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PREFACE vii
CLUSTER 3 • THE SELF, SOCIAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 87
Guidelines appear throughout each cluster, providing concrete

G UI DE L I NE S
Helping Children of Divorce applications of theories or principles discussed. See, for example,
Take note of any sudden changes in behavior that might 3. The student may be angry with his or her parents, but may pages 87, 202, 323.
indicate problems at home. direct the anger at teachers. Don’t take the student’s anger CLUSTER 9 • COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES 365
Examples personally.
1. Be alert to physical symptoms such as repeated headaches
Find out what resources are available at your school.
or stomach pains, rapid weight gain or loss, fatigue, or
excess energy. Examples
1. Talk to the school psychologist, guidance counselor, social
GUID ELINES
2. Be aware of signs of emotional distress such as Family and Community Partnerships
moodiness, temper tantrums, or difficulty in paying worker, or principal about students who seem to need
attention or concentrating. outside help.
3. Let parents know about the students’ signs of stress. 2. Consider establishing a discussion group, led by a trained Promoting Transfer
adult, for students whose parents are going through a
Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum 3. Suggest that students work with grandparents to do a
Talk individually to students about their attitude or behavior divorce.
so they can support learning. family memory book. Combine historical research and
changes. This gives you a chance to find out about unusual
Be sensitive to both parents’ rights to information. Examples writing.
stress such as divorce.
Examples 1. At the beginning of units or major projects, send a letter
Examples
67
CLUSTER 2 • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT summarizing the key goals, a few of the major assign- Show connections between learning in school and life
9 | COMPLEX
1. Be a good listener. Students may have no other adult 1. When parents have joint custody, both are entitled outside school.
to receive information and attend parent–teacher ments, and some common problems students have in
willing to hear their concerns. Examples
conferences. learning the material for that unit.
2. Let students know you are available to talk, and let the
CLUSTER FIGURE 6.1 2. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child’s inter- 1. Ask families to talk about and show how they use the
student set the agenda. 2. The noncustodial parent may still be concerned about the
ests could be connected to the curriculum topics. skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or
child’s school progress. Check with your principal about
3. Invite parents to school for an evening of “strategy learn- community involvement projects.
Watch your language to make sure BRANDON’S
you avoid stereotypes
PLAY PLANS state laws regarding the noncustodial parent’s rights.
ing.” Have the students teach their family members one of 2. Ask family members to come to class to demonstrate how
COGNITIVE
about “happy” (two-parent) homes.
At the beginning of age three, Brandon’s play plans show that Behe wants
aware of to go to the
long-term art center.
problems for students moving the strategies they have learned in school. they use reading, writing, science, math, or other knowl-
Examples
edge in their work.
1.BySimply
the end
say of agefamilies”
“your four, Brandon
insteadplans to pretend
of “your mothersto be a king.
and He is beginning
between to use sounds in
two households.
Give families ideas for how they might encourage their
writing.
fathers” when addressing the class. Examples
children to practice, extend, or apply learning from school. Make families partners in practicing learning strategies.
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships sections offer specific
2. Avoid statements such as “We need volunteers for room
mother” or “Your father can help you.”
1. Books, assignments, and gym clothes may be left at one
parent’s house when the student is currently on visitation Examples Examples CLUSTER 2 • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
1. Focus on one learning strategy at a time. Ask families to
67
with the other parent. 1. To extend writing, ask parents to encourage their children
PROCESSES
guidelines for involving all families in their children’s learning—
Help students maintain self-esteem. 2. Parents may not show up for their turn to pick up their to write letters or e-mails to companies or civic organiza-
tions asking for information or free products. Provide a shell
simply remind their children to use a particular strategy
with homework
FIGURE 6.1 that week.
Examples child at school or may miss a parent–teacher conference
letter form for structure and ideas, and include addresses of 2. Develop a lending library of books and videotapes to
especially relevant now, when demand for parental involvement is at an
1. Recognize a job well done. because the note never got home.
companies that provide free samples or information.
BRANDON’S
teach families about learning strategies.
3. Give parents PLANS
PLAY
2. Make sure the student understands the assignment and
2. Ask family members to include their children in some a copy of the Guidelines: Becoming an
all-time high and the need for cooperation between home and school is
can handle the workload. This is not the time to pile on
new and very difficult work.
For ideas about helping children understand divorce, see
muextension.missouri.edu/xplor/hesguide/humanrel/gh6600.htm
projects that require measurement,
At the beginning
recipes, or estimating Bycosts.
halving or doubling
of age Expert
three, Brandon’s play Student
plans show on page
that 340, rewritten
he wants to go toforthe
your
artgrade level.
center.
the end of age four, Brandon plans to pretend to be a king. He is beginning to use sounds in
critical. See, for example, pages 49, 203, 365. writing.
End of age four
PEER CULTURES. At any age, students who have a set of “rules”—how to dress, talk, style their
hair, and interact with others—are called peer cultures. The group determines which activities, and practice being aware of when and how they are using it. In the retention phase, more practice
music, or other students are in or out of favor. For example, when Jessica, a popular high school
student, was asked to explain the rules that her group lives by, she had no trouble:
Teachers’ Casebook sections present students with realistic
with feedback helps students hone their strategy use. In the transfer phase, students should be
given new problems that they can solve with the same strategy, even though the problems appear
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK work. You are more concerned that they cannot critically
WHAT
OK. No. 1: clothes.
WOULD
You of
Beginning cannot wear jeans any day but Friday, and youevaluate
age three cannot wearwhata they are reading. And all they are reading is classroom scenarios at the beginning of each cluster and ask “What
different on the surface. To enhance motivation, teachers should point out to students how using
the strategy will help them solve many problems and accomplish different tasks. These steps help
ponytail or sneakersYOUmore DO? UNCRITICAL
than once a week. Monday THINKING
is fancy day—like the blackNet!
pants or
This
Source:
maybe
year’s
forgot
“Brandon’s
youclass
over
bust out
the
Plan,
is worse
.org/curriculum/preschool.
weekend.
Beginning
with athan
skirt.any Age
You you’ve 3
Used by permission.
No. 2: parties. Of
Preschool”.
have to remind
ever had.
course we
Tools
peopleYou
sit down
of the
and
Mind. http://www.toolsofthemind
how cute you are in case they
discuss which ones
and why. Would You Do?”—giving students the opportunity to apply all
build both procedural and self-regulatory knowledge—how to use the strategy as well as when
assigned a research paper, and you find more and more CRITICAL THINKING For all students, there is a positive relationship between using learning strategies and academic
we’re going to because there is no point in getting all dressed up for a party that’s going
students are using the Web for their information. In itself,
to be lame. (Talbot, 2002, p. 28)
• How would you help your students evaluate the informa- the important topics of the cluster to these scenarios via application
gains such as high school GPA and retention in college (Robbins, Le, & Lauver, 2005). Some End of age four
using the Web is not bad, but the students appear to be tion they are finding on the Web? students will learn productive strategies on their own, but all students can benefit from direct
These peeruncritical
completely cultures encourage
about whatconformity
they findto the
ongroup rules. When another
the Internet. girl in Jessica’s
• Beyond this immediate issue, how will you help students
questions. S tudents may then compare their responses to those of
teaching, modeling, and practice of learning strategies and study skills. This is one important way
Reaching
group Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic
wearingMiddle”
“If itwore jeans
theonWeb,
Monday, Jessica
beconfronted her:attitude
“Why areofyou jeans today? Did you to prepare all of your students for the future. Newly mastered concepts, principles, and strategies
forget
Both
students.
is on
itPiaget
was Monday?”
and first
Their
it must
(Talbot, 2002,
Vygotsky
right” is the
p. 28).would
probably
drafts are filled with
Jessica explained
quotesagreethatthat
most
thatstudents
seem
the groupneed
think more critically about the subjects you are teaching?
had totosuspend
be this in the magic Connect and Extend to PRAXIS
taught
• How will you take into account the cultural beliefs and
must veteran teachers appearing at the end of each cluster. See, for example,
II®be applied in a wide variety of situations and with many types of problems (Z. Chen & Mo,
“rebel” several times, not allowing her to sit with them at lunch. 2004).
and Positive transfer is encouraged when skills are practiced
of age under
three authentic conditions, similar
middle
very biased
nor
(Berger, 2012),
to you, butorthere
the place
are no ofsources
the “match”cited or(J. listed.
Hunt, 1961)—where values
To understand the power of peers, we have to look at situations where the values and interests
It isfrustrated.
notclash
justwithStudents
that students should
don’t bethen
putseeinwhose
situations wheretheirthey In
have
they
of your
tocomparisons,
arestudents
neither bored
as you Distinctions
support theirBetween
critical Piaget’s
pages 30, 210, 412.
reach to understand but Vygotsky’s Theories (I, A2) to those that will exist when theSource:
Beginning
skills are needed later. Students can learn to write by corresponding
of parents those of peers, and know how to reference
influence dominates. thinking?
these with
Consider how two teachers—one based e-mail pen pals in other “Brandon’s
countries. They canPlan,
learnBeginning
historical Age 3 Preschool”.
research methods Tools of the Mind. http://www.toolsofthemind
by studying
where support from other students, learning materials, or the teacher is also available. Sometimes in Vygotskian theory and onetheir based
.org/curriculum/preschool. Used by permission.
owninfamily history. Some of these applications should involve complex, ill-defined, unstructured
the best teacher is another student who has just figured out how to solve the problem, because this Piagetian theory—might differ in their because many of the problems to be faced in later life, both in school and out, will not
problems,
student is probably operating in the learner’s ZPD. Having a student work with someone who is concepts of learning and teaching come to and
students complete with instructions. The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give
just a bit better at the activity would be a good idea because both students benefit in the exchange the instructional techniques that ideasthey
Reaching Every Student sections present ideas for assessing,might
teaching,
prefer. and motivating
of explanations, elaborations, and questions. In addition, students should be encouraged to use lan-
for enlisting the support of families in encouraging transfer.
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”
ALL of the students in today’s inclusive classrooms. See, for example on page 67.
M03_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH03.indd 87
guage to organize their thinking and to talk about what they are trying to accomplish. Dialogue and
21/09/15 5:18 PM
Both Piaget and Vygotsky probably would agree that students need to be taught in the magic Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®
discussion are important avenues to learning (Karpov & Bransford, 1995; Kozulin & Presseisen, middle (Berger, 2012), or the place of the “match” (J. Hunt, 1961)—where they are neither bored Distinctions Between Piaget’s and
1995; Wink & Putney, 2002). The Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching on the next page nor frustrated. Students should be put in situations where they have to reach to understand but Vygotsky’s Theories (I, A2)
give more ideas for applying Vygotsky’s insights. Consider how two teachers—one based
where support from other students, learning materials, or the teacher is also available. Sometimes in Vygotskian theory and one based in
the best teacher is another student who has just figured out how to solve the problem, because this Piagetian theory—might differ in their
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers student is probably operating in the learner’s ZPD. Having a student work with someone who is concepts of learning and teaching and
In spite of cross-cultural differences in cognitive development and the different theories of the instructional techniques that they
M09_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH09.indd 365 just a bit better at the activity would be a good idea because both students benefit in the exchange
21/09/15 5:25 PM
might prefer.
development, there are some convergences. Piaget, Vygotsky, and more recent researchers of explanations, elaborations, and questions. In addition, students should be encouraged to use lan-
studying cognitive development and the brain probably would agree with the following guage to organize their thinking and to talk about what they are trying to accomplish. Dialogue and
big ideas: discussion are important avenues to learning (Karpov & Bransford, 1995; Kozulin & Presseisen,
1. Cognitive development requires both physical and social stimulation. 1995; Wink & Putney, 2002). The Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching on the next page
2. To develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active. They give more ideas for applying Vygotsky’s insights.
need to experiment, talk, describe, reflect, write, and solve problems. But they also benefit
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers
from teaching, guidance, questions, explanations, demonstrations, and challenges to their
thinking. In spite of cross-cultural differences in cognitive development and the different theories of
3. Teaching students what they already know is boring. Trying to teach what the student isn’t development, there are some convergences. Piaget, Vygotsky, and more recent researchers
M09_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH09.indd 328
ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective. Lessons for Teachers are succinct and usable principles for teaching based on the
21/09/15 5:25 PM studying cognitive development and the brain probably would agree with the following
4. Challenge with support will keep students engaged but not fearful. big ideas:
research. See, for example, on1. page 67.
Cognitive development requires both physical and social stimulation.
2. To develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active. They
need to experiment, talk, describe, reflect, write, and solve problems. But they also benefit
SUPPLEMENTS
from teaching, guidance, questions, explanations, demonstrations, and challenges to their
thinking.
3. Teaching students what they already know is boring. Trying to teach what the student isn’t
M02_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH02.indd 67 21/09/15 4:18 PM ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective.
This thirteenth edition of Educational Psychology provides a comprehensive and integrated collection of 4. Challenge with support will keep students engaged but not fearful.
supplements to assist students and professors alike in maximizing learning and instruction. Together,
these materials immerse students in the content of the text, allowing them and their instructors to ben-
efit from a deeper and more meaningful learning experience. The following resources are available for
instructors to download from www.pearsonhighered.com/educator. Enter the author, title of the text, or M02_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH02.indd 67 21/0
the ISBN number, then select this text, and click on the “Resources” tab. Download the supplement you
need. If you require assistance in downloading any resources, contact your Pearson representative.
INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL. The Instructor’s Resource Manual synthesizes all of the
resources available for each cluster and sifts through the materials to match the delivery method (e.g.,
semester, quarter) and areas of emphasis for the course. This manual includes activities and strategies
designed to help prospective teachers—and others seeking a career working with children or adolescents—
to apply the developmental concepts and strategies they have learned.
A01_WOOL0794_13_SE_FM.indd 7 30/09/15 5:35 PM

viii PREFACE
POWERPOINT® SLIDES. Slide sets for each cluster include cluster objectives, key concepts,
summaries of content, and graphic aids, each designed to support class lectures and help students organize,
synthesize, and remember core content. All PowerPoint® slides have been updated for consistency and
reflect current content in this new edition.
TEST BANK. Built from the course objectives, the test bank questions offer both lower-level questions that ask
students to identify or explain concepts, principles, and theories about development, and higher-level questions
that require students to apply concepts, principles, and theories to student behavior and teaching strategies.
TESTGEN®. TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education
publishers. You install TestGen on your personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create your own
tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or
on the Web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test
items, organized by cluster and ready for your use in creating a test, based on the associated textbook
material. Assessments may be created for both print and testing online.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Testbank file—PC Angel Test Bank (zip)
TestGen Testbank file—MAC D2L Test Bank (zip)
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF Moodle Test Bank
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF Sakai Test Bank (zip)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During the years I have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent revision, many people
have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply could not have been written.
Many educators contributed to this edition and previous editions. Carol Weinstein wrote the sec-
tion in Cluster 13 on spaces for learning. Nancy Perry (University of British Columbia) and Philip Winne
(Simon Frasier University) wrote sections of Cluster 11 on self-regulation. Brad Henry (The Ohio State
University) crafted sections on technology in two clusters. Michael Yough (Purdue University) looked
over several clusters including Cluster 5, “Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant
Education.” Cluster 5 was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University.
Jerrell Cassady, Ball State University, provided invaluable guidance for Cluster 11, “Social Cognitive
Views of Learning and Motivation,” and Cluster 12, “Motivation in Learning and Teaching.” The por-
traits of students in Clusters 1 and 6 were provided by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). Raye Lakey
is responsible for the media integration and for updating the Test Bank, PowerPoint® Presentations, and the
Instructor’s Resource Manual.
As I made decisions about how to revise this edition, I benefited from the ideas of colleagues around
the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer my questions, and review clusters.
For their revision reviews, thanks to Gregg Schraw, University of Nevada—Las Vegas; T heresa
M. Stahler, Kutztown University; Jeff Liew, Texas A&M University; Heather Welsh-Griffin, Washington
State University; Kate Niehaus, University of South Carolina; Nithya Iyer, The State University of
New York at Oneonta; and Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University.
Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed their experience,
creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. I have thoroughly enjoyed my association with these
master teachers, and I am grateful for the perspective they brought to the book:
AIMEE FREDETTE • Second-Grade Teacher DAN DOYLE • History Teacher, Grade 11

Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA St. Joseph’s Academy, Hoffman, IL
ALLAN OSBORNE • Assistant Principal DANIELLE HARTMAN • Second Grade
Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA Claymont Elementary School, Ballwin, MO
BARBARA PRESLEY • Transition/Work Study Coordinator—High School DR. NANCY SHEEHAN-MELZACK • Art and Music Teacher
Level, BESTT Program (Baldwinsville Exceptional Student Training and Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA
Transition Program) JACALYN D. WALKER • Eighth-Grade Science Teacher
C. W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY Treasure Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT
CARLA S. HIGGINS • K–5 Literacy Coordinator JANE W. CAMPBELL • Second-Grade Teacher
Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH John P. Faber Elementary School, Dunellen, NJ

PREFACE ix
JENNIFER L. MATZ • Sixth Grade LOU DE LAURO • Fifth-Grade Language Arts

Williams Valley Elementary, Tower City, PA John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ
JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher, K–12 M. DENISE LUTZ • Technology Coordinator
Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH
JESSICA N. MAHTABAN • Eighth-Grade Math MADYA AYALA • High School Teacher of Preperatoria
Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L.
JOLITA HARPER • Third Grade Mexico
Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • Eighth-Grade Foreign Language
KAREN BOYARSKY • Fifth-Grade Teacher Teacher (German and French)
Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH
KATIE CHURCHILL • Third-Grade Teacher MICHAEL YASIS
Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN
KATIE PIEL • Kindergarten to Sixth-Grade Teacher NANCY SCHAEFER • Grades 9–12
West Park School, Moscow, ID Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy High School, Cincinnati, OH
KEITH J. BOYLE • English Teacher, Grades 9–12 PAM GASKILL • Second Grade
Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ Riverside Elementary School, Dublin, OH
KELLEY CROCKETT PATRICIA A. SMITH • High School Math
Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX
KELLY L. HOY • Fifth Grade PAUL DRAGIN • English as a Second Language, Grades 9–12
The Phillips Brooks School, Menlo Park, CA Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH
KELLY MCELROY BONIN • High School Counselor PAULA COLEMERE • Special Education Teacher—English, History
Klein Oak High School, Spring, TX McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ
LAUREN ROLLINS • First Grade SARA VINCENT • Special Education
Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH Langley High School, McLean, VA
LINDA GLISSON AND SUE MIDDLETON • Fifth-Grade Team Teachers THOMAS NAISMITH • Science Teacher Grades 7–12
St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA Slocum Independent School District, Elkhart, TX
LINDA SPARKS • First Grade VALERIE A. CHILCOAT • 5th-/6th-Grade Advanced Academics
John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD
In a project of this size, so many people make essential contributions. Carrie Mollette, Jorgensen
Fernandez, and Janet Woods worked diligently, often through weekends, to obtain permissions for the
material reproduced in this text and the supplements. The text designer, Diane Lorenzo, made the look
of this book the best yet—hard to do after 12 editions. Project Managers Roxanne Klaas from S4Carlisle
and Lauren Carlson from Pearson kept all aspects of the project moving forward with amazing skill,
grace, and good humor. Somehow they brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to what
might have been drudgery. Now the book is in the able hands of marketing managers Christopher Barry
and Krista Clark. I can’t wait to see what they are planning for me now! What a talented and creative
group—I am honored to work with them all.
On this edition, I was again privileged to work with an outstanding editorial group. Their intelligence,
creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality can be seen on every page of this text.
Kevin Davis, Publisher, guided the project from reviews to completion with the eye of an artist, the mind of a
scholar, and the logistical capacity of a high-powered computer. He proved to be an excellent collaborator with
a wise grasp of the field and a sense of the future. Caitlin Griscom, Editorial Assistant, kept everything run-
ning smoothly and kept my e-mail humming. Luanne Dreyer Elliott carefully and expertly copy edited every
page—who knew I could invent such “creative” spellings! On this edition I was fortunate to have the help of
Gail Gottfried, an outstanding developmental editor with the perfect combination of vast knowledge, organi-
zational ability, and creative thinking. The text features, Teachers’ Casebook, and excellent pedagogical supports
would not exist without her tireless efforts. Lauren Carlson was the initial project manager and Kathy Smith
handled all the final production details—what amazing women! I love working with them.
Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during the long days and
nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Marion, Bob, Eric, Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly,
Tom, Lisa, Lauren, Mike, and the newest member, Amaya—you are amazing.
And of course, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband—you are simply
the best.
—ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY

Brief Contents
CLUSTER 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 2
PART I: STUDENTS
CLUSTER 2 Cognitive Development 30
CLUSTER 3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development 72
CLUSTER 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 120
CLUSTER 5 Language Development, Language Diversity,
and Immigrant Education 172
CLUSTER 6 Culture and Diversity 210
PART II: LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

7
CLUSTER Behavioral Views of Learning 252
CLUSTER 8 Cognitive Views of Learning 290
CLUSTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes 328
CLUSTER 10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 370
CLUSTER 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 412
CLUSTER 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 444
PART III: TEACHING AND ASSESSING

CLUSTER 13 Creating Learning Environments 488
CLUSTER 14 Teaching Every Student 530
CLUSTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 572

Contents
1 Learning, Teaching, and
MODULE 2: Summary 25
CLUSTER CLUSTER 1 Review 26
Practice Using What You Have Learned 27
Educational Psychology 2 Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What Would
Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: They Do? 27
What Would You Do? 2
Overview and Objectives 3 PART I: STUDENTS
MODULE 1: Learning and Teaching 4
Learning and Teaching Today 4
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology 4
CLUSTER 2 Cognitive Development 30
Confidence in Every Context 5 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would
High Expectations for Teachers and Students 6 You Do? 30
Do Teachers Make a Difference? 7 Overview and Objectives 31
Teacher–Student Relationships 7 MODULE 3: Development: Some General Principles 32
The Cost of Poor Teaching 7 A Definition of Development 33
What Is Good Teaching? 8 Three Questions Across the Theories 33
Inside Three Classrooms 8 What Is the Source of Development? Nature Versus Nurture 33
A Bilingual First Grade 8 What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity Versus
A Suburban Fifth Grade 9 Discontinuity 33
An Inclusive Class 9 Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical Versus Sensitive Periods 33
So What Is Good Teaching? 9 Beware of Either/Or 33
Models of Good Teaching 10 General Principles of Development 34
Measures of Effective Teaching 11 The Brain and Cognitive Development 34
Beginning Teachers 13 The Developing Brain: Neurons 34
MODULE 1: Summary 14 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 37
MODULE 2: Research and Theory in Educational Psychology 15 Adolescent Development and the Brain 38
The Role of Educational Psychology 15 Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works 39
In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching 15 Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 39
Educational Psychology Today 15 Instruction and Brain Development 39
Is It Just Common Sense? 16 Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education 40
Helping Students 16 The Brain and Learning to Read 42
Answer Based on Research 16 Emotions, Learning, and the Brain 43
Skipping Grades 16 Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 43
Answer Based on Research 16 MODULE 3: Summary 44
Students in Control 16 MODULE 4: Piagetian and Information Processing Theories 45
Answer Based on Research 16 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 45
Obvious Answers? 17 Influences on Development 45
Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning 17 Basic Tendencies in Thinking 46
Correlation Studies 17 Organization 46
Experimental Studies 17 Adaptation 46
Single-Subject Experimental Designs 18 Equilibration 47
Clinical Interviews and Case Studies 19 Four Stages of Cognitive Development 47
Ethnography 19 Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage 48
The Role of Time in Research 19 Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years:
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research 19 The Preoperational Stage 48
Teachers as Researchers 20 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Helping
Theories for Teaching 20 Families Care for Preoperational Children 49
Point/Counterpoint: What Kind of Research Should Guide Later Elementary to the Middle School Years:
Education? 21 The Concrete-Operational Stage 50
Supporting Student Learning 23 High School and College: Formal Operations 51
xi

xii CONTENTS
Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 52 Exercise and Recess 77

Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage? 53 Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities 77
Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Challenges in Physical Development 78
Views of Cognitive Development 53 Obesity 78
Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 54 Eating Disorders 79
Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory 55 Guidelines: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents 80
The Trouble with Stages 55 MODULE 7: Summary 81
Underestimating Children’s Abilities 56 MODULE 8: The Social Context of Development 82
Cognitive Development and Culture 56 Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 82
MODULE 4: Summary 57 The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model 82
MODULE 5: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 58 Families 83
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 58 Family Structure 83
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 59 Parenting Styles 84
Technical Tools in a Digital Age 59 Culture and Parenting 84
Psychological Tools 60 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Connecting
The Role of Language and Private Speech 60 with Families 85
Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared 60 Attachment 85
The Zone of Proximal Development 61 Divorce 85
Private Speech and the Zone 62 Peers 86
The Role of Learning and Development 62 Cliques 86
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 63 Crowds 86
MODULE 5: Summary 63 Guidelines: Helping Children of Divorce 87
MODULE 6: Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories Peer Cultures 87
for Teachers 64 Friendships 88
Piaget: What Can We Learn? 64 Popularity 88
Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking 64 Causes and Consequences of Rejection 88
Activity and Constructing Knowledge 64 Aggression 89
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 65 Relational Aggression 90
The Role of Adults and Peers 65 Media, Modeling, and Aggression 90
Assisted Learning 66 Video Games and Aggressive Behavior 91
An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind 66 Guidelines: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” 67 Cooperation 91
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 67 Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 92
Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 68 Academic and Personal Caring 92
MODULE 6: Summary 68 Teachers and Child Abuse 93
CLUSTER 2 Review 69 Society and Media 93
Practice Using What You Have Learned 70 MODULE 8: Summary 95
Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would MODULE 9: The Self 96
They Do? 70 Identity and Self-Concept 96
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development 96
3 The Self, Social,

The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative 96
CLUSTER The Elementary and Middle School Years:
and Moral Development 72 Industry Versus Inferiority 98

Guidelines: Encouraging Initiative and Industry 98
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 72 Adolescence: The Search for Identity 99
Overview and Objectives 73 Identity and Technology 100
MODULE 7: Physical Growth as a Context for Personal/Social Guidelines: Supporting Identity Formation 100
Development 74 Beyond the School Years 101
Physical Development 74 Racial-Ethnic Identity 101
Physical and Motor Development 74 Ethnic Identities: Outcome and Process 101
Young Children 74 Racial Identity: Outcome and Process 102
Elementary School Years 75 Racial and Ethnic Pride 103
The Adolescent Years 75 Self-Concept 103
Early and Later Maturing 75 The Structure of Self-Concept 103
Guidelines: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom 76 How Self-Concept Develops 104
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 76 Self-Concept and Achievement 105
Cultural Differences in Play 77 Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence 105

CONTENTS xiii
Self-Esteem 106 Learning and Thinking Styles 134

Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Learning Styles/Preferences 134
Students’ Self-Esteem? 106 Cautions About Learning Styles 134
MODULE 9: Summary 107 The Value of Considering Learning Styles 135
MODULE 10: Understanding Others and Moral Beyond Either/Or 136
Development 109 MODULE 11: Summary 136
Theory of Mind and Intention 109 MODULE 12: Inclusion: Teaching Every Student 138
Moral Development 109 Individual Differences and the Law 138
Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development 109 IDEA 138
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory 110 Least Restrictive Environment 138
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices 111 Individualized Education Program 139
Moral Versus Conventional Domains 111 The Rights of Students and Families 140
Implications for Teachers 112 Section 504 Protections 140
Diversity in Moral Reasoning 113 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Productive
Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Conferences 142
Psychology 113 Students with Learning Challenges 143
Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating 114 Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 143
Who Cheats? 115 Students with Learning Disabilities 143
Dealing with Cheating 115 Student Characteristics 144
Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 116 Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities 145
MODULE 10: Summary 116 Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders 146
CLUSTER 3 Review 118 Definitions 147
Practice Using What You Have Learned 118 Treating ADHD with Drugs 147
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do? 119 Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments 147
Point/Counterpoint: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD? 148
CLUSTER 4 Learner Differences Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD 149
Students with Communication Disorders 149
and Learning Needs 120 Speech Disorders 150
Language Disorders 150
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties 150
You Do? 120 Guidelines: Disciplining Students with Emotional
Overview and Objectives 121 Problems 152
MODULE 12: Intelligence and Thinking Styles 122 Suicide 153
Intelligence 122 Drug Abuse 153
Language and Labels 122 Prevention 155
Disabilities and Handicaps 122 Students with Intellectual Disabilities 155
Person-First Language 123 Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities 156
Possible Biases in the Application of Labels 124 Students with Health and Sensory Impairments 156
What Does Intelligence Mean? 124 Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities 156
Intelligence: One Ability or Many? 125 Seizure Disorders (epilepsy) 157
Multiple Intelligences 125 Other Serious Health Concerns: Asthma, HIV/AIDS,
What Are These Intelligences 126 and Diabetes 157
Critics of Multiple Intelligences Theory 126 Students with Vision Impairments 158
Gardner Responds 126 Students Who Are Deaf 158
Multiple Intelligences Go to School 128 Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome 159
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 128 Interventions 159
Intelligence as a Process 128 Response to Intervention 160
Measuring Intelligence 129 MODULE 12: Summary 161
Binet’s Dilemma 130 MODULE 13: Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 163
What Does an IQ Score Mean? 130 Who Are These Students? 163
Group Versus Individual IQ Tests 130 What Is the Origin of These Gifts? 164
The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter? 130 What Problems Do Students Who Are Gifted Face? 164
Guidelines: Interpreting IQ Scores 131 Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 165
Intelligence and Achievement 131 Recognizing Gifts and Talents 165
Gender Differences in Intelligence 132 Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents 167
Heredity or Environment? 133 Acceleration 167
Being Smart About IQ Tests 133 Methods and Strategies 167

xiv CONTENTS
MODULE 13: Summary 168 Teaching Students Who Are English Language Learners 195
CLUSTER 4 Review 169 Two Approaches to English Language Learning 195
Practice Using What You Have Learned 170 Research on Bilingual Education 195
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would Bilingualism for All: Two-Way Immersion 195
They Do? 170 Point/Counterpoint: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students
Who Are ELLs? 196
Sheltered Instruction 197
CLUSTER 5 Language Development, Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 197

Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture 200
Language Diversity, and Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers 200
Immigrant Education 172 Guidelines: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-
Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs 202
Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom: Student-Led Conferences 203
What Would You Do? 172 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships 203
Overview and Objectives 173 Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language
MODULE 14: Language Development and Emergent Literacy 174 Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts 204
The Development of Language 174 Students Who Are English Language Learners with
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 174 Disabilities 204
The Puzzle of Language 174 Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual
When and How Does Language Develop? 175 Students 205
Sounds and Pronunciation 175 MODULE 16: Summary 206
Vocabulary and Meaning 175 CLUSTER 5 Review 207
Grammar and Syntax 176 Practice Using What You Have Learned 208
Pragmatics: Using Language in Social Situations 176 Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Clash in the Classroom:
Metalinguistic Awareness 177 What Would They Do? 208
Emergent Literacy 177
Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills 178
Building a Foundation 179
When There Are Persistent Problems 179
CLUSTER 6 Culture and Diversity 210
Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity 179 Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would
Languages and Emergent Literacy 180 You Do? 210
Bilingual Emergent Literacy 180 Overview and Objectives 211
Guidelines: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy 180 MODULE 17: Social and Economic Diversity 212
MODULE 14: Summary 181 Today’s Diverse Classrooms 212
MODULE 15: Language Diversity 182 American Cultural Diversity 212
Diversity in Language Development 182 Meet Four More Students 214
Dual-Language Development 182 Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences 216
Second-Language Learning 182 Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities 216
Benefits of Bilingualism 183 Dangers in Stereotyping 216
Language Loss 183 Economic and Social Class Differences 217
Signed Languages 185 Social Class and Socioeconomic Status 217
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 185 Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile
Contextualized and Academic Language 186 Students 217
Guidelines: Promoting Language Learning 188 Poverty and School Achievement 218
Dialect Differences in the Classroom 188 Guidelines: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty 220
Dialects 188 Health, Environment, and Stress 220
Dialects and Pronunciation 189 Low Expectations—Low Academic Self-Concept 221
Dialects and Teaching 189 Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures 221
Genderlects 189 Home Environment and Resources 221
MODULE 15: Summary 190 Summer Setbacks 221
MODULE 16: Students Who Are Immigrants and English Tracking: Poor Teaching 222
Language Learners 191 Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking an Effective Strategy? 222
Teaching Immigrant Students 191 MODULE 17: Summary 222
Immigrants and Refugees 191 MODULE 18: Ethnicity, Race, and Gender 224
Classrooms Today 192 Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning 224
Four Student Profiles 193 Terms: Ethnicity and Race 224
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 193 Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement 224

CONTENTS xv
The Legacy of Discrimination 226 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical
What Is Prejudice? 227 Conditioning 256
The Development of Prejudice 228 Guidelines: Applying Classical Conditioning 258
Continuing Discrimination 229 Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 258
Stereotype Threat 229 Types of Consequences 259
Who Is Affected by Stereotype Threat? 230 Reinforcement 259
Short-Term Effects: Test Performance 231 Punishment 260
Long-Term Effects: Disidentification 231 Reinforcement Schedules 260
Combating Stereotype Threat 232 Extinction 261
Gender in Teaching and Learning 232 Antecedents and Behavior Change 262
Sex and Gender 232 Effective Instruction Delivery 263
Sexual Orientation 233 Cueing 263
Gender Roles 234 Prompting 263
Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials 236 MODULE 20: Summary 264
Gender Bias in Teaching 236 MODULE 21: Possibilities and Cautions in Applying Behavioral
Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 237 Theories 265
MODULE 18: Summary 238 Putting It All Together to Apply Operant Conditioning:
MODULE 19: Diversity and Teaching: Multicultural Education 239 Applied Behavior Analysis 265
Multicultural Education: Creating Culturally Compatible Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 265
Classrooms 239 Reinforcing with Teacher Attention 266
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 239 Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle 266
Fostering Resilience 241 Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning:
Resilient Students 242 Using Praise Appropriately 267
Resilient Classrooms 242 Shaping 267
Self-Agency Strand 242 Positive Practice 268
Relationship Strand 242 Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group
Diversity in Learning 242 Consequences 268
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Building Contingency Contracts 268
Learning Communities 243 Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning:
Social Organization 243 Encouraging Positive Behaviors 269
Cultural Values and Learning Preferences 244 Token Reinforcement Systems 269
Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles Research 244 Group Consequences 271
Sociolinguistics 244 Handling Undesirable Behavior 272
Sources of Misunderstandings 245 Negative Reinforcement 272
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 245 Reprimands 273
Know Your Students 245 Response Cost 273
Respect Your Students 246 Social Isolation 273
Teach Your Students 246 Some Cautions About Punishment 273
Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching 247 Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems 274
MODULE 19: Summary 247 Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using
CLUSTER 6 Review 248 Punishment 274
Practice Using What You Have Learned 249 Contemporary Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment,
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would They Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management 275
Do? 249 Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral
Assessments 276
PART II: LEARNING AND Positive Behavior Supports 277
Self-Management 278
MOTIVATION Goal Setting 278
CLUSTER 7 Behavioral Views of Monitoring and Evaluating Progress 279

Self-Reinforcement 279
Learning 252 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Applying
Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management 280
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would You Do? 252 Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms 280
Overview and Objectives 254 Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational
MODULE 20: Behavioral Explanations of Learning 254 Learning 280
Understanding Learning 254 Enactive and Observational Learning 280
Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning 255 Learning and Performance 281
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 255 Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 281

xvi CONTENTS
Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded for Concepts 310

Learning? 282 Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories 310
Ethical Issues 283 Schemas 311
Goals 283 Episodic Memory 312
Strategies 283 Implicit Memories 312
Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 283 Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory 313
MODULE 21: Summary 284 Spreading Activation 314
CLUSTER 7 Review 286 Reconstruction 314
Practice Using What You Have Learned 287 Forgetting and Long-Term Memory 314
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory 314
They Do? 287 Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge:
Basic Principles and Applications 315
Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful
CLUSTER 8 Cognitive Views of Connections 315
Elaboration, Organization, Imagery, and Context 315
Learning 290 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Organizing
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would Learning 316
Imagery 316
You Do? 290
Overview and Objectives 290 Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful 318
Mnemonics 319
MODULE 22: The Basics of the Cognitive Science Perspective 292
Rote Memorization 319
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 292
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 292 Development of Procedural Knowledge 320
Views of Learning 292
Point/Counterpoint: What’s Wrong with Memorizing? 321
Automated Basic Skills 321
Goals 293
Domain-Specific Strategies 321
The Brain and Cognitive Learning 293
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 293 Guidelines: Helping Students Understand and Remember 323
General and Specific Knowledge 294 MODULE 23: Summary 323
Cognitive Views of Memory 294 CLUSTER 8 Review 325
Sensory Memory 296 Practice Using What You Have Learned 326
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory 296 Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics: What Would
Perception 296
They Do? 326
The Role of Attention 297
Attention and Multitasking 297
Attention and Teaching 298 CLUSTER 9 Complex Cognitive
Guidelines: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 299
Working Memory 299
Processes 328
The Central Executive 300 Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do? 328
The Phonological Loop 300 Overview and Objectives 329
The Visuospatial Sketchpad 301 MODULE 24: Metacognition and Learning Strategies 330
The Episodic Buffer 301 Metacognition 330
The Duration and Contents of Working Memory 302 Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 330
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information 302 Individual Differences in Metacognition 331
Three Kinds of Cognitive Load 302 Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 332
Retaining Information in Working Memory 302 Metacognitive Development for Younger Students 332
Levels of Processing Theory 303 Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College
Forgetting 304 Students (Like You) 333
Individual Differences in Working Memory 304 Learning Strategies 333
Developmental Differences 304 Being Strategic About Learning 334
Individual Differences 305 Deciding What Is Important 334
MODULE 22: Summary 306 Summaries 334
MODULE 23: Long-Term Memory 307 Underlining and Highlighting 335
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Long-Term Memory 307 Taking Notes 335
Contents: Declarative, Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Visual Tools for Organizing 336
Knowledge 307 Reading Strategies 337
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 309 Applying Learning Strategies 339
Propositions and Propositional Networks 309 Appropriate Tasks 339
Images 309 Valuing Learning 339
Two Are Better than One: Words and Images 309 Effort and Efficacy 339

CONTENTS xvii
Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies

for Struggling Students 339 CLUSTER 10 The Learning Sciences
Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student 340
MODULE 24: Summary 341
and Constructivism 370
MODULE 25: Problem Solving and Creativity 342 Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would
Problem Solving 342 You Do? 370
Identifying: Problem Finding 343 Overview and Objectives 371
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 343 MODULE 27: The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 372
Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant 343 The Learning Sciences 372
Understanding the Words 343 What Are the Learning Sciences? 372
Understanding the Whole Problem 344 Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences 372
Translation and Schema Training: Direct Instruction in Embodied Cognition 374
Schemas 345 Cognitive and Social Constructivism 374
Translation and Schema Training: Constructivist Views of Learning 375
Worked Examples 346 Psychological/Individual/Cognitive Constructivism 375
The Results of Problem Representation 347 Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism 376
Searching for Possible Solution Strategies 347 Constructionism 377
Algorithms 347 How Is Knowledge Constructed? 377
Heuristics 348 Knowledge: Situated or General? 378
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 348 Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 349 Teaching 379
Some Problems with Heuristics 349 Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks 380
Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving 350 Social Negotiation 380
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 351 Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content 380
Knowing What Is Important 351 Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process 380
Memory for Patterns and Organization 351 Student Ownership of Learning 380
Procedural Knowledge 351 MODULE 27: Summary 381
Planning and Monitoring 351 MODULE 28: Constructivist Teaching and Learning 382
Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters 352 Applying Constructivist Perspectives 382
Assessing Creativity 352 Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 383
OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter? 353 Examples of Inquiry 383
What Are the Sources of Creativity? 354 Problem-Based Learning 384
Creativity and Cognition 354 Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 386
Creativity and Diversity 354 Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching 386
Creativity in the Classroom 355 Point/Counterpoint: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 355 Effective Teaching Approaches? 387
Guidelines: Applying and Encouraging Creativity 356 Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal
MODULE 25: Summary 357 Teaching 388
MODULE 26: Critical Thinking, Argumentation, and Transfer 358 Applying Reciprocal Teaching 388
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 358 Collaboration and Cooperation 389
One Model of Critical Thinking: Paul and Elder 358 Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning 389
Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 359 Beyond Groups to Cooperation 390
Argumentation 360 What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning 390
Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking Tasks for Cooperative Learning 391
and Problem Solving? 361 Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks 391
Teaching for Transfer 362 Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving Tasks 391
The Many Views of Transfer 362 Social Skills and Communication Tasks 391
Teaching for Positive Transfer 363 Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning 392
What Is Worth Learning? 364 Setting Up Cooperative Groups 392
How Can Teachers Help? 364 Giving and Receiving Explanations 392
Stages of Transfer for Strategies 364 Assigning Roles 393
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Promoting Designs for Cooperation 394
Transfer 365 Reciprocal Questioning 394
MODULE 26: Summary 366 Jigsaw 395
CLUSTER 9 Review 367 Constructive/Structured Controversies 395
Practice Using What You Have Learned 368 Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely 396
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning 397
They Do? 368 Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 398

xviii CONTENTS
MODULE 28: Summary 399 MODULE 30: Summary 425

MODULE 29: Learning Outside the Classroom 400 MODULE 31: Self-Regulated Learning and Teaching 426
Service Learning 400 Self-Regulated Learning 426
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Service What Influences Self-Regulation? 427
Learning 401 Knowledge 427
Learning in a Digital World 401 Motivation 427
Technology and Learning 402 Volition 427
Technology-Rich Environments 402 Development of Self-Regulation 428
Virtual Learning Environments 402 Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency 428
Personal Learning Environments 403 An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning 430
Immersive Virtual Learning Environments 404 Two Classrooms 431
Games 404 Writing 431
Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Math Problem Solving 431
Children 404 Technology and Self-Regulation 432
Computers and Older Students 405 Reaching Every Student: Families and Self-Regulation 432
Computational Thinking and Coding 405 Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior
Guidelines: Using Computers 406 Modification 432
Media/Digital Literacy 407 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships 433
Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy 408 Emotional Self-Regulation 434
MODULE 29: Summary 408 Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 435
CLUSTER 10 Review 409 Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning 436
Practice Using What You Have Learned 410 Complex Tasks 436
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate: What Would Control 437
They Do? 410 Self-Evaluation 437
Collaboration 438
Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning 438
CLUSTER 11 Social Cognitive Views MODULE 31: Summary 440
CLUSTER 11 Review 441
of Learning and Motivation 412 Practice Using What You Have Learned 442
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would
You Do? 412 They Do? 442
Overview and Objectives 413
MODULE 30: Social Cognitive Theory and Applications 414
Social Cognitive Theory 414 CLUSTER 12 Motivation in Learning
A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 414
Beyond Behaviorism 415
and Teaching 444
Triarchic Reciprocal Causality 415 Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources
Modeling: Learning by Observing Others 416 Are Thin: What Would You Do? 444
Elements of Observational Learning 417 Overview and Objectives 445
Attention 417 MODULE 32: Motivation Basics and the Hierarchy of Needs 446
Retention 418 What Is Motivation? 446
Production 418 Meeting Some Students 446
Motivation and Reinforcement 418 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 447
Observational Learning in Teaching 419 Five General Approaches to Motivation 448
Directing Attention 419 Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 448
Fine Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors 419 Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 449
Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions 419 Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 449
Teaching New Behaviors 419 Social Cognitive Theories 449
Arousing Emotion 419 Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation 449
Guidelines: Using Observational Learning 420 Needs 450
Self-Efficacy and Agency 420 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 450
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 421 Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy,
Sources of Self-Efficacy 421 and Relatedness 451
Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 422 Self-Determination in the Classroom 452
Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Efficacy 423 Information and Control 452
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy 423 Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 453
Point/Counterpoint: Are High Levels of Teacher Efficacy The Need for Relatedness 453
Beneficial? 424 Needs: Lessons for Teachers 454

CONTENTS xix
MODULE 32: Summary 454 Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning 482
MODULE 33: Needs, Goals, Beliefs 455 What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused
Goal Orientations 455 on the Task 482
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 455 Do I Belong in This Classroom? 483
Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School 456 Guidelines: Motivation to Learn: Family and Community
Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad? 456 Partnerships 483
Beyond Mastery and Performance 457 MODULE 35: Summary 484
Goals in Social Context 458 CLUSTER 12 Review 485
Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance 458 Practice Using What You Have Learned 486
Goals: Lessons for Teachers 459 Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students When Resources
Beliefs and Self-Perceptions 459 Are Thin: What Would They Do? 486
Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs 459
Beliefs About Ability 460
Beliefs About Causes and Control: Attribution Theory 461 PART III: TEACHING
Attributions in the Classroom 462 AND ASSESSING
Teacher Actions and Student Attributions 462
Beliefs About Self-Worth 463
Learned Helplessness 463
CLUSTER 13 Creating Learning
Self-Worth 463 Environments 488
Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Worth 464 Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would
Beliefs and Attributions: Lessons for Teachers 465 You Do? 488
MODULE 33: Summary 465 Overview and Objectives 489
MODULE 34: Interests, Curiosity, and Emotions 466 MODULE 36: Positive Learning Environments 490
Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety 466 The What and Why of Classroom Management 490
Tapping Interests 466 The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 492
Catching and Holding Interests 467 The Goals of Classroom Management 493
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 467 Access to Learning 493
Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make for More Time for Learning 493
Good Learning? 468 Management for Self-Management 495
Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity 469 Creating a Positive Learning Environment 495
Flow 469 Some Research Results 495
Emotions and Anxiety 469 Routines and Rules Required 496
Neuroscience and Emotion 470 Routines and Procedures 496
Achievement Emotions 470 Rules 496
Arousal and Anxiety 471 Rules for Elementary School 497
Anxiety in the Classroom 471 Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines 497
How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement? 472 Rules for Secondary School 498
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety 472 Consequences 498
Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety 473 Who Sets the Rules and Consequences 499
Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers 474 Planning Spaces for Learning 499
MODULE 34: Summary 474 Personal Territories 500
MODULE 35: Motivation to Learn in School 475 Interest Areas 500
Motivation to Learn in School: On Target 475 Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces 501
Tasks for Learning 476 Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 501
Task Value 476 Effective Managers for Elementary Students 501
Beyond Task Value to Genuine Appreciation 476 Effective Managers for Secondary Students 503
Authentic Tasks 476 Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 503
Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment 477 Encouraging Engagement 503
Supporting Choices 477 Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged 504
Recognizing Accomplishment 477 Prevention Is the Best Medicine 504
Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 478 Withitness 505
Grouping and Goal Structures 478 Overlapping and Group Focus 505
Evaluation 478 Movement Management 505
Time 479 Student Social Skills as Prevention 505
Putting It All Together 479 Caring Relationships: Connections with School 506
Diversity in Motivation 479 School Connections 506
Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation 481 Creating Communities of Care for Adolescents 506
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations 481 Guidelines: Creating Caring Relationships 507

xx CONTENTS
MODULE 36: Summary 508 Objectives for Learning 536

MODULE 37: Preventing Problems and Encouraging An Example of Standards: The Common Core 536
Communication 509 An Example of Standards for Teachers: Technology 537
Dealing with Discipline Problems 509 Classrooms: Instructional Objectives 538
Stopping Problems Quickly 509 Mager: Start with the Specific 538
Guidelines: Imposing Penalties 510 Gronlund: Start with the General 538
Bullying and Cyberbullying 511 Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies 539
Victims 511 The Cognitive Domain 539
Why Do Students Bully? 513 The Affective Domain 540
Bullying and Teasing 513 The Psychomotor Domain 540
Changing Attributions 514 Guidelines: Using Instructional Objectives 541
Cyberbullying 514 Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 541
Special Problems with High School Students 515 MODULE 38: Summary 542
Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 516 MODULE 39: Teaching Approaches 544
Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 517 Teaching Approaches 544
The Need for Communication 518 Direct Instruction 544
Message Sent—Message Received 518 Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions 544
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 518 Advance Organizers 545
Counseling: The Student’s Problem 519 Why Does Direct Instruction Work? 545
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 520 Evaluating Direct Instruction 546
“I” Messages 520 Seatwork and Homework 547
Assertive Discipline 520 Seatwork 547
Confrontations and Negotiations 521 Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction 548
Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Homework 549
Justice 521 Questioning, Discussion, and Dialogue 549
Peer Mediation 522 Kinds of Questions 549
Restorative Justice 522 Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time? 550
The 4 RS 522 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Homework 551
Research on Management Approaches 523 Fitting the Questions to the Students 551
Integrating Ideas 523 Responding to Student Answers 553
Connecting with Families About Classroom Group Discussion 553
Management 523 Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 554
Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 523 Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design 554
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships— Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions 555
Classroom Management 524 MODULE 39: Summary 557
MODULE 37: Summary 525 MODULE 40: Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive
CLUSTER 13 Review 527 Teaching 558
Practice Using What You Have Learned 528 Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 558
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Would The Problems with Ability Grouping 558
They Do? 528 Flexible Grouping 558
Guidelines: Using Flexible Grouping 558
Adaptive Teaching 558
CLUSTER 14 Teaching Every Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive
Classrooms 560
Student 530 Technology and Differentiation 562
Mentoring Students as a Way of Differentiating Teaching 563
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: Teacher Expectations 563
What Would You Do? 530 Guidelines: Teachers as Mentors 564
Overview and Objectives 531 Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 564
MODULE 38: Planning for Effective Teaching 532 Sources of Expectations 565
Research on Teaching 532 Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’
Characteristics of Effective Teachers 532 Achievement? 565
Clarity and Organization 532 Instructional Strategies 566
Warmth and Enthusiasm 533 Teacher–Student Interactions 566
Knowledge for Teaching 533 Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher
Recent Research on Teaching 534 Expectations 567
The First Step: Planning 535 Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate
Research on Planning 535 Expectations 568

CONTENTS xxi
MODULE 40: Summary 568 Informal Assessments 590

CLUSTER 14 Review 569 Journals 591
Practice Using What You Have Learned 570 Involving Students in Assessments 592
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: Grading 592
What Would They Do? 570 Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading 592
Effects of Grading on Students 592
The Value of Failing? 593
CLUSTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Retention in Grade 594

Point/Counterpoint: Should Children Be Held Back? 595
Grading, and Standardized Testing 572 Grades and Motivation 596
Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families 596
You Do? 572 Guidelines: Using Any Grading System 597
Overview and Objectives 573 MODULE 42: Summary 598
MODULE 41: Basics of Assessment 574 MODULE 43: Standardized Testing 599
Measurement and Assessment 574 Types of Scores 599
Formative and Summative Assessment 575 Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard
Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations 576 Deviation 599
Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations 576 The Normal Distribution 600
Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity 577 Percentile Rank Scores 601
Reliability of Test Scores 577 Grade-Equivalent Scores 601
Error in Scores 577 Standard Scores 601
Confidence Interval 577 Interpreting Standardized Test Reports 603
Validity 578 Discussing Test Results with Families 604
Absence of Bias 579 Accountability and High-Stakes Testing 604
MODULE 41: Summary 580 Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—
MODULE 42: Classroom Assessment, Testing, and Conferences and Explaining Test Results 605
Grading 581 Making Decisions 605
Classroom Assessment: Testing 581 What Do Teachers Think? 606
Using the Tests from Textbooks 581 Documented Problems with High-Stakes Testing 606
Objective Testing 582 Using High-Stakes Testing Well 607
Using Multiple-Choice Tests 582 Guidelines: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing 608
Writing Multiple-Choice Questions 582 Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities
Guidelines: Writing Objective Test Items 583 Prepare for High-Stakes Tests 609
Essay Testing 583 Current Directions: Value-Added and PARCC 609
Constructing Essay Tests 583 Value-Added Measures 609
Evaluating Essays 584 PARCC Tests 610
The Value of Traditional Testing 584 Lessons for Teachers: Quality Assessment 610
Criticisms of Traditional Tests 585 MODULE 43: Summary 611
Authentic Classroom Assessments 585 CLUSTER 15 Review 612
Portfolios and Exhibitions 586 Practice Using What You Have Learned 613
Portfolios 586 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would
Exhibitions 586 They Do? 613
Evaluating Portfolios and Performances 587
Scoring Rubrics 587 Appendix A-1
Guidelines: Creating Portfolios 588 Glossary G-1
Guidelines: Developing a Rubric 589 References R-1
Reliability, Validity, Generalizability 589 Name Index N-1
Diversity and Bias in Performance Assessment 589 Subject Index S-1

Special Features
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 54
WHAT WOULD YOU DO? Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 68
Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom 76
Leaving No Student Behind 2
Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents 80
Leaving No Student Behind 27
Family and Community Partnerships—Connecting with
Symbols and Cymbals 30
Families 85
Symbols and Cymbals 70
Helping Children of Divorce 87
Mean Girls 72
Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 91
Mean Girls 119
Encouraging Initiative and Industry 98
Including Every Student 120
Supporting Identity Formation 100
Including Every Student 170
Interpreting IQ Scores 131
Cultures Clash in the Classroom 172
Family and Community Partnerships—Productive
Cultures Clash in the Classroom 208 Conferences 142
White Girls Club 210 Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems 152
White Girls Club 249 Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities 156
Sick of Class 252 Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy 180
Sick of Class 287 Promoting Language Learning 188
Remembering the Basics 290 Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem
Remembering the Basics 326 for Students Who Are ELLs 202
Uncritical Thinking 328 Family and Community Partnerships—Welcoming all F
amilies 203
Uncritical Thinking 368 Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty 220
Learning to Cooperate 370 Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 237
Learning to Cooperate 410 Family and Community Partnerships—Building Learning
Failure to Self-Regulate 412 Communities 243
Failure to Self-Regulate 442 Culturally Relevant Teaching 247
Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin 444 Applying Classical Conditioning 258
Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin 486 Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise
Appropriately 267
Bullies and Victims 488
Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive
Bullies and Victims 528
Behaviors 269
Reaching and Teaching Every Student 530
Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment 274
Reaching and Teaching Every Student 570
Family and Community Partnerships—Applying Operant
Giving Meaningful Grades 572
Conditioning: Student Self-Management 280
Giving Meaningful Grades 613
Gaining and Maintaining Attention 299
Family and Community Partnerships—Organizing Learning 316
GUIDELINES Helping Students Understand and Remember 323
Family and Community Partnerships—Helping Families Care Becoming an Expert Student 340
for Preoperational Children 49 Applying Problem Solving 350
Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 52 Applying and Encouraging Creativity 356
xxii

SPECIAL FEATURES xxiii
Family and Community Partnerships—Promoting Transfer 365 Teachers as Mentors 564

Using Cooperative Learning 397 Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations 567
Family and Community Partnerships—Service Learning 401 Writing Objective Test Items 583
Using Computers 406 Creating Portfolios 588
Supporting the Development of Media Literacy 408 Developing a Rubric 589
Using Observational Learning 420 Using Any Grading System 597
Encouraging Self-Efficacy 423 Family and Community Partnerships—Conferences
Family and Community Partnerships—Supporting and E
xplaining Test Results 605
Self-Regulation at Home and in School 433 Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing 608
Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 435
Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 453 POINT/COUNTERPOINT
Encouraging Self-Worth 464 What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? 21
Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity 469 Brain-Based Education 39
Coping with Anxiety 473 What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’
Motivation to Learn: Family and Community Partnerships— Self-Esteem? 106
Understand Family Goals for Children 483 Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD? 148
Establishing Class Routines 497 What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs? 196
Designing Learning Spaces 501 Is Tracking an Effective Strategy? 222
Keeping Students Engaged 504 Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? 282
Creating Caring Relationships 507 What’s Wrong with Memorizing? 321
Imposing Penalties 510 Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem
Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 516 Solving? 361
Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching
Management 524 Approaches? 387
Using Instructional Objectives 541 Are High Levels of Teacher Efficacy Beneficial? 424
Effective Direct Instruction 548 Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? 468
Family and Community Partnerships—Homework 551 Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 517
Productive Group Discussions 555 Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time? 550
Using Flexible Grouping 559 Should Children Be Held Back? 595

1 | LEARNING,
CLUSTER
TEACHING, AND
EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK special needs; learning disabilities, particularly problems in
reading, seem to be the most common. Your state and
WHAT WOULD YOU DO? LEAVING NO district require you to prepare all your students for the
STUDENT BEHIND achievement tests in the spring, and the national emphasis is
It is your second year as a teacher in the Davis East school on readiness for college and career by the end of high
district. Over the last 4 years, the number of students from school—for everyone. Your only possible extra resource is a
immigrant families has increased dramatically in your school. student intern from the local college.
In your class, you have two students who speak Somali, one
Hmong, one Farsi, and three Spanish speakers. Some of CRITICAL THINKING
them know a little English, but many have very few words • What would you do to help all your students to progress
other than “OK.” If there had been more students from each and prepare for the achievement tests?
of the language groups, the district would have given your • How would you make use of the intern so that both she
school additional resources and special programs in each and your students learn?
language, providing you extra help, but there are not quite • How could you involve the families of your non-English–
enough students speaking most of the languages to meet speaking students and students with learning disabilities
the requirements. In addition, you have several students with to support their children’s learning?
M01_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH01.indd 2 21/09/15 4:16 PM

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But the most noteworthy fact concerning Greek
Significance for religion in its relations to Greek morality is this—that it
Greek morality was a religion practically without a priesthood. For
of the absence
of a priestly
there never arose in Greece a priestly class like that in
caste Egypt, in Persia, in India, and in Judea. This is a fact
of supreme importance in the history of Greek morals.
It prevented the growth of a theocratic morality, with its artificial ritual
duties and its conservative tendencies.
It is interesting to note that it was the early rise of philosophy in
the Greek cities of Ionia that saved Hellas from the domination of a
sacerdotal caste. For at the time this philosophy arose the Orphic
doctrines were overspreading Greece. Now this was a priestly
religion, that is, a religion interpreted and administered by priests. Its
triumph in Greece would have meant the establishment of a powerful
national priesthood. This misfortune was prevented by the
intellectual and philosophical movement in Ionia. It is this fact which
leads Professor Bury to pronounce the rise of the study of
philosophy in the Ionian cities one of the most important facts in the
history of Hellas; for “it meant the triumph of reason over mystery; it
led to the discrediting of the Orphic movement; it insured the free
436
political and social progress of Hellas.” And all this meant the
keeping of the ground clear for the upgrowth and development of an
essentially lay or secular morality, a morality that found its sanctions
alone in the human reason and conscience.
The doctrine of There was one conception common to both Greek

race election;
Hellenes and
and Jew which reacted powerfully upon the moral
Barbarians system of each. This was what has been called the
doctrine of race election. The Jews believed
themselves to be the “chosen people.” The Greeks believed the
same concerning themselves. They were the intellectually elect
people. All other peoples were “barbarians.” Just as the Jewish
doctrine of election excluded the Gentile world from the pale of
Jewish moral sympathies, so did the Greek doctrine of separateness
cause the Greek to shut out from his moral sympathies the entire
non-Greek world. We shall see a little further on how this race
egotism dictated large sections of the Greek code of morals.
II. The Ideal
Patriotism the As we have already noticed, it was out of his

cardinal virtue;
relations as a citizen that the primary duties of the
civic and
Greek arose. His supreme duty was patriotism,
military duties
devotion to his city. “Good citizen” and “good man”
were interchangeable terms. And since a state of war rather than of
peace was the normal relation of the Greek cities, the military virtues
held the highest place in the ideal of excellence. “Their bodies,”—
thus Thucydides makes one of his characters speak of the citizen
soldiers of a typical Greek city—“their bodies they devote to their
437
country as though they belonged to other men.” Thus the
preëminent Greek virtue, courage, was almost synonymous with
valor in war. To throw away one’s shield was the last infamy with the
Greeks as with the Romans.
This type of character, blending the civic and the military virtues,
is presented to us with incomparable charm in Plutarch’s Lives. Here
we see the ideal in actual flesh and blood. It is the altruistic element
in this type of character which renders it so morally attractive.
The Greek virtue For we should not fail to note that in the Greek
of courage a
form of our
enumeration of the virtues, the virtue of self-sacrifice,
virtue of self- which we give the first place in our own moral ideal, is
sacrifice 438
hidden under courage or fortitude. With us this
virtue expresses itself in a great variety of forms; with the Greeks, in
one form chiefly—self-devotion on the battlefield. This altruism, it is
true, was narrow; it did not look beyond one’s own city; but
notwithstanding this limitation it was genuine altruism, for facing
death in battle, as Aristotle says, is “the greatest and noblest of
439
perils.” This ready self-devotion of the individual to the common
interests of his city was the most attractive feature of Greek morality.
It formed the basis of Greek civilization. When this virtue was lost the
Greek city perished, and with it Greek civilization passed away.
Among all the cities of Greece, Sparta realized most perfectly the
military virtues of the Greek ideal. The great place so long held by
her in the ancient world she won through the loyalty of her citizens to
the soldier’s ideal of obedience, courage, and self-devotion. The
conduct of Leonidas and his companions in the pass of Thermopylæ
not only had a bracing effect upon Greek character for generations,
but has never ceased, through the inspiration of example, to add to
the sum total in the world of loyalty to duty.
The virtues of To the virtue of self-sacrifice, under the guise of

temperance and
justice
fortitude, or the facing of danger or the endurance of
pain in a worthy cause, the Greeks added
temperance, justice, and wisdom.
The Greek virtue of temperance or moderation was essentially the
same as our virtue of self-control or self-denial. It meant measure in
440
all things, the avoidance of the too much and the too little.
Everything must be in fair proportion. In building a house one should
not go “beyond bounds in size, magnificence, and expense.” In
conduct likewise the mean must always be the aim. Restraint must
be laid upon one’s appetites and desires. Excessive ambition was a
grave fault, as was an undue lack of ambition.
The Greek conception of justice was this: Do no wrong, and suffer
no wrong to self or to others—with the emphasis on the latter part of
441
the injunction. Christianity shifted the emphasis to the first part of
the commandment.
The virtue of By the term “wisdom” the Greeks covered very

wisdom; mental
self-culture a
nearly what we mean by mental self-culture. Now
duty there has been a wide divergence of opinion among
different peoples respecting this matter. Primitive
races can of course have no feeling of obligation as to intellectual
self-culture; but even a people as advanced in civilization as the
Romans may have little or no conscience concerning it. Throughout
a great part of the medieval age in Europe mental culture was looked
upon with suspicion. Very few regarded it as a duty. But since the
Renaissance, that is, since the rebirth in the European world of the
Greek spirit, intellectual culture has been coming to be regarded
more and more as an urgent and imperious duty. It is to the ancient
Greeks, as implied in what we have just said, that we are largely
indebted for this ethical feeling. To the truly representative Greek the
ethical imperative to seek self-realization called especially for the
development of the mind, “his true self.” Mere intellectual curiosity,
love of knowledge for its own sake, was, it is true, one of the creative
forces of Greek intellectualism; but the ethical motive was ever near.
In the Socratic philosophy indeed it is made the dominant motive for
the reason that virtuous conduct is by Socrates held to be dependent
upon knowledge, the knowledge of things as they really are, things
human and divine. With the philosopher the gaining of this
knowledge is the aim and end of life.
The Asceticism, a chief characteristic of which is the

development of
conception that there is something meritorious in the
the body a duty;
the ethical illtreatment or neglect of the body, is one of the most
element in striking phenomena in the moral history of mankind.
Greek
athleticism The Oriental peoples especially have ever been easily
persuaded, under the influence of religious ideas, that
the body should be illtreated in the interest of the spirit.
In passing from Asia to Greece we seem to enter a new ethical
atmosphere. We leave behind every trace of asceticism. We are no
longer surrounded by unkempt, gaunt, hollow-eyed fakirs,
anchorites, and monks. In Greek thought, as we have seen, there
was no trace of that Oriental idea of a warring between body and
spirit. This happy consciousness of the Greek of harmony in his own
being had most important consequences for Greek morality. It made
the development of the body, equally with that of the soul, an ethical
requirement. The outcome was Greek athleticism, one of the most
attractive phases of Hellenic civilization.
We do not mean to say that moral feeling was to the same degree
active in calling into existence Greek athleticism that religious-ethical
feeling was active in the creation of Oriental asceticism, but simply
that the ethical motive held a place among the various motives and
sentiments at work. Without this motive the Olympian games and the
other sacred festivals into which athletic exercises and competitions
entered, would never have won the place they held in Greek life and
culture. When in later times these festivals, subjected to commercial
and mercenary influences, lost wholly or in part this religious-ethical
element, then they lost also their distinctive character, and that
morally wholesome and uplifting influence which they had exercised
upon the Greek world throughout the best days of Hellas.
Identification of Just as the cultured Greek brought the intellectual

moral goodness
with beauty
domain of life within the province of morals, so
likewise did he with the æsthetic. It was not merely his
æsthetic sense which was offended by ugliness in form, but also his
moral sense. To the Greek mind, to love beauty, sensuous and
spiritual, and to be beautiful was synonymous with being good. “He
who is beautiful to look upon,” says Sappho, “is good; and who is
442
good will soon be beautiful.” “The beautiful,” comments Wuttke in
speaking of this phase of Greek ethics, “is per se the good; in
443
enjoying and creating the beautiful man is moral.” “The ‘good’ and
the ‘beautiful’”—thus G. Lowes Dickinson sums up the Greek view
—“were one and the same thing; that is the first and the last word of
444
the Greek ideal.”
This identification by the Greeks of goodness with beauty is one
of the most important matters in Greek ethics. For the conception
was not with them an inert thing. Greek civilization in all its phases
was in a great measure the expression of this conviction. The
Greeks filled the world with beautiful things because to create beauty
was with them an ethical as well as an æsthetic impulse and
necessity. They felt the holiness of beauty.
All the particular requirements of Greek morality,
Live according some of the most important of which we have now
to nature sums briefly commented upon, are summed up in the
up all moral formula, Live conformably to nature. The idea here
requirements
embodied of what constitutes man’s full duty springs
naturally from the doctrine that man’s nature is essentially good. If
that nature be good, then virtuousness will consist in the well-
rounded symmetrical development of all the capacities of body and
mind. Pindar’s profound injunction, “Be what you are,” embodies the
essence of the teachings of the Greek moralists. They taught that
man fulfills his destiny by becoming what he is in his innermost being
445
—by complete self-realization.
III. Limitations and Defects of the Ideal
Its aristocratic A chief defect of Greek ethics was its aristocratic

character spirit. So many were the classes excluded in whole or
in part from the moral field that Greek morality was almost as much a
class morality as that of Brahmanic India. Entire races and classes
were as completely outside the moral pale as is the Indian pariah. It
was only the higher cultured classes of citizens who, the moral
philosophers taught, were capable of attaining the noblest virtues
and living the truly moral life. All others were regarded as living on a
semimoral or nonmoral animal plane of existence.
The exclusion of Thus throughout a great part of the historic period

non-Greek races
from the moral
the Greeks virtually excluded all non-Greek peoples
sphere 446
from the moral domain. They regarded these non-
Hellenic folk about as we regard animals, or as many a few
generations ago looked upon the black race. They thought it right for
them to make unprovoked war upon such people and to make slaves
of those they might capture. Aristotle taught that to hunt barbarians
for the purpose of getting slaves was just as right and proper as to
447
hunt animals for food or sacrifice. In a word, non-Greeks were
regarded as being practically outside the pale of humanity.
The exclusion of The moral status of the slave in ancient Greece

slaves
was determined by the fact that slaves were usually
448
barbarians. Since as non-Greeks they were already outside the
moral pale, it followed naturally that as slaves they had no standing
in the court of morals. Their status was almost the same as that of
domestic animals. The Greek master never felt that he owed any
moral duties to his slaves, though kind and merciful treatment of
them was enjoined by the philosophers and moralists. According to
Aristotle, the relation of slave and master is a purely natural one, like
that of body and soul. He calls slaves “living instruments.”
The exclusion of Out of the family relationships arise a large part of

the domestic the duties making up the moral code of the modern
sphere
Western world, while in the atmosphere of the
domestic circle are nourished many of what we regard as the most
sacred and attractive of the virtues. Now these family virtues, which
we esteem so highly, found only a very subordinate place in the
Greek ideal of character, for the reason that the family, like the clan
and the tribe, was almost absorbed by the city. In Sparta the family
and family life practically disappeared. In Plato’s ideal republic the
family is sacrificed to the state.
The status of the wife in most of the Greek cities was a low one.
She was practically one of the slaves. Ethical sentiment, as was true
of the sentiment of romantic love, seems to have been almost wholly
lacking in the marriage relation.
Infancy, in its earliest stages, was in general never brought
449
beneath the protecting ægis of the moral sentiment. In the
practice of the exposure of ill-formed, weak, defective, or
unpromising newborn infants the Greeks, like the Romans, never
advanced much beyond the standpoint of barbarians. This
abandonment or destruction by parents of their offspring did not
offend the common conscience. Even the philosophers and moralists
saw nothing in the practice to censure. Evidence of how general the
custom was, is afforded by various tales and dramas which turn on
the rescue of the hero in his infancy after having been cast out to
450 451
die. The story of King Œdipus is typical.
In this connection a word must be said regarding chastity. We find
here one of the most serious defects of Greek morality. The virtue of
chastity was given a very low place, hardly any place at all, in the
Greek ideal of character. It was the undervaluing of this virtue that
without doubt was one of the contributing causes of the decline and
early decay of Greek civilization.
Another equally grave defect in the Greek moral character was
lack of respect for the aged. Save at Sparta and Athens, age was not
452
reverenced in ancient Greece. In this respect the Greeks stood
almost on a level with most primitive races.
The disesteem A marked characteristic of Greek ethical feeling

of industrial
virtues
was a deep prejudice against manual and commercial
occupations as unworthy of freemen. Aristotle taught
that there was “no room for moral excellence” in the trades and
453
employments of artisans, traders, and laborers. Even artists like
Phidias and Polyclitus were looked upon as “miserable
454
handicraftsmen.” Plato in his Laws says: “He who in any way
shares in the illiberality of retail trade may be indicted by any one
who likes for dishonoring his race, before those who are judged to be
first in virtue; and if he appear to throw dirt upon his father’s house,
—by an unworthy occupation,—let him be imprisoned for a year and
455
abstain from that sort of thing.” In some cities the person who
engaged in trade was disqualified for citizenship, and in others no
mechanic or field laborer could enter the place where the freemen
met.
This feeling that labor is degrading came in after the Homeric
Age, with the rule of the oligarchs, and was the natural and inevitable
outcome of slavery. The effect of slavery is to make work seem
ignoble and servile, and to cause the industrial virtues to assume a
low place in the moral ideal, or to drop out of it entirely. The high
place assigned the industrial virtues in the moral ideals of ancient
Persia and Israel was due probably as largely to the subordinate
place which slavery held in those countries as to the influence of
religious doctrines and physical environment.
Another ground for the feeling was that hard, coarse work
destroys the suppleness and mars the beauty and symmetry of the
body; and this to the Greek way of thinking was sufficient reason
why the freeman—to use Plato’s phrase—“should abstain from that
sort of thing.”
Still another reason for the feeling that the retail trades were
unworthy of citizens was the conviction that this kind of business had
“a strong tendency to make men bad.” The small merchants and
456
traders in Greece certainly bore a very bad reputation, and it is
probable that the public disesteem of their occupation and the
contempt in which they themselves were held had the same sinister
influence upon them that the similar feeling in Old Japan had upon
457
the petty trader there.
Revenge In nothing did the ordinary Greek moral

reckoned as a
virtue
consciousness differ more widely from the Christian
than in the matter of forgiving injuries. This was one of
the virtues brought in by Christianity which to the Greek mind was
foolishness. To the Greek the taking of revenge upon an enemy was
a duty. A man should render himself useful to his friends and
dangerous to his enemies. The Greek orator, in order to justify his
resentment toward any one, always took pains to show that he had
been injured in some way by the person, and hence had good
ground for wishing to do him evil. Indeed, one who neglected to take
revenge upon his personal enemy was looked upon as a weak,
458
pusillanimous creature.
But out of this virtue of revenge, paradoxically enough, arose the
virtue of forgiveness; for revenge was limited by the requirements of
the virtue of moderation or self-restraint. The person seeking
revenge for an injury must set reasonable bounds to his thirst for
vengeance. Hence when the age of reflection came there were
teachers of spiritual insight who, regarding the matter from this point
of view, saw forgiveness to be a virtue because it required in the one
459
forgiving great self-conquest and self-control.
Low estimation Another serious defect in the ordinary Greek moral

of truthfulness
standard was the low place assigned to the virtue of
veracity. The Greeks, in marked contrast to the ancient Persians,
had only a very feeble sense of the sanctity of the plighted word.
Untruthfulness was ingrained in the nation. The Homeric heroes
were full of guile and deceit, and the historic Greeks were little better.
They had throughout the ancient world a well-earned reputation for
disregard of promises and oaths. When it seemed to them necessary
to lie in order to gain a desired end, then lying appeared to them
justifiable. Scythas, tyrant of Zancle, if we may judge from a story
told by Herodotus, was the only Greek who kept his word to Darius.
This man was in exile at Susa. He obtained from the king
permission, presumably on parole, to visit Sicily, and honorably
returned to Persia. The conduct of Scythas in this matter must have
been exceptional, for, in the words of Herodotus, “him Darius
regarded the most upright of all the Greeks to whom he afforded a
460
refuge.”
The great moral teachers of Greece recognized this defect in the
moral character of their countrymen and sought to correct it by
extolling the virtue of truthfulness. After the Persian war a class of
men arose, historians and philosophers, whom Schmidt, because of
their reverence for truth, calls the ancestors of the modern men of
461
science. Thucydides had the same sense of the sanctity of
exactness in statement of fact as has the historian of to-day.
Socrates died rather than cloak the truth before his judges. Aristotle
said, “Friends and truth are both dear to us, but it is a sacred duty to
462
prefer the truth.”
IV. The Moral Evolution
The morality of The historical starting point of the moral evolution in

the Homeric Age
Greece is the morality of the Homeric Age. This
morality we find incarnated in the heroes of the time, Achilles and
Odysseus, for, as Wundt observes, “the inmost moral convictions of
a people are shown far more plainly in the character of its heroes
463
than in its gods.”
The qualities of character with which, as worthy of admiration, the
poet invests his heroes show that, notwithstanding the great
advance already achieved in many of the arts of life, in morality the
Greeks of this age were still in some respects on a level with
savages. Thus the poet extols the “good Autolycus” for his skill in
464
thievery and perjury. But stealing and lying, as with uncivilized
people generally, to be proper and right, must be adroit and “for the
good of friends and the harm of enemies.” Piracy was an honorable
465
occupation. The bodies of enemies slain in battle were
466
maltreated, as is the wont of savages. Conceptions of deity were
crude and unethical, the gods being represented as capricious,
profligate, partial, and unjust.
But there was a sound core in this morality. Clan virtues were
firmly inwrought in character. The virtue of loyalty to comrades was
strong; the ethical qualities of courage and self-devotion for the
common good, and of hospitality to strangers were well developed;
and the domestic virtues of chastity and constancy in woman are
portrayed in such a way as to show that, if not common, they were at
least held in high esteem and reverence.
From the Homeric Age onward there was a
Reprobation by progressive purification of the moral feelings. One
the evidence of this ethical progress is found in the
philosophers
and later poets
repudiation by the later moral consciousness of the
of the Homeric primitive myths of the gods. These tales, as we have
tales of the gods just noted, were coarse, sensual, and immoral. The
philosophers of the sixth and following centuries, and the poets of
this later time, denounced these stories as unworthy and unethical
conceptions of deity. Pythagoras is said, upon his return from Hades,
to have reported seeing there the souls of Homer and Hesiod
undergoing punishment for what they had said of the gods. Pindar
purges the tales of their grosser immoral elements. Others sought to
relieve the poets of the charge of impiety by reading the myths as
allegories. The Sophists and Stoics moralized them, giving them an
467
ethical aim and purpose. Plato, in reprobating what Hesiod says
of Uranus, declared it “the greatest of all lies in high places.” He
would strike out from the poets all passages in which they told these
lies about the gods and heroes, before allowing the boys and men to
468
read them. In the hands of the later Attic tragedians the whole
traditionary religious mythology was spiritualized and given a deeper
ethical content and meaning.
This purifying of the Greek moral consciousness finds an exact
parallel in what is taking place in the modern Christian world
respecting the conceptions of deity found in the early chronicles of
the Hebrew Bible and transmitted as a religious bequest to the
European peoples. These ideas of God are rejected by the truer
moral consciousness of to-day as the crude notions of a gross and
morally immature age. Just as this modern rejection of these
unworthy primitive conceptions of the divine character register our
own moral advance, so does the rejection, by the later Greek
thinkers and teachers, of the Homeric and Hesiodic conceptions of
the gods register the advance in ethical thought in Greece during the
interval that separates the era of these poets from the Solonian and
Platonic Ages.
In an earlier chapter we spoke of the continuance
Ethical theory of life after death, and of the retribution theory
significance of 469
the transition as marking an advance upon this in ethical feeling.
from the At the opening of the historical period in Greece we
continuance to find the primitive unethical continuance theory in
the retribution
theory existence, but in a state of transition into the
retribution theory. The early Greek Hades, like the
Babylonian Arallu and the Hebrew Sheol, was a place where moral
distinctions were not recognized. The same phantom life was the lot
of all alike who went down to the world of shadows. The Elysian
Fields, it is true, had already been created, but these were simply a
sort of aristocratic heaven, a “Greek Valhalla,” the abode of the great
470
heroes of the race; and Tartarus also had been called into
existence, but this was a prison house only for those who had
incurred the special enmity of the gods. The fables of Tantalus, Ixion,
and the Danaïdes show that the belief in an after life had no ethical
471
significance for the masses.
But already in Pindar these ideas of the after life, through virtue of
472
an ethical necessity, have undergone great changes. Just as the
poet moralizes the Homeric conception of the gods, so does he
moralize the Homeric conception of the underworld. Alongside the
continuance theory we find now the retribution theory. The life
beyond the grave is conceived as a life of rewards and punishments.
The Elysian Fields have been “opened to moral worth,” and a
tribunal, called into existence by a growing moral consciousness like
that which created the Egyptian Judgment of the Dead, has been set
up, and Rhadamanthus apportions the destiny of souls according to
473
their merit and demerit. From the Persian war on, the life after
death had ethical significance for all men, and not simply for
exceptional cases. In the literature there are allusions in growing
numbers to the retribution awaiting the wicked and the blessedness
in store for those “unstained with vice.”
In Plato this moral evolution attains a stage almost identical with
that reached by medieval Christian ethics. We find in the Republic a
threefold division of the realm of the dead corresponding closely to
474
the Schoolmen’s purgatory, heaven, and hell. Punishment is
conceived as having for aim and end, in all save cases of
abominable and incurable wickedness, the purification of earth-
stained souls.
All these modifications in the topography, the classifications, and
the arrangements of the underworld, like the similar changes
effected by the modern spirit in the medieval conception of hell, were
the work of a gradually clarifying moral sense, and bear witness to
the progressive development of Greek ethical thought between the
Homeric and the Alexandrian Age.
The evolution ofThe early Greeks held a doctrine known as the

the doctrine of
Envy of the Gods. They imagined that the gods were
divine envy into
envious of the great and prosperous. Hence they
that of Nemesis
thought it was the envy of the gods which brought
about the undoing of the great and powerful. Their prayer for a friend
enjoying an unusual run of good fortune was, “May the gods not
become envious.” We find this doctrine embodied in the Herodotean
story of Crœsus, king of Lydia, whose long career of unbroken and
dazzling prosperity ends at last in dreadful reverses and sudden
475
downfall. The same belief colors the advice which Herodotus
represents Artabanus, the uncle of Xerxes, as giving the king, who
was meditating an attack on the Greek cities. The immoderate
ambition of the king, in view of the envious nature of the gods, had
awakened the apprehension of the old and experienced counselor,
and he labored to dissuade the king from engaging in so vast a
project. “Dost thou not notice,” said he, “how the lightning smites
always the highest buildings and the tallest trees. Thus often the
mighty host is overthrown by lightning sent by the jealous gods; for
the gods are jealous of mortals, and will allow no one unduly to exalt
476
himself.” There is here no suggestion of an ethical element. The
envious gods overthrow things simply and solely because they are
big and tall and cast them into the shade.
At a still later period the Athenian general Nicias gives memorable
expression to this belief in his speech to his disheartened troops
before Syracuse. He bade them take cheer from their wretched
plight because the envious gods must certainly be disarmed by the
477
sight of their woeful condition and would now pity and help.
But alongside this unethical doctrine of the Envy of the Gods the
Greeks held another, which seems to have been simply a
modification and outgrowth of the earlier crude conception of deity.
This was the doctrine of Nemesis. There was here full recognition of
the vicissitudes of human life. The great and the overpowerful are
indeed destroyed by the gods,—there was no denying the fact,—but
not merely because they are great, but because their greatness and
their prosperity has made them self-confident, insolent, overbearing.
In their blind arrogance they have overstepped the limits of
moderation; hence their downfall wrought by the gods.
It was under the spell of this belief that Herodotus wrote his
history of the Persian wars, although, as we have seen, he loved to
rehearse stories which illustrated the doctrine of the envious nature
of the gods. His narrative is in truth a great historical drama
illustrating the moral order of the world and teaching the impressive
lesson of how the gods punish presumptuous pride and overvaulting
ambition. The historian prepares his pious readers for the final
catastrophe by showing in vivid portrayal the transactions at the
Hellespont. The swift current of the strait has broken the bridge of
boats laid upon the waters by Xerxes. The all-powerful and
audacious king orders that the sacred Hellespont be scourged with
three hundred lashes, that fetters be cast into the rebellious waters,
and that they be branded as a slave is marked with branding irons.
All this is done, and the treacherous waters are cursed with
blasphemous words.
Now follows quickly the tragic issue at Salamis of the vast
undertaking, and the return passage of the Hellespont a few months
later by the humbled and fugitive king. All this is the work of
Nemesis, the punisher of those who have lifted up their hearts in
insufferable pride and arrogance.
It is not alone in the dramatized history of Herodotus that we are
able to trace the moral effects of the Persian wars in bringing into the
foreground of the Greek consciousness the conception of Nemesis
as the vindicator of the moral government of the world. “After the
battle of Salamis,” in the words of the historian Abbott, “the instability
of human greatness and the punishment of ‘insolence’ echoes as an
478
undertone through all Greek thought.”
This deepened moral feeling of the nation found expression both
in art and in the drama. The order given by the Athenians to Phidias
to carve a statue of Nemesis as a memorial of the war was a
sanction of that interpretation of the Persian overthrow which made it
the work of the avenging goddess. But the fullest expression of this
479
new ethical sentiment is found in Athenian tragedy. Æschylus
was the representative of this moral awakening and advance. The
doctrine of Nemesis colors all his dramas. He was the first to give to
the legend of Niobe, originally merely a tale of the envy of Apollo, an
ethical meaning as an instance of “retribution for presumptuous
480
sin.” His imperishable tragedy Prometheus Bound makes the
sufferings of the Titan to be but the just penalty of his presumption
and self-will. His Agamemnon depicts with tragic intensity the awful
vengeance with which the implacable goddess punishes unnatural
crime. His Persians teaches how Nemesis humbles insolent pride
and “Zeus tames excessive lifting up of heart.”
In the later Thucydides we meet with the same teaching
concerning the moral government of the world. In a memorable
passage of his History of the Peloponnesian War the historian
becomes the moralist and gives his reader a tragic illustration of the
workings of the law of Nemesis. Thucydides is approaching the
chapter in his history which depicts the terrible catastrophe which
befell the Athenians in Sicily. He skillfully foreshadows the coming
tragedy by preluding his narrative of the Sicilian Expedition with an
account of the arrogant and wicked conduct of the Athenians in
driving the Melians from their island home and adding the stolen land
481
to their own empire. This high-handed crime, like the impiety of
the presumptuous Mede at the Hellespont, arouses the avenging
Nemesis. The reader forecasts the future, and in the cruel fate of the
Melians reads the doom of the Athenian army before Syracuse.
This moralizing of the primitive unethical conception of the gods
as envious and unjust, and the evolving therefrom of the morally
advanced doctrine of Nemesis, is an instructive illustration of how, as
time passed, Greek ethical feeling was deepened and Greek ethical
thought was purified and elevated through intellectual progress and
482
the teachings of experience.
Further There was a still further evolution of Greek ethical

moralization of
the doctrine of
thought along the line traced above. The mutations
Nemesis and tragedies of life,—terrible reverses of fortune,
sudden loss of reputation and friends, irremediable
ruin following great prosperity,—these things are by a truer moral
insight recognized as the sign neither of the envy nor of the
483
righteous anger of the gods, but of the divine pity and love. “The
wholesomeness of punishment for the wrongdoer himself is the
484
crown of Æschylean ethics.” Phidias taught the same lofty truth
through carving the myth of Prometheus Unbound on the throne of
his Olympian Zeus. It spoke, as no other scene wrought there, of the
485
moral significance of suffering, of divine mercy and deliverance.
And Plato’s philosophy accords with the Æschylean teaching that
“Zeus has put in suffering sovereign instruction.” “Then this must be
our notion of the just man,” he says, “that even when he is in poverty
or sickness or any other seeming misfortune, all things will in the end
486
work together for good to him in life and death.”
In this ethical interpretation of the vicissitudes of human life, of the
miscarriage of ambitious plans, the wrecking of high hopes, the
Greek thinkers reached at last the same elevated point of view that
487
was attained by the great prophets of the Hebrew race.
The amelioration In the ethics of war a similar though less marked

of war rules and
practices
development in moral feeling is traceable. Aside from
the relapse into the practices of savagery under the
malign influence of the Peloponnesian War, there was throughout
Greek history a slow but steady amelioration of the primitive
barbarities of warfare. In the Homeric Age moral feeling had hardly
begun to exercise its influence in humanizing war and in setting
limits to the rights of the conqueror. The Greeks of Homer were in
some respects almost on the level of savages in their war practices.
The life of the captive was in the hands of his captor, and he might
be slain without offense to the common conscience. Women and
children were, as a matter of course, appropriated by the conqueror
or sold into slavery. Homer relates as something to be gloried in,
how his hero Achilles dragged the body of Hector around the walls of
Troy. Such an act of savagery evidently stirred in the poet’s listeners
488
no feelings of reprobation.
In the historical period the mitigation of the barbarities of war was,
after the protection of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, a chief
object of the celebrated Amphictyonic League. The oath taken by the
members of the league included the following engagement: “We will
not destroy any Amphictyonic town, nor cut it off from running water,
in war or in peace.” This was one of the most noteworthy efforts in
antiquity to lay restraint upon the primitive license of war. Limits are
set to the rights of the conqueror. War begins to have rules.
From the words which Thucydides puts into the mouth of the
Platæans at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, we gather that
at that time the common sentiment of Hellas condemned the
489
slaughter of prisoners of war. At Athens this sentiment had found
embodiment in the laws, which forbade the slaying of war captives.
But under the demoralizing influences of the long and bitter struggle
between Sparta and Athens, the little gain which had been made in
the humanizing of war during the preceding centuries was lost.
Prisoners of war were sold into slavery or killed without the least
490
offense being given to the numbed conscience of Hellas. Even
the terrible massacre, toward the end of the war, of the four
thousand Athenian prisoners at Ægospotami, by the Spartan
491
Lysander, awakened no protest in Greece at large. Never has
492
“the moral damage of war” had a more tragic illustration.
During the century following the Peloponnesian War, however,
there seems to have been a positive advance in this domain. In this
period the grosser atrocities of war were in a measure mitigated by a
growing humanitarian sentiment. But all efforts to humanize war
seem to have been limited to wars between Greek and Greek. From
first to last in Greek history war against barbarians was waged
practically without the least mitigation of its primitive barbarities. It
was the practice of Alexander the Great in his campaigns in Asia to
massacre the men of non-Greek cities taken by assault, and to sell
the women and children as slaves. We hear no protest, even on the
part of the philosophers, against these atrocities so long as it is non-
Greeks who are the victims of them.
But though the efforts of the Greeks to regulate and limit the rights
of the conqueror were confined to wars of Greek against Greek, still
these efforts are significant as a sign of an awakening ethical
sentiment in this domain. This is a prophecy of a future day, distant
though it be, when the growing conscience of mankind shall have
rendered wars between civilized nations an impossible crime.
Efforts to The common Greek conscience never condemned

prevent war by
arbitration
war in itself. There never sprang up in Greece an
agitation like the Peace Movement of to-day in
Christendom. How deeply ingrained in the Greek mind was the
conviction that war is a part of the established order of things is
shown by the fact that their treaties ending open hostilities were
ordinarily drawn for a limited term of years. They were merely truces,
as though peace were only an incident in international relations.
Even the philosophers regarded a state of war as the normal and
natural relation of Hellenes and barbarians. Aristotle, as we have
seen, taught that barbarians might, without moral scruple, be hunted
493
like wild animals. Plato had no word of condemnation of war by
Greek against non-Greek. But the Greeks had an uneasy feeling
respecting the rightfulness of war between Greek and Greek; and
there came a time when the best-instructed conscience of Greece
positively denounced wars of this kind. Plato condemned wars
494
between Hellenes and Hellenes as unnatural. This feeling had a
kind of restraining influence upon the Greek cities, and there are
many instances of arbitration in Greek history. Sometimes a single
person of eminence acted as mediator; but oftener some city or
league like the Delphian Amphictyony was chosen as the arbitrator.
In the Hellenistic Age the Roman Senate frequently undertook the
commission of arbitrating quarrels. The cities concerned were
sometimes bound by oath or by a deposit of money to abide by the
decision. Oftener, however, the decisions rendered, like those by the
Hague Tribunal of to-day, depended for their execution upon the
good will and honor of the states concerned. There are instances
recorded where one or both of the parties refused to abide by the
495
judgment of the arbitrator.
Various motives, it is true, were at work in these arbitration
treaties, but the ethical motive was certainly operative to a greater or
less degree. There was not lacking the feeling, vague though it may
have been, which was later given explicit expression by Plato, that
war between Greek and Greek was wrong and a crime against
Hellenic civilization.
But the most interesting and instructive of all the measures taken
by the Greeks to limit wars among themselves or to fence them
away from a given district was the consecration, by common consent
and agreement, of the land of Elis—wherein was situated the sacred
Olympia—to perpetual peace and the establishment of a truce of
forty days, embracing the festival period of the Olympian games,
during which it was sacrilegious for one Greek city to make war upon
another. With true vision the philosopher-historian Laurent sees in
the little land of Elis, inviolable as a temple, a prophecy of the time
when the whole earth shall be consecrated to perpetual peace—an
496
ideal toward which humanity unceasingly advances.

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Guidelines appear throughout each cluster, providing concrete

A01_WOOL0794_13_SE_FM.indd 7 30/09/15 5:35 PM

AIMEE FREDETTE • Second-Grade Teacher DAN DOYLE • History Teacher, Grade 11

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JENNIFER L. MATZ • Sixth Grade LOU DE LAURO • Fifth-Grade Language Arts

—ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY

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PART II: LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

PART III: TEACHING AND ASSESSING

CLUSTER 14 Teaching Every Student 530

CLUSTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 572

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Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 52 Exercise and Recess 77

3 The Self, Social,

and Moral Development 72 Industry Versus Inferiority 98

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Self-Esteem 106 Learning and Thinking Styles 134

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CLUSTER 5 Language Development, Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 197

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CLUSTER 7 Behavioral Views of Monitoring and Evaluating Progress 279

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Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded for Concepts 310

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Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies

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MODULE 28: Summary 399 MODULE 30: Summary 425

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A01_WOOL0794_13_SE_FM.indd 19 30/09/15 5:35 PM

MODULE 36: Summary 508 Objectives for Learning 536

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MODULE 40: Summary 568 Informal Assessments 590

CLUSTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Retention in Grade 594

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Failure to Self-Regulate 442 Culturally Relevant Teaching 247

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Family and Community Partnerships—Promoting Transfer 365 Teachers as Mentors 564

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M01_WOOL0794_13_SE_CH01.indd 2 21/09/15 4:16 PM

The doctrine of There was one conception common to both Greek

II. The Ideal

Patriotism the As we have already noticed, it was out of his

The virtues of To the virtue of self-sacrifice, under the guise of

The virtue of By the term “wisdom” the Greeks covered very

The Asceticism, a chief characteristic of which is the

Identification of Just as the cultured Greek brought the intellectual

III. Limitations and Defects of the Ideal

Its aristocratic A chief defect of Greek ethics was its aristocratic

The exclusion of Thus throughout a great part of the historic period

The exclusion of The moral status of the slave in ancient Greece

The exclusion of Out of the family relationships arise a large part of

The disesteem A marked characteristic of Greek ethical feeling

Revenge In nothing did the ordinary Greek moral