LAYOUT AND DESIGN OF

MICROSPRINKLER IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
By

Chinmayee Kuchhal Harshit Joshi Aakash

ld. No. 55942 Id. No. 55969 Id. No. 56970

Under the guidance of

Dr. R.P. Singh

A Dissertation Report

SUBMITTED

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF THE DEGREE OF
Bachelor of Technology
In
Agricultural Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

G.B. PANT UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY

PANTNAGAR-263145, DISTRICT-U.S. NAGAR, UTTARAKHAND

June, 2024

1
 APPROVAL

The Dissertation report entitled "Layout and Design of microsprinkler irrigation

system" submitted by Chinmayee Kuchhal (Id no. 55942), Harshit Joshi (Id no. 55969), Aakash (Id
no. 56970) is hereby approved.

1.1 Dr. R.P.Singh

Professor and Project Guide

1.2 Dr. R.P. Singh

Professor and Head

DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
G.B. PANT UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
PANTNAGAR-263145, U.S. NAGAR, UTTARAKHAND
JUNE 2024

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors express their sincere thanks and heartfelt gratitude to their dissertation advisor Dr
R.P.Singh, Professor, Department of Irrigation and drainage engineering for the invaluable guidance,
continuous encouragement and abundant counsel to come out with the present dissertation work.

Authors are highly grateful to Dr. Alaknanda Ashok, Dean, College of Technology and Dr.
Anil Kumar, Coordinator, Agricultural Engineering, Professor and Head, Department of Soil and
Water Conservation Engineering for providing necessary facilities and their cooperation to complete
this project.

Authors would also like to acknowledge the advisory committee members Dr. Arun Kumar,
Professor & Head, Department of FMPE, Dr. Harish Chandra, Professor, Department of IDE, and
Dr. P.K. Omre, Professor, Department of PHPFE, Dr. P.S. Kashyap, Professor, Department of Soil
and Water Conservation Engineering for their invaluable guidance and support.

Authors bow with reverence to God and their beloved parents for showering with blessings and
their batchmates for constant support and motivation.

Chinmayee Kuchhal Harshit Joshi Aakash

ld. No. 55942 Id. No. 55969 Id. No. 56970

Pantnagar

June, 2024

3
LIST OF CONTENTS

S.No. Particulars
. List of Tables

List of Figures
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
1.2 Development of Drip Irrigation System
1.3 Drip Irrigation System
1.4 Problems and objective

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Drip Irrigation

2.1.1 Type of Drip Irrigation System

2.1.2 Advantages and Limitations of Drip Irrigation

2.2 Analysis of Drip Irrigation Laterals and Emitters

2.3 Components of Drip Irrigation System

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Equipment
3.2 Pipe Characteristics

3.2.1 Pipe flow examples

3.2.2 Head loss in pipe

3.3 Theoretical Consideration
3.4 Methodology

3.4.1 Irrigation parameters

4
 3.4.2 Detail about layout

3.4.3 Overall design project criteria

3. 4.3.1 Pipe Material and characteristic
3.4.3.2 Design discharge
3.4.3.3 Tools employed
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Emitter Selection

4.2 Pressure Variation

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES

5
 LIST OF TABLES

S.No. Particulars

3.1 Effects of pressure on discharge rate and average application

depth for typical orifice control emitters with 360° patterns.

3.2 Emitters with specific color coding and operating pressures meet
these criteria as above

3.3 General Pipes characteristics

Calculation
4.4

6
LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No Particulars

2.1 Layout of drip Irrigation and fertilization System

2.2 Component of Drip Irrigation

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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

as = fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on an overcast day

as+bs = fraction of extraterrestrial radiation reaching the earth on a clear day

Cp = specific heat [MJ kg-1 °C-1]

Cs = soil heat capacity [MJ m-3 °C-1]

Dr = inverse relative distance Earth-Sun [-]

E = evaporation [mm day-1]

Epan = pan evaporation [mm day-1]

e°(T) = saturation vapor pressure at air temperature T [kPa]

Es = saturation vapor pressure for a given time period [kPa]

Ea = actual vapor pressure [kPa]

es- ea = saturation vapor pressure deficit

ET = evapotranspiration [mm day-1]

Eto = reference crop evapotranspiration [mm day-1]

Etc = crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions [mm day-1]

G = soil heat flux [MJ m-2 day-1]

Gday = soil heat flux for day and ten-day periods [MJ m-2 day-1]

Ghr = soil heat flux for hourly or shorter periods [MJ m-2 hour-1]

Gsc = solar constant [0.0820 MJ m-2 min-1]

Ke = soil evaporation coefficient [-]

8
9
1. INTRODUCTION

Irrigation water is a cornerstone in crop cultivation, essential for maximizing agricultural output.
Across the globe, a spectrum of irrigation methodologies, ranging from rudimentary flooding to
sophisticated sprinkler and drip systems, finds implementation. Each approach, be it border strip, check
basin, furrow, subsurface, sprinkler, or trickle irrigation, brings its advantages and limitations, tailored for
specific contexts.
Surface irrigation methods such as border strips, check basins, and furrow techniques are
widespread, yet they demand substantial water resources and level terrains, prerequisites not always met
universally. In contrast, sprinkler irrigation offers versatility by simulating natural rainfall and
disseminating water through pressured flow from nozzles. Notably, sprinkler systems boast an efficiency
advantage, requiring approximately two-thirds less water compared to surface irrigation methods.
Moreover, their adaptability extends to varied topographies, overcoming the constraint of needing flat
terrain.
The mechanics behind sprinkler irrigation involve the expulsion of water through small openings or
nozzles under pressure. Through meticulous calibration of nozzle sizes, operating pressures, and spacing
between sprinklers, the distribution of irrigation water can be finely tuned to match the soil's infiltration
rate. This precise control ensures uniform moisture levels within the crop's root zone, optimizing growing
conditions and fostering robust agricultural yields.
By harnessing the principles of sprinkler irrigation, farmers can mitigate water wastage and tailor
irrigation practices to suit specific soil and crop requirements. This approach not only conserves precious
water resources but also enhances overall agricultural productivity. Moreover, its adaptability to diverse
terrains renders it a viable solution for regions where traditional surface irrigation methods are impractical
due to topographical constraints.
In essence, sprinkler irrigation stands as a beacon of efficiency and adaptability in modern
agriculture, offering a sustainable solution to meet the ever-growing demand for food production while
conserving vital water resources and mitigating environmental impacts.
Water is a vital component of agriculture, accounting for over 80% of the nation's water resources.
Ensuring sufficient quantity and quality of water is crucial for achieving higher

10
productivity levels. Therefore, it is imperative to invest in water conservation, implement improved
techniques for timely supply, and enhance efficient water usage. The inefficiency of conventional irrigation
systems has not only hindered the expected outcomes of water resource development investments but has
also led to environmental issues such as waterlogging and soil salinity, negatively impacting crop yields.
Consequently, there is a need for significant investments in adopting advanced irrigation methods like drip
and sprinkler systems, along with fertigation.
Irrigation is a technology that ensures a good soil-moisture balance resulting in a good environment for crop
growth.
This project focuses on the design of a drip irrigation system in Pantnagar in the Tanda region,
Udam Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand. Pantnagar's mean annual rainfall is 1569.7 mm with a coefficient of
variation of 36.7%. August receives the highest average annual rainfall, and November receives the least.
July has the highest average number of rainy days, and November has the least. We are designing drip
irrigation in the poly house of Pantnagar, Uttrakhand.
To explain our project, we are taking a problem as an example to get a deep understanding of how to lay
drip irrigation or design a drip irrigation. In this Project we are considering a poly house with various
vegetation and crops and considering the water requirement of the poly house we will design the drip
irrigation.

1.1 Development of Drip Irrigation System

The development of drip irrigation systems represents a significant advancement in agricultural
technology, revolutionizing the way water is delivered to crops. The origins of drip irrigation can be traced
back to ancient times, with early civilizations using porous clay pots buried in the ground to slowly release
the water to plants. However, the modern drip irrigation system as we know it today has undergone several
stages of development:
• Early Concepts: In the 19th century, various inventors experimented with methods of delivering water
directly to the roots of plants. These early concepts laid the groundwork for the development of modern drip
irrigation systems.
• Pioneering Work: The mid-20th century saw significant advancements in drip irrigation technology, with
pioneers such as Simcha Blass and Kibbutz Hatzerim in Israel developing the first commercially viable drip
irrigation systems. These systems utilized plastic tubing with evenly spaced emitters to deliver water
11
directly to the base of plants, reducing water wastage and improving efficiency.
• Technological Innovations: Over the years, drip irrigation systems have benefited from technological
innovations, including the development of more durable and efficient materials, such as high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) tubing and precision-engineered emitters. These advancements have improved the
reliability and performance of drip irrigation systems, making them more accessible to farmers around the
world.

• Automation and Control: Modern drip irrigation systems often incorporate automation and control
technologies, such as timers, sensors, and computerized monitoring systems. These features allow farmers
to precisely manage water delivery based on factors such as soil moisture levels, crop water requirements,
and weather conditions, optimizing irrigation efficiency and conserving water resources.

• Adaptation to Various Conditions: Drip irrigation systems have been adapted to suit a wide range of
agricultural settings, from small-scale subsistence farming to large commercial operations. They are used in
diverse climates and soil types, enabling farmers to grow crops more efficiently and sustainably while
minimizing environmental impact.

• Integration with Sustainable Practices: Drip irrigation is often integrated with other sustainable
agricultural practices, such as mulching, cover cropping, and soil conservation techniques. This holistic
approach helps to improve soil health, conserve water, and reduce reliance on synthetic inputs, ultimately
promoting long-term sustainability in agriculture.

Overall, the development of drip irrigation systems represents a testament to human ingenuity and
innovation in addressing the challenges of agricultural water management. By providing a more efficient
and sustainable way to deliver water to crops, drip irrigation has played a crucial role in increasing food
production while minimizing the environmental footprint of agriculture.

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1.2 Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation is a method of watering plants by applying small amounts of water directly to the roots of
the plants, typically through a system of tubes, pipes, valves, and emitters. It's an efficient irrigation
technique that minimizes water wastage by delivering water precisely where it's needed. The water is
delivered slowly and steadily, allowing it to penetrate the soil and reach the roots without runoff or
evaporation.

Drip irrigation systems can be customized based on the specific needs of different plants, soil types, and
environmental conditions. They are commonly used in agriculture, landscaping, and home gardens to
conserve water, improve plant growth, and reduce weed growth.

1.3 Problems and Objectives

The purpose of a microirrigation system is to efficiently deliver water directly to the root zone of plants,
minimizing water waste, improving plant health, and maximizing crop yield. However, like any system,
microirrigation can encounter challenges. The aim of the project is to design a micro sprinkler irrigation
system for an orchard with the necessary data. The objectives for the project include:
1. To review the types of available layout of a microsprinkler irrigation system and collection of required
data for designing the system.
2. To design the lateral lines of the sub units of microsprinkler irrigation system based on the availability
of data as per objective 1.
3. To design the manifold of the subunit and mainline for the laterals of objective 2.

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2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 General
The total water present in the earth is about 1.41billion km^3 of which 97.5% is brackish and
only about 2.5% is fresh (of which 87% is in ice caps or glaciers, in ground or deep inside the
earth). In the last two centuries (1800-2000), irrigated area in the world has increased from 8
million to about 260 million hectares for producing required food for the ever-growing population
(Megh, 2014). Irrigation can be defined as the process of slow application of water either on the
surface of the soil or sub-surface. Many irrigation systems exist that have been exploited and that
have been adopted for various places depending on certain conditions. Water is naturally supplied to
plants through rains, however the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient or ill-
timed. To get maximum yield, it is essential to supply optimum quantity of water and maintain
correct timing of water. Necessity of irrigation can be summarized as follows: less rainfall, non-
uniform rainfall, commercial crops with additional rainfall and controlled water supply. The various
components involved in the design of a drip irrigation system include source of water, the head unit
including (the intake structure), pipe fittings, air release valves, filters, flow meters and the
fertigation unit. The field unit systems consist of distribution system (main lines, sub-mains,
distribution lines and infield system), valves (flush and air release valves), end plugs and pressure
gauges.Fig.2.1 shows typical components of microirrigation system.

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Fig.2.1 Component of microirrigation system

2.2 Types of microirrigation system:

In principle, there are two types of drip irrigation system: Sub-surface drip irrigation – Water is
applied below the soil surface. Surface drip irrigation – Water is applied directly to the soil surface.

Sub surface Drip Irrigation System

Sub-surface irrigation (SDI) is a more sophisticated and hence expensive and rare method,
which employs narrow plastic tubes of about 2 cm diameter. These are buried in the soil at a depth
between 20 and 50 cm, deep enough so as not to interfere with normal tillage or traffic. The tubes
are either porous throughout or are fitted with regularly spaced emitters or perforations. If porous,
the tubes exude water along their entire length. If fitted with emitters, they release water only at
specific points. The released water then spreads or diffuses in the soil. The pattern of wetting
depends on the properties of the surrounding soil, as well as on the length of the interval between
adjacent emitters and their discharge rates.

A potential problem with this technology is that the narrow orifices of the emitters may get
clogged by roots, particles, algae, or precipitating salts.

Experience in Israel, California and elsewhere has shown that this method of subsurface
irrigation is feasible in plantations of fruit trees and other perennial row crops. It may also be
applicable to annual crops grown in regular beds when high maintenance intensity can be assured.
The employment of modern subsurface drip irrigation technology in developing countries is seldom
and is often not feasible due to unfavorable framework conditions.

Surface Drip Irrigation System

Surface drip irrigation is much more common and uses a very large range of drip emitter devices.
Lateral lines, supplied from a field main, are laid on the surface. They are commonly 10 to 25 mm in
diameter and are either perforated or fitted with special emitters. The latter are designed to drip water

33
on to the soil at a controlled rate, ranging from 1 to 10 Liters per hour per emitter. The operating water
pressure is usually in the range of 0.5 to 2.5 atmospheres. This pressure is dissipated by friction in flow
through the narrow passages or orifices of the emitters, so the water emerges at atmospheric pressure in
the form of drops rather than a jet or spray.

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral to the plants.
They are usually spaced more than 1 meter apart with one or more emitters used for a single plant such
as a tree. The basis of design is to produce an emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge
that does not vary much with pressure changes and does not block easily.

Commercial emitters are either in-line (spliced into the lateral supply tubes), or on-line (plugged on to
the tubes through a hole punched into the tubing wall). Commercial emitters are usually pre calibrated
to discharge at a constant rate of 2, 4, 8 or 16 Liters per hour. The discharge rate is always affected by
changes in pressure, but less so in the case of pressure-compensated emitters. The frequency and
duration of each irrigation period are controlled by means of a manual valve or a programmable
automatic valve assembly. Metering valves are designed to shut the flow automatically after a pre-set
volume of water is applied.

2.2.1 Advantages and limitations of drip irrigation

Due to the possibility of applying water frequently in low volumes along with fertilizer and causing
only partial wetting of soil, this method offers various advantages over the surface and sprinkler
irrigation methods. However, at the same time, this method involves high level of technology compared
to the surface irrigation method and therefore for its successful operation, the method needs to be used
carefully. This section describes the advantage and disadvantages of drip irrigation method along with
its adoptability.

Advantages

Water Savings: In drip irrigation system, the water is not moved over the soil surface or through the
air. Therefore, the conveyance losses are eliminated. As water does not encounter the foliage, the
interception losses are also eliminated. In addition to this as this method can wet only the desired soil
root zone keeping other portion of the soil dry, the losses in application are also reduced. Due to

33
regulated flow and application of water in low volumes, the deep percolation losses are also largely
also reduced. All these utilities in drip irrigation method make this method to use water efficiently and
reduce/eliminate the water losses in the process of conveyance, distribution, application, and storage.
Therefore, this method can save water to the extent of 40 to 60 % without compromising the crop
growth.

Improved Plant Growth and Crop Yield: As this method allows the efficient application of water in
low volumes frequently, it is possible to maintain the water content in the soil root zone near to the
field capacity or within allowable depletion soil moisture. At this level the soil moisture tension is low,
and the plant need not to exert much to extract water from the soil. Therefore, the plants are not
subjected to water stress during the entire crop growth period. This also maintains the favourable air
and water ratio in the soil root zone and thus improving the plant growth and in the process obtaining
the higher crop yield compared to other methods. It has been reported that drip irrigation increases the
yield from 10 to 60% depending upon soils and crops over conventional methods of irrigation (INCID,
1994).

Labor & Saving: There is considerable saving in labour, as the well-designed system needs labour
only to start or stop the system. This method is also adaptable to automation of low to high level in
water and fertilizer application. Therefore, the expenses on the manual labourer can be largely reduced.

Energy Saving: Because of high irrigation efficiency, less amount of water is required to be applied
and hence less time is required to supply the desired quantity of water and therefore this, method saves
energy. In addition to this the low pressure is required to operate the emitters compared to sprinkler
irrigation system, therefore there is a need of low horsepower pump, further causing the saving in
energy.

Suitability to Poor Soils: Very light soils are difficult to irrigate by conventional methods due to deep
percolation of water. Likewise, very heavy soils with low infiltration rates are difficult to irrigate even
by sprinkler method. However, drip irrigation has been found successful in both types of soils.

Weed Control: In drip method, due to partial wetting of soil, weed infestation is very less in
comparison to other methods of irrigation. This reduces the need of expensive and environmentally
hazardous chemicals and labourers for the application of these chemicals.

33
Economy in Cultural Practices & Operations: Besides achieving effective control of weeds, it also
increases the efficiency of other operations like spraying, weeding, harvesting etc. due to the possibility
of arranging the geometry of the plantation to suit to these operations. There by reducing the
operational costs even up to the extent of 50%.

Use of Brackish/Saline Water: In this method the soil moisture can be maintained at low tension and
therefore best suited to the application of brackish/saline water which is otherwise not possible in
surface irrigation method due to moisture at high tension because of prolonged interval between two
irrigations. As the irrigation requirement of this method is almost reduced by more than 50%, the use of
water with salt loads cause the less salt accumulation compared to surface irrigation methods.

Enhanced Fertilizer Application Efficiency: In drip irrigation system, water soluble fertilizers can be
applied. As water can be precisely applied in the root zone, fertilizer can also be applied in the root
zone of the crop only. Therefore, the losses of fertilizers in the process of deep percolation, leaching,
runoff etc can be considerably eliminated enhancing the saving of precious fertilizer and causing the
minimum hazards to the environment reducing the groundwater pollution.

No Soil Erosion: As water is not moved over the land surface, there is no soil erosion due to drip
irrigation.

No Land Preparation: Preparation of levelled bed, bund and channels is not necessary as water is not
required to move on the land surface. Only land smoothening will suffice.

Minimum Diseases and Pest Problems: In drip system, because of less atmospheric humidity
minimum diseases and pest problems are observed.

Adaptability to Application of Mulches: In water scarce region, the mulching has been found very
successful for saving water. The drip irrigation method wherein the drippers can be placed below the
mulch cover is suitable for the situations where the mulches are required to be used. The drip irrigation
method along with the mulching has been found a very formidable option in regions where water
shortage is acute.

33
Limitations

The limitations of drip system are:

Clogging: One of the most common problems with drip irrigation systems is clogging of emitters due to
sediment, organic matter, or mineral deposits in the water. Clogging reduces water flow and can lead to
uneven water distribution or complete blockages.
Objective: Implement effective filtration systems and regular maintenance protocols to prevent clogging
and ensure consistent water delivery.
Uneven Water Distribution: Factors such as variations in pressure, emitter spacing, and elevation
changes can result in uneven water distribution within the irrigation zone. Some plants may receive too
much water while others may not receive enough.
Objective: Properly design the system layout, including emitter placement, spacing, and use of pressure
regulators to maintain uniform water distribution across the entire area.
Pressure Fluctuations: Fluctuations in water pressure can affect the performance of drip irrigation
systems, leading to over or under-watering of plants. High pressure can damage emitters, while low
pressure can result in inadequate water delivery.
Objective: Install pressure regulators and monitor system pressure regularly to ensure consistent pressure
throughout the system, preventing damage to components and ensuring optimal water delivery.
Erosion and Runoff: In sloped areas or areas with heavy clay soils, drip irrigation systems may struggle
to deliver water evenly, leading to erosion and runoff. This can result in soil loss, nutrient leaching, and
water wastage.
Objective: Implement slope compensation techniques, such as pressure-compensating emitters and drip
tape with flow regulators, to mitigate erosion and runoff and ensure efficient water distribution.
System Maintenance: Drip irrigation systems require regular maintenance to ensure proper functioning
and prevent issues such as clogging, leaks, and component deterioration.
Objective: Establish a maintenance schedule that includes tasks such as flushing the system, inspecting
emitters and tubing for damage or blockages, and replacing worn-out components as needed.
By addressing these challenges and objectives, drip irrigation systems can effectively meet the needs of
plants while conserving water and promoting sustainable agriculture practice.

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Initial Heavy investment: The drip irrigation method involves the use of several components to apply
water as per its principle compared to surface and sprinkler irrigation methods. Therefore, the initial
cost required for the procurement of these components of the system and its installation is high. Often
farmers may not afford this investment. However realizing the importance of this method in water
saving and other factors, the Central and various State government agencies including National
Horticulture Mission on Micro-irrigation bear the partial expenses on this system by offering the
subsidy to the farmers on the procurement of this system. Though the initial cost is high, in long term
the system is beneficial as it saves water, energy, fertilizers, labour and produces more crop produce.

Extensive Maintenance Requirement: If the proper filtration system is not used emitter clogging
could be the most serious problem in drip irrigation the remedial measures on which could be
expensive. Apart from this, salt and chemical deposits can accumulate at openings of the emitters
partially or fully plugging them. Clogging can adversely affect the flow rate and uniformity of water
application, increased maintenance costs as it becomes necessary to check, replace or reclaim the
clogged emitters. As the water is not applied uniformly and as per the requirement due to partial and
full clogging of the emitters. As the water is not applied uniformly and as per the requirement due to
partial and full clogging of the emitters, crop damage & decreased yield may occur, if not detected
early & corrected timely. Other maintenance problems may include pipeline leaks and puncturing of
the tubes. Rodents, rabbits, dogs, etc. can chew & damage drip line; and ants & other insects have
occasionally enlarged opening in drip tubing. Drip lines can be cut or dug up accidentally when
weeding, replacing, or repairing other pipelines or utilities in nearby areas. Filters, chemical injectors,
pressure regulators, water meters and pumps are also subjected to malfunctioning and liable for
maintenance.

Salinity Hazards: Although drip system can be used under saline conditions, it must be managed
properly. Otherwise, reverse pressure gradients in the soil will cause flow of salts towards plant root
with the resulting detrimental effects. It has also been found that the salts in irrigation water or soil are
pushed to the fringes of the wetted area formed due to emitters, causing the accumulation of salts. This
accumulation of salt could be harmful for the next seasons if not leached in rainy season or by applying
water more than the irrigation requirement for leaching of the salts that are accumulated.

33
Economic and/or Technical Limitations: Besides the initial heavy investment on the components of
the drip irrigation system, the annual maintenance of these components, if not used properly, could be
expensive. There are some specific requirements to operate and maintain the fertigation units, valves,
pumps, and filters. Often the technical limitations on the operation of these components may prohibit
the proper use of the components, increasing the cost on the maintenance.

High Skill Requirements: High skill is required for designing, installation and subsequent operation.
The technical knowledge in the design of emitters, fittings, filters, etc. has been necessary. The
procedures for preventing or correcting emitter clogging & rectifying equipment failure have been
difficult. The use of proper methods for injection of fertilizers & other chemicals has sometimes been a
problem. A higher level of design, management & maintenance is required with drip than other
irrigation methods.

2.3 Analysis of Drip Irrigation Laterals and Emitters:

Much research has been done in irrigation and many methods have been explored including, surface
irrigation, sprinkler, localized irrigation systems and sub surface systems. There are many factors to
consider before selecting a particular irrigation system. These include water resources, topography,
soils, climate, type of crops to be grown, availability and cost of capital and labor, type, and
appropriateness of a particular irrigation technology to farmers and its associated energy requirements,
water use efficiencies, as well as socio-economic, health and environmental aspects (Andreas 2001). It
is not wise to use a single criterion for selection purposes. However, there are instances when one
criterion can weigh heavily in favor of a particular irrigation system. The socio-economic impact of an
irrigation system largely determines the success of the project. This embraces the socio-economic
benefits, for and against, that can be derived not only by the government but also, more importantly, by
the communities in which the project is located, and how these affect the sustainability of the project.
Health and environmental aspects are also important. The introduction of irrigation in a particular area
can not only improve health, but also introduce health hazards, if mitigation measures are not
adequately addressed during the scheme design, implementation, operation, and management. Irrigation
development may also introduce other environmental risks, such as salinization and the deterioration of
biodiversity.

It is therefore necessary to obtain all available information and data and to carry out an analysis of all
33
the factors before possibly ranking the criteria for purposes of selecting an irrigation system. For a
project to be sustainable, all technical, socio-economic, health and environmental information should
be analyzed in such a way that the system chosen is technically feasible, economically viable, socially
acceptable, and environmentally sound. Drip irrigation laterals and emitters play a crucial role in
modern agriculture by efficiently delivering water directly to the root zone of plants, minimizing water
waste and maximizing crop yield. Here is an analysis of their key components and functions:

1. Laterals: These are the main distribution lines in a drip irrigation system. They transport water from
the water source to the individual emitters placed along the line. Laterals can be made of various
materials such as PVC, polyethylene, or even drip tape. The choice of material depends on factors like
durability, cost, and compatibility with the specific application.

2. Emitters: Emitters are the devices that release water at a controlled rate directly to the plants’ root
zone. They are typically attached to the laterals at regular intervals. Emitters come in different types,
including inline emitters, pressure-compensating emitters, and adjustable flow emitters. The selection
of emitter type depends on factors like soil type, slope, and plant water requirements.

3. Spacing and Flow Rate: The spacing between emitters along the lateral and the flow rate of each
emitter are critical parameters in designing an effective drip irrigation system. The spacing is
determined based on factors such as plant spacing, root depth, and soil type. The flow rate of each
emitter should be matched to the water requirements of the plants it serves.

4. Uniformity: Achieving uniform water distribution is essential for maximizing the efficiency of a
drip irrigation system. Factors such as pressure variations, emitter clogging, and lateral layout can
affect uniformity. Pressure-compensating emitters and proper system design can help maintain
uniformity across the field.

5. Maintenance: Regular maintenance is crucial to ensure the proper functioning of drip irrigation
laterals and emitters. This includes periodic flushing of the system to remove debris, checking for
clogged emitters, and replacing damaged components. Proper maintenance helps prolong the lifespan
of the system and ensures consistent performance.

33
In summary, microirrigation laterals and emitters are essential components of modern agricultural
practices, offering precise water delivery and efficient resource utilization. By understanding their
design, function, and maintenance requirements, farmers can harness the full potential of drip irrigation
to optimize crop production while conserving water resources. Some of the important reviews related to
design of the pressurized irrigation system are presented below:

Englehardt (1938) invented the original horizontal section impact drive sprinkler and later it was sold
to Clem and Mary Lafetes who manufactured anal marketed under the brand name Rain Bod

Scott and Carrey (1957) reported that sprinkler lateral spacing influence the uniformity decimation.
They suggested that the water distribution can be improved under high condition by closer spacing of
sprinkler laterals

Bistinger and Lengenhaugh (1962) studied that the maximum application of water is near the centre
of the stationary sprinkler. When moving the sprinkler in a straight line or are. this concentrations near
the center-line are further intensified. For individual stationary sprinklers, the elliptical pattern would
give amoreeven distribution. However, the conical pattern with a spacing equal to the radius will
produce a more uniform distribution of water than the elliptical pattern when moved at a constant
velocity. The most even distribution for the elliptical pattern exists at a spacing of about 1.4 m.
Sprinklers which move in a circular path have skewed pattern when located close to pivot point. For
sprinklers located at a distance of at least 5 m from pivot, this distortion is small and straight-line travel
may be assumed. The area that can be covered with an individual large moving sprinkler is relatively
small, thus often requiring two or more units for normal farm sized operation Rotary type, moving
sprinkler systems are limited in length if uniform water distribution is attained because of wide
variation in velocity of sprinklers from one end of line to the other.

Branochheid and Hart (1968) suggested that the maximum application rates for sprinklers under
coarse sandy soil within 0-5% slope are around Sem/hr. The maximum application rate goes on
decreasing as the slope increases.

33
Walker (1968) studied the distribution of water over a field by sprinkler irrigation, generally
acknowledged to be an important aspect of the system design and should therefore be known in
advance

Michael (1978) described the principle of operation, adaptability, and the application of sprinkler
irrigation system. Sprinkler irrigation types and their components parts are described along with
procedures for their operation and maintenance. Moisture distribution pattern and uniformity coverage
of sprinkler system are described.

Haghighi (1988) applied the finite element to analyse sprinkler irrigation networks they used the
Hazen-Williams equation to estimate the head friction and considered same of the head losses in pipe
fittings

Hathoter al. (1994) investigated the pressure head distribution along the lateral pipe and found that at
the middle sprinkler about 86% of the total head loss occurs. Half of the head loss occurs at about 38%
of the distance mentioned above. Because the above-mentioned values are known, they provide
verification of present technique

Narayana Moorthy (1996) said while reducing water consumption, it reduces substantial amount of
electricity required for irrigation purpose, by reducing working hours of irrigation pump sets.

Richard (1998) reported that sprinkmod provides a platform for straight forward and complete
hydraulic analysis of pressurized irrigation systems, where pressure and flow rate regimes are simulated
and reported for mainlines, manifolds and laterals. The operating points for the system is determined by
balancing the system hydraulics with pumping stations. Lateral types include hand lines, wheel lines,
solid sots, linear moves and center pivots. Any type and layout of mainline designs, including loops and
dual pipes can be stimulated. The software presents a readily accessible means for determining
operating characteristics and weaknesses of currently operating system during system rehabilitation or
diagnostics and for validating adequacy of proposed designs before construction. The Windows
interface and graphical means for describing system layout brings the usage of the program into the
hands of technicians and equipment suppliers.

33
Mahar and Singh (2001) presented methodology to select a sprinkler lateral from different design
alternatives for duration shorter than its full cycle. The selection is made by determining the time up to
which an alternate would be more economical than others. They developed a methodology that uses the
breakeven analysis involving total annual cost with escalating cost factors.

Lamm et al. (2007) presented methodology to select a sprinkler lateral from different design
alternatives for duration shorter than its full cycle. The selection is made by determining the time up to
which an alternate would be more economical than others. They developed a methodology that uses the
breakeven analysis involving total annual cost with escalating cost factors.

Kale et al. (2008) developed an optimal design methodology for pressurized irrigation unit. They used
a linear programming approach to design the lateral lines of pressurized irrigation system. However, for
designing the mainline of pressurized irrigation system, this methodology must be modified.

33
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
In this project the design example of microsprinkler irrigation system for an orchard are presented. The
design problem is taken from standard text to collect data as well as different type of layouts for
designing laterals, submains, and mains. The brief description of equipment used, and methodology
adopted is presented below.
3.1 Equipment
Microsprinklers: Emitter discharges come in various ranges depending on the type of emitter and a
good emitter discharge is that which will not result into runoff or deep percolation depending on the
type of soil one is dealing with. They are based upon manufacturers’ standards. They range from 15-
0.6l/h.
Laterals refer to the pipes that branch out from the main supply line and distribute water to the emitters, such
as sprinklers or microsprinklers. These pipes are essential components of the irrigation network, ensuring that
water reaches different areas of the field or garden evenly and efficiently.
Submains the submain is an intermediary pipeline that plays a crucial role in distributing water from the main
line to the laterals
Detail about layout
a) Intake: The receives it irrigation water from groundwater
b) Main pipeline: This receives water from the mainline at the head of scheme and supplies it
across the block. The total length of the main pipeline is 277m and 188m. It is designed to be of uPVC
material.
c) Sub-main pipeline This receives water from the mainline and supplies across the block. There
are four sub-mains for the area with a total length of 189m for SB 1-1 each and 189m for SB 1-2 with
pipe diameter in the range of 97.2 mm- 141.2 mm. It’s designed to be made of Upvc material.
Pipe materials/ characteristics
The proposed network for the system will consist of different pipe materials as shown below
33
Steel/ GI pipe- this is suitable for rocky areas that require large pipe diameters >400 mm
Upvc pipes- this is suitable for non-rocky areas and diameters <400 mm (these are locally produced).

Table 3.1 General Pipes characteristics

3.2 Theoretical consideration

Flow through pipes
The different lines that will be designed include main lines, sub-mains, and the distribution lines and
the infield system. The different characteristics to be evaluated include velocity through the pipes
which are limited to 0.5-2.5m/s for the various pipe materials. The discharge equation that will be used
is:
Q= V*A (3.1)
Where:
Q is discharge (m3 /s)
A is cross sectional area (determined from inner diameter using the equation (πd2/4)).
Pressure within a pipe varies from one point to another especially where there is change in topography
and due to head losses resulting from friction as mentioned below.

33
Frictional head loss
This refers to loss in energy of water cause due to viscous effects such as friction that depend on
(conditions of flow and the physical properties of the system, movement of fluid molecules against
each other, presence of bends or kinks in a piping system etc.).
It is considered as a major loss. This drop in energy is dependent on the wall shear stress between the
fluid and pipe surface which is equally dependent on whether the flow is turbulent or laminar.
The Hazen William's equation is an empirical method in that it relates flow of water in a pipe with
physical properties of the pipe and the pressure drop caused by friction. It is the most widely used
formulae in determination of head loss.
1.852
5 Q
h f =3.98 × 10 ( 4.871
)× L (3.2)
D

Where:
• hf is the total friction head drop at the end of the line(m),
• L is the total length (m),
• Q is the total discharge at the inlet (L/sec),
• D is the diameter (mm).
The above equation is only applicable to lines with more than twenty outlets. It only determines the
flow friction in the Laterals and submain, the losses through emitters connection and pipe fitting are not
included.
1.83
Q L
h f = 9.58×107 4.83 (3.3)
D 100

Where:
• hf is the total friction head drop at the end of the line(m),
• L is the total length (m),
• Q is the total discharge at the inlet (L/sec),
• D is the diameter (mm).

Pressure variation

33
Pressure variation in irrigation systems, including those using laterals and submains, is a critical factor
that affects the efficiency and uniformity of water distribution. The system pressure variation can be
calculated by rearranging the standard orifice equation as
P min
=¿ (3.4)
Pavg
Pavg= the average system pressure
Pmax= the maximum pressure in system
qavg= the average emitter flow
qmin= the minimum emitter flow due to pressure variations in the system
x= the emitter pressure discharge exponent
Emission Uniformity (EU) can be calculated by the formula

EU =
100 1−
[ 1.277 C vm
√n ] qmin
(3.5)
q avg
n= number of emitters per tube
Cvm= the coefficient of manufacturing variation for emitters
qavg= the average emitter flow
qmin= the minimum emitter flow due to pressure variations in the system
Pressure difference from the emitters (ΔP)

Δ P=2.5 ( Pavg−P min ) (3.6)

The allowable friction loss along a lateral is equal to:

Pa= Δ P−P elev −Preg (3.7)

Pa = Allowable friction loss [KPa]

Pelev = Pressure change resulting from elevation difference along the lateral [KPa]
Preg = The pressure regulator Variation

Horse Power
The horsepower needed depends on several factors, including the system's flow rate, pressure
requirements, and overall efficiency.

33
 Q× H
HP=
75 × η

Where:

 Q is the flow rate in m3/sec

 H is the total dynamic head in feet.
 η is the pump efficiency (expressed as a decimal).

4.Methodology
This was done by comparing various aspects of design involved irrigation systems to enable the
decision of drip irrigation system to be adopted. A suitable method of distribution is based on:
i) Even distribution of water for the crops.
ii) Supply of an adequate amount of the water for the crops.
iii) Avoid water wastage and problems like soil erosion, water logging and salinity.
The major determinants of a suitable method include natural conditions, type of crop, type of
technology and previous experience with irrigation.

4.1 System Layout

These are pipelines that carry water from the sub-main line in an infield system to the emitters.

Their spacing depends upon crop spacing and how large the plot is. The number of laterals for a

typical field is calculated from

33
 length of plot
No . oflaterals= (3.7)
rowspacingofcrops

Lateral tubing layout

fig.3.1, Head loss in lateral

1
H n=H a− h f (3.8)
4

h f =4 ( H a −H n ) (3.9)

H fa = Δ H S =0.6 x 4 ( H a −H n )=2.5 ( H a−H n ) (3.10)

Emitter selection
Emitters are selected based on the soil texture and crop root zone system. In the field soil texture is
sandy. Because freeze protection is a priority, the irrigation system needs to have the capacity to
simultaneously supply water to all trees at a minimum flow rate of 19 cubic meters per hectare per
hour. This ensures uniform application of water across the orchard. The system will not be divided into
33
 zones, allowing flexibility in irrigation runtimes.
Each tree is allocated a surface area of 28 square meters (equivalent to 357 trees per hectare), with
preferred emitters having wetted areas ranging from 11.2 to 22.4 square meters (corresponding to 40-
80% coverage).

Emitter base color Orifice Diameter (mm) Operating pressure(KPa) Discharge rate (L/H) Coverage Application Rate(mm/h)
Diameter(m) Area(m2)

Blue 1.02 69 30 2.5 4.9 6.2

103 34 2.9 6.6 5.2
138 38 3.4 9.2 4.1
172 43 4.1 12.9 3.3

green 1.37 69 40 3.4 8.8 4.5

103 49 3.8 11.6 4.2
138 56 4.4 15.3 3.7
172 62 4.9 19.1 3.3

red 1.52 69 60 3.7 11 5.5

103 74 4.5 16.2 4.6
138 87 5.5 23.4 3.7

Table- 3.2 Effects of pressure on discharge rate and average application depth for typical orifice
control emitters with 360° patterns. Different manufacturers have different flow, diameter, and
coverage characteristics for the same color emitters. Therefore, it is important to verify the emitter
performance when replacing emitters with a different brand.

Base Pressure Area (m2) L/h M3/ha-h

33
 Blue 172 12.9 43 15.4
Green 103 11.6 49 17.5
Green 138 15.3 56 20
Green 172 19.1 62
Red 103 16.2 74 26.4
Table 3.3 Emitters with specific color coding and operating pressures meet these criteria as above.

Number of emitters
This depends upon crop spacing and the lateral length and is calculated by:
laterallength
Numberofemitters= (3.13)
Crop spacing
Width of the borders
Width ofpath=Width−[ ( n−1 ) × ( row ¿ row spacing ) ] (3.14)
Where 'n' is the number of rows
Width of the other two sides=Length−[ ( N−1 ) × ( plant ¿ plant spacing ) ] (3.15)
Where 'N' is the number of columns

Selection of pipe diameters

The following design criteria were applied in determination of pipe sizes and in selection of pipe
material.
i) A minimum flow velocity of 0.35m/s is set to avoid siltation in the pipe system.
ii) Maximum flow velocity of 2.5 m/s for UPVC and 5m/s for steel pipes.
iii) Hazen-William's formula used in determination of friction losses within pipe system, roughness
coefficient C=140 for UPVC and 125 for steel pipes.
iv) Inside pipe diameters have been used in the design.
v) Where ground is rising, larger pipe diameters are to be used to minimize friction losses and make more
head available if flow velocity is within acceptable ranges.
vi) Lateral diameters are fixed between the ranges 25-20mm.

Using the above guidelines and employing the Hazen-Williams formula for friction losses

33
determination, the pipe network for the project was designed using a MS-Excel spread-sheets.

Tools employed
Some of the tools that were incorporated during the design include:
Excel spreadsheets for the design of pipeline hydraulics.
AUTOCAD for presentation of design drawings

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the design of drip irrigation system with an example of land with area 16ha, with
trees planted at 4-meter intervals within rows and 7-meter intervals between rows. The total area,
accounting for access roads and machinery pathways, is 400 meters by 400 meters, resulting in 54 rows,
each 364 meters in length, and containing 92 trees per row.
• Gross Area=16ha
• In-row tree spacing= 4m
• Row spacing=7m
• Area=400 m x 400 m
• Number of row(n) = 54
• Number of trees in a row (N) = 92
• Wetting percentage= 40-50%
• Type of soil: Sandy soil
• Evapotranspiration= 7mm/day
• Lateral tubing sizes= 14, 19, and 25 mm.
Each tree will receive irrigation from a single micro sprinkler mounted on a stake assembly. For
maintenance and frost protection reasons, larger diameter orifices are preferred. Experience has shown
that it is most beneficial to wet between 40% to 80% of the orchard area. The trees are planted in sandy
soil, with a peak evapotranspiration requirement of 7 millimeters per day. Water is sourced from a canal
running perpendicular to the rows, with a pump station powered by a diesel engine situated approximately
3 meters above the canal. Although the land has no significant overall slope, there are some minor swales
and undulations within approximately 1 meter of the average elevation

33
To accommodate machinery and equipment, we need to calculate the width of the borders.
Using equation Number (3.14)
n is 54, row to row spacing 7 meters, Width of path is 14.5 meters.
Similarly, for the other two borders:
Using equation number (3.15)
N is 92, plant-to-plant spacing is 4 meters, Width of the other two sides to be 18 meters

33
After determining the width of the paths, we calculate the irrigation runtime:
The daily run time at 100% efficiency to meet the peak ET rate of 7 mm/day will be:
7 ha- mm / day = 70000L / ha -day = 70 m³/ha-day requirement
Unit area flow: 56 L/h x 357 trees/ha = 20.0 m³/h
Run time = 70m^3/ ha - day) requirement / 20.0 m³/ha-h flow = 3.5 h/day
21
7 hectares-millimeters/day = 70,000 Liters/hectare-day = 70 cubic meters/hectare-day.

4.1. Emitter Selection: -

Each tree is allocated a surface area of 28 square meters (equivalent to 357 trees per hectare), with
preferred emitters having wetted areas ranging from 11.2 to 22.4 square meters (corresponding to 40-80%
coverage).
Operating at higher pressures mitigates the impact of friction and elevation on the overall efficiency of the
system (table3.2). For instance, a 20 kPa friction loss in a system with an average operating pressure of
100 kPa translates to a 20% loss, whereas the same loss in a system operating at an average pressure of
175 kPa results in an 11% loss. Moreover, employing red base emitters would demand a roughly 30%
higher flow rate, thereby increasing costs associated with pump stations, mains, sub mains, and laterals.
Thus, the initial choice is to go with the green base emitters operating at 138 kPa for the orchard. These
emitters are expected to cover approximately 55% of the area allocated to each tree and adequately
address freeze protection requirements. Overall, the system needs to deliver 278.2 m³/h or 4.636 L/m² of
water to the orchard.
To meet the peak evapotranspiration rate of 7 mm/day, the daily run time at 100% efficiency is calculated.
This translates to a requirement of 70 m³/ha-day. With a unit area flow rate of 20.0 m³/h (56 L/h * 357
trees/ha), the daily run time is determined to be 3.5 hours per day.

4.2. Pressure Variation

For the parameters EU=0.90, Cvm=0.03 and n=1, the ratio of the minimum to average flow rates resulting
from pressure variation in the system is 3.2 to 3.6 equation.

qmin/qavg = 0.936
The pressure variation allowable in the system for qmin = 0.936 and x for green base emitter= 0.46 is
Pmin/Pavg = 0.866
Rearranging, Pmin=0.866×Pavg and with the average system pressure be set at 138 KPa for freeze
protection, maintenance, and wetting pattern objectives, Pmin = 0.866×138 =119.5 KPa
ΔP = 46.3 KPa
Pa = 36.5 KPa
Hfa = 3.65m
22
To minimize the costs associated with the main and sub mains, the pump station will be positioned
between the 27th and 28th rows at the planting edge. Among the layout options considered.
Option: -1
Allocate each sub-main to serve 27 rows, with each lateral catering to 46 trees in both directions.
For this configuration, the flow rate from the submain into each lateral averages 42.9 L/min (36 L/h per
tree x 46 trees). Consequently, the flow rate into each sub-main from the mainline must be 2318 L/min
(42.9 L/min per lateral x 54 laterals), totaling 4636 L/min into the mainline.
Upon scrutiny using the data from Table 15.4, it is determined that the conditions of 56 L/h emitter flow
at 4 m spacing are not explicitly listed. Interpolation from the table suggests that a maximum of 25
emitters is allowable with 18-mm tubing, maintaining a ±5% flow variation. However, considering each
row hosts 46 trees in this option, the 18-mm tubing is unsuitable.
Similarly, repeating the process for 25-mm tubing, interpolation from Table 15.5 indicates a maximum of
approximately 38 emitters allowable under the same conditions. Consequently, the 25 mm tubing is also
deemed unsatisfactory.
While larger tubing sizes, like 32-mm, may be available, their significantly higher cost per meter
(approximately 40% more than 25-mm tubing) and the necessity for more couplings due to shorter coil
lengths make them a less appealing alternative.

Pipe L(m) D(mm) D4.871 Q(L/s) Q1.852 hf(m)

Lateral 180 18 1301464.638 0.715 0.537247977jj 29.559

Lateral 180 25 6447120.422 0.715 0.537247977 5.967

Table 3.4 Calculation

23
24
Option: -2
Suggests installing four sub mains, each serving 27 laterals with 23 trees in each direction. The average
flow rate from the sub mains into each lateral is expected to be 21.5 L/min (calculated as 23 trees
multiplied by 36 L/h per tree). To achieve this, the flow rate into each sub mains from the mainline must
be 1159 L/min in each direction (computed as 21.5 L/min per lateral multiplied by 54 laterals). This
requires a total flow of 4636 L/min into the mainline. The earlier analysis indicates that 18-mm tubing
is suitable for this setup, accommodating up to 25 emitters while maintaining a 5% flow variation at
conditions of 56 L/h with a 4-m spacing between trees.

Alternatively, the flow gradient method can be utilized to determine tubing size and assess friction losses
in the lateral. In this system, the flow gradient is projected to be 36 L/h per 4 m of tubing or 14.0 L/h-m.
With laterals spanning 88 m (22 trees with 4 m spacing), consulting Fig. 15.10 indicates the closest lines
are for flow gradients of 12.4 and 18.6 L/h-m. For an 88 m length, a flow gradient of 12.4 L/h-m
corresponds to a friction loss of 2.0 m, while at 18.6 L/h-m, the loss is 4.2 m ( as circled on Fig. 15.10).
Through interpolation, the friction loss for a flow gradient of 14.0 L/h-m is estimated to be about 2.6 m or
25.5 kPa (calculated as 2.6 m multiplied by 9.81 kPa/m). Therefore, the design appears adequate, given
that the allowable pressure variation for an EU of 0.90 was computed as 36.5 kPa.
By using equation number 3.2 and 3.3, we get

25
 Pipe L(m) D(mm) D4.871 Q(L/s) Q1.852 hf(m)

Lateral 88 18 1301464.638 0.358 0.147667661 4.01

Lateral 88 25 6447120.422 0.358 0.147667661 0.81

Pipe L(m) D(mm) D4.83 Q(L/s) Q1.85 hf(m)

Manifold 189 148.3 3.066×1010 19.35 240.082 1.336

Submain 176 197.1 1.211×1011 38.63 862.602 1.11

Main 88 197.1 1.211×1011 77.27 2851.411 1.98

26
27
 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In this report design and layout of drip irrigation system consist the layout and design of 400m ×
400m field drip irrigation. The layout was prepared and discharge of laterals, submain, calculated based
on the water requirement of plant, tree spacing and hydraulic design was prepared for lateral line by using
the frictional loss, head loss.
The following conclusion are:
1. The total area is divided into the four subunits, the four unit system was found better to meet the
hydraulic requirement as well as the available water requirement.
2. The lateral size was obtained length of 88m and diameter of 18mm with the head of each lateral is
0.782m, total number is 216.
3. The submain size was obtained length of 189m and diameter of 133.5mm with the head of each submain
is 2.818m, total number is 2.
4. The main line size was obtained length of 276m and diameter of 187.6mm with the head 2.818m and
discharge is 77.26L/sec.
5. The horse power of pump is 20.45 with 70% efficiency.

28
7. REFERENCES

Batenger, M. W, and Longenbaugh, R.A. 1962. Theoretical distribution of water from a moving
impation sprinkler. Trans. ASCE, 5(1126-30)

Branocheid, Volker O. and Hart, W.E. 1968. Predicting ficid distributions of sprinkler system. Trans.
ASCE, Vol.11: 801-803,

Englehardt, 1935, Magnitude of groundwater Exploitation, economic and political weekly April 8
pp770-772

Freddie R. Lamm, James E. Ayars, Francis S. Nakayama (Editors) Microirrigation for Crop
Production, Design, Operation, and Management, Developments in Agricultural Engineering 13, pg.
592-600

Haghighi, A. Wilser, C.O. and brater, E.F.1988. friction head loss analysis in sprinkler irrigation
network. Joumal Trans. ASCE, Vol (3):113-128.

Hathoot, H.M, hussein, M. and Mohammad, F.S. 1994. Analysis and design of sprinkler irigation
lateral. Journal Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ASCE, Vol.120-534-549

Kale, R.V.: Singh, R.P. and Mahar, P.S. 2008. Optimal Design of Pressurized Irrigation Subunit.
Journal ASCE0733-94372008134:2 137 Keller, J. and Bliesner, R. 1990. Sprinkler and Trickle
irrigation, Van Nostrand Reinhold publishing house" Edition. New York.pp152- 164.

Liu, J.; Zhu, X, Yuan, S, Wan, J. And Chikangaise, P. 2018 Hydraulic performance assessment of
irrigation with rotating spray plate sprinklers in indoor experiments. Journal Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering, ASCE, ISSN 0733-9437

Mahar, P.S. and Singh, R. P.2003. Water Resource Planning and Management Subunit. Journal ASCE
29
0733-9496.

Michael. A.M. 1978. Irrigation theory and practice. Vikas publishing house Ltd. 1" Edition. New
Delhi.pp 624-662.

Zeribun and Sanchez (2017) developed hydraulic solution model fie irrigation laternals based on
standard analysis tecimisque specifically the gradient method to evaluate the model. The hydraulic
simulation model is evaluated through comparison of model outputs with field data and outpots of an
existing model

Lin et al (2018) tested different nozzles at different pressures. They studied water distribution
patterns, discharge pressure relationship, wetted arus, sprinkler rotation speed and water
application rate

30