XI Class Physics Notes Topic wise

Ayaz Ali Official (YOUTUBE)
Mathematics and Physics Walla
XI-Physics
By
Ayaz Ali Pitafi
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CHAPTER#01
THE SCOPE OF PHYSICS
SCIENCE
The experimental investigation and theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon is named
as "Science"
The subject of science is classified into two main branches.
Main Branches of Science:
i. Physical sciences
ii. Biological sciences
Physical Sciences:
Physical sciences deal with the properties and behavior of non-living things.
The main branches of physical sciences are:
1. Physics
2. Chemistry
3. Geology etc.
Biological Sciences:
Biological sciences deal with the living things.
The main branches of biological sciences are:
1. Zoology
2. Botany
3. Physiology etc.
Definition of Physics:
The branch of physical sciences which deals with the study about "Matter" and "Energy" and
also interaction between them is called "PHYSICS". It is based on experimental observations and
quantitative measurements.
Branches of Physics:
Following are some important branches of physics;
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
1 Mechanics 8 Solid State physics
2 Electricity 9 Electronics
3 Magnetism 10 Plasma Physics
4 Electromagnetism 11 Astro physics
5 Atomic and Molecular physics 12 Thermodynamics
6 Nuclear physics 13 Spectroscopy
7 Particle physics 14 Optics and many more
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CONTRIBUTIONS OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS IN PHYSICS
Contributions of Abu Ali Hassan lbn-Al-Haitham:
1. He gave two laws of reflection of light.
2. He described the nature of light and declares it as a form of energy and gave the formal
definition of ray of light.
3. He constructed pin hole camera and managed it to obtain the images of solar Eclipse.
4. He described the formation of image using spherical mirrors.
5. He wrote a book "kitab-ul-manazir", which is the first book on optics.
Contributions of Yaqub lbne Ishaq-Alkindi:
1. He discussed the nature of sound.
2. He discovered the method to express the notes of music in terms of frequencies.
3. He produced several research monographs on meteorology, specific gravity and on tides
4. He worked in geometrical optics.
5. He explained clearly the idea that gold cannot be made from other metals.
6. He wrote many books on mathematics, astronomy, medicine and other subjects
Contributions of Abu Rehan Muhammad Bin Ahmed Al-Beruni:
1. He practically proved that earth is round and not flat.
2. He measured the circumference of earth.
3. He discussed the movement of the sun, the moon and the other planets and also the phases
4. He gave the method of determining the Longitude and Latitude of a place.
5. He found densities of various metals.
6. His famous book "kitab-ul-Qanoon-ul-Masoodi" is considered as Encyclopedia of
Astronomy.
Contributions of Al-Khawarizmi:
1. He was founder of analytical algebra.
2. His famous book "Hisab-ul-Jubr-wal-Muqabla" is the first book on algebra.
3. He invented the term Logarithm (Algorithm).
Contributions of Omer Khayyam:
1. He is a mathematician.
2. He is the only man who was both a poet and a mathematician.
Contributions of Al-Razi:
1. He was the most prominent and greatest physician.
2. He wrote about 200 original monographs, half of which pertained to medicine.
Contributions of ibne-Sina:
1. He was famous for his original research in the field of medicine.
2. He discovered the use of catheters.
3. He gave intravenous injections by means of a silver syringe.
4. He wrote medical text book "Al-Qanon-Fit-Tib"
5. He wrote "Al-Shifa" an encyclopedia of philosophy.

Contributions of Dr. Abdus Salam:
1) He presented "Grand Unification Theory (GUT)" in which he was united the properties of
Gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear fields.
2) He expressed the characteristics of Gravitation, Electromagnetism and Nuclear Physics with
one set of equations.
3) He established the international centre for theoretical physics at Trieste, Italy where scientists
from developing countries are given chances for research.
4) Hi is the first Pakistani scientist who was awarded by Nobel prize.
Contributions of Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan:
1) He was selected as research assistant in the university of Holland.
2) He worked as an expert at Urenco Enrichment Plant in Holland as a Joint Venture of the
Government of Holland.
3) He contributed in making Pakistan a nuclear state.
MEASUREMENT
Measurement means the comparison of an unknown quantity with a standard to see how
many times it is big or small as compared to the standard.
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
All such measureable quantities which are used to specify the physical properties of an object
or a system are called physical quantities.
For example; Mass, Length, Time, Velocity, Acceleration and Force etc.
All physical quantities are divided into two groups,
1. Fundamental Quantities 2. Derived Quantities
In physics length, mass and time are supposed to be the main fundamental quantities since
scientists all over the world have recognized that all physical quantities in mechanics can be
expressed in terms of these fundamental quantities.
To measure a physical quantity we need a certain unit. There are two types of units.
1. Fundamental Units:
“The units used to express fundamental quantities are known as fundamental Units
2. Derived Units:
“The units used to express the physical quantities that are derived from fundamental
quantities, are called Derived Units”
SI Fundamental (OR) Base Quantities With Their Units
Symbol For
Physical Quantities Name Of Unit Symbol For Unit
Quantity
Length 𝜄 Meter M
Mass m Kilogram Kg
Time t Second S
Electric Current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity I𝜐 Candela Cd
Amount Of Substance N Mole Mol

Physical Quantities, Coefficients and Constants and Their S.I Units
S.N Name of Quantity Symbol SI Unit Symbol
1 Mass m Kilogram Kg
2 Length I Meter m
3 Distance S Metre m
4 Displacement → Metre m
∆𝑟
5 Time T Second S
6 Area A Meter Square m2
7 Volume V Metre Cube m3
8 Density 𝜌(row) Kilogram Per Meter Cube Kg/m3
9 Speed v Metre Per Second m/s
10 Velocity → Metre Per Second m/s

𝑉
11 Acceleration → Metre Per Second Square m/s2

𝑎
12 Acceleration → Metre Per Second Square m/s2

𝑔
13 Force → Newton N
𝐹
14 Weight → Newton N
𝑊
15 Linear Momentum → Kilogram meter per second Kg/m/s

𝑝
16 Torque → (tau) Newton metre N.m

𝜏
17 Centripetal Acceleration → Metre per second square m/s2

𝑎𝑐
18 Centripetal Force → Newton N

𝐹𝑐
Newton Metre per second

19 Gravitational Constant G Nm2Kg2
square
20 Energy E Joule J
21 Work W Joule J
22 Kinetic Energy KE Joule J
23 Potential Energy PE Joule J
24 Power P Watt Watt

25 Wave length 𝜆(Lambda) Metre M
26 Frequency f Hertz Hz
27 Tension → Newton N
𝑇
28 Pressure → Newton Per Metre Square N/m2

𝑃
29 Heat Δ𝑄 Joule J
30 Temperature T Kelvin K
31 Specific Heat c Joule Per Kilogram Kelvin J./Kg.k
32 Heat Capacity C Joule Per Kelvin J/k
33 Amount of Substance N Mole mol
34 Gas Constant R Joule Per Mole Kelvin J/mol.k
35 Stress 𝜎 Newton Per Metre Square N/m2
36 Strain 𝜀 Nil -
37 Young’s Modulus Y Newton Per Metre Square N/m2
38 Time Period T Second S
39 Amplitude 𝑋𝑂 Metre m
40 Power of Lens P Diopter Diop
41 Focal Length f Metre m
42 Electric Charge Q Coulomb C
43 Potential Difference V Volt V
44 Capacitance C Farad F
45 Electromotive Force e.m.f (E) Volt V
46 Electric Current I Ampere A
47 Resistance R Ohm Ω(omega)
48 Luminous Intensity I𝜐 Candela Cd

Coefficient of Linear Heat
49 𝛼 Per Kelvin 1/K(K-1)
Expansion
Coefficient of Volumetric
50 𝛽 Per Kelvin 1/K(K-1)
Heat Expansion

SYSTEM OF UNITS
A set of fundamental and derived unit is known as a “system of unit”.
There are four systems of units being used in scientific work.
i) M.K.S System
ii) C.G.S System
iii) British Engineering System (or) F.P.S System
iv) System International (SI)
i) M.K.S System:
In this system Metre, Kilogram and Second are the fundamental units for Length, Mass and
Time respectively.
ii) C.G.S System:
In this system Centimetre, Gram and Second are the fundamental Units for Length, Mass and
Time respectively.
iii) British Engineering System (or) F.P.S System:
It is an old system of units, in this system Length, Force and Time are fundamental quantities
and their units are Foot, Pound and Second respectively.
In this system Mass in not a fundamental quantity it is derived and its unit is “Slug” which is
derived from the unit of force i.e. Pound.
1 Slug = 32.17 Pound = 14.59 kg
iv) System International (S.I):
In this system seven quantities have been accepted as fundamental quantities. They are
Length, Mass, Time, Electric Current, Amount of Substance, Temperature and Luminous Intensity.
PREFIXES OF UNITS AND THEIR VALUES

Prefix Symbol Value Notation
Exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
LARGE PREFIXES
Peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015

Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109
Mega M 1,000,000 106
Kilo K 1,000 103
Hector H 1,00 102
Deka da 10 101
Deci d 0.1 10-1
SMALL PREFIXES
Centi c 0.01 10-2

Milli m 0.001 10-3
Micro μ 0.000001 10-6
Nano n 0.000000001 10-9
Pico p 0.0000000000001 10-12
Femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15
Atto a 0.000000000000000001 10-18

DIMENSIONS
The word dimension has special meaning in physics. It is used to denote the nature of
physical quantity. Whether a distance is measured in any unit eg. Metres, miles or even light year. It
is always a distance and its dimension is length.
The symbols L, M and T are the symbols usually used to specify the dimensions of length,
mass and time respectively. The dimension of any physical quantity can always be expressed as
some combination of the fundamental quantities, such as mass, length and time.
Note:
i. By addition or subtraction, dimensions remain unchanged.
Eg. (a) L + L = L (b L – L = L (c) 3M + 2M = M (d) 5T – T = T
ii. By multiplication or division, dimension are changed.
Eg. (a) L × L = L2 (b) L/L = 1 (c) 2T × 3T = T2 (d) 5M2 × 3M3 = M5
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Those digits in a number which are known to be reasonably reliable or show the accuracy are
called significant figures.
Examples:
The length of an object is recorded as 16.7cm. This measurement is an approximation to the
nearest length of a centimeter and its exact value lies between 16.65 and 16.75cm. If this
measurement is exact to the hundredth of a centimeter. It would have been recorded as 16.70cm.
The value 16.7 represents three significant figures (1, 6, 7). While the other value of 16.70m
represents four significant figures (1, 6, 7, 0).
Rules For Finding Significant Figures:
i. If the number is written in exponent form (scientific notation), all digits are significant.
Eg. 2.35 × 105 (no. of significant figures = 3)
5.410 × 106 (no. of significant figures = 4)
ii. All non-zero digits are significant.
Eg. 382 (no. of significant figures = 3)
5.148 (no. of significant figures = 4)
iii. Zeros at the end of whole numbers are significant.
152000 (no. of significant figures = 6)
iv. All zeros to the immediate right of the decimal are significant only when there is a significant
figure to the text of the decimal, otherwise they are insignificant.
Eg. 0.025 (no. of significant figures = 2)
v. All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.
5102007 (no. of significant figures = 7)

Addition and Subtraction:
The answer should have the same number of figures to the right of the decimal point as does
the least precisely known number being added or subtracted.
Examples:
i) 25.340 ii) 58.0 iii) 4.20 iv) 415.5 v) 8.52 vi) 12.183
5.465 0.0038 1.6523 3.64 – 5.3 – 8.31
+ 0.322 0.00001 + 0.015 + 0.238
31.127 58.00381 5.8673 419.378 3.22 3.873
(Ans) = 58.0 = 5.87 = 419.4 = 3.2 (Ans) = 3.87
(Ans) (Ans) (Ans)
Multiplication and Division:
The result should be rounded off to contain only as many significant figures as are contained
in the least exact factor.
Examples:
i) 5.21 × 0.2 = 1.042 = 1 (Ans)
ii) 12.14 × 3.2 = 38.848 = 39 (Ans)
iii) 85.2 × 71.5 = 6091.8 = 6.09 × 103 (Ans)
iv) 25 × 172.1 = 4302.5 = 4.3 × 103 (Ans)
v) 84 ÷ 12.5 = 6.72 (Ans)
vi) 25 ÷ 8.9 = 2.8089888 = 2.8 (Ans)
vii) 1.34 ÷ 0.006 = 223.33333 = 2 × 102 (Ans)
Trigonometric functions:
The value of trigonometric functions have the same number of significant figures as their
arguments.
Examples:
i) Sin35° = 0.57
Sin35.0° = 0.574

CHAPTER#02
SCALARS & VECTORS
Differences Between Scalars and Vectors
SCALARS VECTORS
The quantities which only a magnitude and The quantities which have a magnitude, a
1 unit of measurement are called scalars 1 unit of measurement and a direction are
called vectors.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied Vectors can be added, subtracted and
2 and divided according to ordinary 2 multiplied according to special rules.
arthemetical rules.
A scalar can be divided by another scalar. A vector cannot be divided by another
3 3
arrow.
4 Scalars can be represented by a number 4 Vectors can be represented by an arrow
Following are some scalar quantities Following are some vector quantities,
Mass, Time, Length, Speed, Area, Volume, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Momentum,
5 5
Energy, Temperature, Current, Density and Torque, Displacement, Weight and Tension
Work etc. etc.
Graphical Representation of A vector:

A vector is represented by an arrow drawn parallel to the vector. The length of the arrow, on a
suitable scale, indicates the magnitude of the vector and the arrow-head gives its direction.
Example:
Suppose a car travels a distance of 30km towards east. To represent this displacement vector first
we indicate the directions.
i.e.
secondly we select a suitable scale.

e.g. 10lm = 1cm. A directed line segment, 3 cm in length, drawn parallel to east direction which
represents the displacement vector of 30km towards east.
3cm
→
Multiplication of a Vector By A Number (Scalar):
When a vector is multiplied by a number (i.e. scalar), it remains a vector.
Multiplication of a Vector By A Positive Number:
If a vector is multiplied by positive number “n”, the new vector has a magnitude n times the
magnitude of the original vector and its direction remains the same.
Multiplication of a Vector By A Negative Number:
If a vector is multiplied by a negative number “-n”, the new vector has a magnitude n times the
magnitude of the original vector and its direction is opposite to the original vector.
⃗⃗V ⃗F
→ →
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2V ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
−2F
→ ←
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Negative Of A vector:
If we reverse the direction of a vector without changing its magnitude or multiply a vector by -1 it
becomes a negative of the vector.
⃗⃗
A
→
⃗⃗
−A
→
ADDITION OF VECTORS
There are two mains methods of addition of vectors
(1) Geometrical Method (2) Trigonometric Method
Geometrical Method or Graphical method:
It is based on:
(1)Head to tail rule (2) Law of parallelogram
Trigonometric Method:
It is based on:
(1) Rectangular components method (2) Analytical method
Head to Tail Rule of Vector Addition:

The resultant of two or more than two vectors acting along different directions can be obtained by
drawing representative vector line in such a way that the head of the first vector concides with the tail of
second vector, then the head of second vector concides with the tail of the third vector and so on. The line
joining the tail of the first vector to the head of last vector represents the resultant vector ⃗R.
Consider two vectors P ⃗ and Q ⃗ , their representative lines are ab and bc respectively. First we draw
these lines according to head to tail rule, then we draw the line ac, which represents the resultant vectorR ⃗.
the direction of resultant is given by the angle (θ).
By this method two or more than two vectors can be added at a time.
Law of Parallelogram:
According to parallelogram law of vector addition:
“If the adjacent sides of a parallelogram represent two vectors with head of the joined with the tail
of the other then the diagonal will represent the resultant”.
Let “A⃗ ” and “B
⃗ ” be the vectors to be added and are represented by the sides of a parallelogram
abcd the the diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant “R ⃗ ” as shown in the figure.
(note that the head of “A ⃗ ” is joined with the tail of “B
⃗ ” and the resultant is obtained by joining the
⃗ ” with the head of “B
tail of “A ⃗ ” or their tails are at one point and the resultant “R⃗ ” lies between them).
By this method only two vectors can be added at a time.

Subtraction of Vectors:
Suppose a vector B⃗ to be subtracted from vector A⃗ . First we multiply B
⃗ by -1, which reverses the
⃗ and products the negative of B
direction of the vector B ⃗ i.e. -B
⃗ . Then we add A⃗ and -B⃗ . The resultant R
⃗ is
directed from the tail of ⃗A to the head of -B
⃗ . It can be wriiten as;
⃗R=A⃗ +(-B
⃗ ) = ⃗A-B
⃗
RESOLUTION OF VECTOR
The process of splitting a vector into its components is called the resolution of the vector
Rectangular Components of Vector:
A vector can be resolved into two components, at right angle (90°) to each other components are
called rectangular components of the vector.
If ⃗V is a vector then its rectangular components are denoted by ⃗Vx and ⃗Vy
Determination of Rectangular components of A vector:
⃗ which is represented by a directed line segment OA, making an angle “θ” with
Consider a vector V
⃗ ” we draw perpendiculars AB and AC on the x-axis and
the x-axis from the terminal point A of the vector “V
y-axis respectively. Now consider two vectors represented by directed line segments OB and OC. As the
⃗ x”. similarly the vector OC is along to y-
direction of OB is along to x-axis, we shall denote this vector by “V
⃗ y”.
axis, is denoted by “V
According to head to tail rule the resultant of V x and Vy is V and the angle between V x and y is 90°(right
angle), hence they are the rectangular components of vector V.
To determine the magnitude of the rectangular components, consider the right-angled traingle OAB.
Magnitude of Horizontal:
Component (Vx):
We know that;
base
cos θ = Hypotenuse
in ⊥ ∆OAB
OB
cos θ = OA
Vy
cos θ = ∵ ̅̅̅̅
OB = Vx
V
Vcos θ = Vx ̅̅̅̅ = V
∵ OA
Vx = V cos θ

Magnitude of Vertical:
Component (Vy):
As we know that
perpendicular
sin θ = Hypotenuse
in ⊥ ∆OAB
AB
sin θ = OA
Vy
sin θ = ̅̅̅̅ = Vy
∵ AB
V
Vsin θ = Vx
Vy = V cos θ
Determination of A vector By rectangular Components(Composition of Vector):

⃗ ” with its rectangular components “Vx”
Consider the following diagram, which shows a vector “V
and “Vy”.
⃗ ”:
Magnitude of Vector “𝐕
To derive the expression for the magnitude of vector “V ⃗ ” in
terms of its rectangular components, consider the right-angle triangle
OAB.
According to Pythagoras theorem; V⃗y
(Hypotenuse)2 = (Base)2 + (Perpendicular)2 in ⊥ ∆OAB;
(OA)2 = (OB)2 + (AB)2 ∵ OA = V, OB = Vx, AB = Vy

(V)2 = (Vx)2 + (Vy)2
V2 = Vx2 + Vy2
V = √Vx2 + Vy2
⃗ ” (𝛉):
Direction of Vector “𝐕
⃗ ” is determined by finding the angle "θ" which the vector “V
The direction of vector “V ⃗ ” makes with
the x-axis.
As we know that;
Perpendicular
tan θ = Base
in ⊥ ∆OAB
AB
tan θ = OB
V
tan θ = Vy ∵ OB = Vx, AB = Vy
X
V
θ = tan-1 (Vy )
x

The relation between rectangular components of a vector with respect to the direction of the vector:
i. If the vector makes an angle of 45° with x-axis, then the components are equal to each other
If θ = 45°
Then Vx = Vy
ii. If the vector makes an angle less than 45° with x-axis, then the its horizontal
component is less than the vertical component.
If θ<45°
Then Vx<Vy
If the vector makes an angle greater than 45° with x-axis, then its horizontal
components is less than the vertical component.
If θ>45°
Then Vx<Vy
Is it possible the rectangular components of a vector are equal to each other?

Explain and prove your answer.
Yes it is possible. When a vector makes an angle of 45° with X-axis, then its components are equal
to each other
i.e. Vx = Vy
Proof:
Suppose a vector having magnitude “V”, makes an angle of 45° with X-axis.
The components of the vector are given by,
Vx = V cos θ Vy = V sin θ
Putting θ = 45° Putting θ = 45°
Vx = V cos 45° Vy = V sin 45°
1 1
∵ cos 45° = ∵ sin 45° =
√2 √2
1 1
Vx = V . Vy = V .
√2 √2
V V
Vx = Vy =
√2 √2
Hence proved Vx = Vy
If a vector is along to x-axis or y-axis, what will be the magnitudes of its components?
If A vector is Along To X-Axis:
Then its vertical component is zero and the magnitude of its horizontal component is equal to the
magnitude of the vector Y-axis
i.e. Vy = 0 and Vx = V

If A vector is Along to y-Axis:
Then its horizontal component is zero and the magnitude of its vertical component is equal to the
magnitude of the vector Y-axis
i.e. Vx = 0 and Vy = V
Is it possible the resultant of two vectors can be equal to zero? Explain Your Answer.
Yes it is possible. When a vector is added to its negative then their resultant is zero.
For example a vector “A ⃗ ” is added to its negative vector i.e. “A
⃗ ”, their resultant “R
⃗ ” will be zero.
⃗R=A⃗ +(-A
⃗)
⃗ =A
R ⃗ -A
⃗
⃗ =0
R
TYPES OF VECTOR
Unit vector:
A unit is that vector whose magnitude is one (1).
Unit vectors are represented by small letter with a cap “ ” on it.
⃗ ” can be determining by dividing the vector “A
A unit vector “â” parallel to vector “A ⃗ ” by it’s
⃗|
magnitude |A
Vector
Unit vector = Magnitude of Vector
⃗⃗
A
â = |A⃗⃗|
Rectangular Unit Vectors:
In order to represent the three dimensional coordinate system, three mutually perpendicular unit
vector î, Ĵ, k̂ are used. These unit vectors represent +X, +Y and +Z axes respectively î, Ĵ and k̂ are known as
Rectangular Unit vectors”.
Position Vector:
A vector which is used to give the position of a point (or anything) with respect to the origin of a
coordinate system is known as “Position Vector”.
It is usually represented by “r”. Components of “r” are known as it’s coordinates, it is given by:
r = xî + yĴ + zk̂
|r| is equal to the distance of the point from the origin.
Resultant Vector:
The resultant of two or more vectors is a single vector whose magnitude and direction is such that
it produces the same effect as produced by all the vectors to be added.

Null Vector:
A null vector is that vector whose magnitude is zero. The restant of two equal and opposite vectors
is a null vector.
Free Vector:
A free vector is that vector which can be displaced parallel to itself and applied at any point.
Addition of Vectors by Rectangular Components Method

Consider two vectors A ⃗ 2 " making angles “θ1” and “θ2” respectively with positive x-axis, anti-
⃗ 1 and "A
clockwise. Add "A ⃗ 2 " by head to tail rule and obtain resultant vector A
⃗ 1 "and "A ⃗.
Draw rectangular components of each vector.
In diagram, along x-axis:
̅̅̅̅
OQ = ̅̅̅̅
OP + ̅̅̅̅
PQ
Ax = A1x + ̅RS
̅̅̅
Ax = A1x + A2x
Ax = A1 cos θ1 + A2 cos θ2
Hence, x-component of resultant vector is equal to the
sum of the x-components of the given vectors:
In the diagram, along y-axis:
̅̅̅̅
QT = ̅̅̅̅
QS + ̅̅̅
ST
Ay = ̅̅̅̅
PR + A2y
Ay = A1y + A2y
Ay = A1 sin θ1 + A2 sin θ2
Hence, y-component of the resultant vector is equal to
the sum of the y-components of given vectors.
Magnitude of the Resultant Vector:

By Pythagoras theorem:
Hyp2 = Base2 + Perp2
In ∆OQT = (̅̅̅̅
QT)2 = (̅̅̅̅
OQ)2 + (̅̅̅̅
QT)2
A2 = Ax2 + Ay2
A = √A x2 + A y2
2
A = √(A1x + A2x )2 + (A1y + A2y )
A = √(A1 cos θ1 + A2 cos θ2 )2 + (A1 sin θ1 + A2 sin θ2 )2

Direction of Resultant:
Perp
tan θ = Base
ln ∆OQT
̅̅̅̅
QT
tan θ = OQ
̅̅̅̅̅
A
tan θ = Ay
x
Ay
θ = tan−1
Ax
A +A
θ = tan−1 (A1y +A2y )
1x 2x
Here “θ” gives the direction of resultant vector ⃗A.
Addition of Vectors by Rectangular Components Method, when a vector is along to x-axis:

Consider two vectors 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 . Vector 𝐴1 is along to x-axis and𝐴2 makes an angle “θ2” with
positive x-axis. By adding𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 we find resultant 𝐴 which makes a angle “θ” with positive x-axis. Since
𝐴1 is along to x-axis, it has only one component 𝐴1𝑥 , its y-component is zero and 𝐴1𝑥 = 𝐴1 . But 𝐴2 has
both components 𝐴2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2𝑦 .
In diagram:
̅̅̅̅
OQ = ̅̅̅̅
OP + ̅̅̅̅
PQ
Ax = A1x + A2x
Ax = A1 + A2 cos θ2
Hence x-component of resultant is equal to the sum of the magnitude of vector ⃗A1 and the x-axis
component of vector ⃗A2 . But the y-component of resultant is equal to the y-component of ⃗A 2 .
i.e. Ay = A2y
Ay = A2 sin θ2
Magnitude of the resultant vector:
By Pythagoras theorem:
Hyp2= Base2 + Perp2
In∆OQR = (̅̅̅̅
OR)2 = (̅̅̅̅
OQ)2 + (̅̅̅̅
QR)2
A2 = Ax2 + Ay2
A = (A1x + A2x )2 + A2y 2
2
A = √(A1x + A2x )2 + (A1y + A2y )
A = √(A1 + A2 cos θ2 )2 + (A2 sin θ2 )2

Direction of Resultant:
Perp
tan θ = Base
ln ∆OQR
̅̅̅̅
QR
tan θ = OQ
̅̅̅̅̅
A
tan θ = Ay
x
−1 A2y
θ = tan A1x +A2x
−1 A2y
θ = tan A1 +A2x
⃗.
Here “θ” gives the direction of resultant vector A
PROPERTIES OF VECTOR ADDITION

Addition of vectors obeys “commutative” and “associative” laws.
Commutative Law of Vector Addition:
Addition of vectors, obeys commutative law, it means that any number of vectors can be added in
⃗ and B
any order without affecting the magnitude and direction of the resultant. For two vectors A ⃗ we can
written as;
⃗ +B
A ⃗ =B ⃗ +A ⃗
To find ⃗A + ⃗B head of ⃗A is joined with the tail of ⃗B, to find ⃗B + ⃗A head of ⃗B is joined with the tail of
⃗A. In both the cases same diagonal is obtained as the resultant.
⃗A + ⃗B = ⃗B + ⃗A
Hence proved….
Associative Law of Vector Addition:

According to associative law of vector addition:
⃗ + ⃗B) + ⃗C = ⃗A + (B
(A ⃗ + ⃗C)
Hence vectors can be added in any grouping.
To prove the above statement first of all we add vectors ⃗A and ⃗B and their resultant ac
⃗⃗⃗ will then be
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
added to vector C so that the final resultant represented by line ad in the following diagram is obtained.
Similarly if we first add vectors ⃗B and ⃗C and their resultant represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗
bd is then added to vector ⃗A we
will again get the same resultant represented by ad ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Hence:
⃗ +B
(A ⃗ )+C ⃗ =A ⃗ + (B
⃗ +C ⃗)

Multiplication of Vectors
There are two types of multiplication of two vectors:
i. Scalar Product or Dot Product.
ii. Vector product or Cross Product.
Scalar Product or Dot Product
If a product of two vector quantities is equal to scalar quantity then such a product is called scalar
product. It is also called Dot product as it is denoted by placing a dot between the two vectors.
Dot product of two vectors A ⃗ and B ⃗ is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the vectors.
⃗A and ⃗B and the cosine of the angle between them i.e.
⃗A. ⃗B = |A
⃗ ||B
⃗ | cos θ
Where θ is the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B such that,
00 ≤ θ ≤ 1800
Example of Dot Product:
Work: Work is the dot product of force and displacement.
W = ⃗F. d⃗
W = Fd cos θ
Where θ is the angle between force and displacement.
Power: Power is the dot product of the force and velocity.
p = ⃗F. v
⃗
p = Fv cos θ
Where θ is the angle between force and velocity.
Properties of Dot Product:
⃗ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁
1. If 𝐀 ⃗⃗ are parallel then
⃗⃗ . 𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ = 𝐀𝐁
Proof:
⃗ .B
As, A ⃗ = AB cos θ
⃗ ∥B
Since A ⃗ , therefore, θ= 00
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = AB cos 00 : cos 00 = 1 : cos 900 = 0
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = AB proved.
2. If 𝐀 ⃗⃗ are perpendicular then
⃗⃗ . 𝐁
𝐀 ⃗ =𝟎

Proof:
As, ⃗A. ⃗B = AB cos θ
Since, ⃗A ⊥ ⃗B, therefore θ= 900

⃗A. ⃗B = AB cos 900
⃗A. ⃗B = AB (0)
⃗ .B
A ⃗ = 0 Proved.
𝟐
⃗⃗ . 𝐀
3. 𝐀 ⃗ = |𝐀⃗⃗ | 𝐨𝐫 𝐀⃗⃗ . 𝐀
⃗ = 𝐀𝟐
Proof:
As, ⃗A. ⃗B = AB cos θ
⃗ .A
A ⃗ = AA cos 00 (angle between î and î is 00 )
⃗A. ⃗A = A2 (1)
⃗A. ⃗A = A2 Proved
̂ .𝐤
4. 𝐢̂. 𝐢̂ = 𝐣̂. 𝐣̂ = 𝐤 ̂ =𝟏
Proof:
As, ⃗A. ⃗B = |A⃗ ||B
⃗ | cos θ
î. î = |î||î| cos 00 (angle between î and î is 00 )
î. î = (1)(1)(1)(|î| = 1, cos 00 = 1)
î. î = 1 Proved.
5. 𝐢̂. 𝐣̂ = 𝐣̂. 𝐤̂ =𝐤 ̂ . 𝐢̂ = 𝟎
Proof:
As, ⃗A. ⃗B = |A ⃗ ||B
⃗ | cos θ
î. ĵ = |î||ĵ| cos 900 (angle between î and ĵ is 900 )
î. ĵ = (1)(1)(0)(|î| = |ĵ| = |k̂|1, cos 900 = 0)
î. ĵ = 0 Proved.
6. Commutative Law for Dot Product:
⃗⃗ . 𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ = 𝐁
⃗ .𝐀
⃗⃗
Proof:
Scalar or dot product of two vectors is basically equal to the magnitude of the first vector multiplied
by the projection of the second vector onto the first.
⃗A. ⃗B = (magnitude ofA
⃗ )(projection of ⃗B onto ⃗A)
⃗A. ⃗B = (A)(BA )
⃗ onto A
But the projection of B ⃗ is “B cos θ”, where θ is the angle between A
⃗ and B
⃗.
⃗A. ⃗B = AB cos θ … . (i)
Similarly,
⃗B. ⃗A = (magnitude ofB
⃗ )(projection of ⃗A onto ⃗B)
⃗B. ⃗A = (B)(AB )
But the projection of ⃗A onto the direction of ⃗B is “A cos θ”

⃗ .A
B ⃗ = (B)(A cos θ)
⃗B. ⃗A = AB cos θ … . (ii)
By comparing (i) and (ii) we get,
⃗ .B
A ⃗ =B
⃗ .A
⃗
Hence proved…
It means that there will be no change in the dot product, if the order of the vectors to be multiplied
is changed, hence dot product obeys “Commutative Law”.

Distributive Law for Dot Product:
⃗⃗ . (𝐁
𝐀 ⃗ + 𝐂) = 𝐀
⃗ .𝐁
⃗ +𝐀
⃗⃗ . 𝐂
Proof:
Consider three vectors ⃗A, ⃗B and ⃗C, lying in xy-plane. BA and CA are projection of ⃗B and ⃗C onto the
⃗.
direction of A
⃗R is the resultant of ⃗B and ⃗C and RA is its projection onto the direction of ⃗A.
Now,
⃗A. (B
⃗ + ⃗C) = ⃗A. ⃗R
⃗ . (B
A ⃗ +C
⃗ ) = AR A
⃗ . (B
A ⃗ +C
⃗ ) = A(ac
̅)
⃗ . (B
A ⃗ +C ̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅
⃗ ) = A(ab bc)
⃗ . (B
A ⃗ +C
⃗ ) = A(BA + CA )
⃗A. (B
⃗ + ⃗C) = ABA + ACA
But ABA = ⃗A. ⃗B
And ACA = ⃗A. ⃗C

Therefore,
⃗ . (B
A ⃗ +C
⃗)=A
⃗ .B
⃗ +A
⃗ .C
⃗
This is Distributive Law of Dot Product.
Addition of Vectors by Dot Product (Law of Cosine):

The resultant of two vectors can also be determined by the help of dot product. If ⃗A and ⃗B are two
vectors and angle between them is “θ”, the magnitude of the resultant of the vectors is given by:
⃗ + ⃗B| = √A2 + 2A
|A ⃗ . ⃗B + B 2
Or ⃗ + ⃗B| = √A2 + 2AB cos θ + B 2
|A
Proof:
Consider two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B
2
⃗ .A
Since, A ⃗ = |A
⃗|
2
Or, ⃗ +B
(A ⃗ ). (A
⃗ +B
⃗ ) = |A
⃗ +B
⃗|
⃗ +B
|A ⃗ | = √(A
⃗ +B
⃗ ). (A
⃗ +B
⃗)
⃗ +B
|A ⃗ | = √A
⃗ .A
⃗ +A
⃗ .B
⃗ +B
⃗ .A
⃗ +B
⃗ .B
⃗
⃗ +B
But A ⃗ =B
⃗ .A
⃗ (from commutative law)
⃗ + ⃗B| = √⃗A. ⃗A + ⃗A. ⃗B + ⃗A. ⃗B + ⃗B. ⃗B

|A
⃗ + ⃗B| = √⃗A. ⃗A + 2A
|A ⃗ . ⃗B + ⃗B. ⃗B

But ⃗A. ⃗A = A2 and ⃗B. ⃗B = B 2
⃗ +B
|A ⃗ | = √A2 + 2A
⃗ .B
⃗ + B2
If “θ” is the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B, then the above equation becomes:
⃗ + ⃗B| = √A2 + 2AB cos θ + B 2
|A
This is known as “Law of Cosine”
⃗ and B
The above formula gives us the magnitude of sum of two vectors A ⃗.
⃗ and B
Similarly the magnitude of difference of two vectors A ⃗ is given by:
⃗ − ⃗B| = √A2 − 2A
|A ⃗ . ⃗B + B 2
Or ⃗ −B
|A ⃗ | = √A2 − 2AB cos θ + B 2
⃗ and B
Where ‘θ” is the angle between vectors A ⃗.
Vector Product (or) Cross Product

When the product of two vector quantities equal to another vector quantity then such a product is
called vector product. At it is denoted by a ‘cross’. Therefore, it is also called cross product.
Cross product of two vectorsA ⃗ and B⃗ is expressed as:
⃗A × ⃗B = |A
⃗ ||B
⃗ | sin θû
Where “θ” is the angle b/wA ⃗ and ⃗B and u
⃗ is a unit vector which is perpendicular to the plane of
⃗A and ⃗B and its direction is determined by right hand rule.
Example:
Torque:
Torque is the cross product of position vector r and ⃗F.
τ⃗ = r × ⃗F
Angular Momentum:
Angular momentum l is defined as the cross product of position vector rand the linear momentum
p
⃗.
l=r ×p
⃗
Properties of Cross Product:
(i) ⃗⃗ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁
If 𝐀 ⃗⃗ are parallel, then:
⃗⃗ × 𝐁
𝐀 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎 (i.e. minimum)
Proof:
As ⃗A × ⃗B = AB Sin θ
Since ⃗A ∥ ⃗B, therefore θ= 00

⃗ × ⃗B|= AB Sin 00
|A
= AB (0) (Sin 00 = 0)
⃗A × ⃗B = 0 Proved.

(ii) If 𝐀 ⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other, then:
⃗⃗ × 𝐁
|𝐀 ⃗⃗ | = 𝐀𝐁 (i.e. maximum)
Proof:
⃗ ×B
As |A ⃗ | = AB Sin θ
Since ⃗A ⊥ ⃗B, therefore θ= 900

⃗ ×B
|A ⃗ | = AB Sin 900
= AB (1) (Sin 900 = 1)

⃗ ×B
|A ⃗ | = AB Proved.
⃗ ×𝐀
(iii) 𝐀 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎
Proof:
⃗ × ⃗B| = AB Sin θ
As |A
⃗ × ⃗A| = AA Sin 00 (angle between ⃗A&A
Since |A ⃗ is 00 )
⃗ ×A
|A ⃗ | = A2 (0)
⃗ ×A
|A ⃗|=0
Or ⃗A × ⃗A = 0 Proved.
̂ ×𝐤
(iv) 𝐢̂ × 𝐢̂ = 𝐣̂ × 𝐣̂ = 𝐤 ̂ =𝟎
Proof:
⃗ × ⃗B| = |A
As |A ⃗ |B
⃗ | Sin θ
Since |î × î| = |î|î| Sin 00 (Angle between î&î is 00 )

= (1)(1)(0) (|î| = 1, Sin 00 = 0)
|î × î| = 0 or î × î = 0 similarly, ĵ × ĵ = 0 and k̂ × k̂ = 0 Proved.
̂ | = |𝐤
(v) |𝐢̂ × 𝐣̂| = |𝐣̂ × 𝐤 ̂ × 𝐢̂| = 𝟏
Proof:
⃗ × ⃗B| = |A
As |A ⃗ | |B
⃗ | Sin θ
Or |î × ĵ| = |î|ĵ| Sin 900 (Angle between î&ĵ is 90°)

= (1)(1)(1) (|î| = |ĵ| = 1, Sin 900 = 1)
|î × ĵ| = 1Proved, similarly |ĵ × k̂| = 1 and |k̂ × î| = 1
(vi) î × ĵ = k̂, ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ

(vii) ĵ × î = −k̂, k̂ × ĵ = −î, î × k̂ = −ĵ
(viii) ⃗A × ⃗B ≠ ⃗B × ⃗A, but ⃗A × ⃗B = −B

⃗ × ⃗A

⃗ × (B
(ix) A ⃗ +C
⃗)=A
⃗ ×B
⃗ +A
⃗ ×C
⃗
⃗ +B
(x) (A ⃗ )×C
⃗ =A
⃗ ×C
⃗ +B
⃗ ×C
⃗
(xi) If, ⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
⃗B = Bx î + Bx ĵ + Bz k̂
Then,
i j k
⃗A × ⃗B = |Ax Ay Az |
Bx By Bz
And
i j k
⃗ ×A
B ⃗ = | Bx By Bz |
Ax Ay Az
⃗⃗ × 𝐁
𝐀 ⃗ = −𝐁
⃗⃗ × 𝐀
⃗
Proof:
Consider two vectors A⃗ and B ⃗ laying on a horizontal plane as shown in figure.
According to definition ⃗A × ⃗B = AB Sin θû … . (i)
Where θ is the angle between ⃗A and ⃗B and û is the unit vector in the direction of ⃗A × ⃗B which is
determined by right hand rule.
Similarly,
⃗B × ⃗A = BA Sinθ (−û)
Or ⃗B × ⃗A = −AB Sin θ û
Or ⃗ × ⃗A = A B Sin θ û … . (ii)
−B
Comparing eq. (i) and (ii) we get
⃗A × ⃗B = −B ⃗ × ⃗A or ⃗A × ⃗B ≠ ⃗B × ⃗A
Area of Parallelogram:
Let the vector ⃗A and ⃗B form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. Draw attitude “h” on the base of
the parallelogram. Then:
Area of ||gm = Base × Attitude
=Axh
But from the figure:
h= B Sin θ
Hence:
Area of ||gm = A × B Sin θ
= AB Sin θ
Or gm
Area of || = |A ⃗ ×B⃗ |. ⃗ ×B
∴ |A ⃗ | = AB Sin θ
Area of Triangle:
⃗ and B
Area of a triangle in terms of cross product of two vectors A ⃗ is given by:

1
⃗ ×B
Area of Triangle= 2 |A ⃗|
⃗A and ⃗B are inclined at an angle “θ” and represent two adjacent sides of a triangle.
LAW OF SINE
For a plane triangle law of sine is given below:

A B C
= Sin β = Sin γ
Sin α
Where A, B and C show the lengths of the sides andα, β and γ show the angle of the triangle.
Proof:
⃗ ,B
If three vectors A ⃗ and C⃗ are along the sides of a plane triangle in order shown in the following
diagram, their resultant will be zero.
Hence,
⃗ +B
A ⃗ +C
⃗ = 0 … . (i)
⃗ we get:
On taking vector or cross product of the above equation with vector A
⃗ × (A
A ⃗ +B
⃗ +C
⃗)=A
⃗ ×0
⃗ ×A
A ⃗ +A
⃗ ×B
⃗ +A
⃗ ×C
⃗ = 0But A
⃗ ×A
⃗ =0
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ +A
⃗ ×C
⃗ =0
⃗A × ⃗B = −A
⃗ × ⃗CBut − ⃗A × ⃗C = ⃗C × ⃗A
⃗A × ⃗B = ⃗C × ⃗A … (ii)
By definition,
⃗ ×B
A ⃗ = A B Sin < between A
⃗ and B
⃗
In the above diagram angle between ⃗A and ⃗B is (1800 − γ)

⃗A × ⃗B = AB Sin (1800 − γ)But Sin (1800 − θ) = Sin θ
⃗A × ⃗B = AB Sin γ
Similarly,
⃗ ×A
C ⃗ = CA Sin < between C
⃗ and A
⃗
⃗C × ⃗A = CA Sin (1800 − β)
⃗C × ⃗A = CA Sinβ
Hence,

(ii) => A B Sin γ = C A Sin β … (iii)
Similarly on talking the cross product of equation (i) with ⃗B we get:

⃗B × (A
⃗ + ⃗B + ⃗C) = ⃗B × 0
⃗B × ⃗A + ⃗B × ⃗B + ⃗B × ⃗C = 0But ⃗B × ⃗B = 0
⃗B × ⃗A + ⃗B × ⃗C = 0
⃗B × ⃗C = −B
⃗ × ⃗A ⃗ × ⃗A = ⃗A × ⃗B
But−B
⃗B × ⃗C = ⃗A × ⃗B
But ⃗B × ⃗C = B C Sin α and ⃗A × ⃗B = A B Sin γ
Hence, B C Sin α = A B Sin γ … . (iv)

Combining equation (iii) and (iv) we get:
B C Sin α = C A Sin β = A B Sin γ
Now on dividing the above equation throughout by A B C we get:
B C Sin α C A Sin β A B Sin γ
= =
ABC ABC ABC
Sin α Sin β Sin γ
= =
A B C
A B C
= Sin β = Sin γ
Sin α

CHAPTER#03
MOTION
Definition of Motion:
A body is said to be in Motion when it is changing its position with respect to the surrounding.
Definition of Rest:
A body is said to be in Rest when it is not changing its position with respect to the surrounding.
Definition of Linear Motion:

The motion of the body or particle along a straight path either with UNIFORM or VARIABLE speed is
referred as “Linear Motion”.
DISPLACEMENT
Suppose that a particle is moved along a curved path form a point to the other in space.
“The change of position of the particle between same two points is referred as Displacement of the
particle”.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ”.
It is a vector quantity and symbolized by “∆r
Its S.I unit is metre(m).
Explanation:
To explain the displacement of the particle between points
“A” and “B”, let us assume that the particle is moved between same
two points along a curved path. The position of the particle at “A”
and point “B” is defined by the position vectors, ⃗⃗⃗
r1 and r⃗⃗⃗2
respectively. When terminal points of ⃗⃗⃗
r1 and ⃗⃗⃗
r2 vectors are joined by
⃗⃗⃗⃗ , we get change of position of the
introducing an additional vector ∆r
particle from point “A” to the point “B”. Hence, the displacement of
particle between same to points is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Displacement = ∆r
Displacement = (⃗⃗⃗ r1 )
r2 − ⃗⃗⃗

VELOCITY
“The rate of change of position of the particle taking between the two points is called VELOCITY of
the particle between same two points”.
In the other words, “The change of position of the particle measured between the two points in
unit interval of time, is referred as VELOCITY of the particle between same two points”.
Explanation:
To explain the Velocity of the particle between point
“A” and point “B”, let assume that the particle is moved
between the same two points along a curved path. The
position of the particle at point “A” in “t 1” second and at
point “B” in “t2” second is defined by the position vectors, ⃗⃗⃗
r1
and ⃗⃗⃗
r2 respectively. When terminal points of ⃗⃗⃗
r1 and ⃗⃗⃗
r2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ , we
vectors are joined by introducing an additional vector ∆r
get change of position of the particle between the two
located points in “∆t” second. Hence, the velocity of the particle along the curved path is given by;
(r⃗⃗⃗⃗ −r⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
Velocity = (t2−t 1)
2 1
∆𝐫
⃗ =
𝒗 ∆
The magnitude of velocity is measured by “METER PER SECOND” (m⁄s) in S.I. system of units.
Average Velocity:
When a velocity is measured in a considerable time interval i.e. between two instants considerably
different from each other then the calculated velocity is average velocity for that interval of time.
Instantaneous Velocity:
Velocity of a body calculated within a very short interval of time or between two points extremely
close to each other, is called “Instantaneous Velocity”. As the two points are very close to each other
therefore instantaneous velocity is considered to be the velocity at a point. It is given by;
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆r
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠 = lim
∆t→0 ∆r
Note:
The average and instantaneous velocity of a body are equal when it is moving with uniform
velocity.
Uniform Velocity:
“The velocity of a body is said to be uniform, if it covers equal distances intervals of time in a
specific direction”.
Variable Velocity:
“The body does not cover equal distance in equal interval of time, in a specific direction, then it is
said to move with variable velocity”.
OR in other words it can be defined as:
“A body is said to be possess a variable velocity, if its speed or its direction change continuously”.

ACCELERATION
“The change of velocity of the body or particle measured in unit interval of time, is referred as
Acceleration of the body or particle”.
In the other words,
“The rate of change of velocity of the body or particle is called Acceleration”.
It is a vector quantity and denoted by “a⃗”, its S.I unit is m⁄s2 .
Explanation:
Suppose that a particle is moved in space along a
curved path, AB. The tangential velocity of the particle at
point “A” in “t1” second and at point “B” in “t2” second is
defined by “ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 ” and “ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣2 ” vectors respectively. When
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ” and “𝑣
terminal points of “𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ” vectors are joined by a
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ” we get change in velocity of the particle in “∆t”
vector, “∆𝑣
second.
Hence, the rate of change of velocity of the particle is given by;
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆v
a⃗ =
∆t
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ”.
The direction of acceleration is in the direction of “∆𝑣
Uniform Acceleration:
“If the velocity of the body moving along a straight line change uniformly in equal interval of time,
however short the interval may be, the acceleration so produced is called Uniform Acceleration”.
Variable Acceleration:
“If the velocity of a body moving along a straight line does not change uniformly in equal intervals
of time, and then the acceleration produced is called Variable Acceleration”.
Instantaneous Acceleration:
“The acceleration of a body measured for a very short interval of time, is called Instantaneous
Acceleration”.
In the limit of a very small displacement the average acceleration will approach the value of
Instantaneous Acceleration.
It is denoted by 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 .
Mathematical Expression:
Mathematically it can be Expressed as
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆v
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑣 is the change in velocity.

To Determine The Velocity Of A Particle By Displacement-Time Graph:
1. In Case Of Uniform Velocity:
Suppose that a particle travels equal displacements in equal
intervals of time, at this condition, the graph plotted between
known values of displacement of the moving particle against
their corresponding values of time will represent a “STRAIGHT
LINE”.
To determine the velocity of particle at any point, let us
consider a point “A” on the straight line and draw a
perpendicular from this point onto the axis of Time and axis of
Displacement to get point “B” and point “C” respectively. In
̅̅̅̅ and OB
this way, OC ̅̅̅̅ will describe Displacement and Time of
̅̅̅̅
OC
the particle at point “A”. Thus, the ratio, ̅̅̅̅
will represent
OB
VELOCITY of the particle at point “A”.
̅̅̅̅
OC
Mathematically, V = ̅̅̅̅
OB
2. In Case Of Variable Velocity:
When a particle moves with Variable Velocity then graph
plotted between known values of displacement of moving
particle against corresponding values of time will represent a
“CURVE”.
To determine the velocity of the particle at any point on
this curve, let us consider a point “A” on the curve and draw
tangent of length, ̅̅̅̅BC at point A. Secondly, draw a
perpendicular from point “C” onto the axis of time and get
point “D” on this axis. In this way, ̅̅̅̅
CD and ̅̅̅̅
BD will describe
displacement and time of the particle at point “A”. Thus, The
̅̅̅̅
CD
ratio, ̅̅̅̅ will represent velocity of particle at point “A”.
BD
̅̅̅̅
CD
Mathematically, V = BD
̅̅̅̅
To Determine Acceleration Of A Particle By Velocity-Time Graph:

1. In Case of Uniform Acceleration:
Suppose that a particle travels with uniform acceleration
i.e. shows uniform change in velocity in equal interval of time.
At this Condition, The graph plotted between known values of
velocity of the moving particle against their corresponding
values of time will represent a “STRAIGHT LINE”.
To determine the Acceleration of particle, let us consider a
point “A” on the straight line and draw a perpendicular from
this point onto the axis of time and axis of velocity to get point
“B” and point “C” respectively. In this way, OC ̅̅̅̅ and OB
̅̅̅̅ will
̅̅̅̅
OC
describe Velocity and Time of the particle. Thus, the ratio, ̅̅̅̅
OB
will represent Acceleration of the particle at point “A”.
̅̅̅̅
OC
Mathematically, a = ̅̅̅̅
OB
2. In Case Of Variable Acceleration:
When a particle performs Variable Accelerated motion
then graph plotted between known values of velocity of
moving particle against corresponding values of time will
represent a “CURVE”. To determine the Acceleration of the

particle at any point on this curve, let us consider a point “A” on the curve and draw a tangent of length,
̅̅̅̅ at point A. Secondly, draw a perpendicular from point “C” onto the axis of time and get point “D” on
BC
̅̅̅̅
CD
this axis way, ̅̅̅̅
CD and ̅̅̅̅
BD will describe velocity and time of the particle at point “A”. Thus, the ratio, ̅̅̅̅
BD
will represent Acceleration of particle at point “A”.
̅̅̅̅
CD
Mathematically, a = BD
̅̅̅̅
(At point A)
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

Introduction:
In this law Newton explain the two important definitions first is force and the second one is Inertia.
Statement:
“A body remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity unless; it is acted upon by an
unbalanced force”.
Explanation:
From the statement of Newton’s first law of motion, we draw the following conclusion that, this
law consists of two parts; the first part states that a body cannot change its state of rest or uniform motion
in a straight line unless it is acted upon by some unbalance force to change its state.
Example:
This law can also be explained with the help of following examples:
1. A book lying on a table will remain in the same position unless someone comes and removes it.
2. A bullet is fired from a gun. Its motion is opposed both by air resistance and pull of earth. If the pull
of the earth and the air resistance could be eliminated, the bullet could go on moving in a straight line
for ever.
This law gives us the qualitative definition of the net force, which is stated as follows:
“Force is that agent, which produces or tends to produce a change in the state of rest or of uniform
motion of an object, i.e. produces the acceleration in the body.”
First Law Of Motion Is Also Called Law Of Inertia:
First law of motion is also called law of Inertia, because it points toward a very important property
of matter. This is called “INERTIA”.
Definition Of Inertia:
“Inertia is that property of matter by virtue of which if it is in state of rest or motion it tries remain
in that state”.
OR simply it is defined as:
“Interia is the tendency of an object resists a change in its state”.
Experiments show that the inertia of the object is directly proportional to the mass of the object,
i.e. the greater the mass of an object, greater will be the inertia.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
Introduction:
In this law of motion Newton provides a mean for quantitative measurement of force as well as
mass.
Statement:
“When a force act on an object, it produces an acceleration in its own direction, which is directly
proportional to the mass of the object”.
Explanation:
If we push a body harder, it moves faster. Its velocity changes in the direction of the force exerted.
From such experiences it is established that when a force act on a body, the acceleration produced is
directly proportional to the force symbolically it can be expressed as:
a∝F
OR a = (1/m)F
F = ma
Where “F” is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body and “m” is the mass of the body,
mathematical expression of Newton’s second law of motion can be written as:
⃗
F
a⃗ = m
The above equation explains that the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force
acting on a body and the direction of acceleration is same as that force and the acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Introduction:
In this law Newton explains the action and reaction of the force. It is stated as follows:
Statement:
“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”.
Explanation:
When a body “A” exerts force on another body “B”. It
is called the action of force “A” on “B”. The body “B” will also
exerts a force on body “A”, which will be equal in magnitude,
but opposite in direction. This force is called the reaction of
“B” on “A”.
The force of body “A” on body “B” is written as ⃗FAB
and the force of body “B” on body “A” is written as ⃗FBA, these
forces equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction and lie on the line joining the two bodies.
Symbolically, it can be expressed as;
⃗Faction = – ⃗Freaction
⃗ AB = – F
F ⃗ BA
Where negative sign shows that the two forces acting in opposite direction.

MOTION OF THE BODIES CONNECTED WITH THE ENDS OF THE STRING
Case#01: When two bodies move vertically by mean of Frictionless pulley:
Suppose that two bodies “A” and “B” of masses “m1” and “m2”
respectively are connected with the ends of a string which passes over a
frictionless pulley in a manner that both bodies are suspended vertically.
If m1 > m2, then body “A” will move up with the same acceleration a⃗. To
determine the acceleration of the system and tension in the string, let us
consider motion of two bodies simultaneously.
Motion of body “A”:
There are two forces acting upon body “A” given below:
1. The weight of the body A, “W1” acts normally downward from
centre of mass of the body.
2. The tension in the string “T” acts normally upward along the string.
Since, the body “A” moves vertically downward, therefore, W1 > T and thus the resultant force acts
upon body “A” during its motion is given by;
Resultant Force = W1 – T
F1 = W1 – T
m1a = m1g – T --------- (i)
Motion of body “B”:
There are two forces acting upon body “B” given below:
1. The weight of the body A, “W1” acts normally downward from centre of mass of the body.
Since, the body “A” moves vertically downward, therefore, W1 > T and thus the resultant force acts
upon body “A” during its motion is given by;
Resultant Force = T – W2
F2 = T – W2
m2a = T – m2g ---------- (ii)
To find the acceleration of the system:
For this, adding equation (i) and equation (ii)
m1a = m1g – T ---------- (i)
m2a = T – m2g ---------- (ii)
m1a + m2a = m1g – m2g
a(m1 + m2) = g(m1 – m2)
(m1 −m2 )g
a= (m1 +m2 )
This expression represents acceleration of the system in which two bodies of unequal masses are
moving vertically by means of a frictionless pulley. According to this expression, if masses of two bodies are
know, then acceleration of this system can be determined.

To find tension in the string of the system:
For this, dividing equation (i) and by equation (ii)
m1 a m g−T
1
= T−m
m2 a 2g
m1 m g−T
1
= T−m
m2 2g
m1(T – m2g) = m2(m1g – T)

m1 T – m 1 m2 g = m 1 m2 g – m2 T
m1 T + m 2 T = m1 m2 g + m 1 m2 g
T(m1 + m2) = 2m1m2g
2m m g
T = (m 1+m2 )
1 2
This expression represents Tension in the string of the system in which two bodies of unequal
masses are moving vertically by means of a frictionless pulley. According to this expression, if masses of
two bodies are known, then tension in string of the system can be determined.
Case#02 When a body is moving on a frictionless horizontal surface and the other vertically by
means of frictionless pulley:
Suppose that two bodies “A” and “B” of masses “m 1” and
“m2” respectively are connected with the ends of a string which
passes over a frictionless pulley in a manner that body “B” of
mass “m2” is set on a frictionless horizontal surface and body “A”
of mass “m1” is suspended vertically.
Since, horizontal surface is assumed frictionless, therefore body “A” will move down with an
acceleration a⃗ at the same instant, body “B” will move on horizontal surface towards the pulley with the
same acceleration a⃗.
To determine the acceleration of the system and tension in the string, let us consider motion of two
bodies simultaneously.
Motion of body “A”:
There are two forces are acting upon body “A” given below:
1. The weight of the body A, “W1” acts normally downward from centre of mass of the body.
Since, the body “A” moves vertically downward, therefore, W1 > T and thus the resultant force
acting upon body “A” during its motion is given by;
Resultant Force = W1 – T
F1 = W1 – T
m1a = m1g – T ---------- (i)

Motion of body “B”:
There are three forces are acting upon body “B” given below:
1. The weight of the body B, “W2” acts normally downward from centre of mass of the body.
2. The tension in the string “T” acts horizontally along the string towards the pulley.
3. The vertical reaction of the surface, “R” acts normally upward.
Since, W2 and R are acted on body “B” as “ACTION” and “REACTION” respectively, therefore,
both forces cancel their physical effects and thus body “B” will remain under the action of a single
force i.e. Tension in the string, “T” which causes acceleration a⃗ in the body “B” towards the pulley.
Hence resultant, Force on body “B” is given as;
Resultant Force = T
F2 = T
m2a = T ---------- (ii)
To find acceleration of the system:
For this, adding equation (i) and equation (ii)
m1a = m1g – T ---------- (i)
m2a = T ---------- (ii)
m1a + m2a = m1g
a(m1 + m2) = m1g
m1 g
a = (m +m )
1 2
This expression represents acceleration of the system in which a body is moved on a frictionless
horizontal surface and the other vertically by means of a frictionless pulley. According to this expression, if
masses of body “A” and body “B” are known, then acceleration of such a system can be determined.
To find tension in the string of the system:
For this, diving equation (i) by equation (ii)
m1 a m g−T
= 1T
m a 2
m1 m1 g−T
=
m2 T
m1T = m2(m1g – T)
m1 T = m 1 m2 g – m2 T
m1 T + m 2 T = m1 m2 g
T(m1 + m2) = m1m2g
m m g
T = (m 1 2 )
1 +m2
LINEAR MOMENTUM
Linear Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body.
Linear Momentum is defined as the product of mass and linear velocity of a body
i.e. p
⃗ = m𝑣
Units of Linear Momentum:
S.I Units;
(i) kg.m/sec (ii) N.sec
C.G.S Units;
(i) gm.cm/sec (ii) Dyne/sec
F.P.S Units;
(i) Slug.ft/sec (ii) pound.sec
Momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is in the direction of velocity.

RELATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND FORCE
Suppose a body of mass “m” is moving with velocity “Vi”. When a force acts upon it for time “t” its
velocity becomes Vf. According to Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
vf −vi
But a= t
Vf −Vi
Therefore; F = m( )
t
mVf −mVi
F= t
pf −pi
F= ∴ p = mv
t
∆p
F= t
Hence, the rate of change of linear momentum of a body is equal to the average force acting upon
it.
Impulse:
“The product of applied force and time interval is called Impulse of force”.
Mathematically, Impulse = Fx∆t
Impulse is equal to the change in momentum.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

This law holds true for an ISOLATED SYSTEM. In such a system, all constituents interacts with one
another but remain unable to accept any physical influence from external agency. Noted its nearest
approach can be achieved.
Statement:
In case of single-particle, the law of conservation of linear momentum states, “In isolated system,
the total linear momentum of a body or particle remains constant”.
In case of two or more particles system, the law of conservation of linear momentum states, “In
isolated system, the total linear momentum of bodies or particles before and after their impact remains
constant”.
Proof:
To verify the statement of law of conservation of linear momentum, consider two spherical bodies
“A” and “B” of mass “m1” and “m2” respectively within the boundary of an isolated system, let the initial
velocity of sphere “A” and sphere “B” is “U1” and “U2” respectively along the line joining their centers.
If U1 > U2, then the sphere “A” gets successful
collision with sphere “B”. Let, after a time of impact of “t”
second transfer of linear momentum takes place from a
sphere to the other and thus sphere “A” and sphere “B” will
continue to move a velocity of “V1” and “V2” respectively.
When the two spheres get HEAD-ON COLLISION, they exert
equal and opposite force at their point of impact. If these
forces are symbolized by “FAB” and “FBA” respectively, then
according to Newton’s third law of motion we may write as;

FAB = – FBA
∆p ∆p
( t ) = −( t )
B A
m2 V2 −m2 U2 m1 V1 −m1 U1
( ) = −( )
t t
m2V2 – m2U2 = – (m1V1 – m1U1)

m2V2 – m2U2 = – m1V1 + m1U1
m1V1 + m2V2 = m1U1 + m2U2
(Total linear momentum of two spheres after collision) = (Total linear momentum of two spheres before collision)
According to this equation, the total linear momentum of sphere “A” and sphere “B” before and
after collision remain same. This idea leads towards the “Law of Conservation of Momentum”.
TYPES OF COLLISION
Elastic Collision:
“Elastic collision is that in which, the momentum of the system as well as the kinetic energy of the
system before and after collision is conserved, i.e. remains same”.
Inelastic Collision:
“Inelastic collision is that in which, the momentum of the system before and after collision is
conserved, but the kinetic energy before and after collision changes, i.e. the total energy does not remain
constant”.
Elastic Collision in one Dimension:
Consider two smooth non-rotating spheres A and B of masses m1 and m2 respectively, moving
initially along the line joining their centers with velocities U 1 and U2. If U1 is greater than U2, so they collide
with one another and after having an elastic collision start moving with velocities V 1 and V2 respectively in
the same line and direction.
Now the momentum of the system before collision = m1U1 + m2U2
And the momentum of the system after collision = m1V1 + m2V2
According to law of conservation of momentum, we have

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1U1 – m1V1 = m2V2 – m2U2
m1(U1 – V1) = m2(V2 – U2) ------------- (i)
1 1
K.E of the system before collision = 2m1U12 + 2m2U22
1 1
K.E of the system after collision = 2m1V12 + 2m2V22

As the collision is elastic, so the K.E of the system is also conserved thus,
K.E of the system before collision = K.E of the system after collision
1 1 1 1
m1U12 + m2U22 = m1V12 + m2V22
2 2 2 2
1 1
(m1U12 + m2U22) = 2(m1V12 + m2V22)
2
m1U12 + m2U22 = m1V12 + m2V22

m1U12 – m1V12 = m2V22 – m2U22
m1(U12 – V12) = m2(V22 – U22) ------------- (ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by (i)
m1 (U21 −V21 ) m2 (V22 −U22 )
=
m1 (U1 −V1 ) m2 (V2−U2 )
U21 −V21 V2 −U2

= V2 −U2
U1 −V1 2 2
(U1 −V1 )(U1 +V1) (V2 −U2 )(V2+U2 )

=
U1 −V1 V2 −U2
U1 + V1 = U2 + V2 ------------- (iii)
The above equation shows that the sum of initial and final velocities of the body A is equal to the
sum of the initial and final velocities of the body B.
Determination of V1:
To find V1 take the value of V2 from equation (iii) and putting it in equation (i)
Eq: (iii)=> U1 + V1 = U2 + V2
U1 + V1 – U2 = V2
V2 = U1 + V1 – U2
Put in Eq: (i)=> m1(U1 – V1) = m2(V2 – U2)
m1(U1 – V1) = m2(U1 + V1 – U2 – U2)
m1(U1 – V1) = m2(U1 + V1 – 2U2)
m1U1 – m1V1 = m2U1 + m2V1 – 2m2u2
m1U1 – m2U1 + 2m2u2 = m1V1 + m2V1
m1V1 + m2V1 = m1U1 – m2U1 + 2m2U2
V1(m1 + m2) = U1(m1 – m2) + 2m2U2
U1 (m1 −m2 )+2m2 U2
V1 = (m1 +m2 )
m −m 2m2
V1 = (m1 +m2 ) U1 + (m ) U2 ------------- (iv)
1 2 1 +m2

Determination of V2:
To find V2 we take the value of v1 from equation (iii) and putting in equation (i)
Eq: (iii)=> U1 + V1 = U2 + V2
V1 = U2 + V2 – U1
Put in Eq: (i)=> m1(U1 – V1) = m2(V2 – U2)
m1[U1 – (U2 + V2 – U1)] = m2(V2 – U2)
m1(U1 – U2 – V2 + U1) = m2(V2 – U2)
m1(2U1 – U2 – V2) = m2V2 – m2U2
2m1U1 – m1U2 – m1V2 = m2V2 – m2U2
2m1U1 + m2U2 = m1U2 = m2V2 + m1V2
m2V2 + m1V2 = 2m1U1 + m2U2 – m1U2
V2(m2 + m1) = 2m1U1 + U2(m2 – m1)
2m1 U1 +U2 (m2 −m1 )
V2 = (m2 +m1 )
2m1 U1 U2 (m2 −m1 )

V2 = (m +
2 +m1 ) (m2 +m1 )
2m1 m −m
V2 = (m ) U1 + (m2 +m1 ) U2 ------------- (v)
1 +m2 1 2
Thus from the equations (iv) and (v), we can calculate the values of unknown velocities, i.e. V 1 and
V2.
SPECIAL CASES
i. If the masses of two bodies are equal:
i.e. m1=m2, then after collision their final velocities can be obtained by putting m1=m2=m in eq: (iv)
and (v). The velocity of first body is:
m −m 2m2
V2 = + (m1 +m2 ) U1 + (m +m ) U2
1 2 1 2
m−m 2m
V1 = (m+m) U1 + (m+m) U2
2m
V1 = (0)U1 + (2m) U2
V2 = 0 + (1)U2
V1 = U2
And the velocity of second body is:
2m1 m −m
V2 = + (m ) U1 + (m2 +m1 ) U2
1 +m2 1 2
2m m−m
V2 = + (m+m) U1 + (m+m) U2
2m
V2 = + (2m) U1 + (0)U2
V2 = (1) U1 + 0
V2 = U1
Thus the two bodies will interchange the velocities after collision.

ii. When the light body collides with a massive body, which is at rest:
i.e. m1 << m2 and U2 = 0, under these conditions m1 is so small as compared to m2, that it can be
neglected in eq: (iv) and (v). The velocity of first body is:
m −m 2m2
V1 = (m1 +m2 ) U1 + (m ) U2
1 2 1 +m2
0−m 2m
V1 = (0+m2 ) U1 + (0+m2 ) (0)
2 2
0−m
V1 = (0+m2 ) U1 + 0
2
−m
V1 = ( m 2 ) U1
2
V1 = (–1)U1
V1 = –U2
2m1 m −m
V2 = + (m ) U1 + (m2 +m1 ) U2
1 +m2 1 2
2(0) 2 m −0
V2 = + (0+m ) U1 + (0+m ) (0)
2 2
V2 = (0) U1 + 0
V2 = 0
It means that the body B will remain stationary while body A will come back with the same velocity
U1.
iii. When the massive body collides with light body, which is at rest:
i.e. m1 >> m2 and U2 = 0, Now m2 can be neglected as compared to m1 in eq: (iv) and (v). The
velocity of first body is;
m −m 2m2
V1 = (m1 +m2 ) U1 + (m +m ) U2
1 2 1 2
m1 −0 2(0)
V1 = (m ) U1 + (m ) (0)
1 +0 1 +0
m1
V1 = ( ) U1 + 0
m1
V1 = U1
2m1 m2 −m1 m1
V2 = + (m ) U1 + ( ) (U2 )
1 +m2 m1 +m2
2m1 0−m1
V2 = + (m ) U1 + (m ) (0)
1 +0 1 +0
2m
V2 = ( m 1 ) U1 + 0
1
V2 = (2) U1 + (0)
V2 = 2U1
It means that body A will move with the same velocity but body B will move with the twice of the
velocity of body B.

FRICTION
When a body slides or tends to slide on a surface then an opposing force is developed between the
surfaces in contact. This opposing force is called friction.
Static Friction:
Friction between the body and the surface when the body is at rest, is called “Static Friction”.
Kinetic (OR) Sliding Friction:

Friction between the body and the surface when a spherical or circular body moves on a horizontal
smooth surface, is called “Rolling Friction”.
Method of decreasing the friction:
Force of friction can be decreased by.
i. Making of surface smooth
ii. Using a suitable lubricant
iii. Using ball bearing
iv. Making the front of fast moving bodies oblong in shape
Limiting Friction:
Friction is self-adjusting force. When applied force is increased on a body the friction also increases.
But the force of friction between two surfaces cannot exceed a maximum value. This maximum value of
friction is called limiting friction. It is given by;
f = μR
Where f = Limiting Friction
μ = Coefficient of friction
And R = Normal reaction of the surface
Coefficient of Friction:
It is the ratio between limiting friction and the normal reaction of the surface. Its value depends
upon the nature of surface and it has no units.
f
μ=R
Coefficient of friction is two types.
(i) Coefficient of static friction (μs).
(ii) Coefficient of kinetic friction (μk)
μs > μk
OR fs > fk
It means static friction is greater than kinetic friction.
Fluid Friction:
Objects moving through fluids experience retarding force. This retarding force is called fluid friction
or viscous drag.
STOKE’S LAW
Fluid friction or viscous drag on a sphere moving through a fluid is given by;
F = 6πηrv
Where;
η = Viscosity of fluid

r = Radius of sphere
And v = Velocity of sphere
TERMINAL VELOCITY
When a sphere falls through a viscous liquid, the viscous drag goes on increasing due to increasing
velocity. At a certain stage, the weight of sphere is balanced by the up thrust of liquid and the viscous drag.
At this stage the velocity of sphere becomes constant, which is called terminal velocity.
INCLINED PLANE
An inclined plane is a surface which makes some angle with the horizontal. The angle should be
greater than 0° but less than 90°.
Motion on inclined plane:
Diagram shows a block place on an inclined plane that
makes an angle θ with the horizontal. The forces on the block
are;
i. Weight “W” acting vertically downward.
ii. “R” is the reaction of surface perpendicular to the plane.
iii. Friction “f” parallel to the surface.
Assuming x-axis along the surface of inclined plane and
y-axis along the normal reaction, weight “W” is resolved into
Wcosθ and Wsinθ.
When the block is at rest:
In this condition, opposite forces balance each other i.e.
f = wsinθ (Along x-axis)
R = wsinθ (Along y-axis)
When block is sliding down the plane with some acceleration:
Along Y-axis:
As there is no motion along y-axis, therefore the forces balance each other.
i.e. R = wcosθ
Along X-axis:
As the block is sliding downward therefore the force wsinθ is greater than friction “f”. Hence;
Net Force = wsinθ – f
F = wsinθ – f
According to Newton’s second law of motion F = ma therefore;
ma = wsinθ – f
mg sin θ−f
a= m
mg sin θ f
a= −m
m
f
a = gsinθ – m ----------- (i)
In friction is Negligible:
Putting f = 0 in eq: (i)
0
We get; a = gsinθ − m
a = gsinθ – 0
a = gsinθ

This equation shows that the acceleration on a frictionless inclined surface does not depend upon
the mass of the body. It means that all the bodies slide down a fricless inclined plane have same
acceleration.
When block is sliding up the plane with some acceleration:
In this case the acceleration is given by:
a = – g sinθ
Special Cases:
i. When θ = 0°
a = gsinθ
a = gsin(0)
a = g(0)
a=0
It means the block will have zero or minimum acceleration on a horizontal surface.
ii. When θ = 90°
a = gsinθ
a = gsin(90)
a = g(1)
a=g
It means the block will fall freely or it has maximum acceleration on vertical surface.

CHAPTER#04
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
Motion in Two Dimensions
When a moving body simultaneously covers distances along x-axis and y-axis, its motion is called
‘Motion in Two Dimensions’. Following two are the examples of Motion in Two Dimensions.
1. Projectile Motion 2. Circular Motion
Projectile Motion:
Definition of Projectile: A body which is thrown in the air, only under the influence of gravity and
simultaneously covers horizontal and vertical distances, is called “Projectile”. The motion of this body is
called “Projectile motion”.
Definition of Projectile Motion: It is the two dimensional motion of a body which is thrown in air and
moves only under the influence of gravity such that it has a constant velocity in horizontal direction but
variable velocity in vertical direction.
Example of Projectile Motion: A missile or a shell shot from a gun, a ball which is kicked or thrown,
jumping of athletes and animals, a bomb release from a bomber plane etc.
Assumptions of Projectile Motion: While studying projectile motion we assume that:
1. The value of “g” throughout the motion remains constant.
2. There is no effect of earth’s rotation on projectile motion.
3. Air resistance is assumed to be negligible.
The Horizontal Component of the Velocity of Projectile Remains Constant. Why?
Because in projectile motion air resistance is assumed to be negligible, hence there is no force
along x-axis to act on a projectile. Therefore, the horizontal component of the velocity of projectile remains
constant throughout the motion.
Change in Velocity Components in Projectile Motion:
When a body is projected with some initial velocity
making an angle with the horizontal, the component of
velocity along horizontal (x-axis) remains unchanged as there
is no force in this direction. The vertical component of
velocity, however, keeps changing due to force of gravity.
First the vertical velocity decreases as it moves against gravity
and becomes zero at the highest point. As the body returns to
the ground the velocity begins to increase.

Derivations for Projectile Motion:
Consider a projectile is projected in xy-plane with initial velocity “vo” at an angle “θ” with the
horizontal. As shown in figure:
Components of Initial Velocity (vox and voy):

The initial velocity “vo”can be resolved into two rectangular components “v ox and voy) along x-axis
and y-axis respectively. The magnitude of these components are given by:
Vox= Vo cos θ Voy= Vo Sin θ
Components of the Velocity After Time “t” (V x and Vy):
Since there is no horizontal unbalance force acts on the projectile during motion therefore,
horizontal component of velocity remains constant hence after time “t” the horizontal component will be:
Vx= Vox= Vo cos θ
Vertical motion of the projectile is due to gravitational force which changes vertical velocity with
time, hence at any other instant “t” during its flight the vertical component of velocity will be given by
following equation of motion:
Vf= Vi + at
Putting Vf= Vy, Vi= Voy sin θ and a= - g
Hence Vy= Voy – gt
Vy= Vo sin θ – gt
Time to Reach Maximum Height (T): Time taken by the projectile to reach the highest point can be
determined by considering its motion along y-direction.
At the highest point velocity component “Vy” is zero, hence
Vf= Vy= 0
Vi= Voy= Vo sin θ
a= - g
t= T?
Substituting the above values in the following equation, we get:
Vf= Vi + at
Vy= Voy – gT
0= Voy – gT
gT= Voy
T= Voy/g
Or T=Vo sin θ/ g.

Total Time of Flight (T’): The projectile takes a certain time “T” to reach the highest point on its path,
it takes exactly the same time to return to the ground. Hence the total time of flight or in other words the
total time for going up and coming down will be “2T”.
But T=Voy/g
Total time of flight T’= 2T
T’= 2 Voy/g
Or T’= 2 Vo sin θ/g
Alternate Method: (use this method in exam or test)
As the body moves from initial point to final point total distance along y-axis is zero. Using following
equation of motion:
S = Vi t + ½ at2
Putting S = y= 0, Vi= Voy= Vo sin θ, a= - g and t= T’=?
Y = Voy T’ – ½ gT’2
0 = Voy T’ – ½ gT’2
½ gT’2= Voy T’
½ gT’= Voy
T’= 2 Voy/ g
Or T’= 2 Vo sin θ/ g
Maximum Height reached by the Projectile (h):
The vertical distance of projectile motion at which the vertical component of velocity becomes zero
is called maximum height “h”.
Using third equation of motion,
2as= Vf2 - Vi2
But Vi= Voy sin θ, Vf= Vy= 0, a= - g and S= h
2(-g) h= (0)2 – (Vo sin θ)2
-2gh= - (Vo sin θ)2
For a given initial velocity, same range is obtained at two different angles of projection. Why?
The horizontal range of projectile is given by:
v20
R= sin 2θ
g
From above formula we can see that the range of a projectile thrown with a given initial velocity,
“Vo” depends upon the value of sin 2θ. Range of a projectile will be same if the angle of projection “θ” is an
equal amount greater or lesser than 450. Since
Sin [2 (450 +∝)] = Sin [2(450 −∝)]
(45 +∝) and (450 −∝) are two angles of projection which are an equal amount ∝ greater or lesser
0
than 450 for which range of the projectile will be equal. For example, range of a given projectile will be
equal if it is projected at 600 and 300 to the horizontal.
Proof:
Since:
Sin [2(450 +∝)] = Sin[2(450 −∝)]
Putting ∝= 150
Sin[2(450 + 150 )] = Sin[2(450 − 150 )]
Sin[2(600 )] = Sin[2(300 )]
Sin 1200 = Sin 600
√3 √3
=
2 2

Maximum Range of a Projectile is Equal to Four Times of its Maximum Height:
R max = 4h
Proof:
Max. Height of projectile is given by:
v20 sin2 θ
h= 2g
For max. range θ= 450
v20 sin2 (45)
h= 2g
1 2
v20 ( )
h= √2
∴ sin 45 = 1⁄√2
2g
1
v20 ×
2
h= 2g
1 1
h = v02 × ×
2 2g
v20 sin2 θ
h= 2g
v20
h = 4g
v20 v20
4h = ∴ Rm =
g g
4h = R m
R m = 4h Proved
Trajectory of Projectile
Path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
It depends upon several factors. On neglecting the air resistance and assuming that “g” has a
uniform value over the entire motion we can trace the trajectory by finding the instantaneous
displacement in X and Y directions.
Displacement in X-direction in “t” seconds after the take-off is given by:
X= Vox t [∴ S = vt]
But
Vox= Vo cos θ
X= Vo cos θ. T
X
t=V
o cos θ
Hence, on substituting the expressions for “V oy” and “t” in the above equation, we get:
X 1 X 2
Y = Vo sin θ × V − 2 g (V )
o cos θ o cos θ
sin θ 1 X2
Y = X cos θ − 2 g v2 cos2 θ
0
sin θ
But = tan θ
cos θ
1 g
Y = X. tan θ − 2 v2 cos2 θ
0
For a given projectile projected at a certain angle “θ”,

tan θ = constant = a

g
=b
v20 cos2 θ
Where “a” and “b” are constants.

Therefore,
1
Y = aX − 2 bX 2
After determining the value of “X” and “Y” the instantaneous position of the projectile can be
located and its trajectory can be traced. The above relation shows that the trajectory (path) of a projectile
is parabolic in shape.
Trajectory Depends upon Angle of Projection: If a projectile at a small angle its trajectory will be flat
and its time of flight will be short. For a longer angle of projection trajectory is high and its time of flight
will be long. Hence, a high trajectory ball can be caught easily as compared to low trajectory ball.
Uniform Circular Motion: If a body moves with a constant speed along a circle or part of a circle then its
motion is called Uniform Circular or Uniform Angular Motion.
Angular Displacement: The angle covered by the body or particle at the center of the circular path,
during its circular motion is called angular displacement. It is denoted by “θ” and measured in radian”.
Explanation: Consider a body moving along a circular path of radius “r” in anti-clockwise direction. Let P1
and P2 be its instantaneous positions. Length of the arc between points P 1 and P2 represents the linear
displacement “S” of the body, whereas the angle subtended by the arc at the center of the circular path
represents its angular displacement “θ”.
Relation between Linear Distance (arc length) “S” and Angular Displacement “θ”:
S=rθ
Proof: The linear distance “S” is directly proportional to the angular displacement “θ”.
i.e. S ∝ θ
S = (Constant) θ
S = (r) θ
S=rθ
Here “r” is the radius of the circle which remains constant.
Definition of Radian: The angular displacement “θ” is said to be one radian (1 rad) if length “S” of the arc is
equal to radius “r” of the circular path. Hence:
Θ= 1 radian, when S= r
As: S=rθ

θ = S⁄ r
Putting S = r
θ = r⁄r
θ = 1 rad
Relation between Degree and Radian:
3600 1800 1800
1 rad = = = 3.142 = 57.30
2π π
0 2π π 3.142
1 = 360 rad = 180 rad = rad = 0.01745 rad
180
For one complete revolution of a body, the angle subtended at the center of the circle is 360 0
whereas distance covered by the body along the circular path is equal to the circumference 2 π r of the
circle.
Therefore,
For one revolution:
S = 2π r and θ = 3600
But, θ= S/r
3600= 2 π r/r
3600=2 π radians
Or 2 π radians= 3600
1 radian= 3600/2π
Or 1 rad= 57.30
Angular Velocity: The rate of change of angle at the center of the circle is known as the angular
velocity. It is denoted by ω.
∆θ
ω= ∆t
The above formula gives us average angular velocity of the body over an interval of time Δt.
Instantaneous angular velocity can be calculated by imposing a limit over interval of time
∆θ
ωinst = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
If average and instantaneous angular velocities are equal then the angular velocity of the body will
be uniform.
When ωav = ωinst
ω = uniform
Unit of Angular Velocity:

The unit of angular velocity is radian/sec.
Direction of Angular Velocity: Angular velocity is directed along the axis of rotation of the body. If
the body rotates in clock-wise direction then the angular velocity ω ⃗⃗ will be directed into the plane of paper
along the axis of rotation. Similarly, if the direction of rotation is anti-clockwise ω will be directed out of
the paper along the axis of rotation.
The direction of angular velocity can be found by the right hand rule, if we curl the fingers of our
right hand in the direction of motion, then thumb gives the direction of angular velocity.

Relation between Linear Velocity (V) and Angular Velocity (𝛚):
In order to drive a relation between angular and linear velocities consider a point “P” moving along
a circular path of radius “r”. If point “p” subtends an angle “Δθ” during time “Δt” when length of the arc is
“ΔS” then:
ΔS= r Δθ
On dividing both sides of the above equation by “Δt” and then taking the limit Δt → 0, we get:
∆S ∆θ
lim = r lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
∆S
But lim = Vins = V
∆t→0 ∆t
∆θ
Similarly, lim = ωinst = ω
∆t→0 ∆t
Therefore, V = r ω
The above formula shows that at any instant linear velocity “V” of the body is equal to “r” times of
its angular velocity "ω" at that instant.
The Angular Velocity of all the Points on a Rotating Body is Same but Their Linear Velocity is different.
Why?
The angular and linear velocities are related by following expression.
V=rω
The above formula also shows that although the angular velocity "ω" of all the points on a rotating
body is same, their linear velocity “V” will be different. For example, points on a rotating body lying close
to the axis of rotation will have lower value of “V”. Since “r” for these points is small. Similarly, points lying
away from the axis of rotation have higher value of “V”.
Angular Acceleration: The rate of change of angular velocity is known as angular acceleration. It is
denoted by “α” and measured in rad/s2.
∆ω
α= ∆t
If angular velocity of a body changes from ωi to ωf in the time Δt then:
ωf −ωi
α= ∆t
Average angular acceleration of the body is given by:
∆ω
αav = ∆t
αav. Represents the average angular acceleration of the body. The instantaneous angular acceleration αins.
Is given by:
∆ω
αins. = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
When average and instantaneous angular accelerations are equal then the angular acceleration of
the body will be uniform.
αav = αinst
α = uniform.
Direction of Angular Acceleration: The direction of angular acceleration ∝ is same as the direction of
angular velocity ω if the angular velocity of the body increases. Hence α is also directed along the axis of
rotation. But if the angular velocity of the body is decreasing then α will be opposite to ω.

Relation between Linear Acceleration (a) and Angular Acceleration (∝):
The linear velocity “V” with which point P moves along the circular path is also known as its
tangential velocity Vt. Since Vt is always along the tangent to the circular path. It is given by:
⃗Vt = r ω
⃗⃗
If the magnitude of V⃗ t changes then there will be an acceleration “at” known as tangential
acceleration.
If Vt changes by ΔV during time Δt such that the angular velocity ω⃗⃗ changes by ∆ω during the same
time then:
(∴ V = r ω)
Dividing both sides by Δt
∆V ∆ω
=r
∆t ∆t
On taking the limit on both sides, we get:
∆V ∆ω
lim = r lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
∆V
But lim =a
∆t→0 ∆t
∆ω
And lim =a
∆t→0 ∆t
Therefore, a=rα
Time Period: “Time taken by a body to complete one revolution is known as is period of revolution”.
When a body completes one revolution the angle subtended at the center of the circle is 360 0 2π radian.
Let “T” be the period of revolution then angular velocity of the body is given by:
θ
ω=
t
For one revolution:
θ = 2 π radian
t=T
Therefore,
2π
ω= T
2π
T= ω
Centripetal Acceleration
If a body moves with a uniform linear speed along a circular path than at any given point its linear
velocity is directed along the tangent to the circular path. Although the value of linear velocity is constant
but its direction continuously changes with time, as a result of which motion of the body becomes
accelerated.
The acceleration produced due to the change in the direction of velocity is always directed towards
the center of the circle, this acceleration is known as “Centripetal Acceleration”.

Magnitude of Centripetal Acceleration: ⃗ 1 and V
Let V ⃗ 2 be the velocities of a particle at two successive
positions after an interval of time “Δt” and “Δθ” be the angle subtended at the center of the circle of radius
“r”. Since magnitude of V ⃗ 1 and V
⃗ 2 is same but the direction is different, therefore, they are different
vectors. The change in velocity "∆V⃗ " can be determined by joining the tails of ⃗V1 and ⃗V2 . The line joining
⃗ " directed from the head of ⃗V1 to the head of ⃗V2 .
the heads represents "∆V
Triangles OAB and CPQ are similar, therefore,

According to rule of Geometry
̅̅̅
AB ̅̅̅̅
PQ
̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅
OA CP
But, AB ̅̅̅̅ = ∆V
̅̅̅̅
PQ = ∆S
̅̅̅̅
OA = V1 = V ∴ V1 = V2 = V
̅̅
CP̅̅ = r
∆V ∆S
=
V r
V
∆V = ∆S
r
Dividing both sides of the above equation by Δt.

∆V V ∆S
=
∆t r ∆t
If Δt is very small then on taking limit on both sides, we get:
∆V V ∆S
lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t r ∆t→0 ∆t
∆V
But, lim = a = ac
∆t→0 ∆t
∆S
And, lim =V
∆t→0 ∆t
V
ac = r ×V
V2
Therefore, ac =
r
Where “V” is the magnitude of ⃗V1 and ⃗V2 and "ac " is the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ " which is towards the center of the circle.
Its direction is same as the direction of "∆V

Centripetal Acceleration in Terms of Angular Velocity:
The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is given by the following formula:
V2
ac = r
Putting V = r ω
(r ω)2
ac = r
r 2 ω2
ac = r
ac = r ω2
Hence, ac ∝ ω2
Hence, centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to the square of angular velocity.
Centripetal Acceleration in terms of Time Period: The magnitude of centripetal acceleration is given by
the following formula:
ac = r ω2 … . . (i)
As,
2π
T= ω
2π
Or ω= T
This value of "ω" putting in eq: (i)
2π 2
ac = r ( T )
4π2
a c = r ( T2 )
4π2 r
ac = T2
1
Hence, ac ∝ T2
Hence, centripetal acceleration is inversely proportional to the square of time period.
Centripetal Acceleration in Terms of Frequency:
As;
4π2 r
ac = T2
2 1
ac = 4π r. T2
1
ac = 4π2 r f 2 ∴ f = T
Hence, ac ∝ f 2
Hence, centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to the square of frequency.
Relation between Centripetal and Tangential Acceleration:
Centripetal acceleration “ac” of a body moving along a circular path is due to a change only in the
direction of velocity of the body. If the body moves along a circular path with a changing speed then the
resulting acceleration will be along to the tangent to the circular path, it is known as the tangential
acceleration “at”.
“at” arises when there is a change in magnitude of velocity, but “a c” is due to a change in direction of
velocity, it is always there for a body, moving along a circular path.

“at” is along the tangent, whereas “ac” is towards the center of the circular path. Hence, “ac” and
“at” are always perpendicular to each other, therefore, their resultant acceleration is given by:
a = √a2c + a2t
The direction of the resultant acceleration “a” or in other words the angle which it makes with the
radius of the circle at any instant is given by:
a
θ = tan−1 (a t )
c
Centripetal Force
According to second law of motion whenever motion of a body is accelerated a force must act on it.
The direction of the force must be same the direction of acceleration.
Motion of a body moving along a circular path with a uniform speed is accelerated due to a change
in the direction of its velocity. The resulting acceleration is always directed towards the center of the
circular path and known as centripetal acceleration. According to second law a force must act on a body to
produce this acceleration. Under this condition force on the body is known as Centripetal force (always
directed towards the center).
Centripetal Acceleration “ac” is given by:
V2
ac = r
But according to second law of motion:
F= ma
Or Fc= mac
mV2
Fc = r
Centripetal Force in terms of Angular Velocity:
The magnitude of centripetal force is given by:
mV2
Fc = r
Putting V = r ω
m (r ω)2
Fc = r
mr2ω2
Fc = r
Fc = mr ω2
Fc ∝ ω 2
Centripetal Force in terms of Time Period:

The magnitude of centripetal force is given by:
Fc = m r ω2 … . (i)
As,
2π
T= ω

2π
OR ω= T
This value of "ω" putting in eq. (i)
2π 2
Fc = mr ( )
T
4π2
Fc = mr ( T2 )
4π2 mr
Fc = T2
1
Fc ∝ T 2
Centripetal Force in terms of Frequency:

4π2 mr
Fc = T2
2 1
Fc = 4π r. T2
1
Fc = 4π2 mr f 2 ∴ f = T
Hence, Fc ∝ f 2 .
Short Reasoning Questions:

i. Show that the range of a projectile is the same for θ= 450 + α and θ= 450 – α (where α < 450)
v20 sin 2θ
Ans. Range of projectile is given by: R = g
0
For θ= 45 + α
V20 sin 2(450 +α)
R= g
V20 sin(900 +2α)
R=
g
V20 cos 2α
R= … (i) ∴ sin(90 + θ) = cos θ)
g
For θ= 450 – α
V20 sin 2(450 −α)
R= g
V20 sin(900 −2α)
R= ∴ sin(90 − θ) = cos θ
g
V20 cos 2α
R= g
… (ii)
Since (90 ± θ) = cos θ, Hence, we get the same range. Proved.

ii. At what points during projectile motion does it have its maximum and minimum speeds?
Ans. The speed of a projectile is minimum at the highest point, because Vy= 0 and Vx= Vox (remains
unaltered). The speed of a projectile is maximum just before it strikes the surface, because “Vy” is
maximum. It is also maximum at the instant of projection.
iii. Why does a bomber not drop its bomb when it is vertically above the target?
Ans. When the bomb is dropped, this is a case of projectile motion. The bomb, during its flight, has two
velocities, horizontal velocity (equal to the velocity of the plane) and vertical velocity (due to the gravity).
The velocity of the bomb is the resultant of these two velocities. SO its motion is in a curved path
(projectile motion). Hence it does not fall vertically downward where it was dropped. However, it falls
farther away (X= Vox. T).
iv. Find the ratio of max. height to horizontal range (H/R).

H V20 sin2 θ⁄2g V20×sin θ.sin θ g
Ans. = = × V2 ×2 sin θ cos θ
R V20 sin 2θ⁄g 2g 0
H sin θ 1
= 4 cos θ = 4 tan θ
R
v. Prove that a gun will shoot three times as high when its angle if elevation is 60 0 as when it is 300.
Ans. For θ= 600
V20 sin2 600 0.75 V20
H1 = =
2g 2g
For θ= 300
V20 sin2 30 0.25 V20
H2 = =
2g 2g
Now
H1 0.75 V2
= 0.25 V02 = 3
H2 0
Or H1 = 3H2 Proved.
vi. Is there any work done by the centripetal force?

Ans. No work is done by the centripetal force. This is so, because the centripetal force and displacement
are at right angle to each other. (W= Fc r cos 900= 0).
vii. A baseball is batted at an angle into the air. If we neglect air drag, what is the ball’s acceleration
vertically? And horizontally?
Ans. Vertical acceleration is “g” because the force of gravity is vertical. Horizontal acceleration is zero
because no horizontal force acts on the ball. (Projectile motion).
viii. Is the following explanation valid? Satellites remain in orbit instead of falling to the earth because
they are beyond the main pull of earth’s gravity.
Ans. No, if any moving object were beyond the pull of gravity, it would move in straight line and would
not curve around the earth. Satellites remain in orbit because they are being pulled by gravity, not because
they are beyond it. For altitudes of most earth satellites, the earth’s gravitational field is only a few percent
weaker than th the earth’s surface.

ix. Is it possible to round a curve with zero acceleration? With constant acceleration?
Ans. If a body is moving on a circular path with constant speed it will have centripetal acceleration due
to constant change in direction of velocity hence it is not possible to round a curve without acceleration. If
the angular speed is constant then acceleration will also be constant.
x. Explain the factors on which the centripetal force depends and how?
Ans.
a) Centripetal force is directly proportional to mass of the body.
b) Centripetal force is directly proportional to the square of the velocity.
c) Centripetal force is inversely proportional to the radius of the orbit.
xi. In the game of cricket a ball of high trajectory is easy to catch, explain it.
Ans. As we know that, trajectory is the path followed by the projectile. It is parabolic in shape. If a
projectile is projected at a small angle its trajectory will be flat and its time of flight will be short. For a
larger angle of projection, trajectory is high and its time of flight will be long.
Therefore, in the game od cricket a ball of high trajectory is easy to catch, because the total time of flight
would be long and the player has sufficient time to get into position, whereas in low trajectory it is much
harder to catch the ball since the time of light is not so long.
xii. Does the horizontal velocity component of velocity of projectile motion remains constant if yes, then
why?
Ans. The horizontal component of velocity during the projectile motion remains constant, because
there is no net force acts in the horizontal direction and there is no horizontal component of acceleration.
Thus, if an object is projected with some initial horizontal velocity Vox, then its final velocity Vx in the
horizontal direction is equal to its initial velocity V ox. i.e. Vx= Vox
xiii. Under what condition horizontal range will be equal to the maximum height, also prove your
answer.
Ans. When the projectile is projected with 760.
Proof: When horizontal range becomes equal to maximum height.
h=R
V20 sin2 θ V20 sin 2θ
=
2g g
sin2 θ
= sin 2θ
2
sin2 θ
= 2 sin θ cos θ
2
sin2 θ
= 2×2
sin θ cos θ
sin θ
=4
cos θ
tan θ = 4
θ = tan−1 (4)
θ = 760 Hence proved
xiv. What is the value of the horizontal acceleration during projectile motion?
Ans. During projectile motion horizontal acceleration always be zero because throughout the projectile
motion horizontal velocity always remains constant.

xv. What are the values of the vertical acceleration during projectile motion?
Ans. As projectile motion occurs under the influence of gravity therefore, vertical acceleration is equal to
the gravitational acceleration. For upward motion it is equal to “- g” and for downward motion it is equal
to “+ g”.
xvi. Differentiate between circular motion and uniform circular motion.

Ans. During circular motion object moves in the circular orbit with any speed (uniform or variable).
Whereas in uniform circular motion object moves in the circular orbit with uniform speed.
xvii. Why during circular motion velocity can never be uniform.

Ans. During circular motion velocity can never be uniform because the direction of velocity which is
tangent on the circle changes at every point.
xviii. Show that the centripetal acceleration is

(i) inversely proportional to the square of time period and
(ii) directly proportional to the square of frequency.
Ans.
Proof: The value of centripetal acceleration is given by:
v2
ac = r
Putting v = r ω
r 2 ω2
ac = r
ac = r ω2
2π
Putting ω = T
2π 2
ac = r ( T )
4π2
a c = r ( T2 )
4π2 r
ac =
T2
1
Hence, ac ∝ T2
1
Now, ac = 4π2 r. T2
1
Putting T2 = f 2
ac = 4π2 r f 2
Hence, ac ∝ f 2 Proved.

CHAPTER#05
TORQUE, ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND EQUILIBRIUM
Torque, Angular Momentum and Equilibrium
Axis of Rotation: Some bodies cannot move from place to place but they can rotate about a fixed line
or axis, called its axis of rotation.
Moment Arm (or) Arm of Force: The perpendicular distance from axis of rotation to the line of action
of the force is called moment of arm (or) arm of force.
Torque:
Torque is the turning effect of a force produced in a body about a certain axis of rotation. Torque is
a vector quantity. It is also defied as:
It is the cross product of position vector "r" and force F.
τ = r × ⃗F
The magnitude of torque is given by:
τ = r F sin θ
Where “θ” is the angle between the position vector "r" and force F.
Magnitude of torque "τ" is maximum when θ= 90 or "r" is perpendicular to F.
τ = r F sin 90
τ=rF
Torque produced in a body of a force passes through the axis of rotation the component of "r" are
parallel to each other. I.e. θ = 0 or when the line of action of force passes through the axis of rotation.
τ = r F sin 0
τ=0
When line of action of a force passes through the axis of rotation the component of "r"
perpendicular to force F (also called moment arm) is zero due to which its turning effect "τ" will be zero.
Direction of Torque: Direction of torque can be determined by the “Right Hand Rule”. Its direction is
⃗.
perpendicular to the plane containing r and F
Sign Convention: Torque which produces clockwise rotation are negative whereas those producing
anti-clockwise rotation are positive.

Explanation of Torque: Consider a body of mass “m” whose position with respect to the origin of a
Co-ordinate system is given by a position vector r. Let a force F be applied on it which makes a certain
angle “θ” with r. F can be resolved into two components F⊥ and F∥ such that,
F∥ = F cos θ (in the direction of r)
F⊥ = F sin θ (⊥ in the direction of r)
If the body id free then F∥ will produce linear motion in it whereas, F⊥ can produce turning about
point “O”. Hence, a torque is produced only by F⊥ and is given by:
τ = r F⊥
τ = r F sin θ … . . (i)
⃗ into its components, r is resolved, r⊥ = r sin θ will be the perpendicular
If instead of resolving F
distance between the line of action of force and the axis of rotation. In this case, the magnitude of torque
is given by:
τ = F(r sin θ) … . (ii)
Where “r sin θ” is the component of r perpendicular to F ⃗ . It is also known as moment of arm.
Hence,
Torque= (Force) (Moment arm)
Hence torque is the product of force and moment arm.
From eq: (i) and (ii), we can write as:
τ = r × ⃗F
Hence torque is the cross product of position vector r and force F ⃗.
Two Like Parallel Forces: If two parallel forces have same direction, they are called like parallel forces.
Two Unlike Parallel Forces: If two parallel forces have opposite direction, they are called unlike parallel
forces.
Resultant of Two Like Parallel Forces:
The resultant of two like parallel forces is a force whose magnitude is equal to the sum of the
magnitudes of the two forces and the direction is the same as either of the forces.
⃗ is the resultant of F
If R ⃗ 1 and F
⃗ 2 then:
R = F1 + F2
Resultant of Two Unlike Parallel Forces:
The resultant of two unlike parallel forces is a force whose magnitude is equal to the difference of
the magnitude of the two forces and the direction is the same as that of the greater force.
If ⃗R is the resultant of ⃗F1 and ⃗F2 (F1 > F2 ) then:
R = F1 − F2

Couple: A pair of forces is said to form a couple if the forces have equal magnitude, opposite
directions and different lines of action.
Torque (or) Moment of Couple:

A couple always tends to turn the body in the same direction.
Torque or moment of couple is given by:
τ=F×d
τ = Force x Couple arm
Couple arm is the perpendicular distance between the two forces.
Suppose ⃗F and − ⃗F are the two forces forming a couple acting at points A and B respectively.
r1 = Position vector of point A.
r2 = Position vector of point B.
It is clear that:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = r2 or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
r2 + BA BA = r1 − r2 or r = r1 − r2 … . (i)
Now,
Moment of force ⃗F about the origin “O” is:
τ1 = r1 × ⃗F
Moment of force ⃗F2 about “O” is:
τ2 = r2 × (−F ⃗ ) = −r2 × ⃗F
Moment of Couple:
τ = τ1 + τ2
τ = r1 × F ⃗ − r2 × F⃗
τ = (r1 − r2 ) × ⃗F
But from eq: (i) r1 − r2 = r therefore,
τ=r ×F ⃗
Its magnitude is:
τ = r F sin(180 − θ)
But sin (180 – θ)= sin θ, therefore,
τ = r F sin θ = F × r sin θ
But r sin θ= d= couple arm, therefore,
τ=F×d

Moment of couple= Force x Couple arm
Center of Mass
Center of mass of a body or a system of particles is a point at which all the mass is thought to be
concentrated.
When a body moves in such a way that it is rotating also then each point on the body rotates as
well as translates. But the point which only translate and does not rotate at all is the center of mass of the
body.
Thus center of mass moves in the same way as a single particle would move under the action of
some forces.
Center of mass may not always lie within the material of the object e.g. Center of mass of a ring is
in air.
In a uniform gravitational field, the center of mass of an object coincides with the center of gravity.
When an object extends to great height so that the gravitational field is not uniform then the center
of mass and center of gravity do not coincide.
Location of Center of Mass
Suppose m1,m2,…. mn are the masses of particles and x1, x2 ,…… xn are distances along x-axis and y1,
y2,…… yn are distances along y-axis then the position of center of mass w.r.t. origin, along x-axis and y-axis
is given by:
m1 x1 +m2 x2 +⋯.+mn xn ∑ mx
xc = = ∑m
m1 +m2 +⋯.mn
m1 y1 +m2 y2 +⋯+mn yn ∑ my
yc = = ∑m
m1 +m2 +⋯mn
Similarly,
m1 z1 +m2 z2 +⋯mn zn ∑ mz
zc = = ∑m
m1 +m2 +⋯mn
Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moves with uniform velocity.
Static Equilibrium:
A body at rest is said to be in static equilibrium.
Dynamic Equilibrium:
A body moving with uniform velocity is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
Examples:
Motion of paratrooper, motion of small steel ball through a viscous medium (e.g. Oil).
Translational Equilibrium:
A body at rest or moving with uniform linear velocity is said to be in translational equilibrium. A
body satisfying the first condition of equilibrium will be in translational equilibrium, and its linear
acceleration will be zero. (i.e. a= 0).
Rotational Equilibrium:
A body rotating with constant angular velocity or having zero angular acceleration is said to be in
rotational equilibrium.
A body satisfying the second condition of equilibrium will be in rotational equilibrium, its angular
acceleration will be zero. (i.e. α= 0).

Examples of Static Equilibrium:

1. A book placed on a table.
2. A ball suspended from the ceiling by a string.
3. A block which is placed on a smooth surface.
Examples of Dynamic Equilibrium:
1. A paratrooper falling with uniform velocity.
2. A car moving on a road with uniform velocity.
3. A small metallic ball moving with constant velocity in a viscous liquid (e.g. Oil).
Explanation of Static Equilibrium:
Consider a book of weight “W”, lying on a table.
There are two forces acting on the book. One is the force of gravity acting downward and other is
the reaction of the table acting upward.
AS the book is at rest, therefore both the forces cancel the effect of each other and the book is in
static equilibrium.
Explanation of Dynamic Equilibrium:
Consider a jumping of a paratrooper from an aeroplane. After jumping from aeroplane, the
parachute is not opened for some time. During this period the paratrooper falls freely downward with an
acceleration due to gravity of earth. On opening the parachute, his acceleration will start decreasing due to
the reaction of the air acting upward on the parachute. This reaction depends upon the velocity of the
parachute. When this velocity decreases the reaction of air will also decrease. At a particular velocity the
reaction of air on parachute becomes equal to the weight of the paratrooper. At this stage both the forces
cancel the effect or each other and the paratrooper falls down with a uniform velocity, called terminal
velocity and he is in dynamic equilibrium.
Conditions of Equilibrium
First Condition of Equilibrium:
A body is in translational equilibrium if the vector sum of all the forces acting upon it is equal to
zero. First condition of equilibrium is expressed as:
∑F⃗ =0
Explanation: Consider a number of coplanar forces lying in xy-plane. The resultant force is:
⃗F = ⃗F1 + ⃗F2 + ⃗F3 + ⋯ + ⃗Fn
⃗F = (F1x î + F1y ĵ) + (F2x î + F2y ĵ) + ⋯ + (Fnx î + Fny ĵ)
⃗ = (F1x î + F2x î + ⋯ + Fnx î) + (F1y ĵ + F2y ĵ + ⋯ + Fny ĵ)
F
Fx î + Fy ĵ = (F1x + F2x + ⋯ + Fnx )î + (F1y + F2y + ⋯ + Fny )ĵ
Comparing both sides of the equation, we get:
Fx = F1x + F2x + ⋯ + Fnx
Fy = F1y + F2y + ⋯ + Fny
Note that Fx and Fy are the magnitudes of the components of resultant force. The body will be in
equilibrium if the resultant force is zero. In that case:
Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 ∴ F = √Fx2 + Fy2
And hence,
F1x + F2x + ⋯ + Fnx = 0 and F1y + F2y + ⋯ + Fny = 0

We may write as:
∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0
i.e. the algebraic sum of x-components and y-components of all the forces is equal to zero. When a body
satisfies first condition of equilibrium the net force acting on it will be zero and according to Newton’s
second law of motion its linear acceleration will also be zero. Hence it will be either at rest or move with
uniform velocity.
Second Condition of Equilibrium:
According to second condition of equilibrium:
“The algebraic sum of all the torques acting on a body about any axis must be zero”. i.e. ∑ τ = 0
Or “The clockwise torque must be equal to anti-clockwise torque”.
Explanation:
A body satisfying first condition of equilibrium may not be in a state of complete equilibrium. This
happens when line of action of forces is different under this condition the body will have rotational
acceleration. For rotational motion second condition of equilibrium must be satisfied so that the body
either remains at rest or rotates with uniform angular velocity.
A body satisfying second condition will be in rotational equilibrium.
For complete equilibrium a body must satisfy both the conditions hence for a body to be in
complete equilibrium.
∑ Fx = 0
∑ Fy = 0
∑τ = 0
Angular Momentum
Angular momentum of a particle of mass “m” about a certain fixed point is the cross product of its
position vector "r" with respect to the fixed point and linear momentum P ⃗.
∴ Angular momentum l is given by:
l = r×p ⃗
But linear momentum of a body is given by:
p
⃗ = mV⃗
⃗ is velocity of the particle.
Where “m” is mass and V
l = r × mV⃗
l = m r × ⃗V
Angular momentum is a vector quantity, its magnitude is given by:
l − mrv sin θ
Where “θ” is the angle between position vector r and linear velocity ⃗V of the particle.
Direction of angular momentum is determined by right hand rule. The direction of angular
momentum is always perpendicular to the plane formed by vectors r and V⃗ (or by r and p ⃗ ).
If the point is moving along a circular path its axis of rotation lies at the center of the circle and its
position vectors r is taken with respect to center of the circle. Since linear velocity is directed along the
tangent to the circle, hence linear momentum p ⃗ of the particle will also be along the tangent to the circular
path. In other words, r and p⃗ are perpendicular to each other. Hence if a particle is moving along a circular
path the magnitude of its angular momentum is given by:
l = m vr sin 90
l = m vr

S.I. unit of angular momentum is Joule-second (J-s) or kg.m2/s.
Determinant Form for Angular Momentum:
Like cross product of any two vector, angular momentum can also be written in determinant form.
Hence if x, y and z are the coordinates of position vector r (rectangular components of position vector are
called its coordinates), px, py and pz are the components of its linear momentum, then in determinant form
angular momentum is given by:
î ĵ k̂
l=|z y z|
px py pz
Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum
Statement: If no external torque acts on a particle or n a system of particles then the angular
momentum of the particle or the total angular momentum of the system of particles remains constant.
Proof: Consider a system of several particles having masses m1, m2, m3,….. mn. Now we consider only a
single particle having mass “m” in angular motion with position vector “r” and linear velocity “v”. The
angular momentum of the particle according to the definition is given by:
l = r×p ⃗
But p
⃗ = mV⃗
⃗
l = r × mV
l = m(r × V⃗)
Now for the conservation of angular momentum we find the condition by differentiating with
respect to time.
dl d
⃗)
= m dt (r × V
dt
Using the identity of differentiation i.e.
d du dv
∴ (u × v) = [ × v + u × dt ]
dt dt
dl dr⃗ dV ⃗⃗
= m [dt × ⃗V + r × dt ]
dt
dr⃗ ⃗⃗
dV
But ⃗ and
=V = a⃗ therefore,
dt dt
dl
⃗ × ⃗V + r × a⃗]
= m[V
dt
⃗ ×V
But from the property of vector or cross product we have V ⃗ = 0 hence,
dl
= m[0 + r × a⃗]
dt
dl
= r × ma⃗
dt
dl
= r × ⃗F
dt
⃗
∴τ=r×F
dl
=τ
dt
Now this result can be applied to all particles i.e.
dl1 dl2 dl3 dln
+ + +⋯+ = τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + ⋯ + τn
dt dt dt dt
dl
=τ
dt

This equation shows that the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a system of particles
is equal to the net external torque acting on it.
If the net external torque acting on the system is zero, then:
dl
=0
dt
Since the rate of change of any constant is zero.
d
Hence: l = constant ∴ dt (constant) = 0
Hence the total angular momentum of system of particles is conserved (remains constant) if the net
external torque acting on the system is zero.
SHORT REASONING QUESTIONS

i. Is it possible to calculate torque acting on a rigid body without specifying the origin?
Ans. No, because moment of arm cannot be found without specifying the origin.
ii. Is torque independent of location of origin?

Ans. No, torque is not independent of the location of origin.
⃗ = 𝐫 × 𝐅, is 𝐫 equal to the moment arm? Explain.

iii. In the expression for torque, 𝛕
Ans. No, because τ = r × ⃗F = r F sin θ × û and τ = F(r sin θ). Here r sin θ is the perpendicular distance
of the line of action of the force F from the axis of rotation. This perpendicular distance (d) is called the
moment arm of the force. Thus d = r sin θ.
iv. If a torque on a particle about an arbitrary origin is zero, what can you say about its angular
momentum about that origin?
Ans. If a torque on a particle about an arbitrary origin is zero, then its angular momentum about that
origin is constant (conserved).
Since,
dL
=τ
dt
So, if τ = 0, then
dL
=0
dt
Since derivative of a constant is zero, hence L is constant.
v. If linear velocity of a particle is constant in time, can its angular momentum be constant in time about
an arbitrary origin?
Ans. Yes, if linear velocity of a particle is constant, then angular momentum is also constant.
Since,
dp d d d
F= = dt (mv) = m dt (v) = m dt (constant) = m × 0 = 0
dt
⃗ =r×0= 0
τ=r×F
dL dL
∴ = τ => =0
dt dt
Since derivative of a constant is zero, then L is constant.
vi. What will happen to torque if both 𝐫 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐅 can be reversed?

Ans. Neither magnitude nor direction of torque will change.

vii. What will happen to torque if direction of 𝐅 is reversed?

Ans. The direction of torque is reversed, but its magnitude remains the same.
viii. Two unequal masses are attached to the ends of a solid rod. Which mass is nearest to the center of
mass (Lighter or Heavier) and Why?
Ans. Center of mass depends on the distribution of mass around it. It is always in the region where most
of the mass is concentrated, therefore it is always near to the heavier mass.
ix. Does the center of mass of solid object necessarily lie within the object? If not give examples.
Ans. Center of mass of solid objects does not necessarily lie within the object e.g. a bowl shaped solid
object, a solid object ring etc. have their center of mass at their geometrical centers.

CHAPTER#06
GRAVITATION
Gravitation
In 1662, Newton promoted the ideology of Johannas Kepler in which he concluded that everybody
in our universe exert a force of attraction on every other body called, “Force of Gravitation”. He further
added that it is the same force of attraction causes the rotation of Moon around the Earth and similarly,
causes free fall motion of a body towards the center of earth. Hence
“The property of attraction exists between a pair of any two material bodies is known as
Gravitation”.
Force of Gravitation: The force of attraction exists between two material bodies is known as, “Force of
Gravitation”.
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

In 1665, Newton has made a successful attempt to derive an expression for determining force of
gravitation between a pair of two bodies.
Statement: “Everybody in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between
them”.
Hence, the gravitational force of attraction between bodies of masses “m 1” and “m2” at distance “r”
is given by:
m1 m2
F∝ r2
G m1 m2
F= r2
“G” is the constant of proportionality known as “Universal Gravitational Constant”. Its value is 6.67
-11
x 10 N-m2/kg2.
Derivation (or) Formulation (or) Proof of Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

To analyze, force of gravitation between two material bodies, Newton considered rotation of Moon
around the Earth in circular orbit.
During orbital motion of the Moon let us assume that:
i. The Mass of Earth= ME.
ii. The radius of the Earth= RE= 6.4 x 106 m.
iii. The Mass of the Moon= M m.
iv. The position vector drawn from the center of earth to the center of Moon= Orbital Radius of the
Moon= r = 3.84 × 108 m.
v. The time period of Moon= Tm= 27.3 Days= 2.36 x 106 sec.
vi. The gravitational acceleration of free fall body= g= 9.8 m/s 2.
2πrm
vii. The orbital velocity of Moon= Vo = Tm
According to the Hygen’s ideology:

When moon revolves around the Earth in circular orbit, it experiences an acceleration towards the
center of earth called, Centripetal Acceleration of the moon and symbolized by a⃗m .
The expression of centripetal acceleration of moon is given by:
V2
am = r o
m
2πrm 2
( )
Tm
am = rm
4π2 r2m 1
am = ( ) × (r )
T2m m
4π2 rm
am = T2m
4×(3.142)2 ×(3.84×108 )
am = (2.36×106 )2
(1.516×1010 )
am = (5.569×1012 )
am = 2.72 × 10−3 m⁄s 2
Now, the comparison between centripetal acceleration of moon to the gravitational acceleration of
a free fall body is given by:
am 2.72×10−3
= = 2.77 × 10−4
g 9.8
am 1
= … (i)
g (60)2
1 1
Hence, Newton found that centripetal acceleration of moon is about 3600 = (60)2 times the
gravitational acceleration of a free falling body.
In the same fashion, the comparison between Square of Radius of Earth and Square of Orbital
Radius of Moon i.e. R2E ⁄rm
2
shows the same results as obtained by the comparison between two
accelerations. Mathematically,
2
R2E (6.4×106 )
= (3.84×108 )2
r2m
R2E 10.96×1012
= 14.745×1016
r2m
R2E
= 2.77 × 10−4
r2m
R2E 1
= (60)2 … (ii)
r2m
Now,
By comparing eq: (i) and (ii), we have:
am R2
= r2E
g m
gR2E
am = r2m
Multiplied by Mass of Moon both sides,
gR2EMm
Mm . a m = r2m
2
(gRE)Mm
Fm = r2m
Hence, Newton concluded that the centripetal force on moon i.e. The force acted upon the moon
towards the center of earth is directly proportional to the Mass of Moon, but inversely proportional to the
square of distance measured from the center of the Earth to the center of Moon.

Now, to hold this principle universally true, Newton applied the same ideology on a pair of two
bodies “A” and “B” of mass “mA” and “mB” respectively that are separated by a small distance of “r”. If
“FAB” be the magnitude of force of gravitation of body “B” on body “A” then we may write as:
FAB ∝ mA … (a)
FAB ∝ 1⁄r 2 … (b)
Similarly, if “FAB” be the magnitude of force of gravitation of body “A” on body “B”, then we may
write as:
FBA ∝ mB … (c)
FBA ∝ 1⁄r 2 … (d)
By combining relations (a), (b), (c) and (d), we have:
m m m m
FAB ∝ Ar2 B or FBA ∝ Ar2 B
(G)mA mB (G)mA mB
FAB = or FBA =
r2 r2
⃗ AB | = |F
Since, |F ⃗ BA |, therefore, in general we may write as:
(G)mA mB
F= r2
(G)mA mB
⃗F = (−r̂)
r2
Mass of Earth
Mass of Earth can be determined with the help of Newton’s Law of Gravitation, according to which
the force with which the earth attracts a body of body of mass “m” lying on its surface is given by:
GmMe
∴ F= R2e
Where “Re” is the radius of the earth and “Me” is its mass.
But the force with which the earth pulls a body is equal to its weight, given by:
F = W= mg
Since, the above two equations give us the same force, therefore:
GmMe
= mg
R2e
R2e
Me = g G
On substituting the values of “g’, “G” and “Re”, we get:
2
9.8×(6.38×106 )
Me = 6.67×10−11
24
Me = 5.98 × 10 Kg
Me = 6 × 1024 Kg
Average Density of Earth
“Mass per unit volume of a body is known as its Density”.
Since, the composition of the earth is different in different locations, therefore, its density will also
be different. Hence, its average density is calculated by:
Mass of the Earth
Average Density= ρ = Volume of the Earth
Since, the earth is nearly spherical therefore its volume is given by 4⁄3 πR3e .
Me
ρ = 4⁄3 πR3
e
6×1024
ρ=4
×(3.142)×(6.38×106 )3
3
ρ = 5464.15 Kg⁄m3

Mass of the Sun
Earth is revolving around the sun. Suppose the orbit is

circular.
Me = Mass of the Earth
Ms = Mass of the Sun
R = Radius of Orbit= 1.49 x 1011 m.
Gravitational force of the sun on the earth is:
GMe Ms
F= R2
This is the centripetal force on earth. Therefore:
GMe Ms
Fc = R2
GMe Ms
Me a c = ∴ Fc = mac
R2
GMs
ac = R2
4π2 R GMs 4π2 R
= ∴ ac =
T2 R2 T2
2 2 3
GMs T = 4π R
4π2 R3
Ms = GT2
Where:
T= time of one revolution of earth around the sun.
T= 365.3 days
T= 365.3 x 24 x 3600 sec
T= 31561920 sec
R= 1.49 x 1011 m
G= 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/Kg2.
Substituting the values in above equation, we get:
Ms = 1.99 × 1030 Kg Or Ms = 2 × 1030 Kg
Variation in “g” with Altitude (Height)

Let “g” be the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth and “g” be the acceleration
due to gravity at height “h” from the earth’s surface.
On the surface of earth the value of “g” is given by:
GMe
g= R2e
At any height “h” above the surface of the earth, “g” is given by:
GMe
g ′ = (R 2
e +h)
Dividing “g” by “g’ “we get:

GMe
g R2e
= GMe
g′
(Re +h)2
g GMe (Re +h)2
= ×
g′ R2e GMe
g (Re +h)2
=
g′ R2e

g R2e +2Re h+h2
=
g′ R2e
g R2e 2Re h h2
= + + R2
g′ R2e R2e e
g 2h h2
= 1 + R + R2
g′ e e
h2 h2
Since, “h” is very small as compared to “Re”, therefore, R2 is negligible i.e. R2 = 0
e e
g 2h
= 1+R
g′ e
g′ 1
Or = 2h
g (1+ )
Re
g′ 2h
= (1 + R ) − 1
g e
According to Binomial theorem:
If: X <<1 Then: (1 + X)n= 1 + nX
Hence:
2h 2h 2h
(1 + R ) − 1 = 1 + (−1) (R ) = 1 − R
e e e
The above results obtained by neglecting the terms with higher powers of “Re”. Therefore:
g′ 2h
=1−R
g e
2h
This relation shows that: g ′ = g (1 − R )
e
g′ < 𝑔
Hence the value of “g” decreases with height “h” above the surface of the earth.
Variation of “g” with Depth

Let “g” be the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth and “g” be the acceleration
due to gravity at depth “d” from the surface of the earth below the surface, i.e. at a distance (R e – d) from
the center of the earth.
If "ρ" is the average density of the earth then, its mass “Me” is given by:
Me m
ρ = 4⁄3πR3 ∴ρ=
e V
4 3
Me = 3 πρRe … (i)
Corresponding to the above value of “Me” the value of “g” on the surface of the earth is given by:
GMe
g= R2e
4
G πρRe3
3
g= Re2

4
g = 3 GπρR e … (ii)
At any depth “d”, the effective mass of earth (M e’) for producing gravitational acceleration is given
by:
Me′ m
ρ = 4⁄3π(Re−d)3 ∴ ρ = V
′ 4 3
Me = 3 πρ(Re − d)
Hence, the value of “g” at any depth “d” is given by:
GMe′ GMe
g ′ = (Re−d)2 ∴ g = Re2
Substituting the value of “Me’ “we get:
4
Gπρ(Re−d)3
g′ = 3 (Re−d)2
4
g ′ = 3 Gπρ(Re − d) … (ii)
Dividing “eq: (iii)” by eq: (ii),
4
g′ Gπρ(Re−d)
=3 4
g G πρRe
3
g′ (Re−d)
=
g Re
g′ Re d
= −
g Re Re
g′ d
= (1 − Re)
g
d
g ′ = g (1 − Re)
From the above formula we can see that gravitational acceleration decreases with depth “d”.
Note: For the same height and depth the value of “g” decreases more rapidly with height.
Weightlessness in Satellites
The astronauts and the other things will get weightlessness when their space craft (Satellite)
revolves in orbit around the earth. In order to understand the weightlessness in satellites, let us consider
first an example of a weight (block), is hanged from a spring balance by means of a thread attached to the
ceiling of an elevator.
Case # 1: When the Elevator is at Rest:
In this case, the force along the thread balance the opposite force of gravity experienced by the
block.
i.e. Fw= mg
This represents the true weight of the block.
Case # 2: When the Elevator is Ascending With an Acceleration of 𝐝: ⃗⃗⃗

In this case, the equation of motion is given by:
ma = Fw − mg
Fw = mg + ma
Fw = m(g + a)
This explains that the apparent weight of the block is greater than the
true weight and thus the body appears “Heavier”.

⃗⃗⃗
Case # 3: When the Elevator is Descending with an Acceleration of 𝐝:
In this case, the equation of motion will be:

ma = mg − Fw
Fw = mg − ma
Fw = m(g − a)
This explains that the apparent weight of the block is less than the true weight and thus the body
will observe “Lighter”.
Case # 4: When the Elevator is Falling Down Like a Free Falling Body:
Let us suppose that cable supporting the elevator breaks and the elevator will fall down under the
action of gravity with a= g.
In this case, the net force will be:
Fw = m(g − g)
Fw = m(0)
Fw = 0
Hence, the spring balance shows zero reading i.e. an observer in the elevator will find that the block
has no weight. This is referred as the “State of Weightlessness”.
In a space ship, orbiting around the earth, the centripetal acceleration. “a c” towards the center of
the earth equal to the acceleration due to gravity: i.e. ac= g.
Thus, the apparent weight of object in a space ship will be:
Fw = mg − mac
Since, ac= g ∴ Fw = mg − mg
Fw = 0
This implies that an astronaut or any other object in the satellite is said to be “Weightless” or in a
state of “Zero g”.
Artificial Gravity
When a satellite is orbiting around the earth, objects in it are weightless.
To produce artificial weight or gravity, the satellite is made to spin about its own center while it
keeps revolving around the earth.
This causes the objects in the satellite to move away from the center of the satellite.
Tendency to move away from the center is the
centrifugal force due to which objects stick to the inner
surface of the satellite. The centrifugal force is the
artificial gravity. If “V” is the speed and “r” is the radius of the
satellite then centrifugal force (Fg) on the objects in the
satellite is given by:
mv2
Fg = Fc = r
This centrifugal force must balance the weight of the
object i.e.
mv2
mg =
r
v2
=g
r
ac = g
Hence, to produce artificial gravity, the centripetal acceleration of Satellite should be equal to
gravitational acceleration “g”.

To find the Frequency of Rotation to Produce Artificial Gravity:
Consider a space craft consisting of two chambers, connected by a tunnel of length 20 meters. To
calculate the frequency of spinning of the space craft, assume that “T” and “f” be the period and frequency
of the rotation.
The magnitude of centripetal acceleration of space craft is given by:
4π2 R
ac = T2
2 1 1
ac = 4π R. T2 ∴ f = T
ac = 4π2 R × f 2 … (1)
Where “R” is the radius of rotation for space craft i.e. R= 10 m.
Eq: (1)>
a
f 2 = 4πc2 R
1 a
f = 2π √ Rc
Since for the rotation of space craft, a c= g.
Thus,
1 g
f = 2π √R
Substituting g= 9.8 m/s2, R+ 10 meters, π= 3.142
1 9.8
f = 2×3.142 √ 10
f = 0.158 Revolution/second
f = 0.158 × 60 Revolution/minutes
Or: f = 9.5 Revolutions/minute.
Thus we may conclude that an astronaut should feel comfortable in space craft spinning at 9.5
revolutions/minute at a distance of 10 meters away from the axis of rotation.

i. What happen with the gravitational force if the masses as well as the distance between bodies are
doubled? Show your answer mathematically.
Ans. Gravitation force remains same.
Proof:
Gm m
F = r12 2
G(2m1 )(2m2 )
F′ = (2r)2
4Gm1 m2
F′ = 4r2
Gm1 m2
F ′ = r2
F ′ = F Proved.

ii. Calculate the apparent weight of a body when elevator moves upward or downward with uniform
velocity.
Ans. When elevator is moving upward or downward with uniform velocity the acceleration is zero. i.e.
a= 0.
For upward movement: Fw = mg + ma = mg + m(0) = mg + 0 = mg
For downward movement: Fw = mg − ma = mg − m(0) = mg − 0 + mg
Hence the apparent weight is equal to the actual weight.
iii. An elevator starts up from the basement with an initial acceleration of 16 m/s 2. Will the apparent
weight of the passenger decrease, increase or will remain constant?
Ans. When the elevator begins accelerated upward, then apparent weight,
Fw = mg + ma = 9.8 × m + 16 × m = 25.8 m. Thus apparent weight increases from 9.8 to 25.8
in unit of weight.
iv. According to the equation of gravitational force, what happen to the force between two bodies if the
mass of one of the bodies is doubled? If both masses are doubled?
Ans. When one is double, the force between it and the other one doubles, if the both masses are
doubled, the force is four times as much.
v. If there is an attractive force between all objects, why do we not feel ourselves gravitating toward
massive bodies in our vicinity?
Ans. The force between us and massive bodies are extremely small because the masses are so small
compared to the mass of the earth. The forces due to the starts are very small because of their
great distance. These tiny forces are negligible as compared to the attraction of the earth.
vi. Is the gravitational force between the earth and the sun same at all times of the year?
Ans. No, the gravitational force between the earth and the sun is not constant. As the orbital path of
the earth round the sun is elliptical, so the distance between the earth and the sun is changing with
time.
vii. How can the value of g and G be affected if mass of the earth becomes doubled?
Ans. Since g=G Me/Re2, so g ∝ Me, so g becomes double. But the G remains the same as it is a universal
constant.
viii. How would the weight of a body vary as it is taken from the earth to the moon? What will be
effect on its mass?
Ans. If a body is taken from the earth to the moon, then its mass will not change but its weight will
decrease to one-sixth because acceleration due to gravity on the moon is g m= 1/6 g.
ix. How would the weight of a body vary when it is taken to the center of the earth?
d
Ans. The acceleration of gravity below the earth’s surface at depth d is g ′ = g (1 − R ). When depth d =
e
Re then g’= 0, thus if an object is taken to the center of the earth, its weight will be zero.
R
∴ g ′ = g (1 − Re )
e
g ′ = g(1 − 1)
g ′ = g(0)
g′ = 0
x. How is the orbital speed of a planet or satellite related to its orbital radius?
Ans. When a satellite is orbiting round a planet (e.g. the earth), then necessary centripetal force is
provided by the gravitational force, thus if M is mass of satellite, ro is the orbital radius and Vo is its
orbital speed, then:
Gravitation force= Centripetal force
GMMe MV2o
=
r2o ro
GMe
Vo2 = ro
GMe
Vo = √ ro

1
Since Me is constant, hence Vo ∝
√ro
In general, the closer the orbit to the earth, the greater the orbital speed of the satellite.

CHAPTER#07
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Work
When force acts on a body and the body moves through some distance. Then work is said to be
done. Work is a scalar quantity. It is denoted by “W”.
Formulae of Work:
The work is calculated by the following two formulae:
(1) W= F d (2) W= F d cos θ
(1) If a constant force “F” acts on a body placed on a horizontal surface and displacement “d” takes place in
it, along the direction of force, then work done (W) by this force is equal to the product of the magnitude
of force and that of the displacement and given by following formula.
W= F d
(2) If a constant force “F” acts on the body at an angle “θ” with
the direction of motion of the body the work done is equal to the
product of magnitude of displacement and the component of the
force in the direction of motion, the work done is given by
following formula.
W = (F cos θ) × d
W = Fd cos θ
Or W = ⃗F. d⃗
Work is also defined as:
“Work is the dot product of force and displacement”.
Unit of Work:
i. In S.I. unit of work is Joule.
ii. In C.G.S. unit of work is erg. (1 erg= 10 -7 J).
iii. In British engineering system or FPS System, unit of work is foot-pound. (1 ft.lb= 1.355 J).
Definition of Joule:
If one Newton (1N) force produce one meter (1m) displacement in its own direction, then the work
done is one joule (1J).
i.e. 1J= 1N x 1m
1J= 1 Nm
Maximum Work: Work done is maximum when force "F ⃗ " are in the same
⃗ " and displacement "d
direction so that the angle “θ” between them is zero degree (00).
Work= F d cos (00)
Work= F d (1)
Work= F d
Minimum Work: ⃗ " is perpendicular to the direction
Work done is zero when the direction of force "F
⃗ " so that the angle between them is 900.
of displacement "d
Work= F d cos (900)
Work= F d (0)

Work= 0
Negative Work: Work done is negative when force "F ⃗ " is opposite to the direction of displacement
⃗ ", so that the angle between them is 1800, this is possible only when the force is or retarding
"d
(decelerating) nature.
Work= F d cos (1800)
Work= F d (-1)
Work= - F d
Work done by the force of friction is negative since friction is a retarding force and always acts
against the direction of motion.
Conservative Field (or) Force

A conservative field is one in which
1. Total work done along a closed path or loop is equal to zero and;
2. Work done between two points does not depend upon path. It only depends upon initial and
final position.
Gravitational Field is a Conservative Field

Proof:
Gravitational field is that in which body experiences gravitational force
that is the weight of the body exist. Now we can consider three points
A, B, C which form a right triangle, as a closed path and a body is
moved along this closed path under the gravitational force, as shown
in figure.
Now we calculate the work done in moving body along different
sections as follows:
By definition of work done:
Work done = ⃗F. d⃗
Work = ⃗⃗⃗
W. d⃗1
A→B
Work = W d1 cos 90
A→B
Work = Wd1 (0)
A→B
Work = 0
A→B
Now,
Work = ⃗W ⃗2
⃗⃗ . d
B→C
Work = Wd2 cos 180
B→C
Work = Wd2 (−1)
B→C
Work = −Wd2

B→C
Now,
Work = ⃗W ⃗3
⃗⃗ . d
C→A
Work = Wd3 cos θ … . (i)
C→A
In ΔABC:
BC B
cos θ = CA ∴ cos θ = H
d
cosθ = d2 put in eq(1)
3
d2
Work = Wd3 (d )
3
C→A
Work = Wd2
C→A
Total work done is given by:
Total work= Work + Work + Work
A→B B→C C→A
Total Work= (0) + (−Wd2 ) + (Wd2 )
Total Work= −Wd2 + Wd2
Total Work= 0
Hence total work done along closed path is zero.
As we know that:
Work Work= 0 (total work done on a closed path is zero.
A→C C→A
Work = Work
A→C C→A
Work = −Wd2 … . (i)
A→C
Now total work from A to C via B is:
Work = Work + Work
A→B→C A→B B→C
Work = 0 + (−Wd2 )
A→B→C
Work = −Wd2 … (ii)
A→B→C
By comparing eq: (i) and (ii), we get:
Work = Work
A→C A→B→C
Hence work done between A and C does not depend upon path.
Hence proved that the gravitational field is a conservative field.

Energy
“The ability of doing work is called Energy”.
Whenever we do work on a body, we store in it an amount of energy equal to work done.
The S.I. unit of energy is Joule. Some other units of energy are given below:
i. Kilowatt-Hour (kWh)
It is a unit of work or energy
1kWh= 3.6 x 106 J.
ii. Electron-Volt (ev)
This unit of energy or work is used for very small particles such as electrons, protons etc.
1 ev= 1.6 x 10-19 J.
iii. British Thermal Unit (BTU)
1 BTU= 1055 J.
Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by a body due to its motion, is called kinetic energy and
denoted by K.E.
Derivation of Formula: Suppose a body of mass “m” is projected vertically upward with initial
velocity v. Also suppose that the body reaches to a height “h”.
As the body moves upward, it does work against force of gravity due to which its K.E is lost.
Hence:
K.E= Work done by the body against force of gravity through height “h” …. (i)
Now,
Work done on the body by the force of gravity is:
W = ⃗F. ⃗S
Or W = FS cos θ
W = mgh cos 180
Note that the force of gravity acts downward while distance “h” is covered in upward direction, due
to which θ= 180.
Now,
W = mgh(−1)
W = −mgh
Hence:
Work done by the body against the force of gravity= mgh
According to eq: (i)
K. E = mgh … (ii)
Now, from initial point to the highest point:
vi = v, vf = 0, a = −g, S = h
Therefore:
2aS = Vf2 − Vi2
2(−g)h = (0)2 − V 2
−2gh = −V 2
2gh = V 2
V2
h= 2g
By putting this value in eq (ii)
V2
K. E = mg × ( )
2g

mV2
K. E = 2
1
Or K. E = 2 mV 2
Hence, for a given mass of a body K.E is directly proportional to the square of velocity i.e.
K. E ∝ V 2
Potential Energy: When a body is capable of doing work done by virtue of its position or special
configuration, the energy stored in the body is called potential energy and denoted by P.E.
When work is done on a body against a field of force, energy is stored in it. This stored energy is called
Potential Energy.
Gravitational Potential Energy: When work is done on a body against gravitational force then energy
stored in the body as a result of this work, is called gravitational P.E. It is given by:
P. E = mgh
Where:
m= mass of the body
g= gravitational acceleration.
h= height from some reference level.
The above formula is valid only when force “mg” applied to lift the body is constant throughout the
displacement “h”. This is possible only when “h” is small (of the order of tens of meters) but if the
displacement is large (of the order of thousands of meters) then the force applied no longer remains
constant. Hence the above formula is applicable to small displacement only.
General Formula for Gravitational P.E:
In order to derive a general formula for P.E applicable to any displacement we apply Newton’s law
of gravitation.
Consider a body of mass “m” lifted from point 1 to N in the gravitational field of earth through a
very long distance. The force between the earth and the body over such a long displacement is variable,
therefore, we will divide the entire displacement into large number of small displacements each must be
so small that the magnitude of force practically remains constant. According to Newton’s law of
gravitation, force between the body and the earth at points 1 and 2 is given by:
GmMe
F1 = r21
GmMe
F2 = r22
Where “Me” is the mass of the earth “r1” and “r2” are distances of point 1 and 2 respectively from
the center of the earth.
Let “Δr” be the displacement of the body from 1 to 2 then average force between the body and the
earth between these two points is given by:
F1 +F2
Fav = 2
GmMe GmMe
+ 2
r2
1 r2
Fav =
2
1 1
GmMe ( 2 + 2 )
r r 1 2
Fav = 2
GmMe 1 1
Fav = (r2 + r2 )
2 1 2
Therefore, work done to displace the body from point 1 to 2 through “Δr” is given by:

Work
= Fav ∆r
1→2
Work GmMe 1 1
= 2 (r2 + r2 ) (r2 − r1 )
1→2 1 2
Work GmMe r22+r21
= 2 ( r2r2 ) (r2 − r1 )
1→2 1 2
But r2 + r1= Δr
Work GmMe (r1+∆r)2+r21
= 2 [ r2r2 ] (r2 − r1 )
1→2 1 2
Work GmMe [r21+2r1 ∆r+∆r2+r21 ]
= 2 (r2 − r1 )
1→2 r21r22
Since “Δr” is very small therefore, (Δr)2 is negligible.
Work GmMe [2r21 +2r1∆r]
= 2 (r2 − r1 )
1→2 r21r22
Work GmMe [2r1 (r1+∆r)]
= 2 (r2 − r1 )
1→2 r21r22
Work r (r +r −r )
= GmMe [ 1 1r2 r22 1 ] (r2 − r1 )
1→2 1 2
Work r1 r2
= GmMe [r2 r2] (r2 − r1 )
1→2 1 2
Work 1
= GmMe r r (r2 − r1 )
1→2 1 2
Work r r
= GmMe (r 2r − r 1r )
1→2 1 2 1 2
Work 1 1
= GmMe (r − r )
1→2 1 2
Since work done on the body is equal to the potential energy gained by it therefore:
P. E 1 1
= GmMe (r − r )
1→2 1 2
Similarly,
P. E 1 1
= GmMe (r − r )
2→3 2 3
P. E 1 1
= GmMe (r − r )
3→4 3 4
P. E 1 1
= GmMe (r − r )
N−2→N−1 N−2 N−1
P. E 1 1
= GmMe (r −r )
N−1→N N−1 N
The total potential energy P.E of the body between points 1 and N will be equal to the sum of the
above equations and is given by:
1 1
P. E = GmMe (r − r )
1 N
1→N
The above equation gives us change in potential energy of the body between any two points “1”
and “N” in the gravitational field of the earth. It is equally valid for short as well as long displacements,
hence it is the general formula for P.E between any two points in the gravitational field.
Absolute Potential Energy:
Absolute potential energy of a body at a point in the gravitational field of the earth is the amount of
work done to move the body from that point to a very far off point.

A point which is very far from the center of the earth may be considered to be outside the
gravitational field of the earth, hence the potential energy of a body at such a far off point will be zero.
Absolute potential energy of a body at point “1” can be calculated by assuming point “N” to be at
infinity, hence on substituting rN = ∞ in the following formula, we get:
1 1
P. E = GmMe (r − r )
1 N
1→N
Absolute potential energy at point “1”:
1 1 1
Absolute P. E = GmMe ( − ) ∴ =0
r1 ∞ ∞
GmMe
Absolute P. E = r1
Since gravitational force is attractive in nature, therefore, absolute potential energy of a body is
given by:
−GmMe
Absolute P. E =
r1
Absolute potential energy of a body of mass “m” at the surface of the earth is given by:
−GmMe
Absolute P. E = Re
Similarly, absolute potential energy of a body at nay height “h” above the surface of the earth is
given by:
−GmMe
Absolute P. E = Re +h
Where “Re” is the radius of the earth.
−GmMe
Absolute P. E = h
Re (1+ )
Re
−GmMe h −1
Absolute P. E = (1 + R )
Re e
According to Binomial expression:

h −1 h h2 h3
(1 + R ) = 1 − R + R2 − R3 + ⋯
e e e e
Since “h” is small as compared to “R e”, therefore terms with higher powers of “h” are negligible.
h −1 h
(1 + R ) = (1 − R )
e e
Therefore,
−GmMe h
Absolute P. E = (1 − R )
Re e
This expression shows that the absolute P.E at a point above the earth’s surface is greater than that
at the earth’s surface.
Law of Conservation of Energy

Statement: “Energy can neither be created nor it can be destroyed, but it can only be transformed from
one form to another, the total energy remains constant”.
Explanation: Energy cannot be created means one cannot produce energy by expanding nothing.
Similarly, we cannot destroy energy. We get something equivalent in return if we annihilate it. Pair
production is a good example of annihilation of energy. On the other hand in nuclear fission or fusion
energy is created at the cost of mass, if “m” is the mass annihilated, then according to Einstein’s mass-
energy relation produced is:
E = mc 2
Where “c” is the velocity of light in vacuum, its value is 3 x 108 m/s.

Proof: With reference to the problem of a freely falling body, such as a body of mass “m” placed at a point
“p”, which is at a height “h” from the surface of earth. The body possesses the P.E equal to “mgh” with
respect to point “A” lying at the surface of the earth. But the K.E of the body at point “p” is zero. i.e.
T. E = K. E + P. E
T. E = 0 + mgh
T. E = mgh
Now we calculate the K.E. at point “A”, for this we make the following data.
Initial Velocity= Vi= 0 (at point “p”)
Final Velocity= Vf= V (at point “A”)
Acceleration= g
Distance= S= h
Now by using third equation of motion
2aS = Vf 2 − Vi2
2gh = V 2 − 0
V 2 = 2gh
Hence the K.E of the body
K. E = 1⁄2 mV 2
Putting the value of V2 in above eq:
K. E = 1⁄2 m. 2gh
K. E = mgh
And at point “A” the potential energy is zero, because height is zero (PE= mgh).
P. E = 0
T. E = K. E + P. E
T. E = mgh + 0
T. E = mgh
Now we calculate the potential energy and kinetic energy at any point “B” at a distance “x” below
the point “p”.
Since the height at point “B” with reference to point “A” is (h – x), therefore:
P. E = mg(height)
P. E = mg(h − x)
But at a distance “x” below the point “p” the K.E will be:
K. E = 1⁄2 mV 2
As: 2aS = Vf 2 − Vi2
Putting values Vi= 0, Vf= V, a= g, S= x
Now 2gx = V 2 − (0)2
V 2 = 2gx
K. E = 1⁄2 m. 2gx
K. E = mgx
Thus the total energy is:
T. E = K. E + P. E
T. E = mgx + mg(h − x)
T. E = mgx + mgh − mgx
T. E = mgh

Since total energy at all three points is same i.e. “mgh”.
This shows that the sum of K.E and the P.E i.e. total energy is always constant provided there is no
force friction involved during the motion of the body.

Examples of Law of Conservation of Energy:
i. Fossil fuels e.g. coal and petrol are stores of chemical energy. When they burn, chemical energy is
converted into heat energy that is:
Chemical energy= Heat energy + Losses
ii. The heat energy present in the steam of a boiler develops such a large pressure that it drives a steam
engine. Here heat energy is converted into kinetic energy (mechanical energy) that is:
Heat energy= Mechanical + Losses
iii. In rubbing our hands we do mechanical work which produces an equal amount of heat energy, that is:
Mechanical energy= Heat energy + Losses
Inter-conversion of K.E and P.E

(Or) Work Energy Equation
Consider a body of mass “m” which is lifted through a certain height “h”. The amount of work
“mgh” done to lift the body is stored in the body as its P.E. If the body is now allowed to move freely it will
move in the downward direction with increasing velocity. While falling down it losses P.E (because its
height decreases) and the same time it will gain K.E (because its velocity increases).
If there is no opposing force (such as force of friction, air resistance etc.). the P.E lost by the body at any
stage will be equal to the kinetic energy gained by it.
P.E lost= K.E gained (if f ≈ 0)
If force of friction is not negligible then a part of energy lost by the body will be used to do work
against friction, whereas the remaining P.E lost appears as K.E gained.
P.E lost= K.E gained + work done against friction
If the body falls through a certain vertical distance “x” then the K.E gained by it is given by:
K.E gained= P.E lost – work done against friction.
1
mV 2 = mgx − fx … (i)
2
If the body moves along an inclined surface thorough distance “S” then the eq: (i) becomes:
1
Eq: (i)=>2 mV 2 = mgh − fs … (ii)
Where “h” is the vertical height between the initial and final positions of the body.
Eq (i) and eq (ii) are known as Interconversion Relations of K.E and P.E or Work-Energy Equation.

Power
“The rate of doing work is known as Power”.
⃗ " and velocity “v
Power is the dot product of force "F ⃗"
Work done
Power = Time taken
⃗
⃗F.d
Power = t
d
⃗.
Power = F t
d
But t = velocity (v
⃗)
Power = F ⃗ .v
⃗
Unit of Power:
The S.I. unit of power is watt and its commercial unit is horse power (hp).
1hp= 746 watts.
Definition of Watt:
Power is said to be one watt when one joule of work is done in one second
1 joule
1 watt = = 1 J⁄s
1 sec

i. State the condition for which work will be: a) Maximum b) Minimum c) Negative
Ans.
a) Work is said to be maximum or positive if force and displacement are in the same direction.
b) Work is said to be minimum or zero if force and displacement are perpendicular to each other.
c) Work is said to be negative if force and displacement are opposite to each other.
ii. When an object is dropped from a certain height, why its potential energy is not completely
converted into kinetic energy.
Ans. Its potential energy is not completely converted into kinetic energy because certain amount of
energy is utilized to overcome the air friction.
iii. Does tension in the string of a swinging pendulum do any work?
Ans. No, the tension in the string of a swinging pendulum and displacement are at right angle to each
other, hence work done by tension is zero.
vi. As a pendulum bob swings, at what point is its kinetic energy maximum? At what point is its P.E
maximum?
Ans. When a pendulum bob swings, its kinetic energy is maximum when it passes through the mean
position. Its P.E is maximum when it is at either extreme position.
v. Why does the bob of a swinging pendulum come to rest after some time> What happens to its
energy?
Ans. A swinging pendulum comes to rest after consuming all its energy in doing work against the
opposite force, i.e. air resistance and friction at the point of suspension. Its energy is also converted
into heat.
iv. What happens to the kinetic energy of a bullet when it penetrates into a target?
Ans. The kinetic energy of the bullet is used in doing work against friction and appears as heat and
sound.

vii. The force between two protons is repulsive. Does the P.E increases as protons are brought close
together?
Ans. Yes, electrostatic P.E increases due to work done on proton against repulsive force. This is stored
as P.E. Thus P.E increases.
viii. You are sitting in a moving car. Do you possess any potential energy or kinetic energy with
respect to (a) the car (b) the earth?
Ans. One does possess any P.E or K.E w.r.t. the car, but one does possess the P.E as well as K.E w.r.t. the
earth.

CHAPTER#08
WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)
The vibratory motion of a body is said to be simple harmonic motion if the body possesses
instantaneous acceleration which is directly proportional to the displacement and whose direction is
always towards the mean position. Simple harmonic motion is mathematically expressed as:
a ∝ −x
Where x represents displacement and negative sign shows that the direction of acceleration is
towards mean position.
Characteristics of S.H.M (or) Conditions of S.H.M:
A body execute simple harmonic motion shows the following characteristics:
1. Its motion is vibratory.
2. Some restoring force acts on the vibratory system.
3. Acceleration of the body executing simple harmonic motion is directly proportional to its
displacement “x” and always directed towards the mean position.
4. Energy of the system oscillates between kinetic energy and potential energy but the total energy of a
frictionless system remains constant.
Simple Harmonic Motion Connected with Circular Motion:
Consider a point “p” moving along a circular path of radius “r” with a constant angular velocity ω.
Its projection along the diameter “AB” of the circle is point “Q”. As “P” moves along the circular path its
projection moves to and fro along the diameter of the circle. Hence motion of “P” is angular whereas
motion of “Q” is vibratory.
Let “θ” be the angular displacement of point “P” at any instant as measured from point “B”.
Displacement of Projection Q: The instantaneous displacement “x” of projection point “Q” is
measured from the mean position “C”. Point “C” is the center of the circle also.
In triangle CPQ
CQ
cos θ = CP
But CQ = x
CP = xo
x
cos θ = x
o
x = xo Cos θ
If “θ” is the angle subtended by point “P” in time “t”, then:
θ
ω= t
θ = ωt
x = xo Cos ωt
The above relation shows that displacement of “Q” is maximum and is equal to radius “xo”
when “θ” is “00”.
The maximum displacement of a vibrating body is known as its amplitude and denoted by
“xo”.
i.e. r = xo .

Acceleration of Projection Q (aQ):
Acceleration of vibrating point “Q” is the component of acceleration of point “P” parallel to
diameter of the circle. Acceleration of point “P” is directed towards the center of the circle. It is known as
centripetal acceleration and is given by:
ap = xo ω2 [∴ ac = rω2 ]
Where “ap” is centripetal acceleration of point “P”. On resolving “ap” into components we get:
Component of ap parallel to the diameter= ap Cos θ
Component of ap perpendicular to the diameter= ap Sin θ
But, acceleration of “Q” = Component of ap parallel to the diameter.
∴ ap = −ap Cos θ
The negative sign shows that acceleration of “Q” is always directed towards the mean position.
aQ = −xo ω2 Cos θ[ap = xo ω2 ]
aQ = −ω2 (xo Cos θ)
aQ = −ω2 x[x = xo Cos θ]
Since, ω2 is constant, therefore:
aQ ∝ −x
The above relation shows that the acceleration of “Q” is directly proportional to its displacement
and negative sign shows that it is always directed towards the mean position.
Hence the projection point “Q” executes simple harmonic motion.
Velocity of Projection Q (vQ): Since motion of “Q” is related with the motion of point “P”, therefore,
velocity of “Q” will be equal to the component of velocity “v p” of point “P” parallel to diameter.
Velocity of projection Q= component of vp parallel to diameter.
But,
Component of vp parallel to diameter= vp Cos (90 − θ)
But Cos (90 – θ)= Sin θ
∴ vQ = vp Sin θ ……….. (i)
∴ vQ = xo ω Sin θ(vp = xo ω); (v = r ω)
Since Sin2 θ + Cos 2 θ = 1
∴ Sin θ = √1 − Cos 2 θ
x x2
But Cos θ = x or Cos 2 θ = x2
o o
x2
Sin θ = √1 − x2
o
Putting in eq: (i)

x2
vQ = xo ω√1 − x2
o
x2o −x2
vQ = xo ω√
x2o
x2o −x2
vQ = xo ω√ xo
xo = ω√xo2 − x 2

Maximum Velocity of “Q”: Velocity of projection point “Q” will be maximum when x= 0, which is
possible only when it is passing through the mean position, i.e. when x= 0.
vmax = ω√xo2 − 0
vmax = ω√xo2
vmax = xo ω
Minimum velocity of “Q”: Velocity of “Q” will be zero when it is at its maximum displacement position.
(i.e. extreme position). The maximum displacement of “Q” is known as its amplitude of vibration and is
given by:
As, “x= xo”. Hence on substituting x= xo, we get:
vQ = ω√xo2 − xo2
vQ = 0
Relation between Maximum Velocity vmax and Instantaneous Velocity “v”:

Velocity of projection point “Q” at any instant is given by:
x2
vQ = xo ω√1 − x2
o
But vmax = xo ω
Hence instantaneous and maximum velocities of the body are related by:
x2
vQ = vmax √1 − x2 o
Time Period of “Q”:

“Time taken by a vibrating body to complete one vibration is called its time period”.
The time in which “Q” completes one vibration is equal to the time in which “P” completes one
revolution. Hence time period of “Q” can be determined by finding period of evolution of point “P”.
Angular velocity of point “P” is given by:
θ
ω= t
But θ= 2π radians for one complete revolution and t= T (i.e. Time period)
2π
ω= T
2π
T= ω
Frequency of “Q”:
1
As: f=T
1
f= 2π
ω
ω
f = 2π

Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass suspended with the help of an inextensible,
perfectly flexible and weightless string. The other end of string is attached to a rigid support.
Motion of Simple Pendulum

Consider a simple pendulum of mass “m” and its length is “I”,
displaced its mean position to a displacement “x”. string makes an
angle “θ” with its original position. This angle is very small (10 to 50). In
order to prove that the motion of simple pendulum is SHM we will find its
acceleration. At any point are two forces acting on pendulum:
1. Its weight “W” acting vertically downward.
2. Tension “T” in the string acting along the string.
On resolving “W” into components parallel and perpendicular to the string, we get:
W∥ = W cos θ
W⊥ = W sin θ
Since the bob does not move parallel to the string therefore, “T” is balanced by W∥ . Hence net force
acting on the bob is given by:
F = −W sin θ … (i)
The negative sign shows that the net force acting on the bob is always toward the mean position.
(OR) the direction of net force is opposite to the direction of increasing the angle.
As,
F = ma … . (ii)
Comparing eq: (i) and (ii)
ma = −W sin θ
ma = −mg sin θ
a = −g sin θ … . (iii)
For small values of “θ”
sin θ ≈ θ As:
a = −gθ S = rθ … (i)
x
a = −g ( l ) For pendulum:
g
a = − (l) x S= x, r= 1
a = −(constant)x Eq (i) => x= l θ
x
a ∝ −x ∴ l =θ
Since acceleration of pendulum is directly proportional to the displacement from mean position
and its direction towards the mean position.
Hence proved the motion of simple pendulum is SHM.

Time Period of Simple Pendulum
Acceleration of a point executing SHM is given by:
a = −ω2 x … (i)
But the acceleration of simple pendulum for small amplitude of vibration is given by:
g
a = − l x … (ii)
g
ω2 = l
g
ω = √l
Time period of a vibrating body is given by:
2π
T= ω
2π
T= g
√
l
l
T = 2π√g
This equation shows the time period of simple pendulum. According to this equation:
T ∝ √l
Frequency of Simple Pendulum
The reciprocal value of time period is called frequency i.e.
1
f=
T
1
f=
l
2π√g
1 g
f= √
2π l
Hooke’s Law
Force required to stretch a spring is directly proportional to the displacement “x”. If elastic limit is
not violated i.e.
F ∝ x or f = kx
Where k= force constant or spring constant.
Motion Under Elastic Restoring Force

Consider a mass “m” which is vibrating on a frictionless surface between positions A and B x o=
amplitude of vibration.
Instantaneous Acceleration:
Mass is vibrating under the elastic restoring force. At displacement x, the restoring force is given by:
F = −kx
Negative sign shows that the direction of force is towards
the mean position. By Newton’s second law of motion:
F = ma
Therefore,

ma = −kx
kx
a= −m
a = −(constant)x
a ∝ −x
Since acceleration of mass is directly proportional to the displacement from mean position and its
direction towards the mean position.
Hence, it is proved that the motion of mass “m” is SHM.
Instantaneous Velocity
When a particle moves in a circle, its projection vibrates along the diameter of the circle. The
instantaneous velocity of projection is given by:
v = ω√x 2 o − x 2 … (i)
And its acceleration is:
a = −ω2 x … . (ii)
The acceleration of the mass attached with spring is given by:
k
But a = − (m) x … . (iii)
Comparing eq: (ii) and (iii), we get:
k
ω2 = ( m )
k
Or ω=√
m
Putting this in eq: (i)
k
v = √m √x 2 o − x 2 … (iv)
This is the instantaneous velocity of mass “m” it is clear that velocity increases as “x” decreases.
Maximum Velocity
Maximum velocity is obtained when x= 0 i.e. at the mean position. Hence from eq: (iv)
k
vmax = √m √x 2 o − 0
k
vmax = √m × xo
k
vmax = xo √m … (v)
Relation between Instantaneous Velocity and Maximum Velocity

The instantaneous velocity of the body is given by:
k
v = √ √x 2 o − x 2
m
k x2
v = √m √x 2 o (1 − x2 o)
k x2
v = xo √m √(1 − x2 o)
k
But vmax = xo √m
Therefore:
x2
vmax = √(1 − x2 o) … (vi)
Instantaneous Displacement

For the projection of particle moving in a circle, the instantaneous displacement is:
But for mass vibrating at the end of spring,
k
ω=√
m
Therefore:
k
x = xo Cos√m × t … (vii)
Time Periods of mass “m”:

For projection of a particle moving in a circle, the time period is given by:
2π
T= ω
k
But for mass “m” ω = √m
Therefore:
2π
T= k
√
m
m
T = 2π√ k
Frequency of mass “m” (f):

As:
1
f=T
1
f= m
2π√
k
1 k
f = 2π √m
Energy of Vibrating System

At any instant energy of the vibrating system will be partially kinetic energy and partially potential
energy.
Potential Energy (P.E):
Potential energy stored in the vibrating system can be calculated by finding the work done to
displace the body through any distance “x”.
The force applied to the body is given by:
F = kx
At mean position this force is zero.
i.e. F1 = 0 ∴ x = 0
at any displacement “x” this force is “kx”.
i.e. F2 = kx
The average force F is:
F1 +F2
F= 2
0+kx
F= 2
1
F = 2 kx

As: work done= (Average force) x (displacement)
1
Work done = 2 kx × x
1
Or P. E = kx 2
2
Note: At mean position x= 0, hence P.E is zero. AT any extreme position P.E is maximum i.e.
1
P. E = 2 kx02
Kinetic Energy (K.E):
The K.E of a body is given by:
1
K. E = 2 mv 2 … (i)
As we know that the velocity of a body attached with the spring is given by:
k
v = √m √x 2 o − x 2
Putting in eq: (i)
2
1 k
K. E = 2 m (√m √x 2 o − x 2 )
1 k
K. E = 2 m [m (x 2 o − x 2 ]
1
K. E = k(x 2 o − x 2 )
2
1
Note: At mean position x= 0, hence K.E is maximum i.e. K. E = 2 kx 2 o at any extreme position x =
xo . Hence K.E= 0.
Total Energy
As:
T. E = K. E + P. E
1 1
E = k(x 2 o − x 2 ) + kx 2
2 2
1 1 1
E = 2 kx o − 2 kx + 2 kx 2
2 2
1
E = 2 kx 2 o
Where “xo” is the maximum displacement from mean position which is constant. The above
equation shows that the total energy of the system remains constant.
Waves:
“Wave is a mechanism by which energy or disturbance travels from one place to another”.
Types of Waves:
1. Mechanical Waves: “Waves that require a material medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their
propagation are known as mechanical waves”.
These waves cannot travel through vacuum.
Example: Sound waves, water waves, and waves in string are mechanical waves.
2. Electromagnetic Waves: “Waves that do not require a material vacuum for their propagation are
called electromagnetic waves”.
These waves can travel through vacuum.
Example: Light waves, heat waves, radio and TV waves, X-rays, Infra-red waves, Ultraviolet waves, and
Gamma rays are all electromagnetic waves.

In vacuum all electromagnetic waves travel with a speed of 3x 108 m/s.
3. Particle Waves: At high energy the sub-atomic particle (e.g. electrons) exhibit wave characteristics.
Waves which are associated with high energy particles are called particle waves (Also called De-
Broglie’s waves).
4. Transverse Waves: Waves in which vibration of particles of the medium are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of waves are called transverse waves.
Transverse waves consist of alternate crests and troughs.
Example: Water waves, waves in string all electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
5. Longitudinal Waves: Waves in which vibrations of particles of medium are parallel to the direction of
propagation of waves are called longitudinal waves. Longitudinal waves consist of alternate compressions
and rarefactions, therefore, they are also called Compression waves.
(A compression corresponds to a crest and rarefaction corresponds to trough).
Example: Sound waves in air travel in the form of longitudinal waves.
Characteristics of Waves:
1. Wave Length: “Wave length of a wave is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs”.
Wave length of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions.
In general wave length is the distance covered by the wave during one complete vibration of
particles. It is denoted by λ (Lambda).
2. Time Period: The time taken between to pass through the two consecutive crests or troughs is
called “Time Period” of the wave and denoted by “T”.
3. Frequency: “The number of waves produced by the source of waves in one second is called its
frequency”.
Or
“It is the number of waves passing through a point in one second”.
S.I. Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
4. Speed: The distance covered by a wave in unit time is called is speed. i.e. v= s/t for one complete
vibration:
S = λ and t = T
λ 1
v = T => 𝑣 = λ. T
1
v = λf ∴ f = T
Sound
Sound is an energy which propagates from a sounding source to a receiver through air or any other
medium in form of longitudinal waves.
Types of Sound Waves

1. Audible Sound: The sound ranges between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz is called, “Audible Sound”. Human ear
can hear this sound.
2. Infrasonic: The sound ranges below 20 Hz is called “Infrasonic”. Human ear cannot hear this sound.
Example: Sound of moving pendulum, sound of earth quick, waves.
3. Ultrasonic: The sound ranges above 20,000 Hz is called “Ultrasonic”. Human ear cannot hear this sound.
Example: Sound of explosion in sun.
Classification of Sound
Sound is classified into two categories.

i. Musical Sound ii. Noise
i. Musical Sound: A sound which carries regular and symmetrical periodic fluctuations of frequency is
referred as, “Musical Sound”. Such a sound produces pleasant sensation.
Example: Sound produce by musical instrument.
ii. Noise: A sound which carries irregular, non-symmetrical and random fluctuations of frequency is
referred as, “Noise”. Such a sound produces unpleasant sensation.
Example: Slamming door, humming of mosquito.
Characteristics of Musical Sound

A musical sound can be distinguished from the other on the basis of following characteristics:
1. Loudness 2. Pitch 3. Quality
1. Loudness of Sound: It is an auditory sensation heard by a listener due to variation of intensity
level in sound. The magnitude of loudness is denoted by “L” and its physically enables us to distinguish a
“loud” and a “low” sound.
The magnitude of loudness of sound depends on the following factors:
i. Area of Sounding Source: The magnitude of Loudness is directly proportional to the area of sounding
source.
L∝A
ii. Amplitude of Vibrating Body: The magnitude of loudness is directly proportional to the square of
amplitude of vibrating body, producing sound.
L ∝ x2o
iii. Distance Between Source and Listener: The magnitude of Loudness is inversely proportional to the
distance between sounding source and the listener.
1
L∝d
iv. Intensity of Sound: The magnitude of loudness is directly proportional to the logarithmic value of
intensity of the sound.
L ∝ log I
L = (Constant) log I
L = k log I
This relation is often called Weber-Fechner’s Law.
2. Pitch of Sound: The auditory sensation heard by a listener due to difference of frequency is called,
“Pitch of Sound”. The magnitude of pitch is directly proportional to the frequency of sound. In practice,
pitch of sound enables us to distinguish a shrill sound from a grave sound. As, a sound of high frequency
becomes shrill and the sound of low frequency becomes grave, therefore, a listener can distinguish the two
sounds on the basis of their frequency difference.
3. Quality of Sound: The auditory sensation heard by a listener on the basis of Wave-Mechanism i.e.
nature of harmonics is called, “Quality of Sound”. This characteristic enables us to distinguish notes of
musical sound having same pitch and loudness.
In practice, a listener can recognize the voice of a person and can distinguish the tone of two
different musical instruments on the basis of quality of their sound.

Intensity of Sound (I): The amount of sound energy falling on unit area of a surface held normal to
direction of propagation of sound in unit time is called the intensity of sound. It is denoted by I.
Mathematically, intensity of sound is given by:
E
I = A×t
Where E= Sound energy, A= Area of the surface, t= Time
In MKS system the unit of intensity is j/m2.sec or watt/m2.
Intensity Level:
The difference in loudness of two sounds where one should be faintest audible sound, is called
“Intensity Level”. It is denoted by “β”.
If the intensities of two sounds are I and I o and loudness L and Lo respectively, then
L = k log I (Weber-Fechner’s Law)
And Lo = k log Io
Where Io is intensity of faintest audible sound.
According to the definition of intensity level, we can write
β = L − Lo
β = k log I − k log Io
β = K(log I − log Io )
a
∴ log (b) = log a − log b
I
β = k log I … (i)
o
Where I is intensity of any given sound and I o is intensity of faintest audible sound which is
considered as 10-12 watt=m2.
The unit of intensity level is ‘bel’ after the name of famous scientist Alexander Graham Bel. If the
intensity of sound is 10Io (ten time of Io) then the intensity level of the given sound is called “One bel”.
Put I = 10Io in eq: (i)
10I
β = k log I o
o
β = k log 10 = k × 1 ∴ log 10 = 1
If we measure intensity level in bel, then K= 1 thus
β = 1 bel
Decibel is smaller unit of intensity level and is defined as:
1
1db = 10 bel
If we measure intensity level in db, then k= 10, thus
I
β = 10 log (I )
o
The decibel is a dimensionless unit. The normal ear can distinguish between intensities that differ
by an amount down to about 1 db.
Notice that the intensity level of the least audible sound (having intensity 10-12 w/m2) is:
I 10−12
β = 10 log (I ) = 10 log (10−12 ) = 10 log(1) = 0 db
o
While a pain-producing sound whose intensity is 1 w/m2 has an intensity level of:
I 1
β=10log (I ) = 10 log (10−12 ) = 10 log(1012 ) = 10 × 12 log(10) = 120 × 1 = 120 db
o
The power law between loudness and intensity level of the sound is given by:
I 0.3
L = k (I )
o
This law determines the loudness of sound.
Notice that “Sone” is also the unit of intensity level which is defined as:
1 Sone = 40 db at 1000 Hz.

Principle of Superposition of Waves
Suppose that two or more waves are sent in a same medium. When several waves are met at a
point, then net displacement of the medium, caused by the interaction of individual waves, is equal to the
algebraic sum of displacement of all the individual waves.
If two waves are sent simultaneously along a stretched string with displacement “y 1” and “y2”. Then
net displacement of the string after successful superposition of two waves will be (y 1 + y2).
Mathematically:
Y = Y1 + Y2
If “n” number of waves are travelling along the string, then:
Y = y1 + y2 + y3 + ⋯ yn
Y = ∑i=n
i=1 (yi )
This expression represents “Principle of Superposition of Waves”.
Beats
When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies superpose each other than a single sound
id heard which rises and falls in loudness (maximum and minimum intensity produced) after equal time
intervals. These periodic variations in loudness are called “Beats”.
Mathematical Expression:
Let two waves are:
y1 = Ao cos ω1 t
And y2 = Ao cos ω2 t
Where: Ao= Amplitude and ω1 , ω2 are angular frequencies of the waves.
Since:
2π
T= ω
1 2π
Therefore: =
f ω
And ω = 2πf
ω1 = 2πf1
ω2 = 2πf2
Putting these values in above eqs:
y1 = Ao cos 2πf1 t
And y1 = Ao cos 2πf2 t
According to superposition principle, the resultant wave is:
y = y1 + y2
y = Ao cos 2πf1 t + Ao cos 2πf2 t
y = Ao [cos 2πf1 t + cos 2πf2 t]
u+v u−v
∴ cos u + cos v = 2 cos cos
2 2
Applying this formula, we get:
2πf1 t+2πf2 t 2πf1 t−2πf2 t
y = Ao [2 cos cos ]
2 2
2π(f1 +f2 )t 2π(f1 −f2 )t
y = Ao [2 cos cos ]
2 2
f1 +f2 f −f
y = Ao [2 cos 2π ( ) t. cos 2π ( 1 2 2 ) t]
2
Re-arranging the eq: we get:

f −f f +f
y = [2Ao cos 2π ( 1 2 2 ) t] cos 2π ( 1 2 2 ) t … (i)
Average frequency of resultant wave is:
f1 +f2
fav =
2
The amplitude is:
f −f
A = [2Ao cos 2π ( 1 2 2 ) t]
The amplitude depends upon time i.e. it varies with time.
Frequency of amplitude variation is:
f1 −f2
famp = 2
Diagram shows that two beats are produced in each cycle of amplitude variation therefore beat
frequency is:
fbeat = 2 × famp
f1 −f2
fbeat = 2 × 2
fbeat = f1 − f2
Beat frequency is equal to the difference of frequencies of the waves which are superposed.
Human ear can detect a maximum beat frequency of “7” beats/sec.
Newton’s Formula for Speed of Sound

General formula for speed of sound of all mechanical waves including sound waves in any medium
is given by:
Elastic property
v = √Inertial property
For solid medium:
E
v = √ ρ . . (i)
Where:
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity.
ρ = Density of medium.
For a liquid Medium:
B
v = √ ρ … (ii)
Where:
∆P
B = Bulk modulus = − ∆V⁄V
Where ΔP is change in pressure and ∆V⁄V is fractional change in volume as a result of pressure
change.

Negative sign is used to make bulk modulus positive as the ratio ΔP/ΔV is negative.
Laplace’s Correction
When sound waves pass through a gaseous medium, compressions and rarefactions are formed. If
this occurs at constant temperature that is for isothermal condition, then Newton’s formula is:
P
v = √ ρ … (iii)
Where P= Pressure of gas and ρ = Density of gas.
But when compression and rarefaction are formed, temperature changes occur. Heat conductivity
of gas is very low and the process is so rapid that heat cannot conduct from compressions to rarefactions.
Hence compression and rarefactions take place adiabatically. An adiabatic process is one in which heat
cannot transfer into or out of the system.
According to Laplace, for adiabatic condition, above equation needs to be corrected and written as:
γP
v = √ ρ … . (iii)
This is called Laplace’s correction. Where γ is the adiabatic constant and given by:
C
γ = CP
V
CP = Molar specific heat at constant pressure.

CV = Molar specific heat at constant volume.
For air γ = 1.4
Effect of Temperature on Speed of Sound:
We know that for a gaseous medium, speed of sound is given by:
γP
v =√ρ
nRT
But PV= n R T or P = V
m
Also ρ= v
Putting these values in above equation:
nRT
γ×
v=√ m
V
γnRT
v=√ m
But, n= no. of moles

n = mass of gas/molecular mass of gas= n= m/M
Therefore:
m
γ RT
v=√ M
m
γRT
v=√ M
Where R= gas constant= 8.314 J/mole.k

It is clear that speed of sound is directly proportional to the square root of the absolute
temperature of the medium.
When a sound waves travels from a region of temperature T1 to a region of temperature T2, then:
γRT1 γRT2
v1 = √ and v2 = √
M M

γRT1
√
v1 M
Or =
v2 γRT2
√
M
v1 T
= √ T1
v2 2
Note: Speed of sound is greatest in a solid medium and least in a gaseous medium.
Standing (OR) Stationary Waves

When two exactly similar waves travel in opposite direction along the string, standing waves
produced, provided the conditions for superposition are satisfied.
The point at which string vibrates with maximum amplitude are known as “Antinodes” whereas the
points of zero amplitude are known as “Nodes”. The distance between two adjacent nodes or antinodes is
λ⁄2 and the distance between adjacent node and antinode is λ⁄4.
Equation of Wave Function of Standing Waves:
Consider two sinusoidal waves which have same frequency and amplitude but travel in opposite
directions. If any instant “t” their displacements are “y1” and “y2” then their equations are:
y1 = Ao sin(kx − ωt) … . (i)
y2 = Ao sin(kx + ωt) … . (ii)
These waves meet each other, according to law of superposition of waves the displacement of
resultant wave γ is given by:
y = y1 + y2
y = Ao sin(kx − ωt) + Ao sin(kx + ωt)
y = Ao [sin(kx − ωt) + sin(kx + ωt)]
u+v u−v
∴ sin u + sin v = 2 sin . cos
2 2
kx−ωt+kx+ωt kx−ωt−kx−ωt
y = Ao [2 sin . cos ]
2 2
2kx −2ωt
y = Ao [2 sin . cos ]
2 2
y = Ao [2 sin(kx). cos(−ωt)] ∴ cos (−θ) = cos θ
y = 2Ao sin(kx). cos(ωt) … (iii)
Eq: (iii) is called “Wave Function” of standing wave. Where "2Ao sin (kx)" is the amplitude of
resultant wave. The value of amplitude depends upon the value of sin (kx).
Positions of Antinodes or Maxima:
The points at which the amplitude is maximum are called “Antinodes” or “Maxima”.
For maximum amplitude:
sin(kx) = max
sin(kx) = ±1
kx = sin−1 (±1)
π 3π 5π nπ
kx = 2 , , ,….
2 2 2
2π π 3π 5π nπ 2π
x = 2, , ,….., ∴k=
λ 2 2 2 λ
λ π 3π 5π nπ
x = 2π (2 , , ,…., )
2 2 2
λπ 3λπ 5λπ nλ
x = 4π , , ,….
4π 4π 4
λ 3λ 5λ nλ
x = 4, , ,….
4 4 4
Where n= 1, 3, 5, 7 … and “k” is called wave number.
Above eq: shows the positions of Antinodes.
Positions of Nodes or Minima:

The points at which the amplitude is minimum (Zero) are called “nodes” or “Minima”.
For minimum amplitude:
sin(kx) = minimum
sin(kx) = 0
kx = sin−1 (0)
kx = 0, π, 2π, 3π, … . nπ
2π 2π
x = 0, π, 2π, 3π, … . nπ ∴ k =
λ λ
λ
x = 2π (0, π, 2π, 3π, … . nπ)
λπ 2λπ 3λπ nλπ
x = 0, 2π , , ,….
2π 2π 2π
λ 3λ nλ
x = 0, 2 , λ, ,….,
2 2
Where x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …..
Above eq: shows the positions of nodes or minima.
Standing Waves in a Stretched String

When a stretched string is plucked at suitable point, then two travelling waves originate which
move in opposite directions. The two waves are reflected back from their respective ends and superpose
each other. As a result, a standing or stationary wave is produced.
Frequency of Harmonics:
When the String Vibrates in One Loop: (Fundamental Frequency of First Harmonic)
When the string is plucked from the midpoint, it vibrates in one loop.
Suppose:
T= Tension in the string.
l= Length of the string.
m= Mass of the string.
λ1 = Wavelength of standing wave.
f1 = Frequency of wave.
v= Speed of wave.
Wavelength:
From the figure:
l = λ1 ⁄2
Or λ1 = 2l
Frequency:
v = f1 λ1 ∴ v = fλ
v
f1 = λ
1
Putting the value λ1
v
f1 = 2l
This is the frequency of first harmonic.
It is also called fundamental frequency.

When the String Vibrates in Two Loops:
(First Overtone or Second Harmonic)
The string vibrates in two loops when plucked from one
fourth of its length. Suppose λ2 is the wavelength and f2 is
frequency.
Wavelength: From the figure:
λ2 = l
Frequency:
v = f2 λ2
v
f2 = λ
2
v
f2 = l
Multiplying and dividing by “2”:
v v
f2 = 2 (2l) ∴ f1 = 2l
f2 = 2f1
When the String Vibrates in Three Loops: (Second Overtone or Third Harmonic)
When the string is plucked from one sixth of its length and it vibrates in three loops.
Suppose:
λ3 = Wavelength
f3 = Frequency
Wavelength:
From the figure:
λ
l = λ3 + 23
2λ3 +λ3
l= 2
3λ3
l= 2
2l
λ3 = 3
Frequency:
v = f3 λ3
v
f3 = λ
3
v
f3 = 2l
3
v v
f3 = 3 2l ∴ f1 = 2l
f3 = 3f1
When the String Vibrates in “n” Loops: (n-1 Overtone or nth Harmonic)
Wavelength:
As shown in above cases:
λ1 = 2l
λ2 = l
2l
λ3 = 3
We may write as:
2l 2l 2l
λ1 = 1 , λ2 = 3 , λ3 = 3
Clearly for n loops, we have:

2l
λn = n
Frequency:
As proved above:
v v 3v
f1 = 2l , f2 = l , f3 = 2l
We may write the relations as:
v v v
f1 = 2l , f2 = 2 2l , f3 = 3 2l
Hence, for “n” loops, we have:
v
fn = n 2l
Note that all higher frequencies are integral multiplies of fundamental frequency. That is:
fn = nf1
The higher frequencies are also called “Overtones”.
Sonometer
A sonometer is an apparatus used for producing stationary
waves in a stretched wire. It consists of a hollow wooden box. On
the wooden box, one end of a wire is fastened to a peg and other
end is passes over a pulley. At this end loads are attached to give
desired tension in the wire. To obtain simplest mode of vibration
that is to make the wire vibrate in one loop, two bridges A and N
are used to provide desired length. A third bridge C is also used to
obtain other modes of vibration.
Laws of Frequency of Transverse Waves produced in Sonometer:

Consider a string of length “L” stretched between two ends, the tension in string id “T” and “µ” is
the mass of unit length of string which is called “linear density” of string and string vibrates in “n” number
of loops.
The frequency of wave produced in string is given by:
fn = nf1
v v
fn = n 2l ∴ f1 = 2l
n
fn = 2l (v) … (i)
The velocity of waves travel in string is given by:
T
v = √μ
n T
Eq: (i) fn = 2l (√ μ )
n T
fn = 2l √ μ
The above equation gives the following results.
i. The frequency of string is inversely proportional to the length of string
1
i.e. f∝ l
ii. The frequency of the string is directly proportional to the square root of tension in string.
i.e. f ∝ √T
iii. The frequency of the string is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of unit length
of string. (linear density of string).

1
i.e. f∝
√μ
The above relations are called the “Frequency Laws” and valid for all transverse waves.
Doppler Effect
In 1842, an Austrian Physicist, Christian Johann Doppler pointed out that color of a luminous body
will be changed when either luminous body or observer is in motion relative to each other. He also applied
the same principle to sound waves. In 1845, an experiment has been made by Buys Ballot to verify
theoretical results of “Doppler Effect”.
According to Doppler principle, when a source of sound approaches the listener or when a listener
approaches the source of sound or when both approaches towards each other than apparent pitch
(frequency) of sound heard is higher than the actual pitch of sound. Similarly, when a source of sound
moves away from the listener or when a listener moves away from the source of sound or when both
moves away from each other, then apparent pitch of sound heard is lower than the actual pitch of sound.
Hence, the apparent change in pitch of sound heard by a listener due to relative motion of a source
or a listener or both of them, is called “Doppler Effect”. Whereas change in pitch of two sounds i.e. sound
emitted out of a source and sound heard by a listener, is referred as “Doppler Effect Shift”.
Case#01
When Listener is Moving and Source of Sound is at Rest
a) When a listener is approaching towards a stationary source:
Let an observer (listener) approaches a stationary source of sound with a velocity “Vo” and the
source produces sound waves of frequency υ and of wavelength λ. “v” is the velocity of sound waves, it is
given by:
v = υλ
v
λ=υ
As the observer approaches the source the relative speed with which sound waves reach him will
be “v+ vo”, hence the frequency of sound υ heard by the moving listener will be:
v+vo v
υ′ = ∴ v = υλ or υ =
λ λ
′ v+vo ν
υ = V ∴λ=υ
υ
υ
υ′ = (v + vo ) × v
(v+vo )
υ′ = υ
v
vo
υ′ = (1 + )υ
v
In this case, frequency of sound heard by a moving listener will be greater than the frequency of
sound produced by the source.
b) When the listener moves away from a stationary source:

Let an observer (listener) move away from a stationary source of sound with a velocity “v o” and the
source produces sound waves of frequency “v” and of wavelength λ.“v” is the velocity of sound waves, it is
given by:
v = vλ
v
λ=v

In this case, the speed of sound waves relative to the listener will be “v - vo”, hence the new
frequency heard by the listener “v” is given by:
v−v
v ′′ = λ o
v−vo v
v ′′ = v ∴λ=υ
v
υ
v ′′ = (v − vo ) × v
(v−vo )
v ′′ = v
v
vo
v ′′ = (1 − )v
v
Frequency heard by the listener moving away from the source will be less than the frequency
emitted by the source.
Case#02
When Source of Sound is Moving and Listener is at Rest:
a) When Source moves towards a stationary listener:
If a source of sound approaches a stationary listener with a speed “v s” than the sound waves
present between the listener and the source are compresses, hence its wavelength decrease.
New wavelength λ of sound heard by the listener is less than the wavelength of sound produced by
the source and given by:
v−vs v
λ′ = ∴λ=υ
v
The frequency of sound “v” heard by the listener is given by:
v
v ′ = λ′
v
v′ = v−vs
v
v v−vs
v ′ = v × v−v ∴ λ′ =
s v
v
v ′ = (v−v ) v
s
Frequency of sound in this case increases.

b) When the source moves away from a stationary listener:
If a source of sound moves away from a stationary listener with velocity “v s”, then the wavelength
of sound waves heard by the listener increases and is given by:
v+vs v
λ′′ = ∴λ=v
v
The frequency of sound heard by a stationary listener is given by:
v
v ′′ = λ′′
v v+vs
v ′′ = v+vs ∴ λ′′ = v
v
v
v ′′ = v × v+v
s
v
v ′′ = (v+v ) v
s
Frequency of sound in this case decreases.

Case#03
When both Source of Sound and Listener are in Relative Motion
a) When source and Listener both approach each other:
If a source of sound and a listener both are moving towards each other with velocities “v s” and “vo”
respectively along the same line, then the frequency heard by the listener “v” is given by:
v+v
v ′ = (v−vo ) v
s
b) When Source and Listener both move away from each other:
If a source and a listener both are moving away from each other with velocities “v s” and “vo”
respectively, along the same line, then the frequency heard by the listener “v” is given by:
v−v
v ′ = ( v+vo ) v
s
Frequency of sound in this case decreases.

Applications of Doppler Effect:
i. With the help of Doppler effect speed of approaching automobiles can be measured.
ii. Radar waves after reflecting from flying planes etc. on reaching its receiving antenna show a change
in frequency. The change in frequency depends upon the speed with which a plane approach or move
away from the radar station. Hence a radar operator can easily determine the movement and
intension of the plane.
iii. Ships are equipped with an instrument called “Sonar”. It works on the principle of Doppler Effect. It
detects the presence of underwater rocks and submarines etc.
iv. Ultrasound radiations have been used for the diagnosis of various medical problems. It makes use of
Doppler effect.

i. A certain simple pendulum has an iron bob. Would its behavior change if we replace the iron bob with
a copper bob of the same size?
Ans. The time period of simple pendulum is given by:
l
T = 2π√
g
Where l= length of the pendulum, and g= acceleration due to gravity.

The above relation shows that the time period of a simple pendulum only depends upon its length
and value of “g” at a certain place and it is independent of the mass of the bob. Therefore, if we replace
the iron bob with a copper bob, only the mass of the bob will change but behavior of the pendulum will
not be affected. It means that the time period and the frequency of the pendulum, having a certain length,
will remain unchanged with the change of bobs.
ii. Will the period of a vibrating spring increase by adding more weights?
m mg w
Ans. As, T = 2π√ = 2π√ = 2π√
k gk gk
∴ T ∝ w Thus if we add more weight, the time period will increase.

iii. A wire hangs from a dark high tower so that upper end id not visible. How can we determine the
length of the wire?
Ans. If we attach a heavy object at the lower end of the wire and make it pendulum by vibrating it, we
can find its time period. Then length can be calculated.
l l gT2
T = 2π√g => T 2 = 4π2 g => l = 4π2
iv. Will a pendulum that keeps correct time at Karachi, be accurate at Murree or other high place?
Ans. No, it will not keep correct time at Murree or other high places, because g decreases there.
l 1
T = 2π√g . As ∝ , so “T” will increase.
√g
v. Would you keep amplitude of a simple pendulum small or large? Why?

Ans. While deriving the relation for the time period of a simple pendulum i.e.
l
T = 2π√g
It was assumed that angular displacement is small (Then sin θ= θ). Since θ is proportion to
amplitude, so in order to keep θ small. Amplitude should be taken very small.
vi. Why does the speed of sound wave in gas change with temperature?
Ans. Speed of sound changes with the change I the temperature of a gas. The speed of sound in a gas is
given by:
γRT
v=√ M
v ∝ √T
This shows that if temperature increases then speed is also increased.
vii. How are beats useful in tuning musical instruments?

Ans. AS we know that the number of beats produced per second is equal to the differences between the
frequencies of two sounding bodies. If we know that frequency of standard instruments, we can
tune the other instruments to the desired frequency by counting the number of beats as compared
to the standard instrument. In this way beats are useful for tuning a musical instrument.
viii. Explain how the speed of transverse wave in a string will change if its tension is made double?
T
Ans. The speed of transverse wave in a string is v = √μ.
T′ 2T T
If T ′ = 2T, then v ′ = √ μ = √ μ = √2√μ = √2v.
So the speed increases √2 times.

ix. Keeping tension constant how will the speed of waves change if the string is change by another string
of the same material but having a diameter two times larger?
Ans. The speed of waves is given by:
T
v = √μ Putting μ = m⁄L
T
v = √m⁄L
TL
v = √m
As, Density= Mass/Volume => Mass= Volume x Density => m= πr2 L x ρ => m= π (d/2)2 Lρ
Now:
TL 4T
v=√ d2
= √πd2ρ
π .L.ρ
4
If d’= 2d then
4T 4T 1 4T
v ′ = √πd′2 ρ => √π(2d)2ρ => 2 √πd2ρ
The speed will be decrease to half of the initial value.
x. Keeping tension constant, how will the speed of waves change if the length of the same string is
doubled? Show mathematically.
Ans. The speed of waves is given by:
T
v = √μ Putting μ = m⁄L
T
v = √m⁄L
TL
v = √m
If L’= 2L then:
T×L′
v′ = √ m
T×2L
v′ = √ m
TL
v ′ = √2√ m
v ′ = √2v
Hence the speed is increased by √2 times.
xi. Describe why is the sound produced by explosions going on in the sun cannot be heard on the earth?
Ans. Explosion taking place on the surface of the sun cannot be heard on the earth because the sound
waves cannot pass through the vacuum between the sun and the earth. Also these waves are
ultrasonic, their frequency is greater than 20,000 Hz and human ear cannot hear these waves.
xii. Why does sound travel faster in solids than in gases?
E
Ans. The speed of sound waves is v = √ ρ.
Since the modulus of elasticity € of solids is much greater than that of gases, hence the speed of
sound waves is greater in solids than in gases. (v ∝ √E).
Note: The effect of large elasticity € is high. It will compensate the effect of decrease in density (ρ)
in gases.

CHAPTER#09
NATURE OF LIGHT
Dual Nature of Light:
Some phenomenon such as interference, diffraction and polarization can be explained on the basis
of wave theory of light. Whereas the photoelectric effect and Compton effect supported the corpuscular
theory i.e. particle nature of the light. Consequently, in the process of emission and absorption it is
observed that light radiations have particle like properties. On the other hand in the phenomenon of light
propagation it is observed that radiations have wave like properties. Thus discussion about the nature of
light shows that light possesses dual nature i.e. wave like and particle like properties.
Wave Front
Whenever wave pass through a medium, its particles execute SHM. The path (locus) of all the
particles of the medium having the same phase is known as “Wave Front”.
Spherical Wave Front: In case of a point source of light the wave front will be concentric spheres
with center at the source. Such as a wave front is known as “Spherical Wave Front”.
Plane Wave Front: At a very large distance from the source a small portion of a spherical wave front will
become plane wave front.
Ray of Light: The direction in which wave moves is always normal to the wave front. Thus a ray of light
means the direction in which a light wave propagates and it is always along the normal to the wave front.

Huygen’s Principle
The principle states that”
“Every point on a wave front can be considered as a source of secondary spherical wave front. The new
position of the wave front after a time “t” can be founded by drawing a plane tangent to the secondary
wave”.
Explanation: Figure illustrates two simple examples of Huygen’s

construction. First, consider the plane wave front moving
through medium as in figure (a). At t= 0, the wave front is
indicated by the plane labelled AA’. According to Huygen’s
principle, each point on this wave front is considered as a
point source. Using those points as sources for the
wavelets, we draw circles of radius “ct”, where “C” is the
speed of light and “t” is the time of propagation from one
wave front to the next. The plane tangent to these wavelets
is BB’, which is parallel to AA’. In a similar manner figure (b)
shows Huygen’s construction for spherical wave fronts.
Interference of Light
The superposition of two light rays oscillating with same phase and amplitude is referred as,
“Interference of light”.
Types of Interference:
1. Constructive Interference: If crest of one wave interferes the crest of other, then the resultant energy of
the superposed wave will be increased to maximum. The point of intersection of two waves is called
Constructive point and the wave phenomenon at this point is known as, “Constructive Interference”. The
constructive interference can be seen on a screen inform of Straight or circular bright band.
2. Destructive Interference: If crest of one wave interferes the trough of other, then the resultant energy
of the superposed wave will fall to zero. The point of intersection of two waves is thus called Destructive
point and the wave phenomenon at this point is known as, “Destructive Interference”. The destructive
interference can be seen on a screen in form of straight or circular dark band.
Conditions for Interference of Light:
The interference of light can only be seen when following two conditions are accomplished.
1. Phase Coherence: If two wave generators produce exactly similar waves, such that if one
produces a crest then the other also produces a crest or both produce trough at the same time
then the generators are called Coherent generators. Waves produced by coherent generators are
said to have phase coherence.
2. Path Difference: Suppose that two wave pulses (light rays) emitted out of two phase-coherent
sources are reaching a reference point “p”. If one wave pulse (ray) travels greater distance to reach
point “P” then the other, then path difference is said to be set between the two pulses. It is
denoted by "σ".
How can the Path Difference be achieved??

Path difference between the two pulses can be achieved by separating two phase coherent sources
by a small distance “d”. If greater be the value of “d”, more effective path difference between the two
pulses can be achieved.
Suppose that two wave pulses are emitted by two phase coherent sources “S1” and “S2” and finally
interfere at point “p”.
If S1 P and S2 P be the distance travelled by the two wave pulses, then their path difference is given
by:
σ = S2 P − S1 P
By triangle:
S Q
sin θ = S 2S
2 1
σ
sin θ = d
σ = d sin θ
Condition for Constructive Interferences:

For constructive interference the path difference between two waves having coherence must be an
integral multiple of their wave length "λ".
i.e. Path difference= mλ
Where m= 0, 1, 2, 3….
Hence for constructive interference path difference between the interference waves must be
0, 2λ, 3λ … mλ.
Condition for Destructive Interference:
For destructive interference the path difference between the two waves must be ab odd multiple
of λ⁄2.
1
i.e. Path Difference= (m + 2) λ
Where m= 0, 1, 2, 3….
Hence for destructive interference path difference between the interference waves must be
λ 3λ 5λ 7λ 1
, , , , … . (m + ) λ.
2 2 2 2 2
Young’s Double Slits Experiment

The first successful attemptwas made by Thomas Young in 1801 for producing the interference of
light. His experiment is defined below:
Experimental Arrangement (Or) How did Young achieve the condition for interference of Light
Thomas young selected a single light source instead of two sources and th beam of light coming out
of a source is further sub-divided into two phase-coherent beams of light. For this, he took Double Slits
arrangement in which each slit behaves like a phase coherent source. The separation between the two slits
produces a suitable Path Difference between the two beams emerging out of the slits. These beams of light
falls on a screen placed at a distinct distance from the slits and produce interference fringes due to
constructive and destructive interference. Ach bright fringe will be appeared on the screen due to
constructive interference and each dark fringe will represent the destructive interference. The distance
between two consecutive bright or two consecutive dark fringes remains constant, is known as “Fringe
Spacing”.

Derivation for Fringe Spacing
Consider Young’s double slits arrangement in two dimensions.
In this arrangement, suppose that;

The separation between the two slits= d
The distance between the slits and the screen= L
The path difference between two rays= σ = d sin θ
The distance of point “p” on the screen from the central point= y
As, d<<L therefore, limit (θ)→ and thus sin θ ≈ Tan θ
In ΔOCP;
P PC
sin θ = Tanθ = B = OC
y
sin θ =
L
Multiplying by “d” on both sides,
y
d sin θ = d L ∴ σ = d sin θ
y
σ = dL
L
y = σ d … (i)
Positions for Bright Fringes or Maxima
A bright fringe appears when the constructive interference takes place.
In case of constructive interference, σ = mλ
L
Eq: (i) y = σ d
L
y = mλ d
Where m= 0,1, 2,3,……..
Lλ 2Lλ 3Lλ
y = 0, , , , … ..
d d d
Lλ
Fringe Spacing= (distance between two bright fringes)
d
Positions for Dark Fringes or Minima
A dark fringe appears when the destructive interference takes place.
1
In case of destructive interference,σ = (m + 2) λ
L
Eq: (i) y = σ d
1 L
y = (m + 2) λ d
1 Lλ
y = (m + 2) d
Where m= 0, 1, 2, 3,……
Lλ 3Lλ 5Lλ
y = 2d , , , … ..
2d 2d

Lλ
Thus, Fringe spacing= (distance between two dark fringes)
d
The above analysis clearly explains that the fringe spacing between two consecutive bright or dark
Lλ
fringes remains constant i.e. Fringe Spacing = .
d
This spacing also suggests that, if the values of “L”, “d” and fringe spacing is measured from the
experimental arrangement, the wavelength of incident light can be determined.
(F.S)×d
i.e. λ = L
Michelson’s Interferometer
In 1881, Abraham Michelson introduced an optical instrument used for determining wavelength of
incident monochromatic light after getting successful interference of light. Due to the fact, it is called
Interferometer.
Later on, Michelson used the same instrument to determine the speed of light.
Construction:
A simple type of Michelson’s interferometer consists of following parts:

i. Monochromatic Light Source: It is a light source that emits radiations in unit wavelength range.
ii. Convex Lens: A double-convex lens is used to collimate incident mono-chromatic light rays. For
this, light source is kept at the focal point of convex lens which refract all of incident rays parallel to the
principle of axis/ Thus, convex lens is acted as, “Collimator”.
iii. Semi-Silvered Glass Plate: It is a transparent glass plate in which silver particles are imbedded
with equal spacing. When light beam is incident on such a plate, it sub-divides into two parts through
reflection and transmission. Moreover, this plate is oriented at an angle of 450 to obtain normal reflection.
iv. Compensating Plate: It is a pure transparent glass plate which is used to equal the additional
distance travelled by the reflection beam. It is also kept at an angle of 45 0 to that it remains parallel to the
semi-silvered glass plate.
v. Plane Mirrors: Two plane mirrors “M1” and “M2” are used to reflect back the reflected beam and
transmitted beam, coming out of semi-silvered glass plate towards the reference point “p”, the mirror
“M2” is kept movable on a micrometer scale. Whereas, the mirror “M1” remains fixed at the original
position.
vi. Telescope: A telescope is focused at the reference point “p” where interference of light beams takes
place. By using telescope we may able to count the total number of light flashes appears at point “p” due
to interference of light.
Working: A monochromatic light is incident on a convex lens which collimates the rays of light and
finally the beam glass on a semi-silvered glass plate. This plate sub-divides the beam into two parts through
reflection and transmission. The two beams are then reflected and concentrated to reference point “p” by

using the two plane mirrors “M1” and “M2”. AN interference phenomenon can be seen at reference point
“p” by focusing a telescope.
Determination of Wavelength of Incident Monochromatic Light:
For this, let us assume that moveable mirror or Michelson’s interferometer is moved by “x” on
micrometer scale. In this way, the reflected beam of light will travel an additional distance of “2x” as
compare to the transmitted beam. Hence, path difference between the two rays of light will become “2x”.
i.e. σ = 2x … (i)
As, reference point “p” lies in constructive region when successful interference of light takes place,
therefore, the path difference between the two beams should be "mλ".
i.e. σ = mλ … (ii)
mλ = 2x ∴ σ = 2x
2x
λ=m
Thus, after measuring the distance travelled by the moveable mirror on scale and to count the total
number of flashes (fringes) appears at reference point “p” we may determine wavelength of incident
monochromatic light.
Thin Films
A thin layer of transparent medium is often called, “Thin Film”. E.g. the surface of a soap bubble, a
very thin layer of air and a layer of kerosene oil on the surface of water can be treated as, “Thin Film”.
A thin film is commonly used to produce interference of light and also for determining wavelength
of incident monochromatic light.
In practice, a thin film is further classified into two types:
i. Regula Thin Film: A thin film of uniform thickness is referred as, “Regular Thin Film”. In case of
interference through regular thin film, path difference between the two reflected beams can be changed
by varying the angle of incidence beam of light.
ii. Irregular Thin Film: A thin film of non-uniform thickness is referred as, “Irregular Thin Film”. In
case of interference through irregular thin film, path difference between the two reflected beams will
already be changed due to non-uniform thickness of thin film.
Interference through Thin Film

Consider a beam of monochromatic light travelling in air and
falling on a very thin film of a refracting medium of refractive index
“n”. This beam of light is partially reflected from the upper surface of
the film and partially refracted into it. The reflected part “bc”
undergoes phase reversal (phase change of 1800). It means that an
incident crest after reflection from the film becomes a trough. The
refracted part also undergoes reflection from the lower surface of the
thin film, this part does not undergo phase reversal because this part
of light is travelling in a denser medium (medium of higher refractive
index) and is reflected from the surface of a rare medium (medium of
lower refractive index). Phase reversal of 1800 takes place when light
waves are reflected from the surface of a medium whose refractive
index is greater (denser medium) than the refractive index of the
medium (rare medium) in which the light wave was travelling. Hence
the refracted part after reflection from the lower surface of the film emerges out as “ef” without phase
reversal (crest as crest or trough as trough) parts “bc” and “ef” will interfere on reaching the eye according
to their path difference. Since “bc” has suffered phase reversal of 1800 therefore condition for constructive
and destructive interference are interchanged.
When light travels from air (rare medium) to another medium (denser medium) of refractive index “n” its
wavelength changes (decreases) and is given by:

λ
λn = n
Where λ is the wavelength of light in air and λn is its wavelength in the medium of refractive index
“n”.
For Constructive Interference: In this case,
1
σ = (m + 2) λn
Where λn is the wavelength of light in thin film and in thin film the path difference is “2t” where t is
thickness of thin film.
Now:
1 λ λ
Eq: (i) 2t = (m + 2) n ∴ λn = n
1
2tn = (m + 2) λ
Where m= 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
For Destructive Interference: In this case,

σ = mλn
λ
Or 2t = m n
2tn = mλ
Newton’s Rings
The formation of Newton’s rings is an interesting application of interference of light through thin
film. IN this regards, Newton has used a combination of plane-o-convex lens and plane glass sheet,
enclosing air film of varying thickness, to produce interference of light.
Mechanism: When a monochromatic light is incident on combination of plane-o-convex lens and plane
glass sheet, the irregular thickness of air film provides necessary path difference to the reflected light rays
and thus points of maxima and minima will appear at different portions of the thin film resulting concentric
circular bright and dark fringes on the screen called, “Newton’s Rings”. If white light is used, then each
component of wavelength will produce its own set of circular fringes at same place. They all overlap on one
another and thus no clear interference pattern will be appeared on screen excepts a central dark spot.
The Newton’s rings are infact, formed due to interference of such light rays that are reflected from
the inner and outer surfaces of air film.
Since, the particles of air film get circular shape due to curved surface of plane-o-convex lens therefore,
concentric circular fringes will be formed on the screen.

Derivation for the Radius of Nth Newton’s Ring
For this, let us assume that:
i. The wavelength of incident monochromatic light= λ.
ii. The radius of Nth Newton’s ring= rn
iii. The thickness of air film related to Nth ring- t
iv. The refractive index for air film= n= 1
v. The radius of curvature or curved surface of the plane-o-convex lens= R
From the geometry of ⊥ ∆ACB;
CB 2 = AB 2 + AC 2
R2 = rN2 + (R − t))2
R2 = rN2 + R2 − 2Rt + t 2
2Rt = rN2 + t 2 … . (i)
Here, t 2 ≪ rN2 , therefore, t 2 ≈ 0
Eq: (i) 2Rt = rN2
rN = √2Rt
rN = √R × 2t … . (ii)
According to this expression, if thickness of the air film related to either bright ring or dark ring is
known, the radius of particular bright ring or dark ring can be determined.
For the Radius of Nth Bright Ring:
For this,
Consider condition of maxima in case of a thin film,
1
2tn = (m + 2) λ
For air, n= 1
1
2t(1) = (m + 2) λ
1
2t = (m + 2) λ
Now, substituting the value of “2t” in eq: (ii)
1
Eq: (ii) => rN = √R (m + 2) λ
Here, m= N – 1
1
rN = √R (N − 1 + 2) λ
1
rN = √R (N − 2) λ
This expression represents radius of Nth Bright Ring.
For the Radius of Nth Dark Ring:
For this,
Consider condition of minima in case of a thin film,
2tn = mλ
For air, n= 1
2t = mλ
Now, substituting the value of “2t” in eq: (ii)
Eq: (ii) => rN = √Rmλ
As, m= 0,1, 2,3, ….. for zeroth, 1st, 2nd, 3rd,….. Dark ring.
Therefore, N= 1,2, 3, …. For 1st, 2nd, 3rd,…. Dark ring.
rN = √RNλ
This expression represents Radius of Nth Dark Ring.

Determination of Radius of Curvature of Lens (R) and Wavelength of Light (𝛌)

As;
rN = √R(N − 1⁄2)λ
rN2 = R(N − 1⁄2)λ
r2
R = (N−1N⁄2)λ
This equation shows the radius of curvature of lens.
Similarly,
r2
λ = (N−1N⁄2)R
This equation shows the wavelength of light used.
The Central Spot of Newton’s Rings appears Dark, Why?
According to the equation of radius of Nth Bright Ring.
rN = √R(N − 1⁄2)λ
For first bright ring, N= 1
r1 = √R(1 − 1⁄2)λ
1
r1 = √R(2)λ
Rλ
r1 = √ 2
It means, r1> 0 hence, the first bright ring will be situated slightly away from the central spot of
Newton’s Rings. On contrary to this, the path difference between two reflected rays at the central spot
remains zero and hence it lies within the destructive region. That’s why central spot of the Newton’s Rings
always appears dark.
Diffraction of Light
When a beam of light is disturbed by placing an obstacle in its path, provided the dimension of
obstacle is equal to wavelength of incident light i.e. D ≈ λ, then beam of light appears to be bent around
the edge of obstacle.
The phenomenon in which a beam of light bends round the corner of an obstacle under appropriate
condition is known as, “Diffraction of Light”. This phenomenon was firstly observed by Grimaldi and
experimentally verified by Fresnel.
There are two basic techniques for getting diffraction pattern on screen called, “Fresnel-Type
Diffraction” and “Fraunhoffer-Type Diffraction”.
i. Fresnel-Type Diffraction: If the distance between (i) light source and Slit’s arrangement (ii) Slit’s
arrangement and screen is kept finite, then diffraction-pattern obtained on screen is referred as, “Fresnel-
Type Diffraction”. Such a diffraction pattern appears on screen due to interference of spherical wave
fronts.

ii. Fraunhoffer-Type Diffraction: If the distance between (i) light source and Slit’s arrangement (ii) Slit’s
arrangement and screen is kept infinite, then diffraction pattern obtained on screen is referred as’
“Fraunhoffer-Type Diffraction”. Such a diffraction pattern appears on screen due to interference of plane
wave fronts.
In laboratory Fraunhoffer diffraction can be produced by using convex lenses of suitable focal
length. A convex lens between source and obstacle makes the rays parallel to each other and the second
lens collects the parallel diffracted rays and focuses them to a point on the screen.
Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer Diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhoffer Diffraction
1. Fresnel Diffraction the source of light _____ 1. In Fraunhoffer diffraction the source of light and
where diffraction is formed are kept at finite the screen where diffraction is formed are kept at
distance from the diffracting obstacle. infinite distance from the diffracting obstacle.
2. In Fresnel diffraction the wave fronts failing and 2. In Fraunhoffer diffraction the wave fronts failing
leaving the obstacle are spherical. and leaving the obstacle are plane.
3. In Fresnel diffraction, thee corresponding rays 3. In Fraunhoffer diffraction the corresponding rays
are not parallel. are parallel to each other.
4. To get Fresnel diffraction in laboratory convex 4. To get Fraunhoffer diffraction in laboratory two
lenses are not required. convex lenses are required.
Difference between Interference and Diffraction of Light

Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is the result of interaction of light 1. Diffraction is interaction of light coming from
coming from two different wave fronts originating different parts of the same wave front.
from the same source.
2. The fringe spacing may or may not be of the 2. Diffraction fringes are not of same width.
same width.
3. Points of minimum intensity are perfectly dark. 3. Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly
dark.

4. All bright bands are of same intensity. 4. All bright bands are not of the same intensity.
Diffracting Grating:
It is an optical instrument used for measuring wavelength of incident monochromatic light after
getting successful spectrum on screen. The first grating was designed by Fraunhoffer which contains thin
silver wires stretched on a metallic frame.
Construction: A large number of parallel and equal spaced grooves are set on the surface of a transparent
glass sheet by using a Diamond-Cutting pointer whose motion is controlled by a sensitive engine. The
untouched portion between any successive grooves will act as Slit to the incident monochromatic light. A
spectrum can be seen after getting diffraction of incident light through grating. Due to the fact, grating is
also referred as, “Transmission Grating”.
Derivation of Formula: Consider a
monochromatic light falling normally on a
diffraction grating. When light passes through
transparent slits, it spreads out. The pattern of
spreading out of light through each slit is identical.
Out of whole pattern w are considering one
direction in which light bends at angle θ with the
initial direction. A convex lens converges each
light ray at point “p” on the screen. The convex
lens also makes an angle θ with the grating. d= a+
b= Grating element, where a = Width of slits and
b= width of opaque line for rays 1 and 2, path difference = AD = d sin θ point “p” is maximum if:
d sin θ = mλ.
Where m= 0, 1, 2, 3 ,…..
Positive and negative sign are chosen according to the position of a maximum whether it is above
or below the center of the screen. “m” is the order of maximum i.e. for 1 st order maximum m= 1 and for
2nd order image m= 3 etc.
BY knowing the order of image “m” and the corresponding angular deviation of light θ the
wavelength of light can be calculated.
Bragg’s Law
Prof, Von-Laue has generalized that a crystalline structure contains regular and periodic three
dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules, called Lattice.
When monochromatic x-rays are incident on atoms of crystal lattice then each atom acts as a
source of reflecting radiations od=f same wavelength. In this way, a crystal structure acts like a series of
parallel reflecting planes. The intensity of x-rays beams reflected from two consecutive crystals planes at a
certain angle will be maximum when path difference between them remains λ or integral multiple of λ.
i.e. σ = λ, 2λ, 3λ, 4λ, … … , nλ
where, n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…..
Derivation for Bragg’s Equation:
For this, assume a set of two parallel reflecting planes of a
crystal structure that are separated by a small distance of “d”. Let, two

parallel x-rays are incident on atoms of these planes at point “B” and point “E” where they get successful
reflection.
If “θ” by the glancing angle of the two x-rays beams, then path difference between them is given
by:
σ = PE + EQ
σ = d sin θ + d sin θ
nλ = 2d sin θ
Where, λ is the wavelength of x-rays, n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,……
This equation is often called Bragg’s Equation for Diffraction of X-rays through crystals. For first
order diffraction, n= 1 and thus λ = 2d sin θ. According to this equation:
i. If wavelength of incident x-rays and glancing angle for maximum intensity is known to us, the
distance between two atomic planes of a crystal structure can be determined.
ii. If “d” and “θ” are known to us, the wavelength of incident x-rays can be determined.
SHORT REASONING QUESTION

i. Distinguish between diffraction and interference. Can there be diffraction without interference, and
interference without diffraction?
Ans. Difference see in notes.
Interference can take place without diffraction. Interference, infact is the resultant effect of
the superposition of waves coming from two coherent source (i.e. from two different wave fronts
originating from the same source).
Diffraction cannot take place without interference. It is due to the interference of waves
coming from different parts of the same wave front, after the wave fronts have been disturb by an
obstacle.
ii. Describe and explain the interference effect produced by thin film. AN observer sees red color at
certain position in an oil film, would other observers also see the red color at the same position?
Ans. Interference through thin film see in Notes.
When an observer sees red color in an oil film, then the film width, angle of incidence and
his position are such that for six colors the conditions of destructive interference are satisfied. SO
he sees red color of white light. Hence, other observers viewing under these conditions will not see
the red color, because of the eye.
iii. Consider Young’s double slit experiment and explain what are the following parameters have to do
with the light distribution on the screen?
a) Distance between the slit b) Width of the slit
c) Wavelength of the incident light
λL 1
Ans. a) Since fringe spacing F. S = , Hence F. S ∝ d.
d
Thus, the greater the distance between the slits (d), the smaller the fringe spacing.
b) The larger the width of the slits, the intensity of the pattern increases, but fringes become more
blurred.
λL
c) Since fringe spacing F. S = , Hence F. S ∝ λ.
d
Thus, the longer the wavelength of the incident light, the greater the fringe spacing.

iv. Give an experiment arrangement for producing Newton’s rings. Why are the fringes circular and why
is the central spot black (dark)?
Ans. Experiment arrangement see in Notes.
The Newton’s rings are infact, formed due to interference of such light rays that are
reflected from the inner and outer surfaces of air film. Since, the particles of air film get circular
shape due to curved surface of plane-o-convex lens therefore, concentric circular fringes will be
formed on the screen.
Central spot is dark reason see in Notes.
v. Discuss the statement that a diffraction grating could just as will be called an interference grating.
Ans. A diffraction grating consist of many slits. When light from a single source is incident on it, it
produces interference pattern on the screen. The fringes are due to the interference of diffracted
waves and path difference between them.
vi. For a given family of planes in a crystal, can the wavelength of incident x-rays be too large or too
small to form a diffraction beam?
Ans. The wavelength of incident x-rays can be too small because the distance between two consecutive
planes in crystal is too small.
vii. Why are x-rays not diffracted by diffraction grating or thin films?
Ans. X-rays ate electromagnetic waves. They have short wavelength of the order of 10-10 m to 10-9m.
Therefore, it is not possible to produce interference fringes of x-rays by Young’s Double slit
λ
methods or by thin film method or by diffraction grating. The reason is that the fringe spacing by d L
and unless the slits are separated by a distance of the order of 10-10 m to 10-9 m. The fringes
obtained will be closed together that they cannot be observed.
viii. Why the distant flash lights will not produce an interference pattern.
Ans. Two light beams which are coherent when they are closer to the source, at large distance they do
not remain coherent thus distant flash lights are unable to produce an interference pattern.
ix. Why the central point on the screen in Young’s Double slit arrangement is always bright?
Ans. The path difference for interference pattern at center is zero then interference is constructive and
image is bright.

CHAPTER#10
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
Refraction of Light
The change in velocity, direction and wavelength of light rays take place as they through from one
medium to another medium this phenomenon is called “Refraction of Light”.
Laws of Refraction:
1. The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the refracted ray all lie on the same plane.
2. The ratio of “sine” of angle of incidence (sin < i) to the “sine” of angle of refraction (sin < r) is a
constant. This constant is called refractive index (n) of the medium.
The above law is called “Snell’s Law”.
sin< 𝑖
n = sin< 𝑟
Refractive Index: The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum or air (c) to the speed of light in a medium
(v) is called the refractive index of that medium.
c
i.e. n = ∴ c = 3 × 108 m⁄s.
v
Critical Angle: AN angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 900 is called the “Critical angle”. It
is denoted by “<c”.
Real Image:
i. Real image can be projected on a screen.
ii. It is always inverted with respect to the object.
iii. It is formed by the actual intersection of reflected or refracted rays.
iv. It is formed in front of mirror and on the other side of a lens.
Virtual Image:
i. It cannot be projected on a screen.
ii. It is always erect with respect to the object.
iii. It is formed by diverging reflected on refracted rays when they are produced backward.
iv. It is formed behind the mirror and on the same side of the lens.
Lens
It is a piece of transparent medium bounded by one or two spherical surfaces.
Convex Lens: Convex lens are thick in the middle and thin at the edges. Convex lens converges light rays.
Hence they are also called “Converging Lens”. They form real images for all object distance except when
the object is placed inside their focal length.
Concave Lens: Concave lens diverge light, hence they are also called, “Diverging Lens”.
Concave lenses are thin in the middle and thick at the edges. They always form virtual images.
Focal Length:
Focal length of a lens is the distance between its principle focus and optical center.
Focal length of convex lens is positive because its focus is a real point.
Focal length of concave lens is negative because its focus is a virtual point.
Magnification:
i. Linear Magnification: It is the ratio of image height to object height.
hi
i.e. M=h
o
Or It is the ratio of image distance to object distance.
q
i.e. M=p

ii. Angular Magnification: Angular magnification is the ratio of visual angle “β” subtended by the image
to visual angle “α” subtended by the object.
β
i.e. M=α
Visual Angle: It is the angle subtended by an object or an image at the observer’s eye.
Power of a Lens (P): It is the reciprocal of its focal length expressed in meters. Unit of power of lens is
“Dioptre”.
1
P= f
The power of convex lens is positive and power of concave lens is negative.
Thin Lens Formula or Equation

i. For Convex Lens: The equation of lens shows the relation between focal length (f), object distance (p)
and image distance (q). The equation of convex lens is:
1 1 1
= p+q
f
Consider the following ray diagram:
In the above figure ΔABO and ΔDIO are similar. According to rule of geometry,
Since ΔABO ≅ΔDIO
Therefore:
AB DI
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= DO
AO
AB AO
= DO … (i)
DI
Similarly,
ΔABF ≅ΔCOF
Therefore:
AB CO
= OF
AF
AB AF
= OF ∴ CO = DI
CO
AB AF
= OF … (ii)
DI

AO AF
= OF
DO

∴ AO = p, FO = f, DO = q, AF = p − f
p p−f
=
q f
1 p−f
=
q pf
1 p f
= pf − pf
q
1 1 1
= f −p
q
1 1 1
+p =
q f
1 1 1
= p+q
f
ii. For Concave Lens: The equation of concave lens is:

1 1 1
−f =p−q
Consider the following ray diagram:
In the above figure:

ΔABO ≅ΔCDO
According to rule of geometry:
AB CD
= CO
AO
AB AO
= CO … . (i)
CD
Similarly,
ΔOEF ≅ΔCDF
According to rule of geometry:
OE CD
=
OF CF
OE OF
= ∴ OE = AB
CD CF
AB OF
= … (ii)
CD CF

AO OF
=
CO CF
∴ AO = p, FO = f, CO = q, CF = f − q
p f
= f−q
q
f−q f
=p
q
f−q 1
=p
qf
f q 1
− qf = p
qf
1 1 1
−f =p
q
1 1 1
−f =p−q
Combination of Thin Lenses

If there is a combination of two or more lenses the image formed by the first lens acts as the object
for the second lens. Whereas the image of the second lens acts as the object for the third lens and so on.
Total magnification produced by the combination is equal to the product of magnification due to
individual lenses, hence:
M = M1 × M2 × ….
Sign Convention:
Object distance “p” is (+ve for any real object and –ve for any virtual object)
Image distance “q” is (+ve for a real image and –ve for a virtual image)
Focal length “f” is (+ve for a convex lens and –ve for a concave lens)
Close Combination of Two Tin Lenses

Consider a point object “O” placed at distance “p” from a thin lens “L 1” of focal length “f1” which
forms its real image “I” at distance “q”.
According to thin lens equation:
1 1 1
= p+q
f
1 1 1
Or = p + q′ … (i)
f1
If another lens “L2” of focal length “f2” is placed on the other side of “L1” such that the two lenses
are in contact with each other and their principle axis lie on the same line then the second lens will form
the final image “I” at distance “q”.

The image formed by “L1” acts as a virtual object for the second lens and since two lenses are in
close combination their thickness is negligible therefore for the second lens, p= q’. On substituting p= -q in
lens equation, we get:
As:
1 1 1
= p+q
f
1 1 1
= −q′ + q
f2
1 1 1
= − ′ + … . (ii)
f2 q q
Adding eq: (i) and (ii)

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ f = p + q′ − q′ + q
f1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+f =p+q ∴ f =p+q
f1 2
1 1 1
+f =
f1 2 f
1 1 1
=f +f
f 1 2
The above equation gives the net focal length of combination of two lenses.
This equation shoes the focal length (f) is less than the focal length of each lens.
i.e. f < f1 and f < f2
Aberration of a Lens
The defect of a lens which causes unreal image of an object is often called, “Aberration of the
Lens”. A lens shows two main defects during image formation called:
i. Spherical Aberration ii. Chromatic Aberration
i. Spherical Aberration: Suppose that a number of light rays are incident on a lens parallel to principle
axis. The rays of light refracts at the middle portion of lens have longer focal length than the rays refract at
edges of the lens and thus a single focal length does not exist for a lens. This defect occurs due to a
spherical shape of a lens and thus it is often called, “Spherical Aberration”.
Correction of Spherical Aberration: The Spherical aberration of a lens can be corrected by adjusting a “Co-
axial aperture stops” in front of the lens which allows limited amount of light transmitted through the lens.
Usually, it only allows those rays of light that are refracted from the central portion of the lens.
ii. Chromatic Aberration: A lens refracts ray of light at different focal points where dispersion of light takes
place at different refractive deviations. E.g. the “red” image will be seen away from the lens than the
“Blue” image and thus the picture of an object will be surrounded by different colored images. This defect
of a lens is thus called. “Chromatic Aberration”.

Correction of Chromatic Aberration: The chromatic aberration can be corrected by forming a suitable
combination of lenses (either with a convex or a concave lens) of different elements of refractive constant.
Such a combination is often called, “Achromatic Lens”.
Defects of Vision
There are mainly two defects of eye vision called, “Short-Sightedness” and “Long Sightedness”.
i. Short-Sightedness/(Myopia): IF eye ball of a person is too elongated or focal length of his eye is too
short, then he can see nearer objects clearly but cannot see distant objects. This defect of an eye is called,
“Short-Sightedness” or “Myopia”.
In this defect of an eye, the light rays coming from a distant objects are focused in front of retina of
the eye and thus it remains unable to see distant object.
To rectify myopia, a concave lens of suitable focal length is adjusted in front of the defected eye.
The concave lens diverges the rays coming from a distant object in a manner that they all focus on retina of
the eye.
ii. Long-Sightedness/(Hypermetropia): If the eye ball of a person is too shortened or focal length of
his eye lens is too large, then he can see distant objects clearly but cannot see closely oriented objects. This
defect of an eye is called, “Long-Sightedness” or “Hypermetropia”.
In the defect of an eye, the light rays coming from a closest object are focused beyond retina of the
eye and thus it remains unable to see the closest object.
To rectify, Hypermetropia, a convex lens of suitable focal length is adjusted in front of the defected
eye. The convex lens converges the rays coming from the closest object in a manner that they all focus on
retina of the eye.

Magnifying Glass
It is an optical instrument which enables us to see image of such an object is set very close to our
eye. A double convex lens of shorter focal length is used for this purpose.
Suppose that an object is placed in front of an eye, inside the least distance of its distant vision.
Such an object could not be seen accurately by the naked eye. To visualize such an object, a double convex
lens of suitable focal length is set in between the object and eye. The convex lens forms a virtual and
magnified image of this object at least distance of distinct vision and thus it is acted as “Magnifying Glass”.
The magnifying power of magnifying glass can be expressed by the following expression:
d
M=1+f
Where “f” is the focal length of convex lens, “d” is the least distance of distinct vision. It is about
25cm for a normal eye.
Derivation for Magnifying Power:
The ratio of visual angle subtended by an image to the visual angle subtended by the object is
referred as, Magnifying Power of a magnifying glass”, when object or image is set at least distance of
distinct vision. If “α” and “β” be the visual angles subtended by an object and image respectively, then
magnifying power of the magnifying glass can be written mathematically as:
β
M = α … (i)
AB p
In ⊥ AOB = tan α = ∴ tan θ =
d B
If limit (α)→0, then, tan α= α
AB
Therefore: α = d
Similarly, in ⊥ A′ O′ B ′, tan β = β
A′B′
Therefore: β= d
Now substituting α and β in eq: (i)
A′B′
d
M= AB
d
A′B′ d
M= × AB
d
A′B′ A′B′ q
M= ∴ =p
AB AB
q
M=p ∴q=d
d
M = p … (ii)

By using thin lens formula:
1 1 1
= p+q
f
1 1 1
= + ∴for virtual iamge q = −d
f p (−d)
1 1 1
= p−d
f
1 1 1
= d+p
f
Multiplying by “d” o.b.s:
d d d
= d + p … . (iii)
f
d d
+1=p
f
By comparing eq: (ii) and (iii)
d
M= f +1
d
M=1+f
According to this equation, greater be the magnifying power, if a convex lens of shorter focal length
is used as magnifying glass.
Compound Microscope
Compound microscope is an optical instrument mainly used to see magnified images of microscopic
objects, such as germs, virus, bacteria and biological cells and tissues etc., that cannot be seen with naked
eyes.
Construction: A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses, are fixed at the ends of two co-
axial microscope. The distance between two lenses can be adjusted by using a screw. In compound
microscope, a convex lens is set very close to an object and the other to an eye. They are thus called
“Objective” and “Eye-piece” respectively. Normally objective has smaller focal length than that of eye-
piece.
i.e. f1< f2
Where “f1” and “f2” are the focal length of objective and eye-piece respectively.
Working: (Ray Diagram):
Let an object of size AB is set in front of objective very close to its focus. The objective forms a real
inverted and slightly magnified image of size A′B′ very close to the eye-piece. The image of size A′B′ acts as
an object to eye-piece which finally forms a much magnified image of size A′′B′′ at least distance of distinct
vision. Hence, an observer can see a highly magnified image of a microscope object through eye piece.
Derivation for Magnifying Power: In presence of objective and eye piece, the magnifying power of
compound microscope can be obtained by using the “Principle of combination of lenses”. If “M 1” and “M2”
be the linear magnification of objective and eye piece respectively, then magnifying power of compound
microscope is given by:
M = M1 × M2 … (i)

To find M1:
According to the definition of linear magnification:
q
M=p
For objective:
P= P1, q= q1 and M= M1
Hence:
q
M1 = p1
1
To find M2:
In compound microscope, eye piece acts as magnifying glass, therefore, linear magnification of eye
piece is given by:
d d
M2 = (1 + f ) ∴ M = 1 +
2 f
Now by substituting the values of “M1” and “M2” in eq: (i), we have:
M = M1 × M2
q d
M = p1 (1 + f )
1 2
Approximate Magnifying Power:

In practice an object is placed very close to the focus of objective, therefore, P1 ≈ f1 . Similarly,
objective forms a real image of object very close to the eye piece therefore, q1 ≈ L, where “L” is the
distance between two lenses, commonly called, “Length of microscope”.
Hence the magnifying power of compound microscope can be expressed as:
L d
M ≈ f (1 + f )
1 2
This expression shows that magnifying power of compound microscope inversely depends on the
focal length of objective and eye piece.
Telescope: Telescopes are used to see distant objects. The image of a distant object formed by a
telescope is smaller than the actual object because it is much nearer to the eye and has a greater visual
angle. The object looks larger when viewed through the telescope.
Astronomical Telescope
It is an optical instrument used to observe heavenly objects such as star, moon and planets etc.
noted that: an astronomical telescope is not used to see objects on earth’s surface due to formation of
their inverted images on eye.
Construction: A telescope of two converging lenses that are fixed at the end of two-axial tubes. The
distance between two lenses can be adjusted by using a screw. In Telescope, a convex lens is set at the side
of object and the other at the eye. They are thus called “Objective” and “Eye Piece” respectively. Normally
objective has larger focal length and diameter than that of eye piece.
i.e. f1> f2, where “f1” and “f2” is the focal length of objective and eye piece respectively.
Working:
Let ab object of size AB is set in front of the objective. The objective forms a real, inverted and
slightly magnified image of size, A′B′ very close to the eye piece. Now, the image of size, A′B′ acts as an
object to the eye piece which forms a magnified image of size, A′′B′′.

A Telescope Focused for Infinity:

To observe a very distinct object, a telescope should be focused for infinity. For his, parallel rays of
light coming from a distant object are converged at the principle focus of the objective where a real image
of size, A′B′ is formed. Now to observe the final image without any strain on eye, the eye piece is so
adjusted that the initial image A′B′ must lie at the principle focus of the eye piece. The light rays after
getting refraction through the eye piece become parallel and thus final image will be formed at infinity.
In short, “A telescope is said to be focused for infinity when initial image formed by the objective
lies at common principle focus of the two convex lenses”.
Derivation for the Magnifying Power:
For this let us assume that a telescope is focused for infinity as shown in the following ray diagram.
According to definition of angular magnification,

Visual angle subtended by an image
M = Visual angle subtended by an object
β
M = α … (i)
A′ B′
In ⊥ ∆A′ OB ′ tan α =
OB′
∴ tan α = a ∴ OB′ = f1
A′B′
α=
f1
A′B′
Similarly in ⊥ ∆A′ O′ B ′ = tan β = O′B′
∴ tan β ≈ β ∴ O′ B ′ = f2
A′B′
β= f2
Now substituting the value of “α” and “β” in eq: (i)
A′B′
f2
M= A′B′
f1
A′B′ 1 f
M= × A′B′
f2
f
i. e. M = f1
2
Focal length of Objective

Magnifying Power = Focal length of Eye−Piece
It means:
1. M ∝ f1 ; when f2 is kept constant.
1
2. M ∝ ; when f1 is kept constant.
f2

Length of an Astronomical Telescope:
When an astronomical telescope is focused for infinity, the sum of focal length of objective and
focal length of eye piece will describe its length. It is symbolized by “L”.
Mathematically, L = f1 + f2
Terrestrial Telescope: Astronomical telescope cannot be used to see far off objects lying on the surface of
the earth because it forms an inverted image.
In order to convert an astronomical telescope into terrestrial telescope another convex lens is introduced
between the objective and the eye piece. This lens erects the image formed by the objective, it is therefore
known as erecting lens or field lens. It does not contribute towards the magnifying power of the telescope.
Focal length of the erecting lens must be short so that the telescope tube should not become
unnecessarily long.

i. How can a real image be distinguished from a virtual image? Can each type of image be projected on
screen? Explain.
Ans. See in notes.
ii. Under what conditions does a converging lens act as a diverging lens?
Ans. When the object is placed inside the focal length (i.e. between focus “F” and optical center “O”) of
the converging lens (convex lens), then this lens acts as diverging lens.
iii. Why is a convex lens of small focal length preferred for a magnifying glass?
Ans. The magnification of a magnifying glass is given by:
M= (1+d/ f), where “f” is the focal length.
Since M ∝ a⁄f thus the smaller the focal length (i.e. the thicker the lens), the higher is the
magnification produced.
iv. Define the lens constructions, working and magnifying power of a compound microscope.
Ans. See in notes.
v. How is the magnifying power of a (i) Telescope (ii) Microscope affected by increasing the focal length
of its objective?
Ans. (i) The magnifying power of a telescope is given by:
M= fo/fe, thus if fo (focal length of objective) increases, the magnifying power of a telescope will
increase, since M ∝ fo .
(ii) The approximate magnifying power of a microscope is given by:
L d
M ≈ f (1 + f )
o e
Thus, if fo (focal length of objective) increases, the magnifying power (M) of microscope will
decrease, since M ∝ a⁄fo .

vi. What is the difference between astronomical and terrestrial telescopes?
Ans. When telescope is used for astronomical purpose, i.e. when we see the heavenly bodies like moon,
and stars, their image is seen inverted. But when terrestrial objects are to be viewed. It is necessary
to have an erect final image. The reaction can be accomplished by introducing a third lens between
the objective and eye piece of telescope.
vii. Explain the defects which occur in the lenses and how they can be removed?
Ans. See in Notes.
viii. What is the use of spectrometer?

Ans. It is an optical instrument which is used to study the spectrum of luminous bodies.
ix. Why is it that a ray from the optical center of a lens continues straight or undeviated?
Ans. In fact the ray is very slightly displaced laterally since the middle portion of a lens as a parallel sided
slab. In a thin lens, the ray may be taken as straight and undeviated.
x. What is Galilean telescope?
Ans. Galilean telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see the object on earth. It was
developed by Galileo. A Galilean telescope consists of a convex lens L 1 as an objective and a
concave lens L2 as an eye piece. The virtual and erect image of distant object when seen through
the eye piece L2 id formed at the focus of the objective L1. Its magnifying power is given by:
f Focal length of objective
M = f1 = Focal length of eye piece
2

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Mathematics and Physics Walla

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Physical Quantities, Coefficients and Constants and Their S.I Units

S.N Name of Quantity Symbol SI Unit Symbol

6 Area A Meter Square m2

7 Volume V Metre Cube m3

8 Density 𝜌(row) Kilogram Per Meter Cube Kg/m3

9 Speed v Metre Per Second m/s

10 Velocity → Metre Per Second m/s

11 Acceleration → Metre Per Second Square m/s2

12 Acceleration → Metre Per Second Square m/s2

15 Linear Momentum → Kilogram meter per second Kg/m/s

16 Torque → (tau) Newton metre N.m

17 Centripetal Acceleration → Metre per second square m/s2

18 Centripetal Force → Newton N

Newton Metre per second

22 Kinetic Energy KE Joule J

23 Potential Energy PE Joule J

24 Power P Watt Watt

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28 Pressure → Newton Per Metre Square N/m2

31 Specific Heat c Joule Per Kilogram Kelvin J./Kg.k

32 Heat Capacity C Joule Per Kelvin J/k

33 Amount of Substance N Mole mol

34 Gas Constant R Joule Per Mole Kelvin J/mol.k

35 Stress 𝜎 Newton Per Metre Square N/m2

37 Young’s Modulus Y Newton Per Metre Square N/m2

38 Time Period T Second S

40 Power of Lens P Diopter Diop

41 Focal Length f Metre m

42 Electric Charge Q Coulomb C

43 Potential Difference V Volt V

45 Electromotive Force e.m.f (E) Volt V

46 Electric Current I Ampere A

47 Resistance R Ohm Ω(omega)

48 Luminous Intensity I𝜐 Candela Cd

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PREFIXES OF UNITS AND THEIR VALUES

Peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015

Centi c 0.01 10-2

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secondly we select a suitable scale.

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Head to Tail Rule of Vector Addition:

By this method only two vectors can be added at a time.

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Determination of A vector By rectangular Components(Composition of Vector):

(OA)2 = (OB)2 + (AB)2 ∵ OA = V, OB = Vx, AB = Vy

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Is it possible the rectangular components of a vector are equal to each other?

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