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 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
u s e o nly,
al -27
Person 20 2 0 -0 8

r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2

ro d u c e.
d o n o t rep
s e o n ly,
e r s on al u 0 - 0 8 - 27
P 20 2

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 154. Handel, -27con Variazioni, Leçon No. 1
Person 0 8Aria 100
155. 0 20 -
2 Telemann, Fantasia, Dozzina 1, no. 5 101
156. Mozart, Sonata for Violin and Piano, K. 306 101
15. Other Diatonic Seventh Chords
Questions for Analysis
157. Bach, O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort
p r o d u ce. 103
158. Mozart, Rondo, K. 494
o not re 103
159. Mendelssohn, Kinderstück, op.o n
72, l y
no., 1d 103
a l u s e -27
160. rson
Pachelbel, Fantasie
P e 20 2 0 -0 8 104
161. Handel, Sonata for Flute and Continuo 104
162. Handel, Leçon No. 2, Menuet 105
163. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, op. 36 105
164. Bach, French Suite No. 1 in D minor, Menuet 106
16. Complete Pieces for Analysis I
r o d u c e.
Checklist for Analysis
d o n o t rep
165. Beethoven, Minuet
u s e o nly, 107
166. Schubert, Dance
e r s o n al 0 -0 8
108 -27
167. Schubert, German Dance, op. 33, no. 12 P 2
20 108
168. Beethoven, Scottish Dance 109
169. Purcell, Rigadoon 110
170. Rameau, Minuet 111
171. Wi t t, Passacaglia 112
172. Grieg, Lyric Pieces, op. 12, no.
od .
uc6:eNorsk 114
t re p r
l y, d o no
us eo n
s on a l - 0 8 - 2 7 Part II Chromatic Materials
Per 2020 Suggestions for Discussion
17. Secondary (Applied, Borrowed) Dominants
Model Analysis
Questions for Analysis
173. Beethoven, Trio, op. 1, no. 1
r o d u c e. 120
174. Mozart, Sonata, K. 281
o n o t rep 120
175. Schubert, Impromptu, op. 142, no. o n3ly, d 121
na l u s e 7
176. Haydn, Trio inrsDomajor
P e 0 2 0 -0 8-2 121
177. Beethoven, Sonatina in G major 2 122
178. Weber, Oberon: Overture 122
179. Beethoven, Trio, op. 1, no. 1 123
180. Schumann, Sonata, op. 118c, Andante 124
181. Beethoven, Symphony No. 1, op. 21 124
182. Handel, Suite XI 125
r o d u c e.
183. Schumann, Arabeske, op. 18 125 not rep
o n l y, do
184. Beethoven, Symphony No. 4, op. 60
185. Schumann, Myrthen, op. 25, no. 1: Widmung ersonal u
se 126
8 -27
P 0
202 128 -0127
186. Schubert, Symphony No. 8 (“Unfinished”)
187. Schumann, Sonata, op. 118c, Puppenwiegenlied 128
188. Schubert, Quintet (“Die Forelle”), op. 114, D. 667 129
189. Beethoven, Quintet, op. 29 130
190. Beethoven, Trio, op. 11 131
191. Verdi, Rigoletto, Act I, no. 7 uce. 132
p r o d
d o n
192. Handel, Suiteo t re
XVI 134
e on
193. ly,
Beethoven, Sonata, op. 53 134
al us 8-27
Person 20 20 - 0
vii
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27 Symphony in C major (“The Great”)
Person 0
194. Schubert, 134
0 2 0 -
2 195. Beethoven, Trio, op.♭1, no. 3 135
196. Schubert, Mass in E major: Benedictus 136
197. Mendelssohn, Midsummer Night’s Dream: Wedding March 137
198. Verdi, Rigoletto, Act II, no. 14 138
199. Bach, Christmas Oratorio, Part I, no. 4: Bereite dich, Zion 138
200. Handel, Sonata VII for Flute and Continuo
p r o d u ce. 139
201. Chopin, Mazurka, op. 67, no. 2
d o n o t re 140
202. Chopin, Valse, op. 69, no. o1 nly, 140
al u s e 38-27
203. Chopin,rs
P e onBrillante,
Valse -
op. 34, no.
2 0 0 141
204. Gershwin, Someone to Watch 20 Over Me 142
205. Tchaikovsky, Children’s Album, op. 39, no. 1: Morning Prayer 143
18. Modulation to Closely Related Keys
Questions for Analysis
Modulation to Dominant
r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
206. Mozart, Symphony No. 39, K. 543 ly, 144
207. Mozart, Sonata, K. 331
s o n al use on -08-2144 7
208. Beethoven, Symphony No. 2, op. 36 P e r 20 2 0 145
209. Haydn, Minuet 145
♯ 173
210. Schubert, Quartet, D. 146
211. Haydn, Sonata in C minor, Hob. XVI: 36 146
212. Mozart, Symphony No. 41, K. 551 147
213. Chopin, Mazurka, op. 7, no. 2 148
o d u c . XVI: 39
eHob.
214. Haydn, Sonata
o
in
tSonata, r
rep K. 282, Menuet I
G major, 148
ly,
215. d o n
Mozart, 149
l use on216.
on a 8-27 Quartet, D. 173
Schubert, 150
Per s 2020-0
♯Modulation to Relative Major
217. Haydn, Trio in F minor, Hob. XV: 26 152
218. Haydn, Sonata in E minor, Hob. XVI: 34 153
219. Mozart, Sonata, K. 330 153
220. Donizetti, Lucia di Lammermoor, Act I, Cavatina 154
r o d u c e.
221. Brahms, Quintet, op. 115
o n o t rep 155
222.
s e o n y, d
Beethoven, Symphony No. 7, lop. 92 156
223.
Perso nal u
Haydn, Symphony No. 104,
20-08
Hob. I: 104-27 156
2 0
Modulation to Other Closely Related Keys
224. Haydn, Sonatina, Hob. XVI: 1 158
225. Bononcini, Deh più a me non vàscondete 158
226. Saint-Saëns, Carneval des Animaux: Le Cygne 159
227. Brahms, Waltz, op. 39, no. 15 161
r o d u c e.
228. Beethoven, Quartet, op. 18, no. 2 161
ot
n162 rep
229. Purcell, Dido and Aeneas, Act I, scene I
o n l y, do
230. Bach, French Suite No. 2 in C Minor, Menuet
s o n a l use -0 8- 7
2163
P e r 0 2 0
19. Complete Pieces for Analysis II 2
Checklist for Analysis
231. Bach, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme 164
232. Bach, In dulci jubilo 165
233. Bach, Christ lag in Todesbanden 166
e.
234. Handel, Menuet
n o t re produc 167

o nly, d o
al us e
Person 0 2 0 - 0 8-27
2
viii
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 235. Beethoven, 7 op. 26
8-2Sonata,
Person 0 168
236. 0 20 -
2 Schumann, Sonata, op. 118b, Abendlied 169
237. Brahms, Waltz, op. 39 170
238. Handel, Prelude 171
239. Beethoven, Sonatina in F major 172
240. Haydn, Sonata in G major, Hob. XVI: 27 174
241. Gershwin, I Got Rhythm
p r o d u ce. 178

d o n o t re
o
20. Linear (Embellishing)
s e ly,
nDiminished Seventh Chords
al u -27
Person Questions 20 2 0
for -0 8
Analysis
242. Haydn, Symphony No. 104, Hob. I: 104, Menuet 180
243. Beethoven, Symphony No. 7, op. 92 180
244. Liszt, Les Préludes 181
245. Beethoven, Contradanse 182
246. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 6, op. 74 182
r o d u c e.
247. Beethoven, Quartet, op. 18, no. 3 183
o n ot rep
248. Schubert, Sonata, op. 53 y, d
183
l 184
249. Gounod, Faust, Act IV, no. 18
s o n al use on -0 8 -27
250. Schumann, Carnaval, op. 9: Arlequin P e r 2 0
20 185
251. Mozart, Waltz, K. 567 185
252. Wagner, Rienzi: Overture 186
253. Bellini, I Puritani, Act II, scene 3 186
254. Haydn, Symphony No. 104, Hob. I: 104 187
255. Rodgers, The Girl Friend 188
r o d u c e52,. no. 4
256. Brahms, Liebeslieder
o n ot r ep Walzer, op. 190
onl y, d
n a l us e - 27 21. Neapolitan Triad
P e r s o 20 - 0 8
20 Questions for Analysis
257. Mozart, Concerto in A major, K. 488 192
258. Schubert, Die schöne Müllerin, Op. 25: Der Müller und der Bach 192
259. Bach, Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh’ darein 194
260. Bach, Invention No. 13 194
261. Verdi, Il Trovatore, Act II, no. 8
r o d u c e. 195
262. Brahms, Intermezzo in A major, op. 118, no. o2not rep 196
263. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. s e
20 o n ly, d 197
e rs o n al u op. 59, no.0-208-27
264.
265.
Beethoven,P String Quartet,
202
Brahms, Wie Melodien zieht es mir, op. 105
198
199
266. Beethoven, Quartet,♭op. 18, no. 3 199
267. Schubert, Mass in E major: Credo 200
268. Bach, The Well-Tempered Clavier, Vol. II, Fugue 17 201
269. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 6 202
r o d u c e.
22. Augmented Sixth Chords, Submediant Degree as Lowest Note , do not r
ep
l u s e only
Model Analysis
e r s o n a 0 -0 8 -27
P
Questions for Analysis 202
Italian
270. Bach, Ich hab’ mein’ Sach’ Gott heimgestellt 205
271. Beethoven, Bagatelle, op. 119, no. 1 205
272. Beethoven, Coriolan Overture, op. 62 205
273. Tchaikovsky, Children’s duceop.. 39, no. 10: Mazurka
proAlbum, 206
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
ix
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27 Quartet, op. 168, D. 112
Person 0
274. Schubert, 206
0 2 0 -
2 275. Beethoven, Symphony No. 1, op. 21 207
German
276. Mozart, Sonata, K. 457 208
277. Beethoven, Sonata, op. 109 209
278. Haydn, Trio, Hob. XV: 25
p r o d u ce. 209
279.
d o n o t re
Beethoven, Thirty-Two Variations, WoO 80, Var. 30 210
280.
u s e o nly,
Sibelius, Chanson Sans Paroles, op. 40, no. 2 210
281. R. Strauss,oDer l
naRosenkavalier, Act I 8-27
-0 211
Pers 2020French
282. Mendelssohn, Elijah, op. 70, no. 1 212
283. Schubert, Mass in G major: Kyrie 213
284. Bach, Wer nur den lieben Gott läßt walten 214
285. Schubert, Sonata, op. 42 214
r o d u c e.
286. Verdi, La Traviata, Act III: Prelude
o
215
n ot rep
287. Schubert, Symphony in C major (“The Great”) l y, d 215
288. Grieg, Alfedans, op. 12
s o n al use on -08-2216 7
289. Herbert, Gypsy Love Song P e r 20 2 0 217
Enharmonic German
290. Schumann, Dichterliebe, op. 48, no. 12: “Am leuchtenden
Sommermorgen” 218
.
ce Other Scale Degrees as Lowest Note
oduChords,
o n ot reprSixth
23. Augumented
onl y, d Questions for Analysis
n a l us e - 27(?), Adagio
P e r s o 20
291. - 0 8
Mozart 220
20 292. Granados, Valses Poeticos 220
293. Schubert, Symphony No. 8 (“Unfinished”) 221
294. Moussorgsky, Songs and Dances of Death, no. 4 222
295. Gluck, Orphée, Act I, nos. 6 and 7 223

24. Augumented Sixth Chords, Other duce.

roUses
rep
,
Question d o
for n ot
Analysis
s e onl y
s o n a l u -0 8 -27
P e r 202 0Linear
296. Verdi, Rigoletto, Act I: Prelude 224
297. Tchaikovsky, Song Without Words, op. 40, no. 6 224
298. Tchaikovsky, Romeo and Juliet 225
299. Schubert, Wa l t z 226
300. Brahms, Intermezzo, op. 76, no. 4 226
301. Tchaikovsky, Children’s Album, op. 39, no. 20: r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
The Witch (Baba Yaga)
s e o n ly, d 227

e
Secondary r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
302. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 22
P 202 228
303. Schubert, Mass in G major: Benedictus 228
304. Schubert, Die Allmacht, op. 79, no. 2 230
Altered Dominants
305. Schubert, Quintet, op.
p ro d u ce.
163 231

, do ot re no. 3
306. Liszt,nLiebestraum, 232
se o n l y
on a l u 0 8-27
Pers 20 2 0 -
x
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 307. Rimsky-Korsakov,
8-27 Snowmaiden: Chanson du Bonhomme Hiver
Person 0 232
308. 0 20 -
2 Grieg, Solvejg’s Lied 233

25. Other Means of Modulation

Model Analysis
Question for Analysis
309. Schubert, Mass in G major: Gloria
p r o d u ce. 235
310. Brahms, Wenn du nur zuweilen lächelst, op. 57,
d o n o t 2re
no. 236
311. Beethoven, Symphony No.s5,eop. n
o67 l y, 237
a l u 2 7
312. Schubert,P ersoop.
Waltz,
2 0 20-08-
n 9, no. 14, D. 365 238
313. Mozart, Die Entführung aus dem Serail, K. 384, Act III, no. 18 238
314. Schumann, Symphony No. 2, op. 61 240
315. Beethoven, Symphony No. 7, op. 92 240
316. Haydn, String Quartet, op. 76, no. 6 241
317. Beethoven, Sonata, op. 13 242
318. Beethoven, Trio, op. 70, no. 1 242
r o d u c e.
319. Scriabin, Prelude, op. 13, no. 3 244
o n ot rep
y,
onl 245 7d
320. J. Strauss, Die Fledermaus: Overture
l u s e
321. Brahms, Wie bist du meine Königen, op. 32, P no.e9rsona 2 0 -0 8-2
245
322. Schubert, Mass in A♭major: Agnus Dei
2 0 247
323. Beethoven, Trio, op. 11 249
324. Rachmaninoff, Melodie, op. 3, no. 3 251
325. Schubert, Symphony No. 8 (“Unfinished”) 252

ro 26.
d u c e. Chords
Ninth
d o n o t rep Questions for Analysis
s e o n ly,
e r s on al u 0 - 0 8 - 27 Dominant Ninths
P 20
326.
2 J. Strauss, Artist’s Life Waltzes, op. 316, no. 3 253
327. Franck, Sonata for Violin and Piano 253
328. Beethoven, Theme from Six Easy Variations, WoO 77 254
329. Chopin, Valse Brillante, op. 34, no. 1 255
330. Schumann, Waldesgespräch, op. 39, no. 3 255
331. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 15
r o d u c e. 256
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d Ninths
Secondary Dominant
332. e rs o
Bach, St. Matthew n al u no. 78 0-08-27
Passion, 258
333.
P
Schumann, Genoveva, op. 81: 2 02
Overture 258
334. Grieg, Grandmother’s Minuet, op. 68, no. 2 260
335. Schumann, Kinderszenen, op. 15, no. 7: Träumerei 260
Nondominant Ninths
336. Grieg, Wedding Day at Troldhaugen, op. 65, no. 6 261
r o d u c e.
337. Mendelssohn, Midsummer Night’s Dream, op. 21: Overture 262
n
do o t rep
338. Fauré, Après un Rêve
s e o n ly, 262
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P
27. Extended Linear Usages 202
Model Analysis
Questions for Analysis
339. Chopin, Mazurka, op. 6, no. 1 265
340. Brahms, “Der Tod, das ist die kühle Nacht,” op. 96, no. 1 266
341. Weber, Euryanthe: Overture
p r o d u ce. 267
342.
l y,d not reon a Theme by Handel, op. 24: Var. 20
Brahms,oVariations 267
e o n
r s on a l us - 0 8-27
Pe 20 2 0
xi
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27Symphony in D minor
Person 0
343. Franck, 268
0 2 0 -
2 344. Wagner, Lohengrin, Act I, scene 2 269
345. Wagner, Wotan’s Farewell, Die Walküre, Act III 270
346. Chopin, Prelude, op. 28, no. 9 272
347. Beethoven, Quartet, op. 18, no. 6 273

28. Complete Pieces for Analysis III

p r o d u ce.
n o t re
Checklist for Analysis
d o
s e o y,
nlGott
348. u
nal so nimm, 2Herr
Bach, Ein’ feste Burg ist unser
8 -27 276
349. PeEsrsistogenug,
Bach, 20 0 - 0 277
350.
Mozart, Minuet, K. 355 278
351.
Schumann, R., Myrthen, op. 25, no. 24 281
352.
Schumann, C., Drei Lieder, op. 12, no. 2: “Liebst du um Schönheit” 283
353.
Mendelssohn, Lieder ohne Wörte, op. 30, no. 3 285
354.
Chopin, Mazurka, Op. posth. 67, no. 2 287
355.
Schumann, R., Phantasiestücke, op. 12, no. 3: Warum? 289 r o d u c e.
o n ot rep
356.
Grieg, Lyric Pieces: op. 43, no. 5: Erotikon
onl y, d 291
357.
Liszt, Il pensieroso, from Années de Pèlerinage
n a l u s e -2 7
292
P e r s o 2 0 -0 8
358.
Coleridge-Taylor, Cameos for piano, op. 56, no. 3 20 295
359.
R. Strauss, Morgen, op. 27, no. 4 300
360.
Wagner, Wesendonck Lieder, no. 1: Der Engel 303
361.
Beethoven, Sieben Variationen über das Volkslied:
“God Save the King ,” WoO 78 307
362. Mozart, Symphony No. 40, K. 550 313
o .
ce op. 15
duSketches,
363. Beach, Phantoms,
t re p r from 318
d o
364., Joplin,
l y noA Breeze from Alabama: March and Two-Step 321
n
use o 365. -Wagner,
r s on al 0 8 - 2 7 Tristan und Isolde, Act I: Prelude 325
P e 20 Mozart, Sonata, K. 309
20366. 332
I. Allegro con spirito 332
II. Andante, un poco Adagio 337
III. Allegretto grazioso 341
367. Beethoven, Sonata, op. 2, no. 3 350
I. Allegro con brio 350
odu c e .
II. Adagio
t r e p r 362
III. Scherzo, Allegro l y, d o no 367
o n
Perso nal use
IV. Allegro assai
8 -27 371
2020-0
29. Examples of Counterpoint
Questions for Analysis
368. Bach, Cantata No. 4: Sinfonia 382
369. Bach, Chorale Prelude on “In Dulci Jubilo” 383
370. Bach, Chorale Prelude on “Christ lag in Todesbanden” 386
r o d u c e.
371. Brahms, Chorale Prelude on “O Wie selig seid ihr doch, ihr Frommen”
o n ot
387 rep
only, d
372. Purcell, Dido and Aeneas: “Thy Hand Belinda”
n a l u s e -
389
7
2393
e r s o 0 -0 8
373.
374.
Bach, Invention No. 4, BWV 775
Bach, Invention No. 13, BWV 775
P 202 395
375. Bach, Sinfonia no. 3, BWV 789 396
376. Bach, The Well-Tempered Clavier, Vol. I, Fugue 2 398
377. Bach, The Well-Tempered Clavier, Vol. II, Fugue 9 401
378. Mendelssohn, Fugue No. 2, op. 35 404

p r o d u ce. Examples for the Study

Additional
re
o nly, do not of Contrapuntual Techniques
al us e
Person 0 2 0 - 0 8-27
2
xii
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27Part III Contemporary Materials
Person 20 2 0 - 0
Suggestions for Discussion
Model Analysis

30. Extended and Altered Tertian Harmony

Questions for Analysis
p r o d u ce.
379. Hanson, Symphony No. 2, op. 30
d o n o t re 411
380. Kabalevsky, Sonatina, op. 13 only, 411
u s e
381.
P e rsonal Mountain
Hovhaness, Mysterious
2 0 2 0 -0 8 -27 412
382. Shostakovich, Prelude, op. 34, no. 24 413
383. Debussy, Pelléas et Mélisande, Act I, scene 1 413
384. Scriabin, Poem, op. 32, no. 2 414
385. Ravel, Valses Nobles et Sentimentales 415
386. Rodgers, Slaughter on Tenth Avenue 416
387. Ellington, Prelude to a Kiss 417
r o d u c e.
388. Duke Jordan, Jordu 418
o n ot rep
389. Parker, Anthropology y, d
onl 419 7
l u s e
390. Berg, Four Songs, op. 2, no. 3
P e rsona 2 0 2 0 -0 8-2
420
391. Raksin, Laura 422
31. Diatonic (Church) Modes
Model Analysis
Questions for Analysis

r o d u c e.no. III
392. Bartók, Little Pieces for Children, 428
393. Chávez, Ten
d o n o t repno. 1
Preludes, 429
s e o
394. n ly, Va l s e
Poulenc, 429
s on al u 395. Debussy,
- 0 8 -27Chansons, no. 1
P e r 2 0 Trois
20Kabalevsky, Toccatina 431
396. 431
397. Britten, Ceremony of Carols, no. 8 432
398. Debussy, Suite bergamasque, Passepied 434
399. Floyd, Susannah, Act II, scene 3 434
400. Stravinsky, Five Fingers: Lento 435
401. Bartók, Fourteen Bagatelles, op. 6, no. 4
r o d u c e. 436
402. Casella, Siciliana
l y, not rep
do 437
403. Adderley, Work Song se o n 439
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 32. Pandiatonicism 2 Additive Harmony
20and
Questions for Analysis
404. Ravel, Mother Goose Suite: The Magic Garden 440
405. Milhaud, Touches Blanches 441
406. Cowell, The Irishman Dances 441
407. Copland, The Young Pioneers 442
r o d u c e.
408. Barber, Excursions, III o
442 n ot rep
, d
only 443 7
409. Stravinsky, Petroushka: Danse Russe
o n al use 8-2
410. Poulenc, Gloria, Laudamus te P e r s 020-0
2 444
33. Exotic (Artificial, Synthetic) Scales
Questions for Analysis
411. Milhaud, Touches Noires 445
412. Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 78: Five Tone Scale 445
413. K o d á ly, Va l s e t t e
p ro d u ce. 446
414. Vaughan not re London Symphony
doWilliams, 447
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
xiii
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27 Préludes, II: Voiles
Person 0
415. Debussy, 447
0 2 0 -
2 416. Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 136: Whole Tone Scale 448
417. Debussy, Pelléas et Mélisande, Act II, scene 1 448
418. Bartók, Fourteen Bagatelles, op. 6, no. 10 449
419. Lutoslawski, Bucolic, no. 3 449
420. Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 101: Diminished Fifth 450
421.
422.
Bartók, Sketches, op. 9, no. 6
Bartók, Fourteen Bagatelles, op. 6, no. 6 ot reprod
uce. 451
453
o n l y, do n
o n a l
34.u se and Secundal
Quartal
8 -2 7 Harmony
Pers 020-0for Analysis
2Questions
423. Hindemith, Mathis der Maler: Grablegung 454
424. Ives, Majority 454
425. Krenek, Piano Piece, op. 39, no. 5 455
426. Hindemith, Ludus Tonalis, Fuga secunda in G 456
427. Bartók, Concerto for Orchestra 456
r o d u c e.
428. Berg, Wozzeck, Act II
o ot
458
n rep
l y, d
use on -08-2460
429. Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 107: Melody in the Mist 459
430. Berg, Wozzeck, Act II
e r s o n al 0
7
431. Cowell, Tiger P 20 2 461
432. Ives, Majority 462
433. Brubeck, Blue Rondo à la Turk 463
35. Polyharmony and Polytonality

d u c e .
Questions for Analysis
n
434. Honegger,o t re pro No. 5
Symphony 465
o n l y, do
a l us e 435. Schuman,
7
A Three-Score Set, II 465
Person 0 0
436.
2 - 0 8-2 Allegro Giocoso
Kraft, 466
2 437. Stravinsky, The Rake’s Progress: Prelude 467
438. Stravinsky, Petroushka, Scene 2 468
439. Milhaud, Saudades do Brazil, no 7: Corcovado 469
440. Bartók, Forty-Four Violin Duets, no. 33 469
441. Brubeck, Strange Meadowlark 470
36. Free Atonality reproduce
.
not
l use only, dforoAnalysis
Questions
e rs o n a 0 -0 8 - 271
442.
443.
Schönberg,
P Drei
202
Klavierstücke, op. 11,
Schönberg, Klavierstücke, op. 19, no. 2
no. 472
473
444. Schönberg, Pierrot Lunaire, op. 21, no. 1: Mondestrunken 474
445. Webern, Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, no. 4 477
446. Bartók, Mikrokosmos, no. 144: Minor Seconds, Major Sevenths 478
447. Bartók, Fourth String Quartet 479
448. Berger, Two Episodes, I 481
r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
37. Twelve-Tone Serialism
s e o n ly, d
Model Analysis
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
Questions forP
Analysis 202
449. Krenek, Dancing Toys, op. 83, no. 1 485
450. Schönberg, Suite für Klavier, op. 25: Gavotte 487
451. Dallapiccola, Cinque Frammenti di Saffo 488
452. Webern, Drei Lieder, op. 25, no. 1 491
p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
xiv
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person - 0 38. Music Since 1945
20 2 0
Questions for Analysis
453. Stockhausen, Klavierstücke, no. 1 493
454. Lutoslawski, String Quartet (1965) 494
455. Penderecki, String Quartet, no. 2 495
456. Crumb, Madrigals, Book IV 498
457. Druckman, Valentine, for solo contrabass
p r o d u ce. 499
458. Rouse, Va l e n t i n e
l y not re
, do 500
e o n
459.
ona l us
Horne, Six Short Studies, Sixteenth Notes
0 8 -27 501
Pers39. 20 2 0 -
Complete Pieces for Analysis IV
Suggestion for Analysis
460. Ravel, Sonatine, Mouvt II 503
461. Debussy, Pour le Piano: Sarabande 506
462. Debussy, Préludes, X: La Cathédrale engloutie 510
463. Boulanger, Trois Morceaux, No. 1: “D’un vieux jardin” 516 r o d u c e.
o n ot rep
464. Milhaud, Saudades do Brazil, No. 6: Gavea
y, d
519
onl 522 7
465. Tailleferre, Berceuse a l u s e
Person 8-2
466. Tailleferre, Impromptu 2020-0 525
467. Prokofiev, Classical Symphony, op. 25 529
468. Prokofiev, The Love of Three Oranges: March 531
469. Hindemith, Ludus Tonalis: Fuga undecima in B (Canon) 534
470. Ruggles, Evocations, no. 1 536
471. Schönberg, Suite für Klavier, op. 25: Menuett 537
odu c e .
472. Porter, Night and Day
t re p r
o and Bess: “Summertime”
540
, d
473. Gershwin,
l y o nPorgy 545
o n
e Rodgers -and
us474.
r s on al - 0 8 2 7Hart, Blue Moon. Arranged by André Previn 549
P e 20
20Stravinsky,
475. Sonata for Two Pianos, II: Theme with Variations 552
476. Hindemith, Piano Sonata No. 2 563
477. Macmillan, Piano Sonata, I 567

Appendix A. Checklist for Analysis and Sample Analysis 569

Appendix B. For Further Reference 573
r o d u c e.
Appendix C. Textbook Correlation Chart
o n ot rep 574
Acknowledgments
only , d 576
Index of Composers and n a l
Their u s e
Compositions -27 581
e rs o 0 -0 8
P Pieces
Index of Complete 202 587

The audio icon indicates all of the selections for which

streaming audio is provided on our companion website.
To access this streaming audio as well as Spotify and
Naxos Music Library playlists, visit
r o d u c e.
www.oup.com/us/benjamin.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
xv
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
u s e o nly,
al -27
Person 20 2 0 -0 8

r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2

ro d u c e.
d o n o t rep
s e o n ly,
e r s on al u 0 - 0 8 - 27
P 20 2

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
o nly,
Person
al us e
20 2 0 - 0 8-27 Preface

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
u s e o nlyon, the music itself, we have assembled the
In the belief that musical study should focus
rsofor
eighth edition of Music l
naAnalysis -
to provide0 8 -27 with ready access to a far-
students
P e 2 0
0 historical breadth, as well as the systematic
ranging variety of music. The stylistic2and
format, run parallel to our Techniques and Materials of Music (Cengage Learning/
Schirmer, Enhanced Seventh Edition, 2015) but also make this anthology ideal for use
with many other theory textbooks. Featuring not only 363 excerpts organized by har-
monic content, but also 114 complete pieces, this anthology can be used in traditional
form and analysis courses as well as in tonal harmony courses. To assist instructors
r o d u c e.
teaching a form course, a separate index lists the complete pieces, which range from
not rep
nly, do
e osonatas.
small forms to large-scale works and include Mozart and Beethoven piano
r s o n a l us -0 8 -27
P e 20 2 0
Features
Music for Analysis moves progressively from the techniques and materials of the com-
mon practice period through the twentieth century. Harmonic content forms the or-
ganizing principle and builds cumulatively and systematically.
p r ce.
odu that:
• We have chosen musical t r e selections
o one chord or technique and use music within the range of
n l
–oFocus y, do non
clearly
s on al use competent - 0 8 27
-pianists.
P e r 2 0
2– 0Illustrate the standard usages and idiomatic procedures of historical periods
from the seventeenth through twenty-first centuries.
– Cover a wide variety of textures and styles, drawing from chamber music,
vocal and choral music, keyboard music, and orchestral music—in piano re-
duction, short score, or full score—and including American popular music and
jazz throughout the book.
r o d u c e.
– Include excerpts of at least period length as well as
o n o t repcomplete works.
many
• We believe the anthology is ideal o
s e ly, dtonal harmony courses AND tradi-
fornboth
tional form courses:
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P
– The many longer excerpts illustrate
2 forms such as simple binary, and the
20small
numerous complete pieces illustrate all the common large forms.
– There are clear examples of simple ternary form, examples illustrating varia-
tion forms, and complete sonatas for the study of sonata-allegro and rondo
form. Complete multimovement sonatas by Mozart and Beethoven and ex-
amples of opera repertoire are included.
r o d u c e.
– New for this edition are seven complete movements from nineteenth- and
o n ot rep
only , d
twentieth-century repertoire and jazz.
n l u s e
a techniques:0-08-27
• We offer discussions of both contrapuntal and contemporary
P e r s o 2 in-
– Unit 29 contains complete pieces illustrating contrapuntal techniques 20and
cludes examples from composers other than Bach. At the end of the unit is a list
of a considerable number of contrapuntal examples found throughout the book.
– Part III presents a clear and systematic illustration of specific techniques and
styles found in contemporary music.
• We provide a number of items to
ro d u e. students in their study of analysis:
chelp
o
– Questions fornAnalysis p
t re in each unit are designed to guide study and discussion
, d
nlyremind o
al use –oand students of the comprehensive nature of analysis.
8 27 appear in Units 3, 6, 17, 22, 25, 27, 31, and 37, and prior to
-
Person 0 2 0
Model - 0
Analyses
2 Unit 30, and a detailed Checklist and Model Analysis are provided in Appen-
dix A. These show the detail expected at each level of study and reinforce the xvii
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 7
-2comprehensive
Person 0 8of
goal analysis as opposed to simple harmonic analysis and the
20 2 0 -
mere parsing of the phrases.
– Books dealing with form are listed in Appendix B.
– New to this edition, online playlists for Spotify and the Naxos Music Library
provide convenient access to listening for examples throughout the volume.
– A detailed Index of Composers and Their Compositions facilitates the study of
a particular composer or style.
p r o d u ce.
d o n t re
– An Index of Complete Pieces also facilitatesoreference.
• We provide several items to help
s e o y, instructors:
nlbusy
soforna l u -0 8 -27of the book’s three parts.
P e r
– Suggestions Discussion introduce
2 0 each
20 in Appendix C shows which chapters in this
– A Textbook Correlation Chart
anthology correspond to chapters in the most frequently used theory texts.
– Web-based playlists for Spotify and the Naxos Music Library as well as 140
streaming audio selections are available at www.oup.com/us/benjamin. In-
structors and students can import the Naxos audio links to create their own
custom playlists.
r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
New in This Edition
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2
• With more complete movements and greater diversity of repertoire, this edition in-
cludes seven new complete pieces by Clara Schumann, Samuel Coleridge-Taylor,
Lili Boulanger, Germaine Tailleferre, Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart, and Charlie
Parker.
• New Spotify and Naxos Music Library streaming audio playlists are provided for
o d u c e . audio playlists in addition to the 140 audio
o r
every unit. With Spotify and Naxos
t repas streaming audio on the book’s open access companion web-
d
exampleso n
included
y, this edition provides listening for nearly every example in formats that are
lsite,
us e o n
e r s on al 0 - 0 8 -27for instructors and students.
P 20 2 convenient

A Note on the Musical Selections

Movement and measure numbers are provided for excerpts that do not begin a work;
longer excerpts and complete pieces have measure numbers provided.for ease of ref-
e p r o d uthece
erence when discussing the music. Unless otherwise
n o t rindicated, excerpt begins on
o n
measure 1. In certain cases, a musical l y, do may contain chords that anticipate
selection
n a l e we believe
usbecause - 7 the significance of the selection
2that
e rs o
later units. In these cases,
0 -0 8
Pinclusion, we provide
justifies its 20an2analysis of the particular chords. Inevitably, cer-
tain selections will suggest alternative analyses; we consider it best to allow the in-
structor to determine the preferred analysis.

Acknowledgments c e.
r o d u
We again thank Edward Haymes for his help with the translations. For their very o n o
help-t rep
o n d
ly,Carpenter,
ful advice toward the eighth edition of Music for Analysis we s
n e
thank Ellon
u Jersey; Thom
aofl New - 27
e r s o 0 -0 8
P
Arizona State University; Robert McMahan, The College
202 Hasen-
pflug, Idaho State University; David Heuser, University of Texas at San Antonio; John
Hilliard, James Madison University; Robert Knupp, Mississippi College; John Latar-
tara, University of Mississippi; Steve Lindeman, Brigham Young University; Michael
Murray, Missouri State University; Charles Ruggiero, Michigan State University; Eliza-
beth Sayrs, Ohio University; and John Snyder, University of Houston.
p ro u
We also thank JonathandBookerce. for his help in rendering the new scores for this
o
edition and n o
Paul re Jillian Francis, and Jeffrey Cooper for their assistance in cre-
tGarza,
on d
ly,the Spotify and Naxos Music Library playlists.
n a l use ating
-27
Pers o
2 020-08 T.B. M.H. T.K. R.N.

xviii
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
o nly,
8-27 Suggestions for Using This Book
al us e
Person 20 2 0 - 0

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
1. o
We urge the class to discuss all aspects
e , music being analyzed—not to focus
noflythe
al u s
onnharmonic 8 -27reference should be made in
P e rso
solely, for example,
2 0 -0
content. Constant
0 unity and derivation, melodic con-
class discussion to such matters as2motivic
struction, counterpoint, cadence and phrase structure, texture, idiom, rhythm,
and the like. Suggestions for Discussion introduce each of the book’s three parts,
and each unit has Questions for Analysis. Model Analyses appear in Units 3, 6,
17, 22, 25, 27, 31, and 37, and prior to Unit 30, and a detailed Checklist and Sam-
ple Analysis are provided in Appendix A. These serve as a guide to the teacher
r o d u c e.
and models for the student. Instructors are, of course, free to choose their own
o n ot rep
analytic approaches and terminologies. onl y , d
n l u s e
aas to avoid limiting -27
2. It is important to emphasize the organic nature of music
P e r s oso
0 2 0 - 0 8
class discussion to mere surface description. The interactions of line,2rhythm,
phrase, and harmony should be investigated. Many complete pieces are provided
throughout to allow the students some experience with formal analysis.
3. Such important matters as performance practice, style, and historical context
should be discussed in class. Clarification of problems of performance through

r o d u
analysis is often of interest to the c e. and should be undertaken.
student
n o t rep textures are found throughout the anthology. Com-
4. Examples of contrapuntal
d o
s e o n
plete y, using contrapuntal techniques are designated with an asterisk in the
lpieces
s on al u Index of-Complete
0 8 -27 Pieces.
P e r 0 2 0
5. 2
The instructor should insist that students listen to the assigned music before do-
ing an analysis and should always play the music in class both before and after
discussion. Nearly every example is available for online listening through the
Naxos and Spotify playlists we provide at www.oup.com/us/benjamin. Most key-
board examples, including those for piano, harpsichord, and organ, are available
as streaming audio on the book’s open access website. We also recommend
r o d u c e. the
use of student performers whenever possible. not rep
o n l y, o for analysis but also for
donly
6. The music in this anthology can
s o n a l use be used not
-0 8 - 27
ear-training, P er
sight-reading, 2
score-reading,
2 0 0 and transposition practice.
7. Users of our Techniques and Materials of Music (Cengage Learning/Schirmer,
Enhanced Seventh Edition, 2015) will note that the organization of this anthol-
ogy closely parallels that of our textbook. The materials provided in Part V of
Techniques and Materials will be particularly helpful to these instructors; perti-
nent units in the book include those on cadence and phrase structure, motive,
sequence, melody, and small forms.
r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
xix
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
u s e o nly,
al -27
Person 20 2 0 -0 8

r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2

ro d u c e.
d o n o t rep
s e o n ly,
e r s on al u 0 - 0 8 - 27
P 20 2

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
o nly,
Person
al us e
20 2 0 - 0 8-27 I. Diatonic Materials

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
Suggestions s e o ly, Discussion
nfor
u
P e rsonal 0 2 0 -0 8 -27
Though the music in this section is2organized by harmonic vocabulary, it is not
enough to simply label the chords with roman numerals and move on. In fact, in
those excerpts where the harmonic content is simpler, analysis should focus on all
the other aspects of the music, including such basic concepts as harmonic rhythm
and the way the voicing and voice-leading is affected by the texture of the music.
Harmonic analysis is only the first basic step to understanding and analyzing the
r o d u c e.
structure of a piece of music.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
Aspects to Consider
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2
From the very beginning, analysis should include considerations of phrase, period,
and cadence; motivic structure; melodic shape; and how all work together to create
the musical form. To aid in the analytic process, units are prefaced with questions
meant to guide your consideration and analysis of the music. These questions are
cumulative and should be considered in all subsequent units.
o d u c . analysis; the sound is what matters, and
eafter
o t rbe r
epmisled. We stress the importance of hearing each example
• Always play the music first, and again
ly,
sometimes d o
the n
eye can
us e o n
e r s on al in class.
0 - 0 8 -27
P 2
20 work from large to small. The largest formal units (overall form, structural
• Always
pitches, cadence, phrase, and periodic structure) should be understood before
tackling the details (motives, rhythmic detail, harmony, nonharmonic tones, and
so on).
• Always put the music in a context: Who wrote it, when, and what is the nature of
the style? What clues about the style does the music give us?
r o d u c e. help us
o n o t r p
• How does what we have discovered about any particulareexcerpt or piece

s e on ly, d
perform that piece more musically and intelligently?
s o n a l u -0 8 -27
P e r 202 0

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
u s e o nly,
al -27
Person 20 2 0 -0 8

r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2

ro d u c e.
d o n o t rep
s e o n ly,
e r s on al u 0 - 0 8 - 27
P 20 2

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
o nly,
8-27 1. Tonic Triad
al us e
Person 20 2 0 - 0

Questions for Analysis

1. How is the triad expressed, both melodically and harmonically?
2. How does the texture affect the voicing?
p r o d u ce.
3. Given the lack of a harmonic progression, howoare
d n o t re structures estab-
phraselike
lished and articulated? u s e o nly,
rsonoral“phrases”
Pemotives
4. Are successive
20 2 0 -
related 0
by8 -27 repetition, or
sequence,
other means?

1. Sonatina in G major, Hob. XVI: 8 1

I
r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2

2. o d u c
Sonatina,
r e. op. 792, no. 8
t rep
2
l y, d o no I
us eo n
r s on a l - 0 8 - 27
P e 20 2 0

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 3. Le Coq d’Or: 202Hymn to the Sun 3
m. 3

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

d u ce.
Note: Movement and measure numbers are given throughout. Where no measure number is given, the
p ro
d o n o t re
excerpt begins on measure 1.

us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
1. TONIC TRIAD 3
 p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27 4. Leonora Overture No. 2, op. 72
Person - 0
4
20 2 0
m. 57

p r o d u ce.
d o n o t re
u s e o nly,
al -27
Person 20 2 0 -0 8

r o d u c e.
d o n o t rep
u s e o nly,
e r s o n al 0 -0 8 -27
P 20 2
5 5. Trio, op. 70, no. 2
IV

ro d u c e.
d o n o t rep
s e o n ly,
e r s on al u 0 - 0 8 - 27
P 20 2

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e rs o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

r o d u c e.
o n o t rep
s e o n ly, d
e r s o n al u 0 -0 8 -27
P 202

p ro d u ce.
d o n o t re
us e o nly,
al 8-27
Person 20 2 0 - 0
4 PART I. DIATONIC MATERIALS
Another random document with
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have the facts explained. A submerged island will produce a ring; a
long coast, a barrier reef; and so on. Mr. Darwin also notes other
phenomena, as 553 elevated beds of coral, which, occurring in other
places, indicate a recent rising of the land; and on such grounds as
these he divides the surface of those parts of the ocean into regions
of elevation and of depression.

The labors of coralline zoophytes, as thus observed, form masses

of coral, such as are found fossilized in the strata of the earth. But
our knowledge of the laws of life which have probably affected the
distribution of marine remains in strata, has received other very
striking accessions by the labors of Prof. Edward Forbes in
observing the marine animals of the Ægean Sea. He found that,
even in their living state, the mollusks and zoophytes are already
distributed into strata. Dividing the depth into eight regions, from 2 to
230 fathoms, he found that each region had its peculiar inhabitants,
which disappeared speedily either in ascending or in descending.
The zero of animal life appeared to occur at about 300 fathoms. This
curious result bears in various ways upon geology. Mr. Forbes
himself has given an example of the mode in which it may be
applied, by determining the depth at which the submarine eruption
took place which produced the volcanic isle of Neokaimeni in 1707.
By an examination of the fossils embedded in the pumice, he
showed that it came from the fourth region. 68
68 British Assoc. Reports, 1843, p. 177.

To the modes in which organized beings operate in producing the

materials of the earth, we must add those pointed out by the
extraordinary microscopic discoveries of Professor Ehrenberg. It
appears that whole beds of earthy matter consist of the cases of
certain infusoria, the remains of these creatures being accumulated
in numbers which it confounds our thoughts to contemplate.]

Speculations concerning the causes of volcanoes and

earthquakes, and of the rising and sinking of land, are a highly
important portion of this science, at least as far as the calculation of
the possible results of definite causes is concerned. But the various
hypotheses which have been propounded on this subject can hardly
be considered as sufficiently matured for such calculation. A mass of
matter in a state of igneous fusion, extending to the centre of the
earth, even if we make such an hypothesis, requires some additional
cause to produce eruption. The supposition that this fire may be
produced by intense chemical action between combining elements,
requires further, not only some agency to bring together such
elements, but some reason why 554 they should be originally
separate. And if any other causes have been suggested, as
electricity or magnetism, this has been done so vaguely as to elude
all possibility of rigorous deduction from the hypothesis. The doctrine
of a Central Heat, however, has occupied so considerable a place in
theoretical geology, that it ought undoubtedly to form an article in
geological dynamics.

Sect. 4.—The Doctrine of Central Heat.

The early geological theorists who, like Leibnitz and Buffon,

assumed that the earth was originally a mass in a state of igneous
fusion, naturally went on to deduce from this hypothesis, that the
crust consolidated and cooled before the interior, and that there
might still remain a central heat, capable of producing many
important effects. But it is in more recent times that we have
measures of such effects, and calculations which we can compare
with measures. It was found, as we have said, that in descending
below the surface of the earth, the temperature of its materials
increased. Now it followed from Fourier’s mathematical
investigations of the distribution of heat in the earth, that if there be
no primitive heat (chaleur d’origine), the temperature, when we
descend below the crust, will be constant in each vertical line. Hence
an observed increase of temperature in descending, appeared to
point out a central heat resulting from some cause now no longer in
action.

The doctrine of a central heat has usually been combined with the
supposition of a central igneous fluidity; for the heat in the
neighborhood of the centre must be very intense, according to any
law of its increase in descending which is consistent with known
principles. But to this central fluidity it has been objected that such a
fluid must be in constant circulation by the cooling of its exterior. Mr.
Daniell found this to be the case in all fused metals. It has also been
objected that there must be, in such a central fluid, tides produced by
the moon and sun; but this inference would require several additional
suppositions and calculations to give it a precise form.

Again, the supposition of a central heat of the earth, considered as

the effect of a more ancient state of its mass, appeared to indicate
that its cooling must still be going on. But if this were so, the earth
might contract, as most bodies do when they cool; and this
contraction might lead to mechanical results, as the shortening of the
day. Laplace satisfied himself, by reference to ancient astronomical
records, that no such 555 alteration in the length of the day had taken
place, even to the amount of one two-hundredth of a second; and
thus, there was here no confirmation of the hypothesis of a primitive
heat of the earth.

Though we find no evidence of the secular contraction of the earth

in the observations with which astronomy deals, there are some
geological facts which at first appear to point to the reality of a
refrigeration within geological periods; as the existence of the
remains of plants and shells of tropical climates, in the strata of
countries which are now near to or within the frigid zones. These
facts, however, have given rise to theories of the changes of climate,
which we must consider separately.

But we may notice, as connected with the doctrine of central heat,

the manner in which this hypothesis has been applied to explain
volcanic and geological phenomena. It does not enter into my plan,
to consider explanations in which this central heat is supposed to
give rise to an expansive force, 69 without any distinct reference to
known physical laws. But we may notice; as more likely to become
useful materials of the science now before us, such speculations as
those of Mr. Babbage; in which he combines the doctrine of central
heat with other physical laws; 70 as, that solid rocks expand by being
heated, but that clay contracts; that different rocks and strata
conduct heat differently; that the earth radiates heat differently, or at
different parts of its surface, according as it is covered with forests,
with mountains, with deserts, or with water. These principles, applied
to large masses, such as those which constitute the crust of the
earth, might give rise to changes as great as any which geology
discloses. For example: when the bed of a sea is covered by a thick
deposit of new matter worn from the shores, the strata below the
bed, being protected by a bad conductor of heat, will be heated, and,
being heated, maybe expanded; or, as Sir J. Herschel has observed,
may produce explosion by the conversion of their moisture into
steam. Such speculations, when founded on real data and sound
calculations, may hereafter be of material use in geology.
69 Scrope On Volcanoes, p. 192.

70 On the Temple of Serapis, 1834. See also Journal of the Royal

Inst. vol. ii., quoted in Conyb. and Ph. p. xv. Lyell, B. ii. c. xix. p.
383, (4th ed.) on Expansion of Stone.

The doctrine of central heat and fluidity has been rejected by some
eminent philosophers. Mr. Lyell’s reasons for this rejection belong
556 rather to Theoretical Geology; but I may here notice M. Poisson’s
opinion. He does not assent to the conclusion of Fourier, that once
the temperature increases in descending, there must be some
primitive central heat. On the contrary, he considers that such an
increase may arise from this;—that the earth, at some former period,
passed (by the motion of the solar system in the universe,) through a
portion of space which was warmer than the space in which it now
revolves (by reason, it may be, of the heat of other stars to which it
was then nearer). He supposes that, since such a period, the surface
has cooled down by the influence of the surrounding circumstances;
while the interior, for a certain unknown depth, retains the trace of
the former elevation of temperature. But this assumption is not likely
to expel the belief is the terrestrial origin of the subterraneous heat.
For the supposition of such an inequality in the temperature of the
different regions in which the solar system is placed at different
times, is altogether arbitrary; and, if pushed to the amount to which it
must be carried, in order to account for the phenomenon, is highly
improbable. 71 The doctrine of central heat, on the other hand, (which
need not be conceived as implying the universal fluidity of the mass,)
is not only naturally suggested by the subterraneous increase of
temperatures, but explains the spheroidal figure of the earth; and
falls in with almost any theory which can be devised, of volcanoes,
earthquakes, and great geological changes.
71 For this hypothesis would make it necessary to suppose that
the earth has, at some former period, derived from some other
star or stars more heat than she now derives from the sun. But
this would imply, as highly probable, that at some period some
other star or stars must have produced also a mechanical effect
upon the solar system, greater than the effect of the sun. Now
such a past operation of forces, fitted to obliterate all order and
symmetry, is quite inconsistent with the simple, regular, and
symmetrical relation which the whole solar system, as far as
Uranus, bears to the present central body.

Sect. 5.—Problems respecting Elevations and Crystalline Forces.

Other problems respecting the forces by which great masses of the

earth’s crust have been displaced, have also been solved by various
mathematicians. It has been maintained by Von Buch that there
occur, in various places, craters of elevation; that is, mountain-
masses resembling the craters of volcanoes, but really produced by
an expansive force from below, bursting an aperture through
horizontal strata, 557 and elevating them in a conical form. Against
this doctrine, as exemplified in the most noted instances, strong
arguments have been adduced by other geologists. Yet the
protrusion of fused rock by subterraneous forces upon a large scale
is not denied: and how far the examples of such operations may, in
any cases, be termed craters of elevation, must be considered as a
question not yet decided. On the supposition of the truth of Von
Buch’s doctrine, M. de Beaumont has calculated the relations of
position, the fissures, &c., which would arise. And Mr. Hopkins, 72 of
Cambridge, has investigated in a much more general manner, upon
mechanical principles, the laws of the elevations, fissures, faults,
veins, and other phenomena which would result from an elevatory
force, acting simultaneously at every point beneath extensive
portions of the crust of the earth. An application of mathematical
reasoning to the illustration of the phenomena of veins had before
been made in Germany by Schmidt and Zimmerman. 73 The
conclusion which Mr. Hopkins has obtained, respecting the two sets
of fissures, at right angles to each other, which would in general be
produced by such forces as he supposes, may suggest interesting
points of examination respecting the geological phenomena of
fissured districts.
72 Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. vi. 1836.

73 Phil. Mag. July, 1836, p. 2.

[2nd Ed.] [The theory of craters of elevation probably errs rather by

making the elevation of a point into a particular class of volcanic
agency, than by giving volcanic agency too great a power of
elevation.

A mature consideration of the subject will make us hesitate to

ascribe much value to the labors of those writers who have applied
mathematical reasoning to geological questions. Such reasoning,
when it is carried to the extent which requires symbolical processes,
has always been, I conceive, a source, not of knowledge, but of
error, and confusion; for in such applications the real questions are
slurred over in the hypothetical assumptions of the mathematician,
while the calculation misleads its followers by a false aspect of
demonstration. All symbolical reasonings concerning the fissures of
a semi-rigid mass produced by elevatory or other forces, appear to
me to have turned out valueless. At the same time it cannot be too
strongly borne in mind, that mathematical and mechanical habits of
thought are requisite to all clear thinking on such subjects.]

Other forces, still more secure in their nature and laws, have
played a very important part in the formation of the earth’s crust. I
speak of the forces by which the crystalline, slaty, and jointed
structure of 558 mineral masses has been produced. These forces
are probably identical, on the one hand, with the cohesive forces
from which rocks derive their solidity and their physical properties;
while, on the other hand, they are closely connected with the forces
of chemical attraction. No attempts, of any lucid and hopeful kind,
have yet been made to bring such forces under definite mechanical
conceptions: and perhaps mineralogy, to which science, as the point
of junction of chemistry and crystallography, such attempts would
belong, is hardly yet ripe for such speculations. But when we look at
the universal prevalence of crystalline forms and cleavages, at the
extent of the phenomena of slaty cleavage, and at the segregation of
special minerals into veins and nodules, which has taken place in
some unknown manner, we cannot doubt that the forces of which we
now speak have acted very widely and energetically. Any elucidation
of their nature would be an important step in Geological Dynamics.

[2nd Ed.] [A point of Geological Dynamics of great importance is,

the change which rocks undergo in structure after they are
deposited, either by the action of subterraneous heat, or by the
influence of crystalline or other corpuscular forces. By such
agencies, sedimentary rocks may be converted into crystalline, the
traces of organic fossils may be obliterated, a slaty cleavage may be
produced, and other like effects. The possibility of such changes was
urged by Dr. Hutton in his Theory; and Sir James Hall’s very
instructive and striking experiments were made for the purpose of
illustrating this theory. In these experiments, powdered chalk was, by
the application of heat under pressure, converted into crystalline
calcspar. Afterwards Dr. McCulloch’s labors had an important
influence in satisfying geologists of the reality of corresponding
changes in nature. Dr. McCulloch, by his very lively and copious
descriptions of volcanic regions, by his representations of them, by
his classification of igneous rocks, and his comprehensive views of
the phenomena which they exhibit, probably was the means of
converting many geologists from the Wernerian opinions.

Rocks which have undergone changes since they were deposited

are termed by Mr. Lyell metamorphic. The great extent of
metamorphic rock changed by heat is now uncontested. The internal
changes which are produced by the crystalline forces of mountain
masses have been the subjects of important and comprehensive
speculations by Professor Sedgwick.] 559

Sect. 6.—Theories of Changes of Climate.

As we have already stated, Geology offers to us strong evidence

that the climate of the ancient periods of the earth’s history was
hotter than that which now exists in the same countries. This, and
other circumstances, have led geologists to the investigation of the
effects of any hypothetical causes of such changes of condition in
respect of heat.

The love of the contemplation of geometrical symmetry, as well as

other reasons, suggested the hypothesis that the earth’s axis had
originally no obliquity, but was perpendicular to the equator. Such a
construction of the world had been thought of before the time of
Milton, 74 as what might be supposed to have existed when man was
expelled from Paradise; and Burnet, in his Sacred Theory of the
Earth (1690), adopted this notion of the paradisiacal condition of the
globe:

The spring
Perpetual smiled on earth with verdant flowers,
Equal in days and nights.
74
Some said he bade his angels turn askance
The poles of earth twice ten degrees and more
From the sun’s axle, &c.—Paradise Lost, x. 214.

In modern times, too, some persons have been disposed to adopt

this hypothesis, because they have conceived that the present polar
distribution of light is inconsistent with the production of the fossil
plants which are found in those regions, 75 even if we could, in some
other way, account for the change of temperature. But this alteration
in the axes of a revolution could not take place without a subversion
of the equilibrium of the surface, such as does not appear to have
occurred; and the change has of late been generally declared
impossible by physical astronomers.
75 Lyell, i. 155. Lindley, Fossil Flora.

The effects of other astronomical changes have been calculated

by Sir John Herschel. He has examined, for instance, the thermotical
consequences of the diminution of the eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit, which has been going on for ages beyond the records of
history. He finds 76 that, on this account, the annual effect of solar
radiation would increase as we go back to remoter periods of the
past; but (probably at least) not in a degree sufficient to account for
the apparent past 560 changes of climate. He finds, however, that
though the effect of this change on the mean temperature of the year
may be small, the effect on the extreme temperature of the seasons
will be much more considerable; “so as to produce alternately, in the
same latitude of either hemisphere, a perpetual spring, or the
extreme vicissitudes of a burning summer and a rigorous winter.” 77
76 Geol. Trans. vol. iii. p. 295.

77 Geol. Trans. vol. iii. p. 298.

Mr. Lyell has traced the consequences of another hypothesis on

this subject, which appears at first sight to promise no very striking
results, but which yet is found, upon examination, to involve
adequate causes of very great changes: I refer to the supposed
various distribution of land and water at different periods of the
earth’s history. If the land were all gathered into the neighborhood of
the poles, it would become the seat of constant ice and snow, and
would thus very greatly reduce the temperature of the whole surface
of the globe. If, on the other hand, the polar regions were principally
water, while the tropics were occupied with a belt of land, there
would be no part of the earth’s surface on which the frost could
fasten a firm hold, while the torrid zone would act like a furnace to
heat the whole. And, supposing a cycle of terrestrial changes in
which these conditions should succeed each other, the winter and
summer of this “great year” might differ much more than the elevated
temperature which we are led to ascribe to former periods of the
globe, can be judged to have differed from the present state of
things.

The ingenuity and plausibility of this theory cannot be doubted:

and perhaps its results may hereafter be found not quite out of the
reach of calculation. Some progress has already been made in
calculating the movement of heat into, through, and out of the earth;
but when we add to this the effects of the currents of the ocean and
the atmosphere, the problem, thus involving so many thermotical
and atmological laws, operating under complex conditions, is
undoubtedly one of extreme difficulty. Still, it is something, in this as
in all cases, to have the problem even stated; and none of the
elements of the solution appears to be of such a nature that we need
allow ourselves to yield to despair, respecting the possibility of
dealing with it in a useful manner, as our knowledge becomes more
complete and definite. 561
 CHAPTER VI.

Progress of the Geological Dynamics of Organized Beings.

Sect. 1.—Objects of this Science.

P ERHAPS in extending the term Geological Dynamics to the

causes of changes in organized beings, I shall be thought to be
employing a forced and inconvenient phraseology. But it will be
found that, in order to treat geology in a truly scientific manner, we
must bring together all the classes of speculations concerning known
causes of change; and the Organic Dynamics of Geology, or of
Geography, if the reader prefers the word, appears not an
inappropriate phrase for one part of this body of researches.

As has already been said, the species of plants and animals which
are found embedded in the strata of the earth, are not only different
from those which now live in the same regions, but, for the most part,
different from any now existing on the face of the earth. The remains
which we discover imply a past state of things different from that
which now prevails; they imply also that the whole organic creation
has been renewed, and that this renewal has taken place several
times. Such extraordinary general facts have naturally put in activity
very bold speculations.

But it has already been said, we cannot speculate upon such facts
in the past history of the globe, without taking a large survey of its
present condition. Does the present animal and vegetable population
differ from the past, in the same way in which the products of one
region of the existing earth differ from those of another? Can the
creation and diffusion of the fossil species be explained in the same
manner as the creation and diffusion of the creatures among which
we live? And these questions lead us onwards another step, to ask,
—What are the laws by which the plants and animals of different
parts of the earth differ? What was the manner in which they were
originally diffused?—Thus we have to include, as portions of our
subject, 562 the Geography of Plants, and of Animals, and the
History of their change and diffusion; intending by the latter subject,
of course, palætiological history,—the examination of the causes of
what has occurred, and the inference of past events, from what we
know of causes.

It is unnecessary for me to give at any length a statement of the

problems which are included in these branches of science, or of the
progress which has been made in them; since Mr. Lyell, in his
Principles of Geology, has treated these subjects in a very able
manner, and in the same point of view in which I am thus led to
consider them. I will only briefly refer to some points, availing myself
of his labors and his ideas.

Sect. 2.—Geography of Plants and Animals.

With regard both to plants and animals, it appears, 78 that besides

such differences in the products of different regions as we may
naturally suppose to be occasioned by climate and other external
causes; an examination of the whole organic population of the globe
leads us to consider the earth as divided into provinces, each
province being occupied by its own group of species, and these
groups not being mixed or interfused among each other to any great
extent. And thus, as the earth is occupied by various nations of men,
each appearing at first sight to be of a different stock, so each other
tribe of living things is scattered over the ground in a similar manner,
and distributed into its separate nations in distant countries. The
places where species are thus peculiarly found, are, in the case of
plants, called their stations. Yet each species in its own region loves
and selects some peculiar conditions of shade or exposure, soil or
moisture: its place, defined by the general description of such
conditions, is called its habitation.
78 Lyell, Principles, B. iii. c. v.

Not only each species thus placed in its own province, has its
position further fixed by its own habits, but more general groups and
assemblages are found to be determined in their situation by more
general conditions. Thus it is the character of the flora of a collection
of islands, scattered through a wide ocean in a tropical and humid
climate, to contain an immense preponderance of tree-ferns. In the
same way, the situation and depth at which certain genera of shells
are found have been tabulated 79 by Mr. Broderip. Such general
inferences, if 563 they can be securely made, are of extreme interest
in their bearing on geological speculations.
79 Greenough, Add. 1835, p. 20.

The means by which plants and animals are now diffused from
one place to another, have been well described by Mr. Lyell. 80 And
he has considered also, with due attention, the manner in which they
become imbedded in mineral deposits of various kinds. 81 He has
thus followed the history of organized bodies, from the germ to the
tomb, and thence to the cabinet of the geologist.
80 Lyell, B. iii. c. v. vi. vii.
 81 B. iii. c. xiii. xiv. xv. xvi.

But, besides the fortunes of individual plants and animals, there is

another class of questions, of great interest, but of great difficulty;—
the fortunes of each species. In what manner do species which were
not, begin to be? as geology teaches us that they many times have
done; and, as even our own reasonings convince us they must have
done, at least in the case of the species among which we live.

We here obviously place before us, as a subject of research, the

Creation of Living Things;—a subject shrouded in mystery, and not
to be approached without reverence. But though we may conceive,
that, on this subject, we are not to seek our belief from science
alone, we shall find, it is asserted, within the limits of allowable and
unavoidable speculation, many curious and important problems
which may well employ our physiological skill. For example, we may
ask:—how we are to recognize the species which were originally
created distinct?—whether the population of the earth at one
geological epoch could pass to the form which it has at a succeeding
period, by the agency of natural causes alone?—and if not, what
other account we can give of the succession which we find to have
taken place?

The most remarkable point in the attempts to answer these and

the like questions, is the controversy between the advocates and the
opponents of the doctrine of the transmutation of species. This
question is, even from its mere physiological import, one of great
interest; and the interest is much enhanced by our geological
researches, which again bring the question before us in a striking
form, and on a gigantic scale. We shall, therefore, briefly state the
point at issue.
 Sect. 3.—Question of the Transmutation of Species.

We see that animals and plants may, by the influence of breeding,

and of external agents operating upon their constitution, be greatly
564 modified, so as to give rise to varieties and races different from
what before existed. How different, for instance, is one kind and
breed of dog from another! The question, then, is, whether organized
beings can, by the mere working of natural causes, pass from the
type of one species to that of another? whether the wolf may, by
domestication, become the dog? whether the ourang-outang may, by
the power of external circumstances, be brought within the circle of
the human species? And the dilemma in which we are placed is this;
—that if species are not thus interchangeable, we must suppose the
fluctuations of which each species is capable, and which are
apparently indefinite, to be bounded by rigorous limits; whereas, if
we allow such a transmutation of species, we abandon that belief in
the adaptation of the structure of every creature to its destined mode
of being, which not only most persons would give up with
repugnance, but which, as we have seen, has constantly and
irresistibly impressed itself on the minds of the best naturalists, as
the true view of the order of the world.

But the study of Geology opens to us the spectacle of many

groups of species which have, in the course of the earth’s history,
succeeded each other at vast intervals of time; one set of animals
and plants disappearing, as it would seem, from the face of our
planet, and others, which did not before exist, becoming the only
occupants of the globe. And the dilemma then presents itself to us
anew:—either we must accept the doctrine of the transmutation of
species, and must suppose that the organized species of one
geological epoch were transmuted into those of another by some
long-continued agency of natural causes; or else, we must believe in
many successive acts of creation and extinction of species, out of
the common course of nature; acts which, therefore, we may
properly call miraculous.

This latter dilemma, however, is a question concerning the facts

which have happened in the history of the world; the deliberation
respecting it belongs to physical geology itself, and not to that
subsidiary science which we are now describing, and which is
concerned only with such causes as we know to be in constant and
orderly action.

The former question, of the limited or unlimited extent of the

modifications of animals and plants, has received full and careful
consideration from eminent physiologists; and in their opinions we
find, I think, an indisputable preponderance to that decision which
rejects the transmutation of species, and which accepts the former
side of the dilemma; namely, that the changes of which each species
is 565 susceptible, though difficult to define in words, are limited in
fact. It is extremely interesting and satisfactory thus to receive an
answer in which we can confide, to inquiries seemingly so wide and
bold as those which this subject involves. I refer to Mr. Lyell, Dr.
Prichard, Mr. Lawrence, and others, for the history of the discussion,
and for the grounds of the decision; and I shall quote very briefly the
main points and conclusions to which the inquiry has led. 82
82 Lyell, B. iii. c. iv.

It may be considered, then, as determined by the over-balance of

physiological authority, that there is a capacity in all species to
accommodate themselves, to a certain extent, to a change of
external circumstances; this extent varying greatly according to the
species. There may thus arise changes of appearance or structure,
and some of these changes are transmissible to the offspring: but
the mutations thus superinduced are governed by constant laws, and
confined within certain limits. Indefinite divergence from the original
type is not possible; and the extreme limit of possible variation may
usually be reached in a brief period of time: in short, species have a
real existence in nature, and a transmutation from one to another
does not exist.

Thus, for example, Cuvier remarks, that notwithstanding all the

differences of size, appearance, and habits, which we find in the
dogs of various races and countries, and though we have (in the
Egyptian mummies) skeletons of this animal as it existed three
thousand years ago, the relation of the bones to each other remains
essentially the same; and, with all the varieties of their shape 83 and
size, there are characters which resist all the influences both of
external nature, of human intercourse, and of time.
83 Ossem. Foss. Disc. Prél. p. 61.

Sect. 4.—Hypothesis of Progressive Tendencies.

Within certain limits, however, as we have said, external

circumstances produce changes in the forms of organized beings.
The causes of change, and the laws and limits of their effects, as
they obtain in the existing state of the organic creation, are in the
highest degree interesting. And, as has been already intimated, the
knowledge thus obtained, has been applied with a view to explain
the origin of the existing population of the world, and the succession
of its past conditions. But those who have attempted such an
explanation, have found it necessary to assume certain additional
laws, in order to enable themselves to 566 deduce, from the tenet of
the transmutability of the species of organized beings, such a state
of things as we see about us, and such a succession of states as is
evidenced by geological researches. And here, again, we are
brought to questions of which we must seek the answers from the
most profound physiologists. Now referring, as before, to those
which appear to be the best authorities, it is found that these
additional positive laws are still more inadmissible than the primary
assumption of indefinite capacity of change. For example, in order to
account, on this hypothesis, for the seeming adaptation of the
endowments of animals to their wants, it is held that the endowments
are the result of the wants; that the swiftness of the antelope, the
claws and teeth of the lion, the trunk of the elephant, the long neck of
the giraffe have been produced by a certain plastic character in the
constitution of animals, operated upon, for a long course of ages, by
the attempts which these animals made to attain objects which their
previous organization did not place within their reach. In this way, it
is maintained that the most striking attributes of animals, those which
apparently imply most clearly the providing skill of their Creator, have
been brought forth by the long-repeated efforts of the creatures to
attain the object of their desire; thus animals with the highest
endowments have been gradually developed from ancestral forms of
the most limited organization; thus fish, bird, and beast, have grown
from small gelatinous bodies, “petits corps gelatineux,” possessing
some obscure principle of life, and the capacity of development; and
thus man himself with all his intellectual and moral, as well as
physical privileges, has been derived from some creature of the ape
or baboon tribe, urged by a constant tendency to improve, or at least
to alter his condition.