Market Logistics 545
Integrated Logistics Systems 546
Market-Logistics Objectives 547
Market-Logistics Decisions 548
Summary 551
applications 552
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Zara 552
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Best Buy 554
Part 7 Communicating Value 556
Chapter 19 Designing and Managing
Integrated Marketing
Communications 557
The Role of Marketing Communications 558
The Changing Marketing Communications
Environment 558
MarkEtING INSIGht Don’t Touch That
Remote 558
Marketing Communications Mix 559
How Do Marketing Communications
Work? 561
The Communications Process Models 562
Developing Effective Communications 564
Identify the Target Audience 564
Set the Communications Objectives 565
Design the Communications 565
Select the Communications
Channels 568
MarkEtING MEMO Celebrity
Endorsements as a Message
Strategy 569
MarkEtING INSIGht Playing Tricks to
Build a Brand 571
 Establish the Total Marketing
Communications Budget 572
Selecting the Marketing Communications
Mix 573
Characteristics of the Marketing
Communications Mix 574
Factors in Setting the Marketing
Communications Mix 575
Measuring Communication Results 577
Managing the Integrated Marketing
Communications Process 577
Coordinating Media 579
Implementing IMC 579
MarkEtING MEMO How Integrated Is Your
IMC Program? 579
Summary 580
applications 581
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Red Bull
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Target
Chapter 20 Managing Mass Communications:
Advertising, Sales Promotions,
Events and Experiences, and Public
Relations 585
Developing and Managing an Advertising
Program 586
Setting the Advertising Objectives 587
Deciding on the Advertising Budget 587
Developing the Advertising
Campaign 588
MarkEtING MEMO Print Ad Evaluation
Criteria 590
MarkEtING INSIGht Off-Air Ad Battles
Choosing Media 593
MarkEtING INSIGht Playing Games with
Brands 596
MarkEtING MEMO Winning The Super
Bowl of Advertising 597
Evaluating Advertising Effectiveness
Sales Promotion 600
Advertising Versus Promotion 600
Major Decisions 601
Events and Experiences 604
Events Objectives 604
Major Sponsorship Decisions 605
MarkEtING MEMO Measuring
High-Performance Sponsorship
Programs 606
Creating Experiences 606
Public Relations 607
Marketing Public Relations 607
Major Decisions in Marketing PR 608
Summary 609
applications 610
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Coca-Cola 610
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Gillette 612
Chapter 21 Managing Digital Communications:
Online, Social Media, and
Mobile 615
581
Online Marketing 615
582 Advantages and Disadvantages of Online
Marketing Communications 616
Online Marketing Communication
Options 617
MarkEtING MEMO How to Maximize the
Marketing Value of E-mails 620
Social Media 620
Social Media Platforms 621
Using Social Media 622
Word of Mouth 623
Forms of Word of Mouth 624
Creating Word-of-Mouth Buzz 624
MarkEtING MEMO How to Start a Buzz
Fire 626
MarkEtING INSIGht Tracking Online
592 Buzz 627
Measuring the Effects of Word of
Mouth 628
Mobile Marketing 628
The Scope of Mobile Marketing 628
Developing Effective Mobile Marketing
Programs 629
Mobile Marketing across Markets 629
599 Summary 630
applications 631
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Facebook 631
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Unilever
(Axe and Dove) 632
xv
Chapter 22 Managing Personal Communications: MarkEtING MEMO Characteristics of
Direct and Database Marketing and Company Departments That Are Truly
Personal Selling 635 Customer Driven 659
Organizing the Marketing Department 660
Direct Marketing 635
Relationships with Other Departments 662
The Benefits of Direct Marketing 636
Building a Creative Marketing
Direct Mail 637
Organization 662
Catalog Marketing 638
Telemarketing 638 MarkEtING INSIGht The Marketing CEO 663
Other Media for Direct-Response
Socially Responsible Marketing 663
Marketing 639
Corporate Social Responsibility 664
Public and Ethical Issues in Direct
Marketing 639 MarkEtING INSIGht The Rise of
Customer Databases and Database Organic 667
Marketing 640 Socially Responsible Business
Customer Databases 640 Models 668
Data Warehouses and Data Mining 640 Cause-Related Marketing 668
The Downside of Database Marketing 642
MarkEtING MEMO Making a Difference:
Designing the Sales Force 642 Top 10 Tips for Cause Branding 671
Sales Force Objectives and Strategy 644
Sales Force Structure 645 Social Marketing 672
Marketing Implementation and Control 675
MarkEtING INSIGht Major Account
Marketing Implementation 675
Management 646
Marketing Control 675
Sales Force Size 646 The Future of Marketing 680
Sales Force Compensation 646
MarkEtING MEMO Major Marketing
Managing the Sales Force 647
Weaknesses 681
Recruiting and Selecting
Representatives 647 Summary 683
Training and Supervising Sales applications 683
Representatives 647
Sales Rep Productivity 648 MarkEtING ExCEllENCE
Motivating Sales Representatives 648 Starbucks 684
Evaluating Sales Representatives 649 MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Virgin
Principles of Personal Selling 651 Group 685
The Six Steps 651
appendix Tools for Marketing Control 687
Relationship Marketing 652
Summary 653 appendix: Sonic Marketing Plan
applications 653 and Exercises a1
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Progressive 654 Endnotes E1
MarkEtING ExCEllENCE Victoria’s Glossary G1
Secret 655 Name Index I1
Company, Brand, and
Organization Index I5
Part 8 Conducting Marketing Subject Index I18
Responsibly for Long-Term
Success 656

Chapter 23 Managing a Holistic Marketing

Organization for the Long Run 657

Trends in Marketing Practices 657

Internal Marketing 658
xvi
Preface
What’s New in the 15th Edition
The 15th edition of Marketing Management is a landmark entry in the long successful history of the market
leader. With the 15th edition, great care was taken to provide an introductory guide to marketing management
that truly reflects the modern realities of marketing. In doing so, classic concepts, guidelines, and examples were
retained while new ones were added as appropriate. Three broad forces—globalization, technology, and social
responsibility—were identified as critical to the success of modern marketing programs. These three topics are
evident all through the text.
As has been the case for a number of editions now, the overriding goal of the revision for the 15th edition
of Marketing Management was to create as comprehensive, current, and engaging a MBA marketing textbook
as possible. Where appropriate, new material was added, old material was updated, and no longer relevant or
necessary material was deleted.
Even though marketing is changing in many significant ways these days, many core elements remain, and
we feel strongly that a balanced approach of classic and contemporary approaches and perspectives is the way
to go. Marketing Management, 15th edition, allows those instructors who have used the 14th edition to build
on what they have learned and done while at the same time offering a text that is unsurpassed in breadth,
depth, and relevance for students experiencing Marketing Management for the first time.
The successful across-chapter reorganization into eight parts that began with the 12th edition of Marketing
Management has largely been preserved, although several adjustments have been made to improve student
understanding, as described below. Many of the favorably received within-chapter features that have been
introduced through the years, such as topical chapter openers, in-text boxes highlighting noteworthy compa-
nies or issues, and the Marketing Insight and Marketing Memo boxes that provide in-depth conceptual and
practical commentary, have been retained.
Significant changes to the 15th edition include:
• Brand-new opening vignettes for each chapter set the stage for the chapter material to follow. By covering
topical brands or companies, the vignettes are great classroom discussion starters.
• Almost half of the in-text boxes are new. These boxes provide vivid illustrations of chapter concepts using
actual companies and situations. The boxes cover a variety of products, services, and markets, and many
have accompanying illustrations in the form of ads or product shots.
• Each end-of-chapter section now includes two expanded Marketing Excellence mini-cases highlighting
innovative, insightful marketing accomplishments by leading organizations. Each case includes questions
that promote classroom discussion and student analysis.
• The global chapter (8, previously Chapter 21) has been moved into Part 3 on Connecting with Customers
and the new products chapter (15, previously Chapter 20) has been moved into Part 5 on Creating Value.
The positioning and brand chapters (10 and 11) have been switched to allow for the conventional STP
sequencing. These moves permit richer coverage of the topics and better align with many instructors’
teaching strategy.
• A new chapter (21) titled Managing Digital Communications: Online, Social Media, and Mobile has been
added to better highlight that important topic. Significant attention is paid throughout the text to what a
new section in Chapter 1 calls “the digital revolution.”
• The concluding chapter (23) has been retitled “Managing a Holistic Marketing Organization for the Long
Run” and addresses corporate social responsibility, business ethics, and sustainability, among other topics.
• Chapter 12 (previously Chapter 11) has been retitled “Addressing Competition and Driving Growth” to
acknowledge the importance of growth to an organization.

What Is Marketing Management All About?

Marketing Management is the leading marketing text because its content and organization consistently reflect
changes in marketing theory and practice. The very first edition of Marketing Management, published in 1967,
introduced the concept that companies must be customer and market driven. But there was little mention of
xvii
 what have now become fundamental topics such as segmentation, targeting, and positioning. Concepts such
as brand equity, customer value analysis, database marketing, e-commerce, value networks, hybrid channels,
supply chain management, and integrated marketing communications were not even part of the marketing
vocabulary then. Marketing Management continues to reflect the changes in the marketing discipline over the
past almost 50 years.
Firms now sell goods and services through a variety of direct and indirect channels. Mass advertis-
ing is not nearly as effective as it was, so marketers are exploring new forms of communication, such as
experiential, entertainment, and viral marketing. Customers are telling companies what types of product
or services they want and when, where, and how they want to buy them. They are increasingly reporting to
other consumers what they think of specific companies and products—using e-mail, blogs, podcasts, and
other digital media to do so. Company messages are becoming a smaller fraction of the total “conversation”
about products and services.
In response, companies have shifted gears from managing product portfolios to managing customer
portfolios, compiling databases on individual customers so they can understand them better and construct
individualized offerings and messages. They are doing less product and service standardization and more
niching and customization. They are replacing monologues with customer dialogues. They are improving
their methods of measuring customer profitability and customer lifetime value. They are intent on measur-
ing the return on their marketing investment and its impact on shareholder value. They are also concerned
with the ethical and social implications of their marketing decisions.
As companies change, so does their marketing organization. Marketing is no longer a company depart-
ment charged with a limited number of tasks—it is a company-wide undertaking. It drives the company’s
vision, mission, and strategic planning. Marketing includes decisions like whom the company wants as
its customers, which of their needs to satisfy, what products and services to offer, what prices to set, what
communications to send and receive, what channels of distribution to use, and what partnerships to develop.
Marketing succeeds only when all departments work together to achieve goals: when engineering designs
the right products; finance furnishes the required funds; purchasing buys high-quality materials; produc-
tion makes high-quality products on time; and accounting measures the profitability of different customers,
products, and areas.
To address all these different shifts, good marketers are practicing holistic marketing. Holistic marketing
is the development, design, and implementation of marketing programs, processes, and activities that recog-
nize the breadth and interdependencies of today’s marketing environment. Four key dimensions of holistic
marketing are:

1. Internal marketing—ensuring everyone in the organization embraces appropriate marketing principles,

especially senior management.
2. Integrated marketing—ensuring that multiple means of creating, delivering, and communicating value
are employed and combined in the best way.
3. Relationship marketing—having rich, multifaceted relationships with customers, channel members, and
other marketing partners.
4. Performance marketing—understanding returns to the business from marketing activities and programs,
as well as addressing broader concerns and their legal, ethical, social, and environmental effects.

These four dimensions are woven throughout the book and at times spelled out explicitly. The text is
organized to specifically address the following eight tasks that constitute modern marketing management
in the 21st century:

1. Developing marketing strategies and plans

2. Capturing marketing insights
3. Connecting with customers
4. Building strong brands
5. Creating value
6. Delivering value
7. Communicating value
8. Conducting marketing responsibly for long-term success
xviii
What Makes Marketing Management
the Marketing Leader?
Marketing is of interest to everyone, whether they are marketing goods, services, properties, persons, places,
events, information, ideas, or organizations. As it has maintained its respected position among students,
educators, and businesspeople, Marketing Management has kept up to date and contemporary. Students (and
instructors) feel that the book is talking directly to them in terms of both content and delivery.
Marketing Management owes its marketplace success to its ability to maximize three dimensions that
characterize the best marketing texts—depth, breadth, and relevance—as measured by the following criteria:
• Depth. Does the book have solid academic grounding? Does it contain important theoretical concepts,
models, and frameworks? Does it provide conceptual guidance to solve practical problems?
• Breadth. Does the book cover all the right topics? Does it provide the proper amount of emphasis on
those topics?
• Relevance. Does the book engage the reader? Is it interesting to read? Does it have lots of compelling
examples?
The 15th edition builds on the fundamental strengths of past editions that collectively distinguish it from
all other marketing management texts:
• Managerial orientation. The book focuses on the major decisions that marketing managers and top
management face in their efforts to harmonize the organization’s objectives, capabilities, and resources
with marketplace needs and opportunities.
• Analytical approach. Marketing Management presents conceptual tools and frameworks for analyz-
ing recurring problems in marketing management. Cases and examples illustrate effective marketing
principles, strategies, and practices.
• Multidisciplinary perspective. The book draws on the rich findings of various scientific disciplines—
economics, behavioral science, management theory, and mathematics—for fundamental concepts and
tools directly applicable to marketing challenges.
• Universal applications. The book applies strategic thinking to the complete spectrum of marketing:
products, services, persons, places, information, ideas, and causes; consumer and business markets; profit
and nonprofit organizations; domestic and foreign companies; small and large firms; manufacturing and
intermediary businesses; and low- and high-tech industries.
• Comprehensive and balanced coverage. Marketing Management covers all the topics an informed
marketing manager needs to understand to execute strategic, tactical, and administrative marketing.

Instructor Resources
At the Instructor Resource Center, www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, instructors can easily register to gain access
to a variety of instructor resources available with this text in downloadable format. If assistance is needed, our
dedicated technical support team is ready to help with the media supplements that accompany this text. Visit
http://247.pearsoned.com for answers to frequently asked questions and toll-free user support phone numbers.
The following supplements are available with this text:
• Instructor’s Resource Manual
• Test Bank
• TestGen® Computerized Test Bank
• PowerPoint Presentation
• Instructor Video Library
• Image Library

xix
 acknowledgments
t
he 15th edition bears the imprint of many people. From Phil Kotler: My colleagues and associates at
the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University continue to have an important impact
on my thinking: Nidhi Agrawal, Eric T. Anderson, James C. Anderson, Robert C. Blattberg, Miguel C.
Brendl, Bobby J. Calder, Gregory S. Carpenter, Alex Chernev, Anne T. Coughlan, David Gal, Kent Grayson,
Karsten Hansen, Dipak C. Jain, Lakshman Krishnamurti, Angela Lee, Vincent Nijs, Yi Qian, Mohanbir S.
Sawhney, Louis W. Stern, Brian Sternthal, Alice M. Tybout, and Andris A. Zoltners. I also want to thank the S.
C. Johnson Family for the generous support of my chair at the Kellogg School. Completing the Northwestern
team are my former Deans, Donald P. Jacobs and Dipak Jain and my current Dean, Sally Blount, for provid-
ing generous support for my research and writing.
Several former faculty members of the marketing department had a great influence on my think-
ing: Steuart Henderson Britt, Richard M. Clewett, Ralph Westfall, Harper W. Boyd, Sidney J. Levy, John
Sherry, and John Hauser. I also want to acknowledge Gary Armstrong for our work on Principles of
Marketing.
I am indebted to the following coauthors of international editions of Marketing Management and
Principles of Marketing who have taught me a great deal as we worked together to adapt marketing manage-
ment thinking to the problems of different nations:

• Swee-Hoon Ang and Siew-Meng Leong, National University of Singapore

• Chin-Tiong Tan, Singapore Management University
• Friedhelm W. Bliemel, Universitat Kaiserslautern (Germany)
• Linden Brown; Stewart Adam, Deakin University; Suzan Burton: Macquarie Graduate School of
Management, and Sara Denize, University of Western Sydney (Australia)
• Bernard Dubois, Groupe HEC School of Management (France) and Delphine Manceau, ESCP-EAP
European School of Management
• John Saunders, Loughborough University and Veronica Wong, Warwick University (United Kingdom)
• Jacob Hornick, Tel Aviv University (Israel)
• Walter Giorgio Scott, Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Italy)
• Peggy Cunningham, Queen’s University (Canada)

I also want to acknowledge how much I have learned from working with coauthors on more special-
ized marketing subjects: Alan Andreasen, Christer Asplund, Paul N. Bloom, John Bowen, Roberta C.
Clarke, Karen Fox, David Gertner, Michael Hamlin, Thomas Hayes, Donald Haider, Hooi Den Hua, Dipak
Jain, Somkid Jatusripitak, Hermawan Kartajaya, Milton Kotler, Neil Kotler, Nancy Lee, Sandra Liu, Suvit
Maesincee, James Maken, Waldemar Pfoertsch, Gustave Rath, Irving Rein, Eduardo Roberto, Joanne Scheff,
Norman Shawchuck, Joel Shalowitz, Ben Shields, Francois Simon, Robert Stevens, Martin Stoller, Fernando
Trias de Bes, Bruce Wrenn, and David Young.
My overriding debt continues to be to my lovely wife, Nancy, who provided me with the time, support,
and inspiration needed to prepare this edition. It is truly our book.
From Kevin Lane Keller: I continually benefit from the wisdom of my marketing colleagues at Tuck—
Punam Keller, Scott Neslin, Kusum Ailawadi, Praveen Kopalle, Peter Golder, Ellie Kyung, Yaniv Dover,
Eesha Sharma, Fred Webster, Gert Assmus, and John Farley—as well as the leadership of Dean Paul Danos.
I also gratefully acknowledge the invaluable research and teaching contributions from my faculty colleagues
and collaborators through the years. I owe a considerable debt of gratitude to Duke University’s Jim Bettman
and Rick Staelin for helping to get my academic career started and serving as positive role models to this
day. I am also appreciative of all that I have learned from working with many industry executives who have
generously shared their insights and experiences. With this 15th edition, I received some extremely help-
ful research assistance from a talented group of Dartmouth undergraduate RAs—Caroline Buck, James
Carlson, Ryan Galloway, Jack Heise, Jeff Keller, Jill Lyon, Richard Newsome-White, Rahul Raina, and
Cameron Woodworth, —who were as accurate, thorough, dependable, and cheerful as you could possibly
imagine. Alison Pearson provided superb administrative support. Finally, I give special thanks to Punam,
my wife, and Carolyn and Allison, my daughters, who make it all happen and make it all worthwhile.

xx
We are indebted to the following colleagues at other universities who reviewed this new edition:
• Jennifer Barr, Richard Stockton College
• Lawrence Kenneth Duke, Drexel University LeBow College of Business
• Barbara S. Faries, Mission College, Santa Clara, CA
• William E. Fillner, Hiram College
• Frank J. Franzak,Virginia Commonwealth University
• Robert Galka, De Paul University
• Albert N. Greco, Fordham University
• John A. Hobbs, University of Oklahoma
• Brian Larson,Widener University
• Anthony Racka, Oakland Community College, Auburn
• Hills, MI
• Jamie Ressler, Palm Beach Atlantic University
• James E. Shapiro, University of New Haven
• George David Shows, Louisiana Tech University
We would also like to thank colleagues who have
reviewed previous editions of Marketing Management:
Homero Aguirre, TAMIU
Alan Au, University of Hong Kong
Hiram Barksdale, University of Georgia
Boris Becker, Oregon State University
Sandy Becker, Rutgers University
Parimal Bhagat, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Sunil Bhatla, Case Western Reserve University
Michael Bruce, Anderson University
Frederic Brunel, Boston University
John Burnett, University of Denver
Lisa Cain, University of California at Berkeley and Mills
College
Surjit Chhabra, DePaul University
Yun Chu, Frostburg State University
Dennis Clayson, University of Northern Iowa
Bob Cline, University of Iowa
Brent Cunningham, Jacksonville State University
Hugh Daubek, Purdue University
John Deighton, University of Chicago
Kathleen Dominick, Rider University
Tad Duffy, Golden Gate University
Mohan Dutta, Purdue University
Barbara Dyer, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Jackkie Eastman,Valdosta State University
Steve Edison, University of Arkansas–Little Rock
Alton Erdem, University of Houston at Clear Lake
Elizabeth Evans, Concordia University
Barb Finer, Suffolk University
Chic Fojtik, Pepperdine University
Renee Foster, Delta State University
Ralph Gaedeke, California State University, Sacramento
Robert Galka, De Paul University
Betsy Gelb, University of Houston at Clear Lake
Dennis Gensch, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
David Georgoff, Florida Atlantic University
Rashi Glazer, University of California, Berkeley
Bill Gray, Keller Graduate School of Management
Barbara Gross, California State University at Northridge
Lewis Hershey, Fayetteville State University
Thomas Hewett, Kaplan University
Mary Higby, University of Detroit–Mercy
Arun Jain, State University of New York, Buffalo
Michelle Kunz, Morehead State University
Eric Langer, Johns Hopkins University
Even Lanseng, Norwegian School of Management
Ron Lennon, Barry University
Michael Lodato, California Lutheran University
Henry Loehr, Pfeiffer University–Charlotte
Bart Macchiette, Plymouth University
Susan Mann, Bluefield State College
Charles Martin,Wichita State University
H. Lee Matthews, Ohio State University
xxi
Paul McDevitt, University of Illinois at Springfield
Mary Ann McGrath, Loyola University, Chicago
John McKeever, University of Houston
Kenneth P. Mead, Central Connecticut State University
Henry Metzner, University of Missouri, Rolla
Robert Mika, Monmouth University
Mark Mitchell, Coastal Carolina University
Francis Mulhern, Northwestern University
Pat Murphy, University of Notre Dame
Jim Murrow, Drury College
Zhou Nan, University of Hong Kong
Nicholas Nugent, Boston College
Nnamdi Osakwe, Bryant & Stratton College
Donald Outland, University of Texas, Austin
Albert Page, University of Illinois, Chicago
Young-Hoon Park, Cornell University
Koen Pauwels, Dartmouth College
Lisa Klein Pearo, Cornell University
Keith Penney, Webster University
Patricia Perry, University of Alabama
Mike Powell, North Georgia College and State University
Hank Pruden, Golden Gate University
Christopher Puto, Arizona State University
Abe Qstin, Lakeland University
Lopo Rego, University of Iowa
Richard Rexeisen, University of St. Thomas
A warm welcome and many thanks to the following
people who contributed to the global case studies developed
for the 14th edition:
Mairead Brady, Trinity College
John R. Brooks, Jr., Houston Baptist University
Sylvain Charlebois, University of Regina
Geoffrey da Silva, Temasek Business School
xxii
William Rice, California State University–Fresno
Scott D. Roberts, Northern Arizona University
Bill Robinson, Purdue University
Robert Roe, University of Wyoming
Jan Napoleon Saykiewicz, Duquesne University
Larry Schramm, Oakland University
Alex Sharland, Hofstra University
Dean Siewers, Rochester Institute of Technology
Anusorn Singhapakdi, Old Dominion University
Jim Skertich, Upper Iowa University
Allen Smith, Florida Atlantic University
Joe Spencer, Anderson University
Mark Spriggs, University of St. Thomas
Nancy Stephens, Arizona State University
Michael Swenso, Brigham Young University, Marriott
School
Thomas Tellefsen, The College of Staten Island–CUNY
Daniel Turner, University of Washington
Sean Valentine, University of Wyoming
Ann Veeck, West Michigan University
R.Venkatesh, University of Pittsburgh
Edward Volchok, Stevens Institute of Management
D. J. Wasmer, St. Mary-of-the-Woods College
Zac Williams, Mississippi State University
Greg Wood, Canisius College
Kevin Zeng Zhou, University of Hong Kong
Malcolm Goodman, Durham University
Torben Hansen, Copenhagen Business School
Abraham Koshy, Sanjeev Tripathi, and Abhishek, Indian
Institute of Management Ahmedabad
Peter Ling, Edith Cowan University
Marianne Marando, Seneca College
Lu Taihong, Sun Yat-Sen University
The talented staff at Pearson deserves praise for their role in shaping the 15th edition. We want to thank
our editor, Mark Gaffney, for his contribution to this revision, as well as our program manager, Jennifer
M. Collins. We also want to thank our project manager, Becca Groves, for making sure everything was
moving along and falling into place in such a personable way, both with regard to the book and supple-
ments. We benefited greatly from the superb editorial help of Elisa Adams, who lent her considerable talents
as a development editor to this edition. We also thank our marketing managers, Anne Fahlgren and Lenny
Ann Raper. Certainly, we are grateful for the editorial support provided by Daniel Petrino. Lastly, we’d like
to thank the following MyLab contributors: Susan C. Schanne, School of Management, Eastern Michigan
University, and Barbara S. Faries, MBA, Mission College, Santa Clara.

Philip Kotler
S. C. Johnson Distinguished Professor of International Marketing,
Kellogg School of Management,
Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois

Kevin Lane Keller

E. B. Osborn Professor of Marketing,
Tuck School of Business,
Dartmouth College,
Hanover, New Hampshire
Another random document with
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professional poisoners are well known to the police. Before the civil
war of 1868 and 1869 crimes of violence were more rare; that civil
strife, however, demoralised the population. Pilfering is their great
failing, and it is said a negro never leaves a room without looking
round to see that he has not forgotten something.
They have much superstition with regard to zombis, revenants, or
ghosts, and many will not leave the house after dark; yet the love of
pleasure often overcomes this, and the negro will pass half the night
hieing to his lusting-place.
Of their pleasures, smoking is one equally enjoyed by every class,
and quietly by most women after a certain age. The cheapness of
tafia or white rum has an evil effect on the male population, who as a
rule drink to excess.
The black Haytians resent being spoken of by foreigners as negroes,
though they use the word freely among themselves. They prefer
being called gens de couleur, as both the expressions nègres and
mulâtres are considered as implying contempt. During the tiresome
quarter of an hour before dinner, my friend Villevalein (coloured)
turned round to a Minister of State (black) and said, “What do you
think the French chargé d’affaires remarked when he first saw you?
—‘Quel beau nègre!’” The blood rushed to the face of the Haytian,
and his cheeks became of a deeper black; and we were all thankful
that at the moment dinner was announced. I doubt whether the
Minister ever forgave the author or the repeater of the remark.
The negro has the greatest, in fact, an almost superstitious,
reverence for the flags of foreign nations. A well-known partisan
chief, Acaau, came once to the English Consulate at Les Cayes, and
demanded that all the refugees there should be given up to him to be
shot. Our Acting Vice-Consul, Charles Smith, refused, and as Acaau
insisted, the Vice-Consul took up the Union Jack, and placing it on
the staircase, said to the chief, “If any of you dare to tread on that
flag, he may go upstairs and seize the refugees.” Acaau looked at
the flag a moment, and then said, “Not I,” and walked away, followed
by his men. This was not from fear of material consequences,
although there were two English ships of war in harbour, as, when
one of the captains threatened to bombard the town if foreigners
were troubled, Acaau answered, “Tell me which end you will begin
with, and I will commence to burn the other end.” He was a
mountaineer, who would have been delighted to burn and destroy
the whole place. Many years afterwards, to avoid being shot by the
Government, he perished by his own hand.
I must add an anecdote to mark the respect shown by the negro to
the white. In April 1866, on account of a quarrel between an officer
on board a steamer and some blacks, the mob determined to
revenge themselves. Watching their opportunity, they seized an
English sailor belonging to the ship and bound him to a log.
Hundreds of excited negroes surrounded him with drawn razors and
knives, threatening to cut him to pieces; when Mr. Savage, an
English merchant, happening to be passing by, inquired the cause of
the disturbance, and hearing what had happened to his countryman,
forced his way through the mob, and when he reached the sailor,
drew a penknife from his pocket, and, despising the yells and threats
of the crowd, cut the cords, freed the man, and walked him down to
the steamer’s boat. The cool courage shown by Mr. Savage perfectly
awed the mob. As the Haytian police who were present had not
interfered to prevent this outrage on the sailor, a hundred pounds
indemnity was demanded of the Haytian Government, which was
paid, and subsequently transmitted to the sailor.
I will conclude with noticing that the apathy and listlessness of the
Haytians, mentioned by Mackenzie in 1826, might apply to the
present day, as well as his reference to the lean dogs and leaner
pigs which infest the capital. He heard an Englishman say one day,
“D—— these Haytians; they can’t even fatten a pig.”

The Mulattoes.
“They hate their fathers and despise their mothers,” is a saying
which is a key to the character of the mulatto. They hate the whites
and despise the blacks, hence their false position. That they are
looked down upon by the whites and hated by the blacks is the
converse truth, which produces an unfortunate effect upon their
character. They have many of the defects of the two races, and few
of their good qualities. Those who have never left their country are
too often conceited, and presumptuous to a degree which is scarcely
credible; whilst many who have travelled appear but little influenced
by bright examples of civilisation, or by their intercourse with civilised
nations, retaining but the outward polish of a superficial French
education. Foreigners who casually meet Haytians are often only
struck by their agreeable manners, but to understand their real
character one must live among them, hear their talk among
themselves, or read the newspapers published for local circulation.
Travel, indeed, has little outward effect on the majority; and they
return to their own country more presumptuous than ever. It has
struck many attentive observers that this outward parade of conceit
is but a species of protest against the inferior position they occupy in
the world’s estimation, and that with their advance in civilisation and
education they will rise in the opinion of others, and thus lose the
necessity for so much self-assertion. I believe this to be highly
probable, but until the mulattoes are convinced of their present
inferiority, the improvement must be slow indeed.
It may be remarked, however, that those who have been educated in
Europe from their earliest years show few or none of those defects
which are implanted in them by their early associations. I have
known coloured men whose first real knowledge of their own country
was acquired in manhood, who were in every respect equal to their
white companions, as manly and as free from absurd pretensions,
and naturally without that dislike of foreigners which is instilled into
home-educated mulattoes. These men, knowing the consideration in
which they were held by all, had no necessity for any self-assertion.
The early training in Hayti is much at fault; their mothers, generally
uninstructed, have themselves but few principles of delicacy to instil
into their children’s minds. I will mention a case in illustration. A lady
was asked to procure some article for a foreign visitor. She readily
undertook the commission, and sent her son, a boy of ten, to seek
the article. He returned shortly afterwards and said to his mother,
“Our neighbour has what you want, but asks twenty-seven paper
dollars for it.” “Go and tell our friend that you have found it for forty,
and we will divide the difference between us.” A mutual
acquaintance heard of this transaction, and subsequently
reproached the lady for the lesson of deceit and swindling she had
taught her child; she only laughed, and appeared to think she had
done a very clever thing. The subsequent career of that boy was
indeed a thorn in her side.
Their financial morality is very low indeed. A friend of mine
expressing his surprise to one of the prettiest and most respectable
girls in Port-au-Prince that such open robbery of the receipts of the
custom-house was permitted, received for answer, “Prendre l’argent
de l’état, ce n’est pas volé.”—“To take Government money is not
robbery.” With such ideas instilled into the minds of all from their
earliest youth, it is scarcely to be wondered at that the Haytians grow
up to be completely without financial honour. Truth is another virtue
which appears to be rarely inculcated by parents, and this perhaps
may be accounted for by their origin. Slaves are notoriously given to
falsehood, and this defect has been inherited by succeeding
generations, and can scarcely be eradicated until a higher moral
teaching prevails.
I was struck by an anecdote told me by a French gentleman at Port-
au-Prince: it is a trifle, but it shows the spirit of the Haytian youth. A
trader, in very moderate circumstances, sent a half-grown son to be
educated in Paris, and as the father had no friends there, he said to
my informant, “Will you ask your family to pay my son a little
attention?” In consequence, a lady called at the school and took the
youth for a walk in the Luxembourg Gardens. Approaching the
basins, she said, “I suppose you have none like these in Hayti?”
“Oh,” was his reply, “my father has finer ones in his private grounds;”
the fact being, that he had nothing there but a bath a few feet
square. This miserable pretence is one of the causes of the slow
improvement in Hayti; they cannot or they will not see the superiority
of foreign countries.
A late Secretary of State was present at a review in Paris, when ten
thousand splendid cavalry charged up towards the Emperors of
France and Russia. “It is very fine,” he said; “but how much better
our Haytian soldiers ride!” Another gentleman, long employed as a
representative at a foreign court, returning home, could find nothing
better to say to President Geffrard than, “Ah! President, you should
send some of our officers to Paris, that their superiority of tenue may
be known in Europe.” I wish I could present some photographic
illustrations of a Haytian regiment in support of this assertion.
I am, in fact, doubtful whether travel as yet has done much good to
the general public, as they see their young men returning from
Europe and America, after having witnessed the best of our modern
civilisation, who assure them that things are much better managed in
Hayti.
Their self-importance may be illustrated by the following anecdote of
another ex-Secretary of State. He went with a friend to see the races
at Longchamps. They had their cabriolet drawn up at a good spot,
when presently an acquaintance of the driver got up on the box-seat
to have a better view. “I must tell that man to get down,” said the ex-
Minister. “Leave him alone,” answered his French friend. “It is all very
well for you, a private individual, to say that; but I, a former Secretary
of State, what will the people say to my permitting such familiarity?”
and he looked uneasily around, thinking that the eyes of the whole
Parisian world were bent on their distinguished visitor. I once saw
some boxes addressed thus:—“Les demoiselles ——, enfants de M.
——, ex-Secrétaire d’Etat.”
Of the profound dislike of the genuine coloured Haytian for the
whites I will give an instance. We were invited to a school
examination given by the Sisters of Cluny, and naturally the official
guests were put in the front rank, with the officers of a French
gunboat, from which position we assisted at a distribution of prizes,
and some little scenes acted by the pupils. The next day a Haytian
gentleman, one who was an ornament to his country for his
extensive knowledge and legal erudition, made this remark—“When I
saw those whites put into the front row, it reminded me of the time
when the ancient colonists sat arms akimbo watching the dances of
their slaves.” As he said this before a party of white gentlemen, we
may imagine what were his utterances before his own countrymen.
Moreau de St. Méry gives a table of the different combinations of
colour among the mixed race, amounting to one hundred and twenty,
which produce thirteen distinct shades between the pure white and
the pure black. Each has a name, the most common of which are:
Quateron, white and mulatto; mulatto, white and black; griffe, black
and mulatto. These were the original combinations, but constant
intermarriages have produced a great variety of colour, even in the
same families, some breeding back to their white, others to their
black forefathers. It appears as if the lighter shades of mulatto would
die out, as many of this class marry Europeans, and leave the
country with their children, and the others marry Haytians more or
less dark, and the tendency is to breeding back to their black
ancestors. There are too few whites settled in the country to arrest
this backward movement. In Santo Domingo, however, the stay for a
few years (1859-64) of a large Spanish army had a very appreciable
effect on the population.
The personal appearance of the coloured Haytians is not striking.
Being in general a mixture of rather a plain race in Europe with the
plainest in Africa, it is not surprising that the men should be ugly and
the women far from handsome. Of course there is a marked
distinction between the men who have more dark blood in their veins
and those who approach the white; in fact, those who are less than
half-European have in general the hair frizzled like a negro’s, the
forehead low, the eyes dark in a yellow setting, the nose flat, the
mouth large, the teeth perfect, the jaw heavy; whilst as they
approach the white type they greatly improve in appearance, until
they can scarcely be distinguished from the foreigner, except by the
dead colour of the skin and some trifling peculiarities.
Of the women it is more difficult to speak; they are rarely good-
looking, never beautiful. As they approach the white type, they have
long, rather coarse hair, beautiful teeth, small fleshless hands and
feet, delicate forms, and sometimes graceful movements, due
apparently to the length of the lower limbs. Their principal defects
are their voices, their noses, their skins, and sometimes the
inordinate size of the lower jaw. Their voices are harsh, their skins
blotchy or of a dirty brown, their noses flat or too fleshy, and the jaw,
as I have said, heavy. Occasionally you see a girl decidedly pretty,
who would pass in any society, but these are rare. In general they
are very plain, particularly when you approach the black type, when
the frizzled hair begins to appear.
There is one subject necessary to mention, though it is a delicate
one. Like the negroes, the mulattoes have often a decided odour,
and this is particularly observable after dancing or any violent
exercise which provokes perspiration, and then no amount of eau de
cologne or other scents will completely conceal the native perfume.
The griffes, however, are decidedly the most subject to this
inconvenience, and I met one well-dressed woman who positively
tainted the air.
With the exception of those who have been sent abroad, the
Haïtiennes have had until lately but few chances of education, and
are therefore little to be blamed for their ignorance. This want of
instruction, however, has an ill effect, as the time necessarily hangs
heavy on their hands, and they can neither give those first teachings
to their children which are never forgotten, nor amuse themselves
with literature or good music.
It is the fashion in Hayti to vaunt the goodness and tenderness of
their women in sickness; but what women are not good and tender
under similar circumstances? I have received as much kindness in
suffering from the Malays when wandering in Borneo as any one has
perhaps ever received elsewhere. The fact is, that these qualities are
inherent to women in general. Perhaps the greatest praise that can
be given to the Haytian ladies is, that they do not appear inferior to
others who reside in the tropics in the care of their children, or in the
management of their households, or in their conduct towards their
husbands.
They have their ways in public and their ways in private, but their
greatest defect is their want of cleanliness, which is observable in
their houses, their children, and their own clothes. Without going so
far as to say, with the naval officer, that “their customs are dirty, and
manners they have none,” I may say that they have habits which are
simply indescribable; and when not dressed to receive company they
are veritable slatterns, sauntering about their houses all day in dirty
dressing-gowns, and too often in unchanged linen. Their bedrooms
have a close, stuffy smell, the consequence of the above referred to
indescribable habits, which is highly displeasing to a stranger, and
induced an American gentleman to remark that their rooms had the
smell of a stable. They are also very careless in another way, and
will go into their kitchens even in their silks, and aid in preparing
sweetmeats; and the stains on their clothes from this cause
reminded me of a young Malay lady cooking a greasy curry whilst
dressed in a rich gold brocade, and upsetting half of it over her dress
in an endeavour to conceal herself or her work.
The conduct of the Haytian ladies who are married to foreigners is
much to their credit, as rarely a case occurs to draw the attention of
the public to their private life; and almost the same may be said of
their married life in general, and this in defiance of the debauchery of
their Haytian husbands. This virtue was, perhaps, unfairly ascribed
by a French diplomatist to their sluggish temperaments and their
want of imagination. But, whatever may be the cause, it appears to
exist to a considerable extent.
The habit of having no fixed hours for meals appears to prevail in
most tropical countries; and in Hayti, though there are fixed times for
the husband and the other males of a family, who can only return
from business at certain hours, yet the ladies of the family prefer
cakes, sweetmeats, and dreadful messes at all hours, and only sit
down to the family meal pro formâ. No wonder they are ever
complaining of indigestion, and taking their wonderful remèdes.
From my own observation, and that of many of my friends, I may
assert with confidence as a general proposition, that the Haytian
black or mulatto is more given to drink, and to a forgetfulness of his
duty to his family, than any other people with whom we were
acquainted. With some marked, and I should add numerous
exceptions, after his early coffee the Haytian begins the day with a
grog or cocktail, and these grogs and cocktails continue until at mid-
day many of the young men are slightly intoxicated, and by night a
large minority at least are either in an excited, a sullen, or a maudlin
state.
It appears also to be a rule among them, that, whether married or
not, a Haytian must have as many mistresses as his purse will
permit him; these are principally drawn from the lower classes. This
practice is not confined to any particular rank; from the Presidents
downwards all are tainted with the same evil. The mistresses of the
first-named are always known, as they are visited publicly, often
accompanied by a staff or a few select officers. I have met them
even at dinner in respectable houses, and have been asked to trace
a resemblance between their children and the reputed father. No one
seeks to conceal it, and the conversation of married ladies
continually turns on this subject. One excuse for it is that many of the
ladies whom you meet in society were only married after the birth of
their first children. However, according to French law, that ceremony
renders them all legitimate.
Some of those admitted into society are not married at all, but their
daughters’ being married prevents notice being taken of the false
position of the mother.
An excuse has been made for the debauchery of the Haytians. It is
said that there are three women to every two men, which is probably
true, and that therefore the latter are exposed to every kind of
temptation, which is also true.
I have already referred to the want of financial honour observable in
Hayti; but what is equally pernicious is their utter forgetfulness of
what is due to their military oath. As I shall have to notice in my
remarks on the army, scarcely a single name can be cited of a
superior officer who under President Geffrard did not forget his duty,
and either conspire against him or betray him to the enemy. This was
particularly observable during the siege of Cap Haïtien in 1865. And
yet were these officers who were false to their military honour looked
down upon by their countrymen? On the contrary, their only title to
consideration was their treachery to their former superior, who in turn
is said to have betrayed every Government he had served.
A Frenchman once wittily said, that when Geffrard was made
President, being no longer able to conspire against the Government,
he conspired against his own Ministers. It is the whole truth in a few
words. No encouragement is given to those who hold firmly to their
duty; and an officer who did not desert a tottering Government would
be sure to be neglected, perhaps even punished, by those who
succeeded to power.
One reason for the dislike entertained by the mulatto for the white
man is the evident partiality of their fair countrywomen for the latter.
It is well known that the first dream or beau ideal of the young
Haïtienne is a rich, and if possible a good-looking European, who
can place her in a respectable position, give her the prospect of
occasional visits to Europe, with the ultimate expectation of entirely
residing there. Few young girls lose the hope of securing this
desirable husband, particularly among those who have received their
education in Europe, until their charms begin slightly to fade, when
they content themselves with the least dark among their countrymen.
It is unfortunate that this should be the case, as those who are most
enlightened among the Haytian ladies are thus withdrawn from the
civilising influence they would otherwise naturally exert. This
preference for the white to the coloured man was also very
conspicuous during the French occupation; and all things
considered, it is not to be wondered at, as the whites make much
better husbands.
The young mulatto, seeing this evident partiality for the foreigner,
naturally resents it, but instead of trying to put himself on an equality
of position with his rival by the exercise of industry and by good
conduct, expends his energies in furious tirades in the cafés or by
low debauchery.
The Haytians are distinguished for what the French call jactance, a
better word than boasting. Mackenzie tells the story of a mulatto
colonel saying to him, “Je vous assure, monsieur, que je suis le plus
brave de tous les mulâtres de ce pays-ci.” He was lost in admiration
of his own noble qualities. At the fortress of La Ferrière, during
Mackenzie’s visit, a Captain Elliot said about some trifle, “N’ayez pas
peur?” Immediately the officers of the garrison clapped their hands to
their swords and talked five minutes of inflated nonsense.
I remember a Haytian general once calling upon me, and asking me
to get inserted in the daily London papers a long account of the
battles in which he had been engaged, and of his personal exploits.
He was anxious that the English people should know what a hero
they had among them. As he was really a brave fellow, and a man
whom I liked, I was anxious that he should not make himself
ridiculous by publishing a pompous account of battles which were
but skirmishes among the peasantry. I therefore gave him a letter of
introduction to an editor, who, I was sure, would explain to him that
the English public would not be interested in the affair. I heard no
more of it, but my friend was persuaded that since Napoleon no
greater general than he had arisen.
As an ideal type of the better class of mulatto, I would take the late
President Geffrard; he had all the qualities and defects of the race,
and was one whom I had the best opportunity of studying. In a report
which for some reason I never forwarded, I find myself thus
sketching his portrait when almost in daily intercourse with him
(1866):—“I am loth to analyse the character of President Geffrard,
but as he is the Government itself, it is necessary to know him. In
manner he is polished and gentle, almost feminine in his gentleness,
with a most agreeable expression, a winning smile, and much
fluency in conversation. But the impression soon gains possession of
the listener that, with all his amiable qualities, the President is vain
and presumptuous, absorbed in himself and in his own superiority to
the rest of mankind. He imagines himself a proficient in every
science, although he is as ignorant as he is untravelled. There is not
a subject on which he does not pretend to know more even than
those whose studies have been special, as lawyers, doctors,
architects, and engineers. He seriously assures you that he
discovered the use of steam by independent inquiries, and that he is
prepared to construct a machine which shall solve the problem of
perpetual motion; and he who has not ridden anything larger than a
middle-sized pony imagines he could give hints in riding to our
Newmarket jockeys.”
Geffrard, like many other coloured men, was much distressed by the
crispness of his hair and his dark colour, and having a half-brother
very fair, he persisted in assuring us that he had been born nearly
white, with straight hair, but that having unfortunately bathed in the
streams of Sal Tron during many months, the water, being deeply
impregnated with iron, had curled his hair and darkened his skin. In
any other man I should have suspected a jest.
One of the things which contributed to the unpopularity of the
Emperor Soulouque was the waste of the public finances and the
extravagance of his court. General Geffrard, who lived in penury
before becoming President, promised to reform this; but instead of
doing so, he gradually raised his own allowance to £10,000 a year;
he also had the sole control of £4000 a year for secret service, and
another £4000 a year for the encouragement of the arts and
sciences. The grateful country had also presented him with two large
estates, the expenses of which were largely borne by the State,
whilst the profits were Geffrard’s.
As nearly every one of his countrymen would have acted in the same
manner if he had had the opportunity, Geffrard’s conduct excited
envy rather than blame. Even in the smallest details of the
household there was a mean spirit; the expenses of the meat of the
family were put down to the tirailleurs, whilst some exquisite
champagne purchased of a colleague was charged to the hospital.
Geffrard was certainly one of the most distinguished of his race, yet
he sullied his good name by all these petty meannesses. I once
asked a Haytian friend why she and others were always running
down Geffrard and his family. She answered, “Because when I knew
them intimately, they were as poor as myself, but now Madame
Geffrard insults me by calling on me in a carriage. What right has
she to a carriage more than I?”
Geffrard was personally brave, which quality is not too common
among his countrymen, who are rather wanting in martial qualities.
He had no idea of true liberty, nor of freedom of discussion. A son of
a black Minister wrote a pamphlet in favour of strict protection for the
manufactures of Hayti, in order to encourage native industry. A
young mulatto replied, demolishing with ease the absurd idea that
manufactures could be readily established in a tropical country,
which could only be made to prosper by encouraging agriculture.
The father was offended by this liberty, and, to soothe his wounded
feelings, Geffrard had the young mulatto arrested, put as a common
soldier into a regiment, and set to work to carry on his head barrels
of powder to a village five miles in the mountains. The argument was
unanswerable, and it is no wonder that the pamphleteer became a
protectionist, though I believe that subsequently, when he was made
a senator, he was inclined to return to his primitive views.
If I wished to describe a mulatto of the most unscrupulous type, I
should have selected the late General Lorquet, but I have already
referred to him.
There are among the mulattoes men eminently agreeable, and
perhaps the one who best pleased me was Auguste Elie, at one time
Minister for Foreign Affairs. He had been brought up in France, was
highly educated, and had an astonishing memory. My Spanish
colleague and myself used to visit him almost every evening, and
pass a pleasant hour in varied conversation. One day my friend
remarked, “I am often surprised at the knowledge shown by Auguste
Elie, and the elegance of the language in which it is expressed.” I
replied, “This evening turn the conversation on agriculture in the
South of France.” He did so, and he was again struck by the minute
knowledge shown and the manner in which it was conveyed. On our
return home, I opened the last number of “La Revue des Deux
Mondes,” and showed him paragraph after paragraph which Auguste
Elie had repeated almost word for word. I knew that he read the
review regularly, and was persuaded he had not missed reading the
article on the agriculture of that part of France which interested him
most, and his memory was so exact that he had forgotten nothing. I
had often remarked his quotations, but he could digest what he read
as well as remember. A few men like Auguste Elie would have given
a better tone to Haytian society.
A strong desire to appear what they are not is a defect from which
the best-known Haytians are not free. A French colleague once
called upon a Secretary of State, whose writings have been
compared to those of Plato, and found him, book in hand, walking up
and down his verandah. “Ah! my friend, you see how I employ my
leisure hours. I am reading Demosthenes in the original.” But the
sharp Frenchman kept his eye on the volume, and soon found that it
was an interlinear translation.
Every Haytian appears fully persuaded that his countrymen never
seek office except for the purpose of improving their private fortunes,
and the most precise stories of official robbery were falsely made
against Auguste Elie and M. Bauce, both Secretaries of State. At
Auguste Elie’s death there was little left for the family, and Madame
Bauce declined the succession to her husband’s effects, as the
debts were not covered by the inheritance. Liaulaud Ethéart and M.
Darius Denis, though long Secretaries of State, afterwards
honourably supported their families, the one in retail trade, the other
by keeping a school.
Perhaps, as a rule, the accusation is well founded, and nearly all,
black and coloured, believe in the saying, “Prendre l’argent de l’état,
ce n’est pas volé.”
When I first arrived in Port-au-Prince a small club was formed among
the foreigners, and one of the first rules was, “No Haytian to be
admitted.” I asked why, and was answered, that they introduced
politics into every place they entered. I soon found, however, that the
real reason was that their society was disliked; and one day, after
listening for an hour or two to the criticism on the people—and be it
remembered that half those present were married to Haytian ladies
—I could not help remarking, “If I had such an opinion of this race, I
would not have sought my wife among them.” The married men
looked foolish, the bachelors laughed, and one of the former
observed, “The women are so superior to the men.”
The following story shows some delicacy of feeling; it is told by
Mackenzie, and I have heard it repeated. When the decree was
issued by Dessalines that mulatto children should inherit the estates
of their white fathers, two young men met, and one said to the other,
“You kill my father and I will kill yours;” which they accordingly did,
and took possession of their estates. On another occasion, the
Emperor Dessalines said to a young man who claimed to be a
mulatto, “I don’t believe it, but you can prove it by going and
poniarding your French friend.” The man did not hesitate, and was
accepted as a Haytian citizen. A negro general, grandfather of a lady
I knew in Hayti, went to Dessalines after the appearance of the
decree to murder all the white French left in the island and said,
“Emperor, I have obeyed your decree: I have put my white wife to
death.” “Excellent Haytian,” answered he, “but an infernal scoundrel.
If ever again you present yourself before me I will have you shot,”—
the only saying of his that I have seen recorded showing any
humane feeling.
 CHAPTER V.
VAUDOUX WORSHIP AND CANNIBALISM.
When the news reached Paris of the massacres in Port-au-Prince of
the mulattoes by orders of the black President Soulouque in April
1849, it is said that Louis Napoleon took the opportunity of saying at
a public reception, in presence of the sable representative of Hayti,
“Haïti, Haïti! pays de barbares.” Had he known all the particulars
relating to Vaudoux worship and cannibalism, he would have been
still more justified in so expressing himself.
There is no subject of which it is more difficult to treat than Vaudoux
worship and the cannibalism that too often accompanies its rites.
Few living out of the Black Republic are aware of the extent to which
it is carried, and if I insist at length upon the subject, it is in order to
endeavour to fix attention on this frightful blot, and thus induce
enlightened Haytians to take measures for its extirpation, if that be
possible.[8]
It is certain that no people are more sensitive to foreign public
opinion than the Haytians, and they therefore endeavour to conceal
by every means this evidence of the barbarism of their fellow-
countrymen. It is, however, but the story of the foolish ostrich over
again; every foreigner in Hayti knows that cannibalism exists, and
that the educated classes endeavour to ignore it instead of devising
means to eradicate it.
The only Governments that endeavoured to grapple with the evil
were those of President Geffrard and President Boisrond-Canal, and
probably they in some measure owe their fall to this action on their
part.
The first question naturally asked is, “Who is tainted by the Vaudoux
worship?” I fear the answer must be, “Who is not?” This does not
necessarily imply that they are tainted with cannibalism, as I shall
hereafter explain. It is notorious that the Emperor Soulouque was a
firm believer, and that the mulatto general Therlonge was one of its
high priests, and in his younger days used to appear in a scarlet
robe performing antics in the trees. A late Prime Minister, whose
bloody deeds will be an everlasting reproach to his memory, was
said to be a chief priest of the sect, and many others whom I will not
at present indicate.
If persons so high placed can be counted among its votaries, it may
be readily believed that the masses are given up to this brutalising
worship. During the reign of Soulouque, a priestess was arrested for
having performed a sacrifice too openly; when about to be
conducted to prison, a foreign bystander remarked aloud that
probably she would be shot. She laughed and said, “If I were to beat
the sacred drum, and march through the city, not one, from the
Emperor downwards, but would humbly follow me.” She was sent to
jail, but no one ever heard that she was punished.
President Salnave (1867), inclined at first to court the support of the
educated classes, kept clear of the Vaudoux. But when he found his
advances repulsed, for the gross debauchery at the palace
prevented any respectable person from ever willingly entering it, and
when the fortunes of the civil war that then raged began to turn
against him (1869), he, from some motive or other, whether
superstition or the desire to conciliate the mass of his ignorant
troops, went to consult a well-known priest living near Marquissant,
in the neighbourhood of Port-au-Prince, and there went through all
the ceremonies that were required. He bathed in the blood of goats,
made considerable presents to the priests and priestesses, and then
feasted with the assembly, who all gave themselves up to the lowest
debauchery, and kept up these festivities so long that even the iron
frame of the President gave way, and he was confined to his bed for
many days after.
The fortunes of war still continuing adverse, he again consulted the
Papaloi or priest, who insisted that he must now go through the
highest ceremony; that the “goat without horns” must be slain, and
that he must be anointed with its blood. If he agreed to this, then the
priest assured him of certain victory over his enemies.
Whether Salnave gave in or not I cannot say positively. His enemies
of all classes declared he did; his friends among the lower orders
confirmed the story; but the few respectable people who adhered to
his cause naturally denied the truth of the accusation. I think the
weight of evidence was more against him than for him.
To explain the phrase of “the goat without horns,” I must notice that
there are two sects which follow the Vaudoux worship—those who
only delight in the blood and flesh of white cocks and spotless white
goats at their ceremonies, and those who are not only devoted to
these, but on great occasions call for the flesh and blood of the “goat
without horns,” or human victims.
When Hayti was still a French colony Vaudoux worship flourished,
but there is no distinct mention of human sacrifices in the accounts
transmitted to us. In Moreau de St. Méry’s excellent description of
the colony, from whose truthful pages it is a pleasure to seek for
information, he gives a very graphic account of fetishism as it existed
in his day, that is, towards the close of the last century.
After describing certain dances, he remarks that the Calinda and the
Chica are not the only ones brought from Africa to the colony. There
is another which has been known for a long time, principally in the
western part of the island (Hayti), and which has the name of
Vaudoux.[9] But it is not merely as a dance that the Vaudoux merits
consideration; at least it is accompanied by circumstances that give
it a rank among those institutions in which superstition and ridiculous
practices have a principal part.
According to the Arada negroes, who are the true sectaries of the
Vaudoux in the colony, who maintain its principles and its rules,
Vaudoux signifies an all-powerful and supernatural being, on whom
depend all the events which take place in the world. This being is the
non-venomous serpent, and it is under its auspices that all those
assemble who profess this doctrine. Acquaintance with the past,
knowledge of the present, prescience of the future, all appertain to
this serpent, that only consents, however, to communicate his power
and prescribe his will through the organ of a grand priest, whom the
sectaries select, and still more by that of the negress whom the love
of the latter has raised to the rank of high priestess.
These two delegates, who declare themselves inspired by their god,
or in whom the gift of inspiration is really manifested in the opinion of
their followers, bear the pompous names of King and Queen, or the
despotic ones of Master and Mistress, or the touching titles of Papa
and Mama. They are during their whole life the chiefs of the great
family of the Vaudoux, and they have a right to the unlimited respect
of those that compose it. It is they who decide if the serpent agrees
to admit a candidate into the society, who prescribe the obligations
and the duties he is to fulfil; it is they who receive the gifts and
presents which the god expects as a just homage to him. To disobey
them, to resist them, is to disobey God himself, and to expose
oneself to the greatest misfortunes.
This system of domination on the one hand, and of blind obedience
on the other, being well established, they at fixed dates meet
together, and the King and Queen of the Vaudoux preside, following
the forms which they probably brought from Africa, and to which
Creole customs have added many variations, and some traits which
betray European ideas; as, for instance, the scarf, or rich belt, which
the Queen wears at these assemblies, and which she occasionally
varies.
The reunion for the true Vaudoux worship, for that which has least
lost its primitive purity, never takes place except secretly, in the dead
of night, and in a secure place safe from any profane eye. There
each initiated puts on a pair of sandals and fastens around his body
a number, more or less considerable, of red handkerchiefs, or of
handkerchiefs in which that colour predominates. The King of the
Vaudoux has finer handkerchiefs and in greater number, and one
that is entirely red, with which he binds his forehead as a diadem. A
girdle, generally blue, gives the finishing-stroke to the tokens of his
resplendent dignity.
The Queen, dressed with simple luxury, also shows her predilection
for the red colour,[10] which is generally that of her sash or belt.
The King and Queen place themselves at one end of the room, near
a kind of altar, on which is a box where the serpent is kept, and
where each adept can see it through the bars of its cage.
When they have verified that no curious stranger has penetrated into
the place, they commence the ceremony by the adoration of the
serpent, by protestations of being faithful to its worship and entirely
submissive to its commands. They renew, holding the hands of the
King and Queen, the oath of secrecy, which is the foundation of the
association, and it is accompanied by everything horrible which
delirium could imagine to render it more imposing.
When the followers of the Vaudoux are thus prepared to receive the
impressions which the King and Queen desire them to feel, they take
the affectionate tone of a tender father or mother; vaunt the
happiness which is the appanage of those who are devoted to the
Vaudoux; they exhort them to have confidence in him, and to give
him the proofs of it by taking his counsel in all the most important
circumstances of their lives.
Then the crowd separates, and each one who may desire it, and
according to his seniority in the sect, approaches to implore the aid
of the Vaudoux. Most of them ask for the talent to be able to direct
the conduct of their masters. But this is not enough: one wants more
money; another the gift of being able to please an unfeeling one;
another desires to reattach an unfaithful lover; this one wishes for a
prompt cure or long life; an elderly female comes to conjure the god
to end the disdain with which she is treated by the youth whose love
she would captivate; a young one solicits eternal love, or she repeats
the maledictions that hate dictates to her against a preferred rival.
There is not a passion which does not give vent to its vow, and crime
itself does not always disguise those which have for object its
success. At each of these invocations the King of the Vaudoux
appears absorbed in thought. The spirit seizes him; suddenly he
takes hold of the box in which the serpent is confined, places it on
the ground, and commands the Queen to get on it. As soon as the
sacred ark is beneath her feet, the new Pythoness is filled by the
spirit of their god; she trembles, all her body is in a state of
convulsion, and the oracle speaks by her mouth. Now she flatters