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To Richard Troelstrup, who introduced me to psychology.

To Edwin Guthrie, who first deeply interested me in psychology.

To Steven Cole, who mentored and supported me so that

I could participate in this wonderful profession.
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Brief Contents

Preface iii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Motivation in Historical Perspective 28
Chapter 3 The Motivated and Emotional Brain 51

Part I Needs 81
Chapter 4 Physiological Needs 83
Chapter 5 Extrinsic Motivation 116
Chapter 6 Psychological Needs 152
Chapter 7 Implicit Motives 183

Part II Cognitions 211

Chapter 8 Goal Setting and Goal Striving 213
Chapter 9 Mindsets 239
Chapter 10 Personal Control Beliefs 268
Chapter 11 The Self and Its Strivings 303

Part III Emotions 335

Chapter 12 Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions 337
Chapter 13 Aspects of Emotion 369
Chapter 14 Individual Emotions 404

Part IV Applied Concerns 429

Chapter 15 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 431
Chapter 16 Unconscious Motivation 466
Chapter 17 Interventions 496
References 515
Author Index 603
Subject Index 619

vii
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Detailed Contents

Preface iii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Motivation and Emotion 2
Motivational Science 4
Two Perennial Questions 6
What Causes Behavior? 6
Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity? 7
Subject Matter 9
Internal Motives 10
External Events and Social Contexts 11
Motivation versus Influence 11
Expressions of Motivation 12
Behavior 12
Engagement 12
Psychophysiology 14
Brain Activations 14
Self-Report 15
Framework to Understand Motivation and Emotion 15
Ten Unifying Themes 16
Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning 16
Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention 17
Motivation and Emotion Are “Intervening Variables” 18
Motives Vary Over Time and Influence the Ongoing Stream of Behavior 19
Types of Motivations Exist 20
We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior 21
Motivation Study Reveals What People Want 22
To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions 23
When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Is Effective 24
There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory 25
Summary 25

Chapter 2 Motivation in Historical Perspective 28

Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts 29
Grand Theories 30
Will 30
Instinct 31
Drive 33

viii
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Detailed Contents ix

Rise of the Mini-Theories 39

Active Nature of the Person 40
Cognitive Revolution 40
Socially Relevant Questions 41
Contemporary Era 43
The 1990s Reemergence of Motivation Study 45
Brief History of Emotion Study 47
Conclusion 48
Summary 49
Readings for Further Study 50

Chapter 3 The Motivated and Emotional Brain 51

Motivation, Emotion, and Neuroscience 52
Day-to-Day Events Activate Specific Brain Structures 53
Activated Brain Structures Generate Specific Motivations and Emotions 55
Neural Basis of Motivation and Emotion 55
Cortical Brain 55
Subcortical Brain 56
Bidirectional Communication 56
Individual Brain Structures Involved in Motivation and Emotion 58
Reticular Formation 58
Amygdala 61
Basal Ganglia 63
Ventral Striatum, Nucleus Accumbens, and Ventral Tegmental Area 63
Hypothalamus 66
Insula 67
Prefrontal Cortex 69
Orbitofrontal Cortex 72
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex 73
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex 73
Anterior Cingulate Cortex 74
Hormones 74
Conclusion 76
Summary 76
Readings for Further Study 79

Part I Needs 81

Chapter 4 Physiological Needs 83

Need 85
Three Types of Needs 85
Fundamentals of Regulation 87
Physiological Need 88
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x Detailed Contents

Psychological Drive 88
Homeostasis 89
Negative Feedback 89
Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs 90
Intraorganismic Mechanisms 91
Extraorganismic Mechanisms 91
The Homeostatic Mechanism 91
Thirst 92
Physiological Regulation 92
Environmental Influences 94
Hunger 96
Short-Term Appetite 96
Long-Term Energy Balance 97
Environmental Influences 99
Self-Regulatory Influences 101
Weight Gain and Obesity 102
Comprehensive Model of Hunger 102
Sex 103
Physiological Regulation 105
Facial Metrics 107
Sexual Scripts 110
Sexual Orientation 111
Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation 112
Summary 114
Readings for Further Study 115

Chapter 5 Extrinsic Motivation 116

Quasi-Needs 119
Extrinsic Motivation 120
Incentives, Consequences, and Rewards 120
Incentives 121
Reinforcers 121
Managing Behavior by Offering Reinforcers 122
Consequences 124
Hidden Costs of Reward 130
Intrinsic Motivation 130
What Is So Great about Intrinsic Motivation? 131
Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation 133
Expected and Tangible Rewards 136
Implications 136
Benefits of Incentives, Consequences, and Rewards 137
Cognitive Evaluation Theory 139
Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events 140
Types of Extrinsic Motivation 142
External Regulation 144
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Detailed Contents xi

Introjected Regulation 145

Identified Regulation 145
Integrated Regulation 146
Internalization and Integration 146
Amotivation 146
Motivating Others to do Uninteresting Activities 147
Providing Explanatory Rationales 148
Suggesting Interest-Enhancing Strategies 148
Summary 149
Readings for Further Study 151

Chapter 6 Psychological Needs 152

Psychological Needs 153
Organismic Psychological Needs 154
Person–Environment Dialectic 155
Person–Environment Synthesis versus Conflict 156
Autonomy 158
The Conundrum of Choice 160
Supporting Autonomy 161
Benefits from Autonomy Support 165
Benefits of Giving and Receiving Autonomy Support 165
Competence 167
The Pleasure of Optimal Challenge 167
Interdependency between Challenge and Feedback 168
Optimal Challenge and Flow 168
Structure 171
Feedback 173
Failure Tolerance 174
Relatedness 174
Involving Relatedness: Interaction with Others 175
Satisfying Relatedness: Perception of a Social Bond 175
Communal and Exchange Relationships 176
Fruits of Relatedness Need Satisfaction 177
Putting It all Together: Relationships and Social Contexts that Support Psychological Need
Satisfaction 178
Engagement 178
What Makes for a Good Day? 180
Vitality 180
Summary 181
Readings for Further Study 182

Chapter 7 Implicit Motives 183

Implicit Needs 185
Acquired Needs 186
Social Needs 187
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xii Detailed Contents

How Implicit Motives, as Acquired Psychological Needs, Motivate Behavior 188

Achievement 190
Origins of the Need for Achievement 191
Atkinson’s Model 192
Achievement for the Future 194
Dynamics-of-Action Model 195
Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement 197
Affiliation 198
The Duality of Affiliation Motivation 199
Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Duality 200
Conditions That Satisfy the Affiliation Need 201
Power 202
Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power 203
Power and Goal Pursuit 205
Is the Implicit Power Motive Bad? 205
Leadership Motive Pattern 205
Four Additional Social Needs 207
Summary 207
Readings for Further Study 209

Part II Cognitions 211

Chapter 8 Goal Setting and Goal Striving 213

Cognitive Perspective on Motivation 214
Plans of Action 215
Corrective Motivation 217
Discrepancy 218
Affect and Feelings 219
Two Types of Discrepancy 219
Goal Setting 220
Goal–Performance Discrepancy 221
Difficult, Specific, and Congruent Goals Enhance Performance 222
Feedback 225
Criticisms 225
Long-Term Goal Setting 227
Goal Striving 228
Mental Simulations 229
Implementation Intentions 230
Goal Disengagement 235
Epilogue: From where do Goals Come? 236
Summary 237
Readings for Further Study 238
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Detailed Contents xiii

Chapter 9 Mindsets 239

Four Mindsets 240
Mindset 1: Deliberative–Implemental 241
Deliberative Mindset 242
Implemental Mindset 243
Downstream Consequences of the Deliberative versus Implemental Mindsets 243
Mindset 2: Promotion–Prevention 244
Promotion Mindset 244
Prevention Mindset 246
Different Definitions of Success and Failure 246
Different Goal-Striving Strategies 247
Ideal Self-Guides and Ought Self-Guides 248
Regulatory Fit Predicts Strength of Motivation and Well-Being 249
Mindset 3: Growth-Fixed 250
Fixed Mindset 250
Growth Mindset 250
Meaning of Effort 251
Origins of Fixed-Growth Mindsets 252
Different Fixed-Growth Mindsets Lead to Different Achievement Goals 254
Achievement Goals 255
Mindset 4: Cognitive Dissonance 261
Dissonance-Arousing Situations 262
Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance 264
Self-Perception Theory 265
Summary 265
Readings for Further Study 266

Chapter 10 Personal Control Beliefs 268

Motivation to Exercise Personal Control 269
Two Kinds of Expectancy 270
Perceived Control: Self, Action, and Control 271
Self-Efficacy 272
Sources of Self-Efficacy 274
Self-Efficacy Effects on Behavior 276
Self-Efficacy or the Psychological Need for Competence? 279
Empowerment 280
Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program 281
Mastery Beliefs 282
Ways of Coping 282
Mastery versus Helplessness 282
Learned Helplessness 284
Learning Helplessness 285
Application to Humans 286
Components 288
Helplessness Effects 289
Helplessness and Depression 291
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xiv Detailed Contents

Attributions and Explanatory Style 292

Pessimistic Explanatory Style 293
Optimistic Explanatory Style 294
Alternative Explanations 295
Reactance Theory 297
Reactance and Helplessness 297
Hope 298
Expectancy-Value Model 299
Summary 300
Readings for Further Study 302

Chapter 11 The Self and Its Strivings 303

The Self 304
The Problem with Self-Esteem 306
Self-Concept 308
Self-Schemas 308
Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas 309
Consistent Self 310
Self-Verification and Self-Concept Change 311
Why People Self-Verify 312
Possible Selves 313
Agency 315
Self as Action and Development from Within 315
Self-Concordance 317
Personal Strivings 319
Self-Regulation 321
Self-Regulation: Forethought through Reflection 322
Developing More Competent Self-Regulation 323
Self-Control 324
Is the Capacity to Exert Self-Control Beneficial to a Successful Life? 329
Identity 329
Roles 329
Identity-Establishing Behaviors 330
Identity-Confirming Behaviors 330
Identity-Restoring Behaviors 331
What is the Self? 331
Summary 332
Readings for Further Study 333

Part III Emotions 335

Chapter 12 Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions 337

Six Perennial Questions 339
What is an Emotion? 339
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Definition 340
Relation between Emotion and Motivation 343
What Causes an Emotion? 344
Two-Systems View 344
Chicken-and-Egg Problem 345
What Ends an Emotion? 346
How Many Emotions Are There? 347
Biological Perspective 347
Cognitive Perspective 349
Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue 350
What Good Are the Emotions? 352
Coping Functions 353
Social Functions 354
Why We Have Emotions 356
Can We Control Our Emotions? 357
Emotion Regulation Strategies 358
What is the Difference between Emotion and Mood? 361
Everyday Mood 361
Positive Affect 364
Summary 366
Readings for Further Study 368

Chapter 13 Aspects of Emotion 369

Biological Aspects of Emotion 370
James–Lange Theory 371
Contemporary Perspective 372
Brain Activity Activates Individual Emotions 374
Facial Feedback Hypothesis 375
Cognitive Aspects of Emotion 382
Appraisal 382
Complex Appraisal 385
Appraisal as a Process 387
Emotion Differentiation 388
Emotion Knowledge 390
Attributions 391
Emotions Affect Cognition 395
Social Aspects of Emotion 395
Social Interaction 395
Social Sharing of Emotion 396
Cultural Construction of Emotion 398
Summary 401
Readings for Further Study 402

Chapter 14 Individual Emotions 404

Basic Emotions 406
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xvi Detailed Contents

Fear 406
Anger 407
Disgust 408
Contempt 410
Sadness 410
Joy 411
Interest 412
Self-Conscious Emotions 414
Shame 414
Guilt 415
Embarrassment 416
Pride 417
Triumph 418
Interrelations among Shame, Guilt, Pride, and Hubris 418
Cognitively Complex Emotions 418
Envy 418
Gratitude 420
Disappointment and Regret 422
Hope 423
Schadenfreude 423
Empathy 423
Compassion 426
Summary 426
Readings for Further Study 427

Part IV Applied Concerns 429

Chapter 15 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 431

Holism and Positive Psychology 433
Holism 434
Positive Psychology 434
Self-Actualization 435
Hierarchy of Human Needs 435
Encouraging Growth 437
Actualizing Tendency 439
Organismic Valuing Process 439
Emergence of the Self 440
Conditions of Worth 441
Conditional Regard as a Socialization Strategy 443
Fully Functioning Individual 445
Humanistic Motivational Phenomena 445
Causality Orientations 445
Growth-Seeking versus Validation Seeking 447
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Detailed Contents xvii

Relationships 448
Freedom to Learn 450
Self-Definition and Social Definition 451
Problem of Evil 451
Positive Psychology 453
Happiness and Well-Being 454
Eudaimonic Well-Being 456
Optimism 457
Meaning 458
Positivity 459
Interventions 461
Criticisms 462
Summary 463
Readings for Further Study 464

Chapter 16 Unconscious Motivation 466

Psychodynamic Perspective 467
Psychoanalytic Becomes Psychodynamic 468
Dual-Instinct Theory 470
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory 471
The Unconscious 472
Freudian Unconscious 473
Adaptive Unconscious 474
Implicit Motivation 476
Priming 477
Psychodynamics 479
Repression 479
Suppression 480
Do the Id and Ego Actually Exist? 482
Ego Psychology 482
Ego Development 483
Ego Defense 484
Ego Effectance 487
Object Relations Theory 488
Criticisms 492
Summary 493
Readings for Further Study 495

Chapter 17 Interventions 496

Applying Principles of Motivation and Emotion 497
Explaining Motivation and Emotion 497
Predicting Motivation and Emotion 498
Solving Motivational and Emotional Problems 498
Practice Problems 499
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xviii Detailed Contents

Four State-of-the-Art Interventions 501

Intervention 1: Supporting Psychological Need Satisfaction 501
Intervention 2: Increasing a Growth Mindset 504
Intervention 3: Promoting Emotion Knowledge 507
Intervention 4: Cultivating Compassion 510
Wisdom Gained from a Scientific Study of Motivation and Emotion 513
References 515
Author Index 603
Subject Index 619
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Chapter 1

Introduction
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
MOTIVATIONAL SCIENCE
TWO PERENNIAL QUESTIONS
What Causes Behavior?
Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity?

SUBJECT MATTER
Internal Motives
External Events and Social Contexts
Motivation versus Influence

EXPRESSIONS OF MOTIVATION
Behavior
Engagement
Psychophysiology
Brain Activations
Self-Report

FRAMEWORK TO UNDERSTAND MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

TEN UNIFYING THEMES
Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning
Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention
Motivation and Emotion Are “Intervening Variables”
Motives Vary Over Time and Influence the Ongoing Stream of Behavior
Types of Motivations Exist
We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior
Motivation Study Reveals What People Want
To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions
When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Is Effective
There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory

SUMMARY

1
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2 Chapter 1 Introduction

E very morning on my way to work, I walk by the same beautiful tree. Some of these
mornings are bitterly cold. On these winter days, I realize that I can do something that the
tree cannot. I can move. I can walk inside a building, put on a coat, or bring along a cup of
hot coffee. The tree, however, just stands there day after day. So, I worry about that tree. I
worry because the tree cannot take action and do what is necessary to protect itself—from
the cold, from a chainsaw, and from bark-eating beetles. My desire to move is an incredible
asset, and this asset is the theme of the present book. Indeed, the words motivation, emotion,
and motive are all derived from the Latin verb movere, which means “to move.” This book is
about all the forces that generate and sustain movere. It is a story about how the motivational
and emotional assets we all possess help us move forward toward optimal functioning and
greater well-being.

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

What is motivation? What is emotion? One reason to read this book is, of course, to find
answers to these questions. But as a way of beginning the journey, pause for a moment and
generate your own answers to these two questions, however preliminary, however tenta-
tive, however personal and private. Perhaps scribble your definitions on a notepad or in the
margins of this book.
Any effort to define motivation and emotion begins with the choice of a noun inserted
into the following two blank spaces: “Motivation is a___.” and “Emotion is a___.” Figuring
out what needs to be inserted into those two blank lines is a fruitful activity.
Are motivation and emotion desires? Are they feelings? or ways of thinking? urges?
impulses? strivings? processes, or a set of processes? needs, or a collection of needs? Are
they temporary states that rise and fall in a matter of minutes, or are they enduring traits
that last a lifetime? On page 9, the text offers a definition with which almost everyone
who studies motivation would agree (see “Subject Matter” section). On page 10, the text
offers a consensual definition of emotion (see “Internal Motives” section). As you progress
through the pages of this book, you will find that your definitions will grow in clarity and
sophistication. With ever-growing clarity and with deeper understanding, you will become
increasingly able to understand motivational and emotional phenomena and explain how
and why they work. You will also become increasingly able to support and enhance moti-
vational strivings in yourself and in others. As the title of the book implies, the journey over
the next 600 pages is to understand motivation and emotion—and to do so in a way that is
clear, sophisticated, and practical.
But the journey can be a long one. So, before taking those first steps, pause for a
moment and ask yourself why someone might want to take this journey of understanding in
the first place. Why read these pages? Why ask questions in class? Why go online to read
motivation- and emotion-related articles? Why stay up until 2:00 in the morning pondering
questions of human motivation? Consider two reasons.
First, learning about motivation and emotion is a very interesting thing to do. Few
topics spark and entertain the imagination so well. Anything that tells us about who we are,
why we want what we want, and how we can improve our lives is going to be interesting.
And anything that tells us about what other people want, why they want what they want,
and how we can improve their lives is going to be interesting. When trying to explain why
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Motivation and Emotion 3

people want what they want and why people do what they do, we can turn to theories of
motivation to learn about topics such as human nature, strivings for achievement and power,
desires for biological sex and for psychological intimacy, and emotions like fear and anger.
These theories explain how to cultivate talent and creativity, develop interests and grow
competencies, and they help us set goals and make plans.
Second, learning about motivation and emotion is an important and valuable thing to
do. Learning about motivation and emotion can be an extremely practical and worthwhile
undertaking. It can be quite useful to know where motivation comes from, why it sometimes
changes and why other times it does not, under what conditions motivation increases or
decreases, what aspects of motivation can and cannot be changed, and whether some types
of motivation are more beneficial than are other types. Knowing such things, we can apply
our knowledge to situations such as trying to motivate employees, coach athletes, counsel
clients, raise children, engage students, or change our own ways of thinking, feeling, and
behaving. Understanding motivation and emotion offers a reliable pathway to gain valued
outcomes, such as trying to attain expertise, perform better, find meaning, and increase
our sense of happiness and personal growth. To the extent that a study of motivation and
emotion can tell us how we can improve our lives and the lives of others, the journey will
be time well spent.
Studying motivation and emotion is an opportunity to gain both theoretical understand-
ing and practical know-how. As a case in point, consider exercise. Think about it for a
moment: Why would anyone want to exercise? Can you explain this? Can you explain
where the motivation to exercise comes from? Do you understand why people might be
more willing to exercise under some conditions yet less willing to do so under other con-
ditions? Can you explain why one person might be more willing to exercise than another?
Can you explain why the same person sometimes wants to exercise but other times does not
want to exercise? Can you offer any constructive suggestions to increase people’s motiva-
tion to exercise? If someone hated to exercise, could you intervene in such a way that he or
she would truly want to exercise?
And we need to consider not only the motivation to exercise but also the motivation not
to exercise. What if exercising makes us feel anxious or stressed? What if exercise makes us
feel incompetent and embarrassed? What if we feel tired, or what if we just do not feel like
putting forth all that effort? What if time spent exercising takes us away from other things
we like to do, such as watching television, reading a book, or logging on to Facebook?
And there are of course many different ways to exercise, assuming that one actually has
sufficient motivation to do so. So, we need to ask: Why run laps around a track? Why jump
up and down during an aerobics class? Why climb stairs on a machine that does not really
go anywhere? Or, why do we sometimes pass by the elevator or escalator to walk up 10
flights of stairs? Or, why do we always take the elevator or escalator, rather than the stairs?
Why walk briskly in the park, or swim laps in a pool? Why run when you know your lungs
will collapse for want of air? Why jump and stretch when you know your muscles will rip
and tear? Why take an hour out of the day when you just do not feel like it or when your
schedule simply will not allow it? Why muster together all the energy and effort you will
need to overcome the sheer inertia of inactivity? Why exercise when life offers so many
other interesting things to do? Why indeed.
These questions ask about exercise, but they could just as easily be about the motivation
underlying any activity. If you play the piano, why do you do so? If you are fluent in a
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4 Chapter 1 Introduction

second language, why did you go through all the effort to learn that foreign language?
If you spent the afternoon working hard to learn something new or to develop a talent,
then why?

MOTIVATIONAL SCIENCE
Thirteen different motivation-based reasons to exercise appear in Table 1.1. Who is to say
which of these reasons are valid and which other reasons are erroneous? In answering a
question such as, Why exercise?, a person can rely on personal experience and intuition to
generate an answer. This is a fine starting point, but the study of motivation and emotion is a
behavioral science. The term science signals that answers to motivational questions require
objective, data-based, empirical evidence gained from well-conducted and peer-reviewed

Table 1.1 Thirteen Different Motivational Reasons to Exercise

Why Exercise? Source of Motivation Illustration

Fun, enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Children exercise spontaneously—they run
and jump and chase, and they do so simply
for the sheer fun of it.
Personal challenge Flow Athletes get “in the zone” when their sport
optimally challenges their skills.
Forced to do so External regulation Athletes exercise because their coach tells
them to do so.
Accomplish a goal Goal Runners see if they can run a mile in six
minutes or less.
Health benefits Value People exercise to lose weight or to strengthen
the heart.
Inspired to do so Possible self People watch others exercise and become
inspired to do the same.
Pursuit of a standard Achievement strivings Snow skiers race to the bottom of the
of excellence mountain trying to beat their previous best
time.
Satisfaction from a job Perceived competence As exercisers make progress, they feel more
well done competent, more effective.
An emotional kick Opponent process Vigorous jogging can produce a runner’s high
(a euphoric rebound to the pain).
Good mood Positive affect Beautiful weather can induce a good mood
such that people exercise spontaneously, as
they skip along without even knowing why.
Alleviate guilt Introjection People exercise because they think that is what
they should, ought to, or have to do to
please others or to relieve their own sense of
internalized shame or guilt.
Relieve stress, silence, Personal control After a stressful day, people go to the gym,
depression which they see as a structured and
controllable environment.
Hang out with friends Relatedness Exercise is often a social event, a time to enjoy
hanging out with friends.
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Motivational Science 5

research findings. Motivational science does not accept quotes from famous basketball
coaches as definitive answers, however inspirational and attention-getting those quotes may
be. Instead, research on motivation and emotion seeks to construct theories about how moti-
vational processes work. It is from these theories of motivation and emotion that hypotheses
can be generated to be put to objective empirical test so as to assess their scientific merit.
The ongoing processes of putting one’s ideas about motivation to empirical test is a crucial
process to realizing the title of this book (i.e., Understanding Motivation and Emotion),
because the motivational concepts one uses need to be chosen carefully, and they need to
be continually evaluated against new findings. Inadequate concepts are best tossed aside,
useful concepts need to be improved upon, and new explanatory concepts need to be dis-
covered.
A theory is an intellectual framework that organizes a vast amount of knowledge about
a phenomenon so that the phenomenon can be better understood and explained (Fiske,
2004). The study of motivation and emotion exists to answer the Why? questions of behav-
ior, thought, and feeling, such as, Why did she do that? and Why does she feel and think
that way? Motivational theories therefore exist as answers to these sorts of questions, as in
The reason why she did that was because _____. To quote Bernard and Lac (2013, p. 574):
without an answer to why, we are left only with the description of behavior, and description
without explanation is ultimately unsatisfying.

To understand the nature of something such as achievement motivation and to explain

how it works, a theory of achievement motivation needs to do two things. First, it needs
to identify the relations that exist among naturally occurring, observable phenomena. For
instance, a theory needs to identify what causes the phenomenon and also what the phe-
nomenon itself causes. A theory of achievement motivation, for instance, will identify
variables such as optimal challenge, independent work, and rapid performance feedback
as the naturally occurring causes for achievement strivings, and it will identify variables
such as effort, persistence, and hope as its naturally occurring consequences. Second, it
needs to explain why those relations exist. For instance, why does a challenge (e.g., Here,
see if you can do this.) lead some people to experience hope and to exert greater effort while
it leads other people to experience only anxiety and to withhold effort? If you can identify
the antecedents and consequences to a motivational or an emotional phenomenon, then
your understanding will be clearer, more sophisticated, and more helpful. You will be well
positioned (well informed) when it comes time to improve your life or the life of a loved one.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the function and utility of a good theory (Trope, 2004). A theory
cuts through the complexity and noise of reality to represent how a phenomenon generally
works (“Representation” in Figure 1.1). How a theorist conceptualizes the phenomenon
may or may not be correct or complete. So, researchers use the theory to generate testable
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a prediction about what should happen if the theory is correct.
For instance, one hypothesis about achievement motivation might be that people with
challenging jobs with rapid performance feedback (e.g., entrepreneurs) should experience
greater and more frequent achievement strivings at work than do people who have
service-oriented jobs (e.g., nursing; Jenkins, 1987). With a hypothesis in hand, a research
study is carried out to collect the data necessary to evaluate the accuracy of the hypothesis.
If the findings support the theory’s hypothesis, researchers then gain confidence in the
validity of the theory; if the findings fail to support the theory, researchers then lose
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
escondida,
la causa no sufre poder
publicarse,
ni para decirse ni para callarse
ni entrada se halla, ni tiene
salida.
Mudar ni oluidar ya no es en
mi mano,
ni puede quererse ni puedo
querello,
porque el menor daño está en
padezello
y en mí lo doliente es mejor
que lo sano;
es grande el dolor, mas es tan
ufano
que veo perderse mi vida de
claro,
si más no perdiesse no es
mucho ni caro
que cierto en perdella
perdiendo la gano.
El fuego que dentro del
alma m'abrasa
su pena es tan graue que no
sé dezilla,
querria viuir por solo sofrilla
mas este querer la muerte me
acusa;
conoze en mis males que no
se m'escusa,
pues toda la causa está en mi
desseo,
más mal no pudiera hacerme
Perseo
aunque me mostrara la faz de
Medusa.
 (Habla contra el amor.)
Contentate agora, amor
engañoso,
pues todos tus fuegos con
tanto furor
encienden y abrasan de vn
pobre pastor
sus tristes entrañas, sin dalle
reposo:
bien te podrás llamar vitorioso
venciendo vn vencido que
quiso vencerse
de quien imposible le fue
defenderse
ni tú si le viesses serias
poderoso.
Esfuerça tus fuerças en mí
pobrecillo,
enciende con ellas mi fuego
mortal,
que quanto más creces la
pena en mi mal
la causa me hace contento
sofrillo;
empleas tus flechas en vn
pastorcillo
rustico, solo de bien y de
abrigo,
que no podrán tanto tus
mañas comigo
que desto m'apartes, ni menos
dezillo.

(Habla con su soledad.)

 Venid soledad, leal
compañia,
que solo con vos me hallo
contento,
con vos gozo más de mi
pensamiento
que nunca se parte de mi
fantasia,
vos no me dexais, dexóme
alegria,
plazer ni esperança en quien
ya no espero,
reposo, descanso, tampoco
los quiero
ni nada de quanto primero
tenia.

(Habla al ganado.)
O triste ganado qu'estás sin
señor
a solas paciendo, pues solo te
dexo,
quexarte has de mí, tambien
yo me quexo
del mal que sin culpa me haz'
el amor.
No plangas perder tan triste
pastor
de quien no esperabas ya
buena pastura,
pues él ya no espera sino
desuentura,
dexalo a solas passar su dolor.
E vos mi çurron, e vos mi
rabel
que soys el descanso que
traygo comigo,
pues veys que me veo quedar
sin abrigo,
razon es que quede sin vos e
sin él;
n'os duela partir agora d'aquel
que hasta el morir aun dél se
desdeña,
e vos mi cuchar e vos mi
barreña
andayos con dios, partios
tambien dél.
A solas quedad comigo,
cayado,
pues todo lo dexo y pasar no
me dexa,
al menos con vos del mal que
m'aquexa
podré sostenerme estando
cansado;
dexé mi çurron, rabel e
ganado,
la yesca, eslabon, barreña,
cuchar,
dexé mis plazeres, mas no mi
pesar
e menos a vos tampoco he
dexado.
Agora reposo que solo me
veo,
agora descanso en medio mis
males,
o lagrimas mias, o ansias
mortales,
o tristes sospiros con quien yo
peleo;
la vida aborrezco, la muerte no
veo,
que aun essa me niega su
triste venir,
e trueca el matarme con
darme el viuir
por no complazer mi triste
desseo.
O más aborrido pastor sin
ventura
de quantos oy viuen en toda la
tierra,
nin todo lo llano, nin toda la
sierra
nin todos los bosques, ni otra
espesura;
quien t'a de sanar, tu muerte
procura,
no tienes reparo, ni tienes
abrigo,
ni tienes pariente, ni tienes
amigo,
si mueres te falta tambien
sepultura.
Agora estaras, Torino,
contento
que tú de tu mano te diste
herida
que basta quitarte mill vezes la
vida
sola la causa de tu
pensamiento,
medido do llega su
merecimiento
vista tu suerte quedar tan
atrás
que quieres tu pena y no
quieres más
y no te consienten sofrir tu
tormento.
¿Dónde toviste, Torino, el
sentido,
cómo podiste tan presto
perdello?
¿que vees tu mal, no pues no
querello?
si quexas, tus quexas no eres
oydo,
consientes tu mal e no eres
creydo.
Mejor te seria del todo morir
que verte penando muriendo
seruir
do solo es tu pago tenerte
aborrido.
Oido yo a huego quexuras
tamañas
como este pastor descubre
que siente,
yo nunca vi en otro qu'estando
doliente
dixese que s'arden en él sus
entrañas;
yo creo que tiene heridas
extrañas
que quieren del todo con
yerua matallo,
quiero buscar quien venga a
curallo
si puedo hallarlo por estas
cabañas.
Quiça l'a mordido perro
dañado
o qualq'animal o lobo rabioso
pues da tales buelcos, no
tiene reposo
y esta delos ojos ciego
turbado;
no vee do dexa çurron ni
cayado,
vertida la yesca, quebrado el
rabel,
o es el demoño que anda con
él
o qualque desastre que tiene
el ganado.
O si con su amo quiça si ha
reñido
si quiere lleualle qualque
meçada,
mas él no haria por poca
soldada
estandose a solas tamaño
roydo;
miafe que pienso que no es so
mordido,
c'aquellos solloços no son de
buen rancho,
quiero traballe del pie con el
gancho,
quiça si lo sueña estando
adormido.

(Habla el mismo Guillardo

admirandose
porque no le sintio trauando
del.)
O dolo a dios y
cómo no siente?
mayor es que sueño
este su mal,
 alli me pareze que
viene Quiral
que le es gran amigo
y aun cabo pariente,
quiero llamallo, zagal
es valiente,
oyes, Quiral, allegate
acá.
Q. Miafe, Guillardo,
yo ya me yua allá
que bien ha buen rato
que lo tengo en miente.
G. Pues yo te he
llamado por fazer tu ruego
que vengas a ver tu
amigo Torino,
que aqui le he
hallado tan fuera de tino
que dize que s'arde
en brasas de fuego.
Q. Quiça habra
perdido o choto o borrego
y está maldiziendo la
res que lo cria.
G. No es esse el mal,
Quiral, que dezia,
mayor es el daño de
qu'él está ciego.
Yo me he
quillotrado tan junto con él
que de las manos le
quité el cayado,
ni él me sintio ni mira
al ganado,
ni cura si andan los
lobos en él;
 acá está el çurron,
allá está el rabel,
y el no son sospiros y
ahuncos de muerte
diziendo y quexando
su mal qu'es tan fuerte
que passa los otros
de pena cruel.
Y aun tengo
sospecha quiça qu'está
enfermo
según l'he sentido tan
gran comezon,
que deue tomalle
qualque torozon
d'andar passeando
de noche este yermo.
Q. Miafe, pues vamos
a vello, Guillermo,
pues sabes la via, da
tú camino.
G. Helo aqui está
debaxo este pino.
Q. Duermes, Torino?
T. ¿Que qués, que
no duermo?
Q. Pues saluete Dios.
T. Vengais
norabuena.
Q. Qué sientes,
Torino, que gimes tan fuerte?
T. Siento, pastores, el
mal de la muerte
y essa no llega por
darme mas pena;
passion me combate,
razon me condena,
 dolor me fatiga,
tristeça me aquexa,
querria sanar, querer
no me dexa,
los males son mios,
la causa es agena.
Q. Yo creo que tienes
esprito malino,
per signum crucis a
dios recomiendo,
ni sé lo que dizes ni
menos t'entiendo,
harasme dezir que
hablas con vino.
Retorna, retorna,
retorna, Torino,
razona con tiento,
con seso y de vero,
peor seras tú que
Juan Citolero
con sus patrañuelas
que s'anda contino.
T. No te marauilles
m'abraso en inuierno
y enmedio el verano
perezco de frio,
no he visto otro mal
assi como el mio
y assi le juzgo de
todos moderno.
Q. Date, Torino, date
gobierno,
si aqui no estás sano
muda majada.
T. Primero, Quiral,
por medio el yjada
 mi mal reuiente y se
vaya al infierno.
Q. ¿Qué mal puede
ser tan crudo que sientas
lo mucho que duele y
callas tu fatiga?
¿es mal dellonbrigo o
dolor de barriga
que dices el daño y la
causa no cuentas?
Veo en ti dolor que
revientas,
¿es mal de costado
que a todos avança?[287]
T. No es esse, Quiral,
es poca esperança,
qu'es muy mas cruel
que cuanto me mientas.
Q. ¿De qué
desesperas? ¿has algo sembrado
que piensas perdello
o quiça que no naça,
o has miedo que falte
lugar donde paça
en estos exidos tu
poco ganado?
T. No es este, pastor,
mi graue cuydado,
mas verme penado e
de muerte herido
de mano de quien me
tiene aborrido
y assi desespero de
ser remediado.
Q. Ahotas que pienso
que tu mal oteo
 e dudo que creo
qu'es mal d'amorio,
dalo al demoño tan
gran desuario
que mata la vida su
solo desseo.
T. Mayor es el daño,
Quiral, que posseo
qu'en todos los males
que sufro e consiento
fallece esperaba e
crece tormento
y en todos los medios
remedio no veo.
Q. Do yo al demoño
la hembra maldita
que mata un zagal
assi de passion.
T. Calla, Quiral, por
Dios tal razon
que solo en oyllo la
vida me quita,
que no es quél tú
dizes mas antes bendita
segun las virtudes
que caben en ella.
Q. ¿Pues cómo la
alabas y quexaste della?
Dime quien es, quiça
si es Benita.
La nieta d'aquel
que hu mayoral
de todos los hatos
d'aquesta dehesa
y hija d'aquel que con
justa empresa
 teniendo justicia
perdió tribunal,
y aun hija d'aquella
que dizen qu'es tal
qu'en todas las otras
que viuen agora
ninguna se halla tan
noble señora
que sea con ella en
nobleça ygual.
Pues si esta que
digo tanto es hermosa
que basta alegrarte
con su fermosura
e basta a dar vida a
qualquer criatura
e mas como dizes
qu'es tan virtuosa,
pues date reposo,
reposa, reposa,
si assi como dizes
tan fuerte la quieres,
siendo ella tal, dime
porqué mueres,
siendo tu llaga en si
gloriosa?
T. Yo no sé dezir el
mal de que muero
ni tú lo sabrias
podiendo sentillo,
yo sélo sentir mas no
sé dezillo,
ni sé lo que pido ni sé
lo que quiero,
socuños termeños, te
digo de vero
 que tiene quien vella
d'amor me condena,
tornando a miralla me
crece más pena
que dexame siempre
más mal que primero.
Q. Plazer me daria si
yo de ti fuesse.
T. Dolo al demoño,
Quiral, tu consejo,
diran que vi en ella
algun aparejo
por do mi esperança
esperança tuuiesse,
y aun más me diria
quien tal en mi viesse
que ando perdido sin
seso y sin tiento
pues saben qu'es
tanto su merecimiento,
qu'es poco mi mal si
dél yo muriesse.
Q. Miafe, pues
quedate con tu dolor
pues tú te lo quieres
y quexas tu mal.
T. Querria una cosa
tan solo, Quiral,
que fuese tan grande
qual es e mayor
con que Benita
mostrasse color,
qu'es ella contenta
que yo lo sufriesse;
si esto, Quiral, Benita
hiziesse
 jamas pediria más
bien ni favor.
G. Di que t'a dicho
por tu fe, Quiral,
¿qué dolor siente que
assi lo apollina?
¿Tienes tú huzia que
haura melecina
o asmo que pienso
qu'es gota coral?
Q. Miafe, Guillardo,
su mal es un mal
c'allá do se sienta por
mal de pecados
harto mal año y pro
malos hados
tien el pastor que se
pone en lo tal.
G. ¿Qué mal puede
ser c'así percudia
y assi lo ahuncava
con tanto cariño
que daua chillidos
assi como un niño
que no parecia so
que se moria?
Q. Un mal es,
Guillardo, de tanta porfia
qu'es bien de plañir
aquel q'el acude.
G. Dolo al demoño y
tan fuerte percude
que no da reposo ni
noche ni dia.
Q. Un mal es que
s'entra por medio los ojos
 e vase derecho hasta
el corazon,
alli en ser llegado se
torna afficion
e da mil pesares,
plazeres y enojos,
causa alegrías,
tristeças, antojos,
haze llorar y haze
reyr,
haze cantar y haze
plañir,
da pensamientos dos
mill a manojos.
G. ¿Es biuora o qué
o es alacran
o es escorpion, o es
basilisco,
que yo oy dezir aquí
en nuestro aprisco
que a todos los mata
los qu'á velle van?
Q. Amor es,
Guillardo, que da mas afan
de pena crecida y
ansiosas fatigas.
G. Daldo al demoño,
hartaldo de migas,
dalde cuajada e
queso y aun pan.
Si fruta quisiere dalde
castañas,
dalde mançanas,
vellotas, piñones.
Q. No come Guillardo
sino corazones
 y higados viuos y
viuas entrañas.
G. Echaldo de fuera
de vuestras cabañas
a ese demoño
gusano cruel.
Q. Miafe, no valen
sañas con él
ni valen razones ni
fuerças ni mañas.
G. ¿Pues cómo se
sana quillotro tan fuerte?
dalde triaça, yo la
traygo en mi esquero.
Q. No es buena,
modorro, que si es verdadero
no tiene salud jamas
sin la muerte.
G. Pues si ese diabro
es mal dessa suerte,
segun que yo veo
morir so Torino.
Q. Morir si me dizes,
ya muere el mezquino,
¿no vees que su vida
en morir se convierte?
G. O dome a dios y a
san Berrion,
si vello pudiesse,
Dios me confonda
si no le matasse con
esta mi honda
porque él no matasse
assi esse garçon.
Q. Calla, bestiazo,
que no anda en vision
 para que puedas assi
dalle empacho.
G. O dolo al fuego,
¿es hembra o es macho,
o es duen de casa o
qualque abejon?
Q. Es cosa que nace
de la fantasia,
y ponese enmedio
dela voluntad,
su causa primera
produze beldad,
la vista la engendra el
corazon la cria,
sostienela viua
penosa porfia,
dale salud dudosa
esperança,
si tal es qual deue no
haze mudança,
ni alli donde está
nunca entra alegria.
G. O yo no t'entiendo
o no sé que s'es,
ni es esso ni essotro,
ni es cosa ni al,
tú dizes qu'es bien, tú
dizes qu'es mal,
no es bestia, ni es
ave, ni pece, ni es res,
no está del derecho
ni está del enues,
no dexa viuir, ni mata
tampoco,
no es gusarapa, no
es cuerdo ni loco;
 pues yo te prometo
que a la fin algo es.
Mas helo aqui
torna Torino turbado,
con su mortalera de
rabia o cordojo,
quiero pedille si es
fiebre o enojo
y hazer que lo diga
por fuerça o de grado.
Dime, Torino, qué mal
t'a tomado
que assina te trae
desaborrecido,
ca este demoño
jamas l'entendido
mill desbariones
c'aquí m'a contado.
T. Guillardo,
Guillardo, mi mal es c'adoro
d'amor a Benita
porqu'es mi señora,
mi vida la quiere, mi
alma l'adora
y ella me trata peor
que a un moro.
G. O dom'a dios e
agora lo yñoro,
esso que dizes
querencia se llama,
quando un zagal dize
que ama,
yo ya lo sabia, miafe,
de coro.
Tú andas, Quiral,
chuchurreando
 con chichorrerias en
chicharramanchas,
en prietas, en
blancas, en cortas y en
anchas,
y no me quillotras lo
que te demando,
¿qué te calle andar
quillotrando
del mal que a Torino
le daua porfia?
que aunque no lo sé
yo ya lo sabia
qu'es una locura que
s'anda burlando.
Y di, tú, Torino,
qu'eres sabiondo
¿assi te percossas
por una zagala?
haue verguença de ti
noramala,
no digan que eres
algun berriondo.
T. Guillardo,
Guillardo, mi mal es tan hondo
que no puedo ya ni
quiero valerme,
si hallo remedio con
que defenderme
aquel es el mismo
con que me confondo.
G. Pues hela aqui
viene, laque assi te mata,
con otra zagala que
se anda tras ella,
levanta, Torino, e
vamos a ella