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Ayaz Ali Official (YOUTUBE)
Mathematics and Physics Walla
XII-Physics
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SIR.Ayaz Ali Pitafi Page 1 Ayaz Ali Official Math & Physics Walla
CHAPTER#11
HEAT
CALORIC THEORY
Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Heat was considered as weightless
and invisible fluid called caloric which existed in every material body. Hot bodies were said
to contain more caloric than the cold bodies. The caloric theory could explain satisfactorily
many processes such as heat conduction and mixing of substance in a calorimeter. This
concept of heat fluid was refused by Count Rumford.
HEAT
“Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one body to another because of
difference in temperature”.
Heat is not the energy that a body contain in it. It refers to the amount of energy
transferred from hot body to a cold body. Once the heat energy is transferred to a body, it is
converted into the internal energy of the body.
Internal Energy:
The internal energy is the sum of all the microscopic kinetic and potential energies of
the molecules in the body.
Units of Heat and Relation between them:
i. Joule (J); It is the S.I. unit heat.
ii. Calorie (cal); It is the old unit of heat.
iii. British Thermal Unit (B.T.U); It is the unit of heat in British Engineering System or F.P.S
system
1 cal = 4.18 J= 4.2 J
1 B.T.U = 1055 J
1 B.T.U = 252 cal
TEMPERATURE
“The quantitative determination of degree of hotness or coldness is called
Temperature”.
Temperature depends upon the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules
of a body. It is the property that determines the direction of heat flow, because heat flows
from higher temperature to lower temperature. It is denoted by “T” and its S.I unit is
“Kelvin”.
Thermal Equilibrium:
When two bodies of different temperatures are brought in thermal contact with each other.
The heat starts flowing from the hot body to the cold body till the temperature of the bodies
becomes same, then they are said to be in Thermal Equilibrium.
Scales of Temperature:
Temperature is measured on three different scales:
1. Celsius (or Centigrade) Scale:
On centigrade scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ‘0 oC’,
whereas the upper fixed point (boiling point of water) is taken as ‘100 oC’, and the space
between the two points is divided into hundred equal parts, each part measures a
temperature of ‘1 oC’.
2. Fahrenheit Scale:
On Fahrenheit Scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ’32 oF’
whereas the upper fixed point (boiling point of water) is taken as ‘212 oF’. The space
between the two fixed points is divided into 180 equal parts, each part measures a
temperature of ‘1 oF’.
3. Kelvin or Absolute Scale:
On Kelvin Scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ‘273 K’,
whereas the upper fixed point (boiling point of water) is taken as ‘373 Kelvin’. The space
between the two points is divided into 100 equal parts, each part measures a temperature
of ‘1 K’.
Hence each division on centigrade scale is numerically equal to each division on the
Kelvin scale. Whereas each division on centigrade scale is equal to “9/5” or “1.8” division on
Fahrenheit scale.
Conversion of Scales of Temperature:
1. TF = 1.8Tc + 32
TF −32
2. Tc = 1.8
3. TK = Tc + 273
Relation Among Three Scales of Temperature:
°C − 0 °F − 32 K − 273
= =
100 180 100
Thermometric Properties:
Property of a substance which changes uniformly with the change of temperature is
named thermometric property. For example, the volume of a liquid in a vessel, the volume
of a fixed mass of gas kept at constant pressure, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas
maintained at constant volume, electrical resistance of a metal are some of the many
measurable physical properties which changes with the change of temperature.
Thermometer:
It is a device used to measure the temperature of any substance. Its working is based
on the thermometric properties.
Thermal Expansion (or) Heat Expansion
When materials are heated their size increase, this phenomenon is known as
“Thermal Expansion”.
Explanation:
When a body is heated the energy gained by the molecules increases their kinetic
energy due to which they vibrate more vigorously and with increased amplitude, as a result
of which their overall size increases or in other words thermal expansion take place.
Types of Thermal Expansion:
There are three types of Thermal Expansion:
Linear Expansion:
In this type, only the expansion in length is considered.3
Superficial Expansion:
In this type, expansion in surface area due to heat is considered.
Cubical Expansion (or) Volume Expansion:
In this type, expansion in volume due to heat is considered.
Mathematical Expression for Linear Expansion:
Consider a rod of length “L” of uniform area of cross-section, it is heated through a
certain temperature ΔT so that its new length becomes ‘L’. It has been observed
experimentally that the increase in length ΔL of the rod is directly proportional to the initial
length L and to the rise in temperature ΔT.
i.e. ∆L ∝ L … . (i)
∆L ∝ ∆T … . (ii)
By combining (i) and (ii)
∆L ∝ L × ∆T
∆L = αL × ∆T
Where “α” is the constant of proportionality, it is known as “Coefficient of Linear
Expansion”. The above equation may also be written as:
∆L
∝ = L×∆T
Coefficient of linear expansion may be defined as:
“It is the increase in the length per unit length per degree rise in temperature”.
OR
“It is the fractional change in length per degree change in temperature”.
Value of “α” depends upon material of the rod. Materials that expand more have
high value of “α”. The unit of “α” is per degree Celsius (°C −1 ) or per Kelvin (K-1).
Since ∆L = L′ − L
Where “L” is the length of the rod
But
∆L = αL ∆T
′
L − L = αL ∆T
L′ = L + α ∆T
L′ = L(1 + α ∆T)
The above formula gives us final length L’ of the rod in terms of its initial length L,
coefficient of linear expansion “α” and the rise in temperature ΔT.
Mathematical Expression of Cubical Expansion or Volume Expansion:
Consider a body of volume “V” whose temperature is changed through “ΔT”.
Experimentally it has been observed that the change in volume “ΔV” is directly proportional
to its initial volume “V” and to the rise in temperature “ΔT”.
i.e. ∆V ∝ V … . . (i)
∆V ∝ ∆T … . . (ii)
By combining (i) and (ii)
∆V ∝ V ∝ ∆T
∆V = βV × ∆T
Where “β” is the constant of proportionality, known as “Coefficient of volume
expansion”. The above equation may also be written as:
∆V
β=
V × ∆T
Hence Coefficient of volume expansion may be defined as:
“It is the increase in the volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature”.
OR
“It is the fractional change in volume per degree change in temperature”.
Value of “β” depends upon material of the body. The unit of “β” is per degree Celsius
(°C −1 ) or per Kelvin (K-1).
Since ∆V = V ′ − V
Where “V” is the final volume of the body,
But
∆V = βV ∆T
′
V − V = βV ∆T
V ′ = V + β ∆T
V ′ = V(1 + β ∆T)
The above formula gives us final volume V’ of the body in terms of its initial volume
V, its coefficient of volume expansion “β” and the rise in temperature ΔT.
RELATION BETWEEN “Α” AND “Β”

The coefficient of cubical expansion (β) is three times the coefficient of linear
expansion (α) of a material i.e.
𝛃 = 𝟑𝛂
Consider a rectangular box of initial length (l), height (h) and width (w) at
temperature “T1”. The volume (V) of the box will be:
V = lwh….(i)
After heating the box it expands and its dimensions becomes l’, h’ and w’ at
temperature (T2).
The final volume of the box will be:
V’= l’ w’ h’ ……(ii)
Using the definition of linear expansion. Final dimensions
will be:
l’ = l (1+αΔT)
Similarly, w’= w (1+αΔT)
h’= h (1+αΔT)
Where “α” is the coefficient of linear expansion put the values in
equation (ii)
(ii) → V ′ = l′ w ′ h′
Or V ′ = l(1 + α∆T) w(1 + α∆T)h(1 + α∆T)
V ′ = lwh(1 + α∆T)3
Using formula: (a + b)3=a3 + 3a2 b+ 3ab2+ b3
V ′ = [(1)3 + 3(1)3 (α∆T) + 3(1)(α∆T)2 + (α∆T)3 ]
∴ V = lwhV ′ = [1 + 3α∆T + 3α2 (∆T)2 + α3 (∆T)3 ]
Because α is very small, so square and higher powers are neglected.
So,
V ′ = V[1 + 3(α∆T) + 0 + 0]
V ′ = V[1 + 3α∆T]
Using equation:
V ′ = V(1 + β∆T) where, β = Coefficient of volume expansion.
Comparing above two equations:
V(1 + β∆T) = V[1 + 3α∆T]
1 + β∆T = 1 + 3α∆T
𝛃 = 𝟑𝛂 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐝
BIMETALLIC STRIP
Bimetallic strip is a place of two different metals (for alloys)
length wise firmly attached together. Since the thermal expansion
of different materials is different, some expand more than the
others, therefore when a bimetallic strip is heated, it bends. The
metal which has higher co-efficient of Linear expansion expands
more and is on the outer side of the curve whereas the metal which
expands less is on the inner side of the curved strip.
Similarly, when a bimetallic strip is cooled the material with high co-efficient will be
on the inner side of the curve because it will contract more than the other material for each
degree fall of temperature. Due to these properties bimetallic strips are widely use to
control temperature in various devices.
Bimetallic strips are used in many devices, for example, thermostats, thermometers
and fire alarms etc. bimetallic thermostats are used as automatic circuit breakers. They
automatically switch on or off, as soon as the desired temperature is attained. For example
pressing iron, refrigerators, room heaters, air conditions, motor car radiator fan etc. As a
thermometer it is commonly used in ovens.
IDEAL GAS
An ideal or perfect gas is one that obeys the ideal gas laws. At low to moderate
pressure and at temperature not too low, the following common gases can be considered
ideal, air, nitrogen, oxygen, helium, hydrogen and neon.
I other words, a real gas behaves like an ideal gas when its atoms or molecules are so
far apart that they do not appreciably interact with one another.
GAS LAWS
Boyle’s Law:
Statement:
“For a given mass of a gas and at constant temperature volume is inversely
proportional to the pressure”.
Mathematical Expression:
If “V” denotes the volume and “P” pressure
1
Then V∝P
1
V = (Constant) P
PV = constant
Value of the constant depends upon mass and temperature of the gas. For a certain mass
and temperature:
P1 V1 = P2 V2
 Real gases obey Boyle’s law at low pressure and high temperature.
 Real gases deviate from Boyle’s law at high pressure and low temperature.
Graphical Representation:
Graph between pressure and volume of a gas at constant
temperature is a hyperbolic curve. Graph between “P” and “1/V” of
a gas at constant temperature is a straight line relation between
pressure, volume and mass of a gas at constant temperature is:
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
m1 m2
Where m1 = initial mass of the gas.
m2 = final mass of the gas.
Charle’s Law:
Statement:
“For a given mass and at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature”.
Mathematically:
If “V” and “T” denote the volume and absolute temperature of a gas respectively
then:
V∝T
V = (constant)T
V
= Constant
T
Value of the constant depends upon mass and pressure of the gas. For a certain mass
and pressure
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Graphical Representation of Charle’s Law:
Graph between temperature and volume of a gas at
constant pressure is a straight line. At very low
temperature, all gases get liquefied, hence Charle’s law not
obeyed anymore and the graph deviates from straight line.
However, if the straight line is extrapolated below the boiling point of a gas, the
straight line meets the axis of temperature at – 273 oC and the volume of the gas becomes
zero. Would be possible if the gas was cooled to – 273 oC without changing into liquid and of
course this is not possible. This temperature is called absolute zero. It is the temperature at
which volume of any gas theoretically becomes zero. (- 273 oC= (0) K). Absolute zero is also
defined as, it is a temperature at which the motion of the molecules of any substance cease
to move.
GENERAL GAS EQUATION: (COMBINATION OF GAS LAWS)
Suppose for a given mass of a gas the initial parameters are:
Pressure = P1, Temperature = T1, and Volume= V1
Now suppose temperature is kept constant and pressure is changed such that the final
parameters are:
Pressure= P2, Temperature= T1 and Volume= V’
Applying Boyle’s law we get:
P1 V1 = P2 V′
P1 V1
V′ = … . (i)
P2
Now keep the pressure constant and change the temperature such that the final parameters
become:
Pressure= P2, Temperature= T2 and Volume= V2
Applying Charle’s law we get:

V′ V2 V1 V2
= ∴ =
T1 T2 T1 T2
V2 T1
V′ = … . (ii)
T2
Comparing eq: (i) and (ii) we get:
P1 V1 V2 T1
=
P2 T2
P1 V1 P2 V2
= … (iii)
T1 T2
The above equation cal also be written as:
PV
= Constant
T
PV
= Rm
T
For different gases, value of the constant depends upon the number of molecules of
the gas. For 1 mole of the gas, the constant has the same value for all gases and then it is
denoted by “R”.
Thus for one mole of a gas we have:
PV
=R
T
PV
For “n” moles T = nR
PV = nRT
This is general gas equation. “R” is molar gas constant.
R = 8.314 J/mole. K
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
The properties of gas are described by a set of fundamental assumptions which are
given as:
i. A gas consists of particles called molecules. Depending on the gas each molecule will
consist of an atom or group of atoms. All the molecules of a gas in a stable state are
considered identical.
ii. Any finite volume of a gas consists of very large number of these molecules. This
assumption is justified by experiments. At standard conditions there are 3 x 1025
molecules in a cubic meter.
iii. The molecules are separated by large distance as compare to their own dimensions.
The diameter of a molecule considered as a sphere, is about 3 x 10-10 m.
iv. Molecules move in all directions and with various speeds and making elastic collisions
with one another and with the walls of a container can be considered perfectly
smooth.
v. Molecules exert no forces on one another except during collisions. Therefore in
between collisions with other molecules or with the walls of the container and in the
absence of the external forces, they move freely in straight lines.
vi. Newtonian mechanics id applicable to the motion of molecules.
Interpretation of the Pressure of Gas on the Basis of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases:
The pressure of an ideal gas is given by following equation:
P = 1⁄3 ρv̅̅̅2
Pressure of the gas is due to those collisions which the molecules have with the walls of the
container.
Let us consider a container of cubical shape and calculate pressure of the gas on one of its
walls which on the left side of the container.
Suppose: Mass of each molecule of the gas= m
Length of each side of container= l
Total number of molecules= N
Velocity of one of the molecules striking the wall= v
Component of velocity along x-axis= vx
For One Molecule:

Initial momentum along x-axis= m (- vx)= - mvx
Momentum after collision with the wall= mvx
Change in momentum = mvx – (- mvx)= 2 mvx
Suppose a molecule takes “t” seconds for each collision. Then distance covered in that time
along x-axis is 2l. Hence:
S = vt
2l = vx t
t = 2l⁄Vx
Since change in momentum for one collision= 2mvx
2mVx Vx mV2x
Therefore rate of change of momentum= 2l = 2mVx × =
2l l
Vx
Since the rate of change of momentum is equal to force.

Therefore:
mV2x
Force exerted by one molecule = l
Total force exerted by N molecule is:
2 2 2
mV1x mV2x mVnx
F= + +⋯+
l l l
m 2 2 2 )
F = (V1x + V2x + ⋯ + Vnx
l
Multiplying and dividing by “N”
2 2 2
mN V1x + V2x + ⋯ + Vnx
F= ( )
l N
mN ̅̅̅
2
Or F = (V x)
l
Hence, pressure on the wall is:
P = F⁄ A
mN ̅̅̅2
(Vx )
P= l 2
l
mN 2
P = 3 (V ̅̅̅
x)
l
mN Mass of the gas (mass of N molecules)
Where: =
l3 Volume of the gas
mN
= Density of the gas
l3
mN
=ρ
l3
Therefore above equation becomes:
P = ρV̅̅̅
2
x … . (i)
̅̅̅
Vx2 = average square of x-component of velocity
Now we may write:
⃗ = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂
v
v = √vx2 + vy2 + vz2
Or v 2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2

For average values:
̅̅̅
v 2 = ̅̅̅
vx2 + ̅̅̅
vy2 + ̅̅̅
vz2 … . . (ii)
As pressure on each wall of the container is same, therefore:
ρv̅̅̅x2 = ρv
̅̅̅y2 = ρv
̅̅̅z2 (from eq: (i)
̅̅̅
vx2 = ̅̅̅
vy2 = ̅̅̅vz2
Hence, from eq: (i) we may have:
̅̅̅
v 2 = ̅̅̅
vx2 + ̅̅̅
vy2 + ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅x2
vz2 = 3v
Or ̅̅̅
vx2 = ̅̅̅
v 2 ⁄3
Put this value in eq: (i)
̅̅̅
v2
P=ρ
3
Or P = 1⁄3 ρv̅̅̅2
̅̅̅2 is the average square velocity of
This is the equation for pressure of a gas. v
molecules.
Average Translational K.E of the molecules of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.
Proof:
The pressure of an ideal gas is given by:
Where:
̅̅̅
v 2 = Average square speed of molecules
ρ = Density of the molecule
Mass of the gas
ρ = volume of the gas
mN
ρ= v
Put the value in above equation we get:
mN ̅̅̅
P = 1⁄3 v2 v
PV = 1⁄3 mNv ̅̅̅2
Where; m= mass of one molecule
N = total no. of molecules
Re-arranging the equation we get:
PV = 1⁄3 N (mv ̅̅̅2 )
Multiplying and dividing by 2 on RHS
PV = 2⁄3 N(1⁄2 mv ̅̅̅2 )
But PV= n RT (General Gas equation)
Therefore:
nRT = 2⁄3 N (̅̅̅̅̅
K. E) … . (i)
Where:
N= no. of moles of the gas
R= molar gas constant
T= absolute temperature
̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = Average translational K.E
Mass of the gas
But; n = molecular mass
mN N
n = mN = N
A A
Note that molecular mass is the mass of one mole of the gas or the mass of Avogadro
number of molecules
Put the value of “n” in eq: (i)
N
RT = 2⁄3 N(K. ̅̅̅̅̅
E)
NA
R
̅̅̅̅̅
T = 2⁄3 (K. E)
NA
Where NA= Avogadro’s number= 6.02 x 1023 molecules/mole
R
But N = k = Boltzmann’s constant, therefore:
A
̅̅̅̅̅
kT = 2⁄3 (K. E)
̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = 3⁄2 kT … . (ii)
̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = (Constant)T
̅̅̅̅̅
𝐊. 𝐄 ∝ 𝐓
Hence proves the average translational KE of the molecules is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature of the gas.
Verification of Boyle’s Law and Charle’s Law:
The pressure of an ideal gas is given by:
̅̅̅2
P = 1/3 𝜌𝑣
Where:
̅̅̅
v 2 = Average square speed of molecules
ρ = Density of the molecule
P= Pressure of the gas
Mass of the gas
ρ = volume of the gas
mN
ρ= v
Therefore:
P = 1⁄3 M(mv ̅̅̅2 )
PV = 1⁄3 N (mv ̅̅̅2 )
Multiplying and dividing by 2 on RHS
PV = 2⁄3 N (1⁄2 mv ̅̅̅2 )
PV = 2⁄3 N (K. ̅̅̅̅̅E)
But ̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = 3⁄2 kT
Therefore:
PV = 2⁄3 N (3⁄2 kT)
Therefore:
PV = NkT … . (i)
Where N = Total no. of molecules
K = Boltzmann’s constant
T = Absolute Temperature
For Boyle’s Law:
It is clear that for a given mass of a gas and at constant temperature equation (i) becomes:
PV = Constant
This is Boyle’s Law.
For Charle’s Law:
As proved eq: (i)
PV = NkT
V Nk
= … . (ii)
T P
It is clear that for a given mass of a gas and at constant pressure equation (ii) becomes:
V
= Constant
T
This is Charle’s Law.
Hence gas laws are proved.
Root Mean Square Velocity:
It is the square root of the average square speed of molecules of a gas and denoted
by “vrms ”.
i.e. vrms = √̅̅̅
v2
Relation between Root Mean Square speed and Absolute Temperature of a Gas:
As ̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = 3⁄2 kT
1/2 mv̅̅̅2 = 3⁄2 kT
3kT
̅̅̅
v2 =
m
3kT
Or √̅̅̅
v2 = √ m
3kT
Or Vrms = √ m
Hence for a given mass of a gas:

Vrms ∝ √T
Relation between Vrms and Pressure of Gas:
̅̅̅2
As: P = 1⁄3 ρv
3P
̅̅̅
v2 =
ρ
3P
√̅̅̅
v2 = √
ρ
3P
Vrms = √
ρ
Boltzmann’s Constant (k):

It is the value of gas constant per molecule i.e.
J
R 8.314 moles. k
k= =
NA 6.02 × 1023 molecules⁄mole
k = 1.380 × 10−23 J⁄molecules. k
HEAT CAPACITY (C)

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by unit degree (1 oC or
1k) is called “Heat Capacity”.
Formulas:
ΔQ = Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
ΔT = Change (Increase) in temperature.
Then
∆Q ∝ ∆T
∆Q = C ∆T
Where C is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Heat Capacity”.
∆Q
C=
∆T
-1 o -1
Its unit is JK or J C
SPECIFIC HEAT OR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (C):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance
through unit degree (1 oC or 1k), is called “Specific Heat”.
Formula:
ΔT= Change (Increase) in temperature.
m= Mass of substance.
Then:
∆Q ∝ ∆T … . (i)
∆Q ∝ m … … (ii)
Combining eq: (i) and (ii)
∆Q ∝ m ∆T
∆Q = cm ∆T
Where “c” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Specific Heat Capacity” of a
body.
∆Q
c=
m∆T
-1 -1 -10 -1
Its unit is Jkg K Or Jkg C
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OR MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (C)

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance
through one degree (1k or 1 oC), is called Molar specific heat.
Formula:
ΔT = Change (Increase) in temperature.
n= Number of moles of a substance.
Then:
∆Q ∝ ∆T … . (i)
∆Q ∝ n … . (ii)
Combining eq: (i) and (ii)
∆Q ∝ n ∆T
∆Q = Cn ∆T
Where “C” is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Molar Specific Heat” of a
substance.
∆Q
C=
n∆T
-1 -1 -10 -1
Its unit is Jmole K Or Jmol C
Types of Molar Specific Heat of Gases:
The molar specific heat of a gas depends whether or not the gas allowed to expand.
There are two types of molar specific heat of a gas.
i. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: (Cp)
ii. Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume: (Cv)
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (Cp):
Amount of heat required to raise thee temperature of one mole of a gas through one degree
(1k or 1 oC), at constant pressure is called molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
∆Q
Formula: Cp = n∆Tp
Where,∆Q P = Amount of heat absorbed by the system at constant pressure.
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume (Cv):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through one degree
(1k or 1 oC) at constant Volume is called Molar Specific Heat at constant Volume (Cv).
∆Q
Formula: Cv = n∆Tv
Where, ∆Q v = Amount of heat absorbed by the system at constant volume.
Relation between Specific Heat (c) and Molar Specific Heat (C):
Using definition of molar specific heat:
∆Q
And C = n∆T … . (i)
Where, n= no. of moles
m Mass in gas
n= =
M Molecular mass
So, eq: (i) becomes:
∆Q
C= m
(M)∆T
M∆Q
C=
m∆T
∆Q ∆Q
C=( )M ∴ c =
m∆T m∆T
C = cM
Hence:
Molar specific heat= (specific heat) x (Molecular mass)
From above equation; Molar specific heat is defined as:
“The product of molecular mass of a substance and its specific heat is equal to molar specific
heat”.
Relation between Specific heat (c) and Heat Capacity (C):
Using definition of heat capacity:
∆Q
C= … (i)
∆T
Using definition of specific heat:
∆Q
c=
m∆T
∆Q
cm = … . (ii)
∆T
Comparing eq: (i) and (ii),
C = cm
Heat capacity= Specific heat x mass
From above equation, heat capacity is defined as:
“The product of specific heat and mass of a substance is equal to its Heat capacity”.
The Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf):
It is the quantity of heat required to melt a unit mass of a solid at constant
temperature. It is also equal to the quantity of heat given off by a unit mass of the molten
solid as it crystallizes at this same temperature.
The latent heat of fusion of water (ice) at 0℃ is about 3.35 x 105 J/kg or 80 cal/g.
The Latent Heat of Vaporization (LY):
It is the quantity of heat required to vaporize a unit mass of a liquid, at constant
temperature. For water at 100℃, the latent heat of vaporization is about 2.26 x 106 J/kg or
540 cal/g.
The Latent Heat of Sublimation:
It is the quantity of heat required to convert a unit mass of substance from the solid
to the gaseous state at constant temperature.
Thermodynamics
“The branch of physics deals with the temperature dependent properties of matter
and change of states, is called Thermodynamics”.
The study of thermodynamics also gives an idea about the transformation of heat
energy and mechanical energy.
Laws of Thermodynamics:
The basic principles and techniques concern with the transformation of heat energy
into mechanical energy or vice versa, are known as “Laws of Thermodynamics”.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
If the thermodynamic co-ordination (pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy
and entropy etc.) of a system do not change even for an infinite interval of time, the system
is said to be in Thermodynamic Equilibrium.
First Law of Thermodynamics
This law is based on the experiment research done by the “ROWLAND” and “MAYER”
in 1842 and “JOULE” and “HELMHOLTZ” in 1847. This law basically explains the conservation
of energy in respect of transformation of heat energy and mechanical energy.
This law states:
“When heat is transferred into mechanical energy or vice versa, the total amount of
energy remains constant”.
Explanation:
Suppose that the amount of heat “ΔQ” is added to a system which increases the
internal energy of the system by an amount, “ΔU” and also helps the system to do some
useful work, “ΔW” according to first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy
during thermodynamic change can be written as:
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
This equation is commonly called Equation of First Law of Thermodynamics. It states,
“the sum of change in internal energy and work done by the system is equal to the supplied
energy”.
Note that “ΔQ” is positive when heat enters the system and negative when it leaves
the system.
“ΔW” is positive when work done by the system and negative when it is done on the
system.
“ΔU” is positive when internal energy increases and negative when it decreases.
Application of First Law of Thermodynamics:
ISOBARIC PROCESS
“A thermodynamic process in which pressure is kept constant during the processing,
is called an Isobaric Process”.
Technique of the Process:
To achieve an isobaric process, a gas is enclosed in a vessel having a movable piston
at upper end.
Explanation of the Process:
Consider a gas as working substance and enclosed within a vessel at volume “v 1” and
temperature “T1”. Let the pressure on the piston of vessel is kept constant.
When “ΔQ” amount of heat is utilized in doing work. Thus, with supply of heat, the
gas will expand and its final parameters becomes “v 2” and “T2” respectively.
During an isobaric process the gas will perform some useful work against the
constant pressure. The magnitude of such a work is given by:
∆W = F × d
∆W = PA × dAs; V = Ah, as: P = F⁄A
∆W = P(Ad)∆V = A(∆h) F = PA
∆W = P ∆V∆V = A(h2 − h1 )
∆W = P(V2 − V1 )
Application of Firs Law of Thermodynamics:
By the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Putting ∆W = P∆V
∆Q = ∆U + P∆V
This expression shows the modified form of First Law of
Thermodynamics in case of an “Isobaric Process”.
P-V-Diagram of an Isobaric Process:
The P-V-Diagram of an isobaric process will describe a horizontal straight line.
ISOCHORIC PROCESS
“A thermodynamic process in which volume is kept constant during processing is
called an Isochoric Process”.
To achieve an isochoric process, the piston of vessel is kept fixed at the initial
position. For this, we increase the external pressure on the piston with the supply of heat
energy.
Explanation of the Process:
Consider a gas as working substance and enclosed in a vessel at pressure “P 1” and
temperature “T1”. Let the volume of the gas is kept constant.
When “ΔQ” heat is supplied to the system, it is directly used in increasing the
molecular kinetic energy of the gas and thus the molecular impact with the surface of piston
increases. To balance the increasing intermolecular forces we increases the external
pressure up to the limit. SO that volume of the gas remains constant. After this process, the
final parameters of the gas will become. “P2” and “T2”.
Condition of the Process:

During an isochoric process, the displacement of the piston against the external
pressure remains zero and thus no work is supposed to be done by gas against the external
pressure i.e.
∆W = 0
Application or First Law of Thermodynamics:
From the equation of Firs Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Putting ∆W = 0
∆Q = ∆U
i.e. in an isochoric process, whole supplied heat is utilized in increasing the internal energy of
the working substance.
P-V-Diagram of an Isochoric Process:
The P-V-Diagram of an Isochoric Process will describe a vertical straight line.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
“A thermodynamic process in which temperature of working substance is kept
constant throughout the process, is called an Isothermal Process”.
To perform an isothermal process, the working substance is filled into a vessel of
insulated walls and a conducting base. For processing, this vessel is placed on a heat
reservoir of same initial temperature as that of gas.
Explanation:
Consider a gas as working substance in a vessel having
insulated walls and a conducting phase. Let, the initial
parameters of the gas are “P1”, “V1” and “T1”. The vessel is
placed on a heat reservoir at “T1”. When the pressure on the
piston is decreased to “P2” the gas will expand and its volume
is increased by “V2”. Due to expansion the gas will cool down
and thus some heat will be conducted into the gas through
conduction base until unless the temperature of gas is
maintained t “T1”.
Condition of Process:
During an isothermal process, the initial and final internal energy of the gas equals
the other and thus, the change of internal energy of the system will remain zero.
i.e. ∆U = 0
From the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Putting ∆U = 0
∆Q = ∆W
i.e. The amount of heat entered into the system will be equal to the work done by the gas
during isothermal expansion.
P-V-Diagram:
The P-V diagram of an isothermal process will describe a curve, called isothermal
curve. This curve follows the statement of Boyle’s Law. Hence, the equation of Boyle’s law,
PV = Constant holds true in case of an isothermal process.
ADIABATIC PROCESS
“A thermodynamic process in which no heat will enter or reject out of the system is
called an Adiabatic Process”.
To perform an adiabatic process, the working substance is filled into a vessel of
insulated walls and conducting base. For processing this vessel is placed on a heat insulator.
Explanation:
Consider a gas as a working substance in a vessel of insulated walls and a conducting
base. For achieving an adiabatic process the vessel is placed on a heat insulator. Let, the
initial parameters of the gas are P1, V1 and T1.
When the pressure is decreased to “P2” the gas will expand and its volume increases
by “V2”. While this adiabatic expansion, the gas will cool down and its temperature is
decreased to “T2”.
Condition of the Process:
As, no heat will enter or reject out of the system, therefore, the change of heat for
the system will remain zero.
i.e. ∆Q = 0
From the equation of First Law of Thermodynamics,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Putting ∆Q = 0
0 = ∆U + ∆W
∆W = −∆U
Or −∆W = ∆U
This expresses the first law of thermodynamics in case of
an adiabatic process. This shows that the work done by the gas is
equal to its own loss of internal energy. And work done on the gas
is equal to the gain in internal energy.
P-V-Diagram:
The P-V-Diagram for an adiabatic process will describe a steep curve, called Adiabatic
Curve. The equation PV γ = Constant holds true for such a curve. Where “γ” is called
Adiabatic Constant and equal to the ratio of “Cp” and “Cv”.
i.e. γ = Cp ⁄Cv
Cp – Cv= R
Proof:
Consider two isotherms (A graph between P and V at constant
temperature is called an isotherm) at temperatures “T1” and “T2”
(T2> T1) since internal energy depends upon temperature, it changes
when these is a change in temperature. Hence each isotherm
represents constant internal energy. If the gas is heated from T 1 to T2
along path “a c” its volume will remain constant, similarly of the
same gas is heated along path “a b” from temperature T1 to T2, its
pressure remains constant. Since change in internal energy is independent of path.
Therefore, change in internal energy of gas will be equal whatever path is followed between
these two isotherms. We know that at constant volume (Isochoric process) no work is done
therefore,
∆W = 0
Applying first law of thermodynamics, we get:
∆Q = ∆W + ∆U
∆Q v = ∆V (since ΔW= 0)
Hence, heat is supplied at constant volume it is totally used to change the internal
energy ΔY of the system. If “n” is the number of moles of the gas and C v represents its molar
specific heat at constant volume then the amount of heat supplied to the system at constant
volume is given by:
∆Q v = nCv ∆T
But ∆Qv = ∆U
∆U = nCv ∆T … . (i)
When a gas is heated under constant pressure (isobaric process) along path “a b”,
there will be some work done by the system. Work done by the system at constant pressure
is given by:
∆W = P∆V … (ii)
Where ΔV is the change in volume of the gas. In this case heat supplied is partially
used to raise the temperature or internal energy and partially to do work. Heat is supplied at
constant pressure is given by:
∆Q P = nCP ∆T … . (iii)
According to first law of thermodynamics
∆Q P = ∆W + ∆U
The change in internal energy in both cases will be equal because the gas is heated in
both cases from the temperature T1 to T2 therefore, from equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get:
nCP ∆T = P∆V + nCv ∆T … . (iv)
For initial state of gas:
PV1 = nRT1
Similarly, for final state (after heating the gas at constant pressure) we have:
PV2 = nRT2
The change in state of the gas is given by:
PV2 − PV1 = nRT2 − nRT1
P(V2 − V1 ) = nR(T2 − T1 )
P∆V = nR∆T
Substituting this expression in equation (iv), we get:
nCP ∆T = nR∆T + nCv ∆T
nCP ∆T − nCV ∆T = nR∆T
n∆T(CP − CV ) = nR∆T
CP − Cv = R
The above relation shows that Cp> Cv and the difference between the two molar
specific heats of a gas is equal to universal gas constant R.
Molar Heat Capacities for a Mono-Atomic Gas:
CV= 3/2 R, Cp= 5/2 R, and Cp= 5/3 CV
Proof:
For this, consider “n” moles of a mono-atomic gas at constant volume. The amount
of heat supplied to the system is completely used to increase the internal energy of the gas.
i.e. to increase the translational K.E of “nNA” number of molecules.
Mathematically:
3
∆Q v = ∆Uas; ̅̅̅̅̅
K. E = KT
2
3
̅̅̅̅̅
∆Q v = N (∆K. E)∆K. ̅̅̅̅̅
E = ∆T
2
R
∆Q v = nNA (∆K.̅̅̅̅̅
E)as; K =
NA
nCV ∆T = nNA (3⁄2 K∆T)
Cv = 3⁄2 (NA K)NA K = R
Cv = 3⁄2 R … . . (i)
Substituting R= 8.313 J/mol.k
Cv = 3⁄2 (8.313)
Cv = 12.46 J⁄mol. k
Similarly,
According to the relation between “CP” and “CV” of ideal gas:
Cp − Cv = R
Putting CV= 3/2 R
CP = R + 3⁄2 R
CP = (2R + 3R)⁄2
Cp = 5⁄2 R … (ii)
Substituting R= 8.313 J/mol.k
Cp = 5(8.313)⁄2
Cp = 20.78 J⁄mol. k
Eq: (i) → CV= 3/2 R
2⁄3 CV = R … . (iii)
Eq: (ii) → Cp= 5/2 R
2⁄5 Cp = R … . (iv)
Comparing eq: (iii) and (iv)
2⁄3 Cv = 2⁄5 Cp
3 2
Cv = × Cp
2 5
3
Cv = Cp
5
⁄
Cp = 5 3 Cv … . Proved
CP> CV
Proof:
Consider “n” moles of an ideal gas at constant pressure. When “ΔQ P” amount of heat
is supplied to the system of gas, it is sub-divided into two parts i.e. some amount of supplied
heat is used to increase the K.E of molecules of the gas whereas, rest of heat does some
useful work against the constant pressure. Since, only a part of supplied heat is utilized in
increasing internal energy of this system, therefore, we must need greater amount of heat
to raise the temperature of gas up to a constant value of “ΔT”.
Now, consider the same system of gas at constant volume. When “ΔQ V” amount of heat is
supplied to the system of gas, it is totally utilized in increasing internal energy of this system
and hence much lesser amount of heat is needed to raise the temperature of gas up to a
same temperature difference of “ΔT”.
As per above analysis we may write mathematically as:
∆Q p > ∆Q v
nCp ∆T > 𝑛Cv ∆T∆Q = nC∆T
Cp > Cv
It means, the magnitude of molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure is
greater than that of at constant volume which is the required relation between the two
molar specific heat capacities.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law of thermodynamics is based on two fundamental principles
formulated by CLAUSIUS and LORD KELVIN to explain the processing of a COLD ENGINE and
HEAT ENGINE respectively.
i. Kelvin’s Statement:
In 1851, Lord Kelvin suggested a basic principle about the
working of a heat engine. He concluded that to operate a heat engine
continuously, we must needed a heat source which may provide
necessary heat energy to the heat engine and a heat sink which may
reject the waste heat energy out of the engine. Hence, according to
the Lord Kelvin’s ideology:
“It is impossible to operate a heat engine in a continuous
fashion without having a heat sink”.
This ideology leads toward the operation of a perfect heat engine which states, “It is
impossible to construct a perfect heat engine which may convert all the supplied heat into
useful work”.
The Kelvin’s statement can be expressed by the following schematic diagram:
ii. Clausius Statement:
In 1850, Clausius expressed a basic principle about the
working of a Cold Engine (Refrigerator). He concluded that we must
needed some energy or work to operate a cold engine.
According to Clausius ideology, “It is impossible to transfer
heat against the natural flow i.e. from a cold body at lower
temperature to a Hot body at higher temperature without
expenditure of work (or) energy, supplied by any external means”.
The Clausius statement can be expressed by the following schematic diagram:
KELVIN’S AND CLAUSIUS’S STATEMENT ARE EQUIVALENT TO EACH OTHER
Proof:
We can prove that both statements are
equivalent by showing that either of these statements
is supposed to be false. Suppose that Kelvin’s statement
is false, that we could have engine with one hundred
percent efficiency that takes heat from a source and
converts it completely into work. If we connect this
perfect heat engine to a refrigerator, we can take heat
from hot body and convert completely to work, this
work can be used to operate refrigerator, which
transfers heat from cold body to hot body without expenditure of external work, which is
contrary to Clausius statement. This shows that both statements are equivalent to each
other.
CARNOT ENGINE
In 1824, a French scientist, Sadi Carnot has proposed an ideology of heat engine
which is very close to an ideal heat engine, as it has maximum theoretical efficiency than rest
of all the heat engine, but never be 100%. Infact, the heat engine designed by the Carnot
was free from heat losses mainly appear sue to friction and conduction.
Construction:
A Carnot engine consist of a cylinder and a Piston. The walls of the cylinder and
piston are made of insulated material. But base of cylinder is kept conductor. An ideal gas is
filled into the cylinder as working substance.
Working: (Cycle of Carnot Engine):
The working of a Carnot engine is based on a distinct cycle, consist of four processes
that are done Isothermally and Adiabatically in alternative fashion.
Infact, during first two processes the ideal gas id allowed to expand by decreasing the
applied pressure. Similarly, the ideal gas is compresses during last two processes in such a
way that it will attain its initial parameters after doing some useful work.
The cycle of Carnot engine is further explained by the following four processes.
Process # 01:
It expresses an Isothermal Expansion. During this process, the applied pressure is
decreased from “P1” to “P2” and thus ideal gas will expand from “V1” to the new volume
“V2”. During process the gas will cool down and hence some heat, say “Q 1” will be entered
into the system of gas to maintain its temperature up to initial temperature “T1”. Hence, P2<
P1, V2> V1, T1(final) < T1 (initial).
Process # 02:
It expresses an isothermal expansion. During this process, applied pressure is further
decreased from the value of “P2” to “P3”. So that ideal gas with further expand to “V3” from
“V2”. During adiabatic expansion, ideal gas cool down to a lower temperature of “T 2”. Hence,
P3< P2, V3> V2 and T2(final) < T1(initial).
Process # 03:
It expresses an isothermal compression. During this process, the applied pressure is
increased by “P4” from “P3” and thus the volume of gas will compress to a new volume of
“V4”. During isothermal compression, ideal gas will heat up to a higher temperature and
hence some heat, say “Q2” will be rejected out from the system to maintain its temperature
up to “T2”.
Hence P4> P3, V4< V3, T2(final)= T2(initial).
Process # 04:
It expresses an Adiabatic compression. During this process, the applied pressure is
further increased from “P4” to initial pressure “P1”.The ideal gas is thus compressed to initial
volume “V1”.
During adiabatic compression, Ideal gas will heat up at a temperature of “T 1”. Hence
P1> P4, V1< V4, T1(final) > T2(initial).
After completing process # 4, ideal gas will return back to its initial parameters and hence, a
cycle of Carnot Engine is said to be done by the ideal gas.
Derivation for the Theoretical Efficiency of Carnot Engine:

We know that the ration of Output to Input of an engine will describe its efficiency. It
is symbolized by “E”. Its magnitude is measured by “percentage” (%).
In case of cycle of Carnot Engine,
Input= Q1
Output= ΔW= (Q1 – Q2)
Hence, the theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine is given by:
Q1 − Q 2
E=
Q1
Q1 Q 2
E= −
Q1 Q1
Q2
E=1−
Q1
Where, Q1> Q2
This expression represents theoretical Efficiency of Carnot Engine in terms of heat of
hot Reservoir and Cold Reservoir.
If “T1” and “T2” be the temperature related to “Q1” and “Q2” heat respectively, then
the above expression in term of temperature can be written as:
T
E = 1 − T2 Where, T1> T2
1
According to the equation of theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine, if less be the
ratio of heats of ratio of temperatures, more efficiency Heat Engine can be made.
P-V-Diagram o Carnot Cycle:
The Efficiency of Carnot Engine never becomes 100%:

i. If T2/T1>1 or Q2/Q1> 1, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine cannot be
discussed.
ii. If T2/T1 =1 or Q2/Q1= 1, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine becomes zero.
iii. If T2/T1= 0 or Q2/Q1= 0, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine becomes 100%.
Infact, to attain such a result, the value of “Q 2” or “T2” should be equal to zero and
then we do such an operation, we may not able to complete the cycle of Carnot Engine.
Because at very low temperature gases become liquid.
It means, T2/T1≠ 0 or Q2/Q1 ≠ 0 and hence, E ≠ 100%.
So, one can say that theoretical efficiency of Carnot Engine never becomes 100%
even it is an ideal engine.
ENTROPY
“Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder” Or “Entropy is a measure of
unavailability of energy”.
A heat engine can be operated only when a source of heat (a hot body) and a heat
sink (a cold body) are available. As long as there is a temperature difference between the
two, heat engine will take heat from the source, convert a part of it into mechanical work
and reject the remaining heat to sink. This process continues until the source and the sink
attain the same temperature. As the process proceeds more and more energy becomes
unavailable for conversion into mechanical work. Under this condition we say that entropy
(unavailability of energy) has increased.
Similarly, consider two containers, one containing hot water and the other containing
cold water. All high energy molecules are in hot water container and low energy molecules
are in cold water container. Hence there is a kind of order and a heat engine can be
operated because of temperature difference between the two containers. But if hot water is
mixed with the cold one the order will be lost. i.e. disorder will increase and at the same
time energy will become unavailable for operating a heat engine because there is no
temperature difference. Hence “Entropy increases”.
If any thermodynamics process, entropy either increases or remains constant.
If “ΔQ” is the amount of heat supplied to or removed from a thermodynamic system
at constant absolute temperature “T” then the change in entropy “ΔS” is given by:
∆S = ∆Q⁄T
Change in entropy is positive when heat enters the system but if heat is removed
from the system then it is negative.
The unit of Entropy is J/K.
Second Law of Thermodynamics in Terms of Entropy:
In terms of entropy second law of thermodynamics can be stated as:
“When an isolated system undergoes a thermodynamic change the entropy of the
system either remains constant or increases”.
“The entropy of the universe increase during an irreversible process”.
Also “Entropy of the universe remains constant during reversible process”.
SHORT REASONING QUESTIONS
Q.1 How do you distinguish between temperature and heat? Give example.
Ans. Heat is the transient form of energy that flow from one body to another due to the difference
of temperature, but temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecule of a body.
Q.2 Why is the earth not in thermal equilibrium with the sun?
Ans. The earth is not in thermal equilibrium with the sun, because while the earth being warmed by
the absorbed radiant energy, it is also loosing heat in various ways. Moreover they are not in
perfect thermal contact with each other.
Q.3 It is observed that when mercury-in-glass thermometer is put in a flame, the column of
mercury first descends and then rises. Explain?
Ans. When a mercury-in-glass thermometer is put in flame, the glass blub expends, so the column of
mercury descends. But when the heat reaches the mercury in the blub, it expands, this
expansion is greater than that of the glass bulb. So, now the mercury rises in the column.
Q.4 Is it correct that unit for specific heat capacity "c" is m 2.s-2.°C-1?
∆Q
Ans. Yes, it is correct because c = m∆T
m
The S.I unit of c = JKg-1.°C-1 = N.m.Kg-10C-1 = Kg. s2 .Kg-10C-1 = m2.s-2.oC-1.
Q.5 What is the standard temperature?
Ans. The standard temperature is the ice-point of water, i.e. 0°C or 273k.
Q.6 When a block with a hole in it is heated, why does not the material around the hole expand
into the hole and make it small?
Ans. Thermal expansion of homogenous substance causes increase in all directions with the small
linear thermal expansion coefficient. This Increase in all directions causes an effective
magnification of an object. So heating the block, it expands in all directions and causes a little
change in shape of the whole see in the experiments.
Q.7 A thermometer is placed in direct sunlight. Will it read the temperature of the air, or the sun,
or of the something else?
Ans. This thermometer will record the temperature of the surrounding (thermometric substance).
Q.8 Will one kilogram of hydrogen contain more atoms than one kilogram of lead?
Ans. Yes, one kilogram of hydrogen will contain more atoms than one kilogram of lead, because
hydrogen atoms are much lighter than lead atoms.
Q.9 The pressure in a gas cylinder containing hydrogen will leak quickly than if it is containing
oxygen. Why?
Ans. This is so because the hydrogen molecules are lighter than oxygen molecules (since the
molecular mass of hydrogen is 16 times less than the molecular mass of oxygen). Molecular
speed (and hence rate of diffusion) is inversely proportional to the molecular mass. Hence
hydrogen will leak more quickly than oxygen.
Q.10 What are some factors that affect the efficiency of automobile engine?
Ans. The efficiency of an automobile engine depends upon
Temperature of hot reservoir
Temperature of cold reservoir
Friction and heat losses (dissipative effect)
Q.11 What happen to the temperature of a room in which an air conditioner is left running on a
table in the middle of the room?
Ans. When an air conditioner is left running on a table in the middle of a room, heat is removed from
the room by the air conditioner. But, heat is radiated on the other side to the room by the coils
(condenser). The heat pumped out back of the air conditioner and into the room is greater than
the heat pulled into the front of the unit, as work done to remove the heat from cold to hot
into the room an additional amount of heat Q = Q2 + W. consequently, the air conditioner
warms the room.
Q.12 When a sealed thermos bottle full of hot coffee is shaken? What are the changes, if any in?
a) The temperature of the coffee b) The internal energy of the coffee
Ans. The temperature of the coffee increases due to shaking.
The internal energy of the coffee also increases. Infects, the work done in shaking the coffee
appears as increase in internal energy. Hence the temperature of the coffee increases. (Due to
friction of walls of the flask)
Q.13 Is it possible to cool a room by keeping the refrigerator door open?
Ans. A room cannot be cooled by leaving the door of an electric refrigerator open. Whatever heat Q2
is removed from the air directly in front of the open refrigerator is deposited directly back into
the room at the rare of the unit. Also, the work done to remove the heat Qi = Q + W.
Consequently the refrigerator warms the room.
Q.14 Why the efficiency of Carnot engine less than 100%?
Ans. Formula for efficiency of Carnot engine is given by;
T
Efficiency (E) = (1 − T2 ) × 100%
1
It is clear from the formula that if the cold reservoir is at absolute zero temperature (T: =0 K)
only then the efficiency can be 100%. Since such reservoir is not available so maximum
efficiency is always less than 100%. In most practical cases the cold reservoir is near room
temperature.
The greater is the difference between the temperatures of a hot body and cold body the engine
will be more efficient. However the ratio cannot be zero so the engine does not become 100%
efficient.
T
Further (T2 ) is always something less than one (1) but more than "0" so in practice there can be
1
no engine 100% efficient.
Q.15 Under what condition can heat be added to a system without changing its temperature?
Ans. Heat can be added without changing the temperature of the system.
For gaseous system, it can be achieved in an isothermal process.
For liquid, it can be achieved at the boiling point of the liquid.
For a solid, it can be achieved at melting point of the solid.
Q.16 When two systems are in thermal equilibrium, do they have the same amount of kinetic
energy?
Ans. Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a
system. However, the systems with the same average translational kinetic energy have the
same temperature, even if one has greater internal energy.
Q.17 Why is the specific heat of polyatomic gasses higher than that of monatomic gasses?
Ans. In a mono-atomic gas, the whole of the supplied heat is used up in increasing the translational
kinetic energy, i.e. its temperature. But in diatomic or polyatomic gasses, the heat energy
supplied is wasted in increasing the rotational kinetic energy and vibration kinetic energy. Thus
to obtain the same range of temperature, more heat is required for polyatomic gasses.
Q.18 Work can be converted completely into energy, so can heat be converted completely into
work?
Ans. A given amount of heat cannot be completely converted into work, as some of the heat energy
is used up in increasing the thermal energy of the system. If heat is converted completely to
work, then efficiency of heat engine will be 100%. This violates the second law of
thermodynamics.
CHAPTER#12
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTROSTATICS:
It is the branch of physics deals with the behaviors and characteristics showed by an electric
charge at rest.
Conduction Electrons:
In metals, atoms are so closely associated that arrangement of their valence electrons are
affected by the neighboring atoms. In such substances, valence electrons leave their atoms due to
interaction of neighboring atoms and wander from an atom to the other without having any
association with the atoms. The electrons with such a behavior are called, “Conduction Electrons”.
ELECTRIC CHARGES
“The positive or Negative electrical behavior showed by an atom or a substance due to deficit
or excess of conduction electrons, is often referred as Electric Charge”. It is denoted by ‘q’.
Quantization of Electric Charge:
The minimum magnitude of electric charge appears either on an atom or a substance due to
transfer of a valence electron (Conduction Electron). The value of which will be equal to ±(1.6 ×
10−19 ) coulomb. It is symbolized by “e”.
Thus, if “n” number of conduction electrons are transferred from a substance to the other, then
magnitude of charge on them is given by:
q = ±ne
Where, n = 1,2,3,4,5, 6, and e = 1.6 x 01-19 c
The phenomenon of producing charge shows Quantization of Electric Charge in which charge
on electron is said to be “Quantized”.
TEST CHARGE
“A charge whose distribution of charges shows no effect on any other charge, is called a Test
Charge”. It is considered as a Positive Charge and mathematically expressed as:
Test charge = lim (qo )
q0 →0
Where, “qo” represents a test charge.
Unit of Electric Charge:
In S.I. system, the magnitude of charge is measured by “Coulomb”. It is symbolized by “C”. It is
defined as: “The magnitude of charge on a substance is said to be 1 Coulomb when 6.25 x 1018 number
of conduction electrons are transferred into or out of the substance”.
i.e. q= ne
q = (6.25 x 1018) (1.6 x 10-19)
q=1C
OR “If two equal charges placed in vacuum, the distance between them is 1m and the electrostatic
force between them is 9 x 109 N, then the magnitude of each charge is 1 Coulomb.
ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
In 1785, Sir Charles Augustine de Coulomb, generalized a force of attraction and repulsion
between two charged bodies by using torsion balance”. The force of attraction or repulsion exists
between two charged bodies is referred as Electrostatic Force”.
COULOMB’S LAW
Statement: “The force of attraction or repulsion between two static point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them”.
Mathematically:
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 placed at a distance “r” from each other. The electrostatic
force (F) between them will be:
F ∝ q1 q2 … . (i)
F ∝ 1⁄r 2 … (ii)
Combining equation (i) and (ii)
F ∝ q1 q2 ⁄r 2
Kq1q2
F= … (iii)
r2
Where “K” is the constant of proportionality. Its value depends upon the nature of medium
between two charges.
1. For Space (Vacuum):
If the medium is free space (vacuum) between two charges then value of “K” is given as:
K = 1⁄4π ∈o
And its value is approximately is 9 x 109 Nm2/C2.
Where ∈o is called “permittivity of free space”. Its value is 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2.
So equation (iii) will be:
1 q1 q2
F = 4π∈
o r2
And vector form is:
1 q1 q2
⃗F = . r̂
4πϵo r2
Where; r̂ is the unit vector specifies the direction of force.
2. For Dielectric Medium:
If the medium between charges is not a free space (vacuum) then the value of “K” is given as:
K = 1⁄4πϵm … . . (iv)
Where ϵm is the permittivity of the dielectric medium. Let ϵr is the relative permittivity of the
medium it is given as:
ϵr = ϵm ⁄ ϵo
ϵm = ϵo ϵr
So, equation (iv) will became:
K = 1⁄4π ϵo ϵr
So, the equation (iii) will have the form
Kq1q2
F= r2
1 q 1 q2
F = 4πϵ 2
o ϵr r
And the vector form is:
⃗ = 1
F
q 1 q2
. r̂
4πϵo ϵr r2
Electric Field:
An electric field is a region around a charged body in which any other charge experiences
electrostatic force.
Electric Lines of Force:
The existence of electric field around a source charge can be examined by drawing imaginary
lines with the help of a test charge called, “Electric Lines of Force”.
Characteristics of Electric Lines of Force:
Some essential characteristics of electric lines of force are given below:
1. The electric lines of force always direct away from the center of a Positive Source Charge.
2. The electric lines of force always direct towards the center of a Negative Source Charge.
3. The electric lines of force never intersect each other.
4. In case of variable electric field, the region of electric field will be stronger enough whereas
separation between electric lines of force is found less.
5. In case of variable electric field, the region of electric field will be weaker enough where
separation between electric lines of force is found large.
6. The electric lines of force between two oppositely uniformly charged plates remains
perpendicular onto the plane of charged sheet, but remains parallel to each other. The electric
lines of force with such an electrical behavior produces Uniform Electric Field.
ELECTRIC INTENSITY
In general, the strength of electric field examined at a point is referred as, Electric Intensity at
that point. It is symbolized by E ⃗ . Physically, it is a vector quantity and directs along the action of
electrostatic force of the field acted upon test charge.
Suppose that a test charge is set inside an electric field of a source charge at point “p”. “The
electrostatic force experienced by unit charge, is referred as Electric Intensity of the Field at that
point”.
Mathematically:
⃗E = ⃗F⁄qo where, limit (qo) → 0
Unit of Electric Intensity
As; ⃗E = ⃗F⁄qo
E = F⁄ q o
E = Newton⁄Coulomb
E = N⁄C
Hence the unit of electric intensity is Newton per Coulomb.
Electric Intensity in terms of Electric Lines of Force
Intensity of electric field at a point may also be defined as the number of electric lines of force
per unit area of a very small surface placed perpendicular to the electric lines at that point.
General Expression for Electric Intensity at a Point:
For this, consider an electric field around a source charge of magnitude, “q”. Let, a test charge
of magnitude “qo” is set at point “p” lies at a distance of “r” from the center of source charge. If “F” be
the magnitude of electrostatic force on test charge “qo”, then electric intensity of the field at point “p”
is given by:
𝐸 = 𝐹⁄𝑞𝑜
𝐸⃗ = 𝐹⁄𝑞𝑜 … . (𝑖)
1 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
Substituting 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜖 . − (𝑟̂ )
𝑜 𝑟2
Where 𝑟̂ is a unit vector drawn along the direction of 𝑟̂ .
1 𝑞 𝑞𝑜
( . )𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟2
Eq: (i) =>𝐸⃗ = (𝑞𝑜 )
1 𝑞 𝑞𝑜 1
𝐸⃗ = ( . 2 )𝑟̂ × ( )
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 𝑞𝑜
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗ = . 2 (𝑟̂ )
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
This expression represents Electric Intensity of the field at point “p”, lies at a distance of “r”
from the center of a source charged of magnitude “q”.
According to this equation,
𝐸∝𝑞
𝐸 ∝ 1⁄𝑟 2
ELECTRIC FLUX:
Suppose that an element area is set inside a uniform electric field in a manner that some
electric lines of force are said to be passed through the surface of element area. At this condition, one
can say that Electric Flux is appeared through the element area. It is a scalar quantity and depends on
total number of electric lines of force that are appeared across the surface of element area. It is
symbolized as 𝜑𝑒 .
Mathematically Explanation:
Suppose that an element surface of area ∆𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is set inside a uniform electric field of strength, 𝐸⃗
in a manner that its element area (vector) makes an angle “θ” with the direction of electric field. The
magnitude of electric flux through the surface directly depends on following two factors:
1. The magnitude of electric intensity of the field.
i.e. ∆𝜑𝑒 ∝ (𝐸 ) … . (𝑖)
2. The component of element area acts parallel to the direction of electric field.
i.e. ∆𝜑𝑒 ∝ (∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) … . (𝑖𝑖)
by combining the two relations under a single expression we have,
∆𝜑𝑒 ∝ (𝐸)(∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
∆𝜑𝑒 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 )𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Putting constant= 1
∆𝜑𝑒 = (1)𝐸 ∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 ∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴 ∴ 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅ = 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
Mathematical Definition of Electric Flux:
As, ∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴
It means, “The Dot Product of electric intensity of the field and element area of a surface will describe
electric flux through surface of element area”.
This ideology shows that electric flux is a Scalar Quantity.
Special Cases of Electric Flux
Case # 1: Maximum Electric Flux through the Surface of Element Area
When surface of an element area is oriented parallel to the direction of electric field the
maximum number of electric lines of force are appeared through the surface of element area and thus
maximum electric flux is said to appear through the surface.
Verification:
According to the expression of electric flux,
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … . (𝑖)
In this case, 𝐸⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = 0∘
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0∘
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴(1)
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴
Hence the magnitude of maximum flux will be equal to "𝐸∆𝐴". i.e. maximum.
Case # 2: Minimum Electric Flux through the Surface of Element Area:
When surface of an element area is oriented normal to the direction of electric field then no
electric lines of force are seemed to appear across the surface of element area and thus Minimum
Electric Flux is said to appear through the surface. The magnitude of which remains zero.
Verification:
According to the expression of electric flux,
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … (𝑖)
In this case, 𝐸⃗ ⊥ ∆𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = 90𝑜
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜
∆𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸∆𝐴(0)
∆𝜑𝑒 = 0
Hence the magnitude of minimum flux will remain “zero”.
Electric Flux through a Closed Spherical Surface:
Consider a closed sphere of radius “r” enclosing a point charge of magnitude “q” at its center.
To determine electric flux appearing at the surface of sphere, the entire surface of the sphere is sub-
divided into “N” number of element surfaces each of area, ∆𝐴 so that the strength of electric field
within surfaces of each of element area remains same, say 𝐸⃗ . Thus, the electric flux through an
element area will be (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴) from first component to the Nth component of surface area will describe
total electric flux through the sphere.
Mathematically:
𝜑𝑒 = ∆𝜑𝑒1 + ∆𝜑𝑒2 + ∆𝜑𝑒3 +. . +∆𝜑𝑒𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)1 + (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)2 + (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)3 + ⋯ + (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Since 𝐸⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = 00
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0)
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴)
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝐴)
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) … (𝑖)
1 𝑞
Substituting 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 × 𝑟 2
𝑜
1 𝑞
𝜑𝑒 = ( × 2 ) × (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
𝑞
𝜑𝑒 =
𝜖0
This expression represents total electric flux through the surface of a sphere, encloses a point
charge of magnitude “q” at the center. According to this expression:
1. The magnitude of total electric flux through a sphere is directly proportional to the magnitude
of point charge i.e. 𝜑𝑒 ∝ 𝑞.
2. The magnitude of total electric flux through a sphere is independent of size of sphere.
Electric Flux through an Arbitrary Closed Surface:
Suppose that an arbitrary closed surface, “S” is set inside an electric field
of a source charge. To determine electric flux through the surface , “S” let us
sub-divides the closed surface into “N” number of element patches each of
surface area, "∆𝐴" so that the strength of electric field within surface of each
element area remains constant, say 𝐸⃗ . Thus, the electric flux through the surface
of each element area will be equal to(𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴) and hence, sum of electric flux
through all individual patches from first to Nth component will express total
electric flux through the closed arbitrary surface.
Mathematically:
𝜑𝑒 = ∆𝜑𝑒1 + ∆𝜑𝑒2 + ∆𝜑𝑒3 +. . +∆𝜑𝑒𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)1 + (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)2 + (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)3 + ⋯ + (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)𝑁
𝑖=𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)𝑖
𝑖=1
This expression represents total electric flux through an Arbitrary closed surface. The
magnitude of which depends on the magnitude of 𝐸⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴.
Gaussian Surface
“A hypothetical closed surface enclosed a system of a point charges, is referred as Gaussian Surface”.
GAUSS’S LAW
This law shows a relation between total electric flux through a Gaussian Surface and total
charges enclosed by that surface. According to this law, “ the total electric flux through a Gaussian
Surface is equal to the product of 1⁄𝜖0 and total amount of charges enclosed by that surface”.
Verification:
To verify the statement of Gauss’ Law in electrostatics, let us consider a Gaussian Surface, “S”
enclosing a system of charges of magnitude, (q1, q2, q3, …., qn).
To determine the electric flux through a Gaussian Surface due to the system of charges, let us assume
charge of magnitude “q1” by considering it as the center of sphere. The electric flux through imaginary
sphere due to charge, “q1” will be " 𝑞1 ⁄𝜖0 ". As, the total number of electric lines of force appearing
through the imaginary sphere and Gaussian Surface “S” remains same, therefore the electric flux
through the Gaussian Surface “S” due to charge “q1” will be equal to " 𝑞1 ⁄𝜖0 ".
In the same fashion, the electric flux through the same Gaussian Surface due to charge of magnitude,
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
(q2, q3, q4, ….qn) will be equal to ( 𝜖2 , 𝜖3 , 𝜖4 , … . , 𝜖𝑛 ) respectively.
0 0 0 0
Hence, the total flux through Gaussian Surface due to the system of charges is given by:
Total electric flux through Gaussian Surface= 𝜑𝑒1 + 𝜑𝑒2 + 𝜑𝑒3 + ⋯ + 𝜑𝑒𝑛
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛
𝜑𝑒 = + + + ⋯ . +
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜖0 𝜖0
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + ⋯ . +𝑞𝑛 )
𝜖0
𝑖=𝑛
1
𝜑𝑒 = (∑ 𝑞𝑖 )
𝜖0
𝑖=1
∑𝑖=𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖 = total amount of charges enclosed by Gaussian Surface= Q
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄)
𝜖0
This statement verifies Gauss’ law in electrostatics.
Application of Gauss’ Law:
1. Electric Intensity at a Point Due to a Charged Sheet of Infinite Extent:
Consider a thin non-conducting sheet having uniform
distribution of positive charges on its surface. The surface charge
density of the sheet is σ.
To determine electric intensity at point “p” lies at a distance of 𝑟
from the plane of sheet, assume a closed cylinder to cross-sectional
area, “A” through the sheet so that it remains perpendicular on to the
plane of sheet and contains point “p” at its one end at which electric
intensity is to be determined. Now, by considering imaginary Cylinder as
Gaussian Surface and apply Gauss’ Law which states:
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄) … . (𝑖)
𝜖0
To Find Total Electric Flux through Gaussian Cylinder:
The Gaussian cylinder contains three surfaces, two at the ends of dame cross-sectional area,
“A” (S1 and S2) and the third is curved surface (S3).
The electric flux through each end of cylinder will be “EA”, 𝐸⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴 at the surface “S1” and “S2”,
lies at the ends. Similarly, the electric flux through curved surface of cylinder remains “zero”, as 𝐸⃗ ⊥
∆𝐴 at the surface “S3”, lies curved portion of the cylinder. Hence, the total electric flux through the
Gaussian cylinder is given by:
𝜑𝑒 = 𝜑𝑒(𝑠1) + 𝜑𝑒(𝑠2) + 𝜑𝑒(𝑠3)
𝜑𝑒 = (𝐸𝐴) + (𝐸𝐴) + (0)
𝜑𝑒 = 2𝐸𝐴
To Find Charges Enclosed by the Gaussian Cylinder:
According to the definition of surface charge density:
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴
Where, “A” is the cross-sectional area of the Gaussian cylinder, and “Q” is the amount of charge
enclosed by the Gaussian Cylinder.
Application of the Law:
For this, substituting the value of "𝜑𝑒 " and “Q” in eq: (i).
1
Eq: (i) =>(2𝐸𝐴) = 𝜖 (𝜎𝐴)
0
𝜎
(2𝐸 ) =
𝜖0
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜖0
𝜎
Or 𝐸⃗ = (𝑟̂ )
2𝜖0
Where, 𝑟̂ is a unit vector along to the direction of Electric Field Intensity and as well as along
the direction of position vector drawn from the plane of sheet to the point “p” at which electric
intensity is determined.
2. Electric Intensity at a Point Due to a Charged Spherical Shell:
Consider a non-conducting spherical shell of radius’ “a” having uniform
distribution of positive charges on its outer surface. Let, surface charge
density of charge shell is “𝜎”. To determine electric intensity at point “p” lies
at a distance of 𝑟̂ from the center of charged spherical shell, assume a
concentric sphere around the charged shell of radius “r”. Now, by considering
imaginary sphere “S” as Gaussian Surface and apply Gauss’ Law which stares,
1
𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄) … . (𝑖)
𝜖0
To Find Total Electric Flux through Gaussian Sphere “S”:
For this, the entire surface of Gaussian Sphere “S” is sub-divided into “n” number of element
patches each of surface area “∆𝐴” so that the strength of electric field within each element area
remains same say, “𝐸⃗ ”. Thus, the electric flux through the surface of each an individual element area
will be equal to (𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴) and hence the electric flux through surface of entire Gaussian Sphere “S” is
given by:
𝑖=𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸⃗ . ∆𝐴)𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑖=𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑖
𝑖=1
Since, 𝐸⃗ ∥ ∆𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = 00
𝑖=𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠00 )𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑖=𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = ∑(𝐸∆𝐴)𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑖=𝑁
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 ∑(∆𝐴)𝑖
𝑖=1
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟)
𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
To Find Total Magnitude of Charges Enclosed by the Gaussian Sphere “S”:
According to the definition of surface charge density,
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴
𝑄 = 𝜎(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
∴𝑟=𝑎
𝑄 = 𝜎(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
Application of the Law:
For this, substituting the value of “𝜑𝑒 ” and “Q” in equation (i)
1
Eq: (i) =>𝜑𝑒 = (𝑄)
𝜖0
1
𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = (𝜎4𝑎2 )
𝜖0
𝜎 𝑎2
𝐸= × 2
𝜖0 𝑟
𝜎 𝑎 2
Or 𝐸⃗ = 𝜖 × 𝑟 2 (𝑟̂ )
0
Where, “𝑟̂ ” is the unit vector along to the direction of electric intensity.
SPECIAL CASES
i. If Point “p” lies on the Surface of Sphere:
Then r= a
𝜎 𝑎 2
As; 𝐸⃗ = 𝜖 × 𝑟 2 (𝑟̂ )
0
Putting r= a
𝜎 𝑎2
𝐸⃗ = × (𝑟̂ )
𝜖0 𝑎2
𝜎
𝐸⃗ = (𝑟̂ )
𝜖0
ii. If Point “p” lies inside the Charged Shell:
Since, no electric charge exists inside the charged sphere, therefore, 𝜎 = 0. Thus, the intensity at point
“P” remains “zero”.
i.e. 𝐸 = 0
3. Electric Intensity between Two Oppositely Charged Plates:
Consider two oppositely charged plates separated by a certain small distance “d” and held
parallel to each other. When there is air or vacuum between the two plates the field will be uniform.
At any point “p” between the plates, electric intensity “𝐸⃗1 ” due to positive plate will be directed away
from the plate and it’s magnitude is given by:
𝜎
𝐸1 =
2𝜖0
Where “𝜎” is the surface charge density. Electric intensity due to the negative plate is directed
towards the plate and its magnitude is given by:
𝜎
𝐸2 =
2𝜖0
Since “𝐸⃗1 " 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝐸⃗2 " are in the same direction, therefore, the magnitude of net electric intensity
“𝐸⃗ ” will be:
E = E1 + E2
𝜎 𝜎
Or 𝐸 = 2𝜖 + 2𝜖
0 0
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜖0
𝜎
𝐸⃗ = 𝑟̂
𝜖0
The above formula shows that the electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates,
separated by a small distance, is uniform and is directed from positive to negative plate. If an insulator
(a dielectric medium) is present between the two plates then. Because of “Polarization” of atoms of
the medium. Magnitude of “E” decreases by “Er” times. Where “Er” is the “Relative permittivity” or
𝜎
“Dielectric constant” of the medium. 𝐸⃗ = 𝜖 𝜖 𝑟̂ .
𝑟 𝑜
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Suppose that a test charge is displaced from a point “p” to a point “p’ ” inside an electric field of
a source charge. The amount of work done in shifting a test charge against the direction of electric field
intensity expresses change of Potential Energy of test charge between the same two points. It is
symbolized as “ΔU”.
Definition:
“The charge of potential energy per unit test charge will describe Potential Difference between
the two pints, when test charge is shifted between same two points against the direction of electric
intensity of a source charge”.
It is a Scalar quantity and symbolized by “ΔV”. Its magnitude is measured by “Volt” after the
name of a Scientist.
Formula:
If “ΔU” be the change of P.E of a test charge “qo” in displacing between two points against
electrostatic force of a source charge, then by the definition of Potential Difference between two pints
is given by:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃.𝐸
Potential Difference= 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
∆𝑈
∆𝑉 = ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑚(𝑞0 ) → 0
𝑞0
Unit:
According to the equation of P.D. between two points:
∆𝑈
∆𝑉 =
𝑞0
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
∆𝑉 =
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
Definition of Volt:
“If a Positive test charge of magnitude 1 Coulomb gains 1 Joule of potential energy in moving
between the two points, ten Potential Difference of 1 Volt is said to be established between same two
points”.
Mathematical Explanation:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ from a point “p” to point “p’ “,
Suppose that a test charge of magnitude “q0” is displaced by ∆𝑟
against the direction of electric field formed by a Source Charge of magnitude “q”.
The amount of work done on the test charge in displacing between the two points is given by:
∆𝑊 = 𝐹 . ∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑊 = (𝑞0 𝐸⃗ ). (∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) ∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝐹⁄𝑞0
∆𝑊⁄𝑞0 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗ here ΔW=ΔU
∆𝑈⁄𝑞0 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∴ ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑈⁄𝑞0
∆𝑈 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
This expression represents Potential Difference between the two points.
Mathematical Definition:
As, ∆𝑉 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗
This equation implies. “The Dot Product of electric intensity of the field and element
displacement of a test charge between the two points will express Potential Difference between the
same two points”.
This ideology shows that potential difference between two points is a Scalar quantity.
Relation between Electric Intensity and Potential Difference:
According to the equation of potential difference the two points,
∆𝑉 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆
⃗𝑟
∆𝑉 = 𝐸∆𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗ remains opposite to 𝐸⃗ , therefore, θ= 1800
Since ∆𝑟
∆𝑉 = 𝐸∆𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1800
∆𝑉 = 𝐸∆𝑟(−1)
∆𝑉 = −𝐸∆𝑟
∆𝑉
= −𝐸
∆𝑟
∆𝑉
Here ∆𝑟 represents change of electric potential with respect to the change of position called
“Gradient of Electric Potential” and symbolized by “Grad V”. It shows a vector quantity i.e. −𝐸⃗
mathematically,
∆𝑉
= −𝐸⃗
∆𝑟
𝑑𝑉
Or = −𝐸⃗𝑑𝑟
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 = −𝐸⃗
Or 𝛻⃗ 𝑉 = −𝐸⃗
Relation between K.E and Potential Difference:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘(𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
Since Potential Difference= 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
∆𝑈 = ∆𝑉 ⁄𝑞
∆𝑈 = 𝑞∆𝑉 … (𝑖)
Hence, if charge “q” is accelerated through potential difference ΔV” then it will lose potential
energy and at the same time gain an equal amount of K.E, which is given by:
1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = ∆𝑈
2
∆𝑈 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 … (𝑖𝑖)
By comparing eq: (i) and (ii)
1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑞∆𝑉
2
Electron Volt:
“Electron Volt” is the unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear physics.
“One electron volt (1eV) is the amount of energy gained by electron when it is accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 Volt”.
Hence, ∆𝑉 = 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 1.6 × 10−19 × 1
2
1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 = 1 𝑒𝑉
2
Capacitor:
Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge and energy.
A simplest capacitor consists of two similar metal plates held parallel to each other and
separated by a small distance. The space between the two metal plates is filled by an insulator called a
“Dielectric medium”. Charge “Q” stored on any one plate of the capacitor is directly proportional to the
potential difference “V” across the two plates.
𝑄∝𝑉
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Where “C” is a constant of proportionality, it represents “Capacitance of the Capacitor”.
Capacitance of a Capacitor:
Capacitance of the capacitor may be defined as:
“The charge stored on a capacitor when unit potential difference is applied across its plates is
called capacitance of the capacitor”.
Unit of Capacitance:
Unit of capacitance is “Farad”. Capacitance of the capacitor is said to be one farad (1F) if on
giving one volt P.D between the plates, each plate stores one Coulomb (1C) charge.
1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
Or 1 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
Capacitance of a Parallel Plates Capacitor:
TO find the capacitance of a parallel-plates capacitor, consider a parallel-plates capacitor with
the following geometric constant:
1. Area of each plate= A
2. Distance between plates= d
3. P.D applied between plates= V
4. Amount of charge on each plate= Q
𝜎 𝑄 ⁄𝐴 𝑄
5. The strength of electric field between plates=𝐸 = 𝜖 = 𝜖 = 𝐴𝜖
0 0 0
6. Medium between plates id “AIR”.
TO find P.D between Plates:
For this, assume that a changed particle is displaced against the field from ‘a’ to ‘b’. The total
distance is divided into N equal element displacements each equal to ∆𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗ . According to the eq: of P.D.
i.e. ∆𝑉 = 𝐸⃗ . ∆
⃗ 𝑟. Thus, P.D between two charged plates of capacitor is given by:
𝑉 = ∑𝑏𝑎(𝐸⃗ . ∆𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
𝑉 = ∑𝑎(𝐸∆𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 )
𝑏
𝑉 = ∑𝑏𝑎(𝐸∆𝑟(−1))
𝑉 = −𝐸 ∑𝑏𝑎(∆𝑟)
∵ ∑𝑏𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 ) = − ∑𝑎𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑉 = 𝐸 ∑𝑎𝑏(∆𝑟) ∴ ∑𝑎𝑏(∆𝑟) = 𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑄
By putting 𝐸 = 𝐴𝜖
0
𝑄
𝑉 = (𝐴𝜖 ) 𝑑
0
𝑄𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐴𝜖
0
As, 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝐶 = 𝑄 ⁄𝑉
𝑄𝑑
𝐶 = 𝑄⁄𝐴𝜖
0
𝐴𝜖0
𝐶=𝑄× 𝑄𝑑
𝐴𝜖0
𝐶= 𝑑
This equation represents capacitance of a parallel plates capacitor, when air is filled between
the plates.
According to the equation:
1. Capacitance is directly proportional to the Area of Plates. i.e. “𝐶 ∝ 𝐴”.
2. Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between plates. i.e. “𝐶 ∝ 1⁄𝑑 ”.
When a Dielectric Medium is Set between Plates:
If a dielectric medium of permittivity, “𝜖𝑚 ” is filled in the space between two plates, then
capacity of parallel plate capacitor is given by:
𝐴𝜖𝑚
𝐶′ = … (𝑖)
𝑑
Substituting 𝜖𝑚 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 . Where 𝜖𝑟 is called “Dielectric Constant”. Its value depends on the
nature of material of insulated medium.
𝐴𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
𝐶′ =
𝑑
𝐴𝜖0
𝐶=( ) 𝜖𝑟
𝑑
𝐶 ′ = 𝐶. 𝜖𝑟
Definition of Dielectric Constant:
“The ratio of capacitance of a parallel plates capacitor in the presence of a Dielectric medium to
the capacitance of same capacitor in the presence of Air is known as Dielectric Constant”.
As 𝐶 ′ = 𝐶. 𝜖𝑟
𝐶′⁄𝐶 = 𝜖𝑟
Combination of Capacitors
Any two or more capacitors can be combined with the opposite terminals of a battery in two ways:
1. In Series
2. In Parallel
1. Combination of Capacitors in Series:
If two or more capacitors are connected with the opposite terminals of a battery in such a way that:
a) The magnitude of charges on plates of each capacitor remains same.
b) The P.D across the plates of any one capacitor differs the P.D of any other capacitor then capacitors
are said to be connected in series.
A series combination of three capacitors of capacitance “C 1”, “C2” and “C3” is shown by the following
circuit diagram:
Derivation for the Equivalent Capacitance of Series Combination of Capacitors:

For this, let us assume that:
i. The magnitude of charges on plates of each one capacitor is “Q”.
ii. The P.D across the plates of capacitor of capacitance “C 1”, “C2”, “C3” and “Ce” is “Vab”, “Vdb”,
“Vde” and “Vae” respectively.
iii. The capacitance of equivalent capacitor= Ce=?
According to the characteristics of series combination of capacitors:
𝑉𝑎𝑒 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑑𝑏 + 𝑉𝑑𝑒 ∴ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + + ∴𝑉=
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶
𝑄 1 1 1
= 𝑄( + +
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1 1
=( + + )
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
If “n” number of capacitors are connected in series, then reciprocal value of their equivalent
capacitance is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛
𝑖=𝑛
1 1
= ∑( )
𝐶𝑒 𝐶𝑖
𝑖=1
2. Combination of Capacitors in Parallel:
If two or more capacitors are connected with the opposite terminals of a battery in such a way that:
a) The P.D across the plates of each one capacitor remains same.
b) The magnitude of charges on plates of any one capacitor differs the magnitude of charges on plates
of any other capacitor then the capacitors are said to be connected in parallel.
A parallel combination of three capacitors of capacitance “C 1”, “C2”, and “C3” is shown by the following
circuit diagram:
Derivation for the Equivalent Capacitance of Parallel Combination of Capacitors:
i. The P.D across the plates of each one capacitor is “Vab”.
ii. The magnitude of charges on plates of capacitor of capacitance “C 1”, “C2”, “C3” and “Ce” is “Q1”,
“Q2”, “Q3” and “Q” respectively.
iii. The capacitance of equivalent capacitor= Ce=?
According to the characteristics of parallel combination of capacitors:
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 ∴ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐶1 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝐶2 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝐶3 𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝐶𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )
𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, then their equivalent capacitance will equal
to the sum of capacitance of individual capacitors that are connected in parallel.
Hence, if “n” number of capacitors are connected in parallel then their equivalent capacitance is given
by:
𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛
𝑖=𝑛
𝐶𝑒 = ∑(𝐶𝑖 )
𝑖=1
COMPOUND CAPACITOR
A compound capacitor is one where the space between the plates is partially filled with a
dielectric medium.
Consider a capacitor containing air and slab of dielectric medium between the plates.
Let
t = thickness of dielectric medium slab.
d = distance between the plates.
do = thickness of air (do= d – t)
This system serves as two capacitors in series as shown in fig. Let
“C” is the capacitor with dielectric medium and “C” is the capacitance of
capacitor with air and Cd is the capacitance of the compound capacitor.
Then
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑑 𝐶′ 𝐶
Using relation
𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐶=
𝑑𝑜
𝐴𝜖𝑚
𝐶′ =
𝑡
Where, A= area of the plates.

𝜖𝑚 = permittivity of the dielectric medium
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑑 𝐶′ 𝐶
1 𝐶 + 𝐶′
=
𝐶𝑑 𝐶′𝐶
𝐶𝐶′
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐶 + 𝐶′
𝐴𝜖 𝐴𝜖
( 𝑑 𝑜 ) ( 𝑡𝑚 )
𝑜
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴𝜖 𝐴𝜖
( 𝑜 ) + ( 𝑡𝑚 )
𝑑𝑜
𝐴2 𝜖𝑚 𝜖𝑜
𝑑𝑜 𝑡
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝐴𝜖𝑚 𝑑𝑜
𝑑𝑜 𝑡
2
𝐴 𝜖𝑚 𝜖𝑜
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴(𝜖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜖𝑚 𝑑𝑜 )
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑚
𝐶𝑑 =
𝜖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜖𝑚 𝑑𝑜
∴ 𝜖𝑚 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟
Aϵo (ϵo ϵr )
𝐶d =
ϵo t + ϵo ϵ r d o
Aϵ2o ϵr
Cd =
ϵo (t + ϵr do )
Aϵo ϵr
Cd =
ϵr d o + t
Aϵo
Cd =
ϵr d o + t
ϵr
Aϵo
Cd =
ϵr d o t
ϵr + ϵ r
Aϵo
Cd = t ∴ do = d − t
do + ϵ
r
Aϵo
Cd =
( d − t) + t ⁄ ϵ r
The above equation gives the capacitance of compound capacitor.
Effect of Dielectric on the Capacitance of a Capacitor:
1. When Plates of Capacitor Are Disconnected from the Battery After Charging:
Under the influence of electric field o capacitor the atoms of
dielectric get polarized and thus produce an electric field which is
opposite to the electric field of capacitor. Due to this intensity
between the plates of capacitor is decreased and this reduces
potential difference between the plates (V= ED) or (V ∝ E).
Now
Q = CV or C = Q⁄V
Since the capacitor is disconnected from the battery therefore, the charge on the capacitor
remains unchanged, therefore the decrease in potential difference causes an increase in capacitance.
2. When the Plates of Capacitor Remain Connected with the Battery:
Due to the influence of electric field of capacitor, the atom of
dielectric gets polarized. Opposite poles are produced close to the
charged plates which pull some charge from the plates. As a results
some space is produced on the plates and the battery supplies more
charge to fill the space. Hence the charge on the capacitor is increased
while the intensity and potential difference remain unchanged, thus:
C = Q⁄V
C∝Q
It is clear that an increase in the amount of charge, increase the capacitance.
Q.1 Repulsion is the sure test of electrification. Explain.
Ans. Electrostatic attraction is observed between oppositely charged bodies and also between a
charged (+ve or –ve) and an uncharged body. But, however, only two charges of the same kind
(both +ve or –ve) can repel each other. Hence, repulsion up to some extent is the sure test of
electrification.
Q.2 Will a solid metal sphere hold a large electric charge than a hollow sphere of the same
diameter? Where does the charge reside in each case?
Ans. A solid metal sphere will hold the same amount of charge as it is held a hollow sphere of the
same diameter. This is due to the fact that any excess electric charge resides only on the outer
surface of a conductor.
Q.3 Explain why is it so much easier to remove an electron from an atom of a large atomic mass
than it is to remove a proton?
Ans. In an atom of a large atomic mass, the number of electron is large. This big atom contains many
orbits (or shells). So it is easier to remove an electron from its outermost orbit, because the
heavy nucleus exerts weaker coulomb attractive force on it as compare to an electron in the
inner most shell. However protons are in the nucleus which is held very strongly by strong
nuclear forces.
Q.4 Why is it not correct to say that potential difference is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge between the points concerned?
Ans. The potential difference is the increase electric potential energy (or work) per unit charge. So if
small positive charge (qo) is moved against the electric field between the two points, then the
W
work divided by the amount of charge i.e. q gives the P.D.
o
Q.5 Why is it logical to say that the potential of an earth connected abject is zero? What can be
said about the charge on the earth?
Ans. Practically the earth is taken to be at zero potential. If a charge body is connected to the each
by a conductor, electron flow takes place. Such that the charge of the body is neutralized.
Q.6 Can an electric potential exist at a point in a region where the electric field is zero? Can the
potential be zero at a place where the electric field intensity is not zero? Give example to
illustrate your reasoning.
Ans. i) Yes, electric potential can exist where the electric intensity is zero. For example, the electric
charge resides on the outer surface of a hollow sphere. At all points inside the sphere, the
electric field Intensity is zero. Hence, potential is the same at all points throughout the sphere,
and equals that the surface, Le potential is constant inside and on the surface.
ii) Electric potential can be zero at a point where electric intensity is not zero. For example,
consider a point in the middle of two equal and opposite charges. There the electric potential is
zero at that point, such that
Kq −Kq
V = r + ( r ) = 0 (The absolute potential at a point due to charge ´q' at a distance is
Kq
equal to ).
r
But the net electric intensity is towards the negative charge
Note: Both the potential and intensity are zero for a point at infinity.
Q.7 An air capacitor is charged to a certain potential difference. It is then immersed in oil. What
happens to its A. charge B. potential and C. capacitance?
Ans. The dielectric constant e, of oil is greater than that of air. When an air capacitor is immersed in
oil (after disconnecting the battery) then:
A) Its charge remains constant (since there is no path for charge transfer)
B) P.D between the plates decreased (and also the electric field is weakened) by a factor 1/∈r.
C) The capacitance increases (since C = q/V) by a factor ∈r.
Q.8 Two unlike capacitors of different potential and charges are joined in parallel. What happens
to their potential difference? How are their charges distributed? Is the energy of the system
affected?
Ans. When two unlike capacitors of different potentials and charges are joined in parallel, then:
i) The resultant P.D will be less than the highest applied P.D on one capacitor. This resultant
P.D will be the same for the two capacitors in parallel.
ii) The charge is redistributed and the capacitor of higher capacitance will have more charge
(since q = CV).
iii) The energy of the system will decrease. The missing energy is used in heating the wires.
Q.9 Four similar capacitors are connected in series and joined to a 36v battery. The midpoint of
the group is earthed. What is the potential of the terminal of the group?
Ans. If four similar capacitors are connected in series, joined to a 36V battery and if the midpoint of
the group is earthed, then there is no transfer of charge. This midpoint is between two
oppositely charged plates (of C2 and C3). Hence P.D across the ends of the group will remain
the same (i.e. 36V).
Q.10 A point charge is placed at the centre of a spherical Gaussian surface. Is the flux changed?
A) If the spherical Gaussian surface is replaced by a cube of the same volume.
B) If the sphere is replaced by a cube of 1/10 of this volume.
C) If the charge is moved from the centre in the sphere.
D) If the charge is moved outside the sphere.
E) If a second charge is placed inside the sphere.
Ans. A) No B) No C) No D) Yes E) Yes
Q.11 Four capacitors each of 2uF, connected in such a way that the total capacitance is also 2µF.
show what combination gives this value.
Ans. To get an equivalent capacitance of 2µF, the four capacitors, each of 2µf, can be combined in
i) Two pairs of parallel capacitors combine in series.
ii) Two pairs of series capacitors combined in parallel.
Q.12 A capacitor is charged by a battery. The battery is disconnected and a slab of some dielectric
is slipped between the plates. Describe what happens to the charge, potential difference and
capacitance?
Ans. When capacitor is charged, battery is disconnected, and a slab of some dielectric (of relative
Permittivity ∈r) is inserted, then,
i) The charge remains same.
ii) The P.D decreases.
iii) The capacitance increases.
Q.13 If the battery is not disconnected.
Ans. When a capacitor is charged and the battery is not disconnected, and a slab of some Dielectric
(of relative permittivity ∈r) is inserted, then:
i) The charge is increases (additional charge is delivered by the battery).
ii) The P.D remains same.
iii) The capacitance increases (due to increases of charge)
Q.14 A capacitor is connected across a battery why does each plate receive a charge of the same
magnitude? Will it be true even if the plates are of different sizes?
Ans. When a capacitor is connected to a battery such that +ve terminal "b' is at higher potential than
the plate B, then electrons are drawn towards "b" from "B". However the –ve terminal "a" is at
lower potential than the plate "A", so the electrons are drawn to the plate "A" from "a". Thus B
is positively charged and A is negatively charged. The charging stops when VAD-V. If the sizes of
the plates are different then the plate of larger area will receive more amount of charge.
CHAPTER#13
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CONDUCTOR
In general, Metals are found good conductor of Heat and Electricity. In conductor, at all
ordinary temperatures, there would be availability of a very large number of conduction electrons in
absence of Forbidden Energy Gap (i.e. Eg ≈ 0) between Valance and Conduction Band. When a
potential difference is set across the ends of a conductor, conduction electrons experience a “Push”
from negative to positive potential end of conductor and thus they will continue to drift swiftly in a
conductor of (𝐸⃗ ).
ELECTRIC CURRENT
The term Current is defined as, “The rate pf magnitude of charges, that are drifted down a cross-
section of conductor will describe the strength of current at that cross-section of conductor”.
If “Q” be the magnitude of “n” number of charges that are drifted down a cross-section of conductor in
“t” second, then strength of current at that cross-section of conductor is given by:
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
According to the experience of current,
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
𝐼=
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝐼 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Hence, the strength of current is measured by “Ampere” in S.I.
Definition of Ampere:
The unit of current, Ampere is defined as, “If charges of magnitude of 1 Coulomb are drifted
down a cross-section of conductor in 1 second, then current of strength, 1 Ampere is said to be passed
through this cross-section of conductor”.
Direction of Electric Current:
Conventionally the direction of electric current is taken from positive to the negative terminal
of a battery or cell. The positive terminal of a battery is assumed to be at a higher and the negative
terminal is assumed to be a lower potential. Current flow from higher to lower potential and was
assumed to be carried by positive charge. This current is called Conventional Current. Since in most of
the conductors current is due to the flow of electrons which flow from negative to positive terminal of
a battery, hence the actual direction of current is from negative to positive terminal. This current is
known as Electric Current.
OHM’S LAW:
In 1827, A direct relation has been established by a Scientist, George Simon Ohm between the
two essential characteristics of an electric circuit. This relation is often called “Ohm’s Law” after the
name of Scientist.
Statement:
According to the Ohm’s Law, “IF physical state of a conductor does not change, the strength of
current at any cross-section of conductor remains directly proportional to the magnitude of potential
difference which is set across the same cross-section of conductor”.
Formula:
Suppose that “I” be the strength of current which is drifted down the cross-section of a conductor at an
applied P.D. of “V”, then statement of Ohm’s Law can be written mathematically as:
𝐼∝𝑉
𝐼 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑉
𝐼 = (𝑘)𝑉 … (𝑖)
Where, “k” shows conductance of the conductor. Its numerical value expresses reciprocal value of the
1 1
Resistance of same conductor and expressed by 𝑅 . 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾 = 𝑅
Eq (i)=
1
𝐼 = ( )𝑉
𝑅
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
This equation is often called, “Equation of Ohm’s Law”. In this equation, “R” is reflected as “Resistance
of the conductor”. Its value depends on nature of material, dimensions and temperature of the
conductor.
Graphical Representation of Ohm’s Law:
The graph between the potential difference and current through a given
conductor is a straight line as shown, provided physical conditions remain
unchanged.
RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
In general, “The opposition offered by the material of a conductor in the flow of current, is called
Resistance of the Conductor”.
It is symbolized by “R” and measured by “Ohm” (Ω) in S.I.
Definition of Resistance on Basis of Ohm’s Law:
According to the equation of Ohm’s Law,
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑃. 𝐷.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 => 𝑅 = 𝑉 ⁄𝐼 => 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Its means, “The ratio of applied potential difference to the strength of current drifted down the cross-
section of a conductor gives a constant value, called Resistance of the Conductor”.
Unit of Resistance:
According to the equation of Ohm’s Law,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑉 ⁄𝐼
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑅=
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑂ℎ𝑚
Hence the unit of resistance is “Ohm” which is denoted by Ω(𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎).
Definition of Ohm:
“If current of strength 1 Ampere is drifted down a cross-section of conductor at an applied P.D.
of 1 volt, then opposition caused by the material of conductor against the flow of current is said to be 1
Ohm”.
DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE ON DIMENSIONS OF CONDUCTOR

In practice, the resistance of conductor is found directly proportional to the length, but
inversely proportional to the cross-section area of conductor.
If “R” be the resistance of a conductor of length “L” and cross-sectional area “A” then we may
write mathematically as:
𝑅∝𝐿
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
By combining the two relations of resistance under single expression we have:
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
Where, "𝜌" is the constant of proportionality, called “Specific Resistance” or “Resistivity” of the
conductor. Its value depends on nature of the material of conductor.
Definition of Resistivity of a Conductor:
According to the equation of resistance of a conductor,
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿
If L= 1 meter and A= 1 meter2 or volume= V= 1 m3, then:
𝜌=𝑅
It means, “The opposition offered by the material of a conductor of volume, 1 meter 3 against the flow
of current, is referred as Resistivity of that conductor.
Unit of Resistivity of a Conductor:
According to the equation of resistance of a conductor,
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿
(Ω)(𝑚2 )
𝜌=
(𝑚)
ρ = Ω×𝑚
Hence, Resistivity of a conductor is measured by “Ohm x Meter” is S.I. system of units.
DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE ON TEMPERATURE OF CONDUCTOR
In practice, the resistance of a conductor directly depends on temperature i.e. “resistance increases
with the rise of temperature of a conductor”.
We know that metals are in general, good conductors of electricity and in a metal, molecules perform
fixed type of vibratory motion within their specific amplitudes.
When temperature of a conductor increases, its molecules will continue to oscillate with a greater
amplitude due to increasing Kinetic Energy. As, scattering angle of drifted electron is directly
proportional to the square of amplitude of oscillatory molecules, therefore, the conduction electrons
will be scattered with greater angles at a high temperature and they experience much greater
hindrance (resistance) during drifting of conduction electrons increases, but conductivity towards the
flow of current decreases at relatively higher temperature of a conductor.
Let “Ro” is the resistance of conductor at 0 o c and “Rt” is its length at t o c
Mathematically:
∆𝑅 ∝ 𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅 ∝ ∆𝑇
By combining the two relation of change of resistance under single expression we have,
∆𝑅 ∝ ∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 )∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
(𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜 ) = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 (𝑡 − 0)
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅𝑜 = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 𝑡
𝑅𝑡 = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (𝛼𝑡 + 1)
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)
Where,
“α” is the constant of proportionality called, “Temperature Coefficient for Resistivity”. Its value
depends on nature of material of the conductor.
The equation of resistance can be expressed in term of resistivity as:
𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)
Definition of Temperature Coefficient for Resistivity:
According to the equation of change of resistance with the rise of temperature,
∆𝑅 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅
=𝛼
∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
∆𝑅
𝛼= … . (𝑖)
∆𝑇𝑅𝑜
If 𝑅𝑜 = 1Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑇 = 1𝑜 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 1𝐾
Then eq (i) =>α=ΔR
It means,
“The temperature coefficient for resistivity is that increase in resistance of a conductor of original
resistance of 1Ω, when it is heated upto a temperature difference of 1o c or 1o K”.
Unit of Temperature Coefficient for Resistivity:
According to the equation of change of resistance with the rise of temperature,
Δ𝑅 = 𝛼Δ𝑇𝑅𝑜
Δ𝑅
𝛼=
Δ𝑇𝑅𝑜
(Ω)
𝛼=
(Ω) × (℃)
1
𝛼=
℃
𝛼 = (℃) 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 −1
−1
Hence, the temperature coefficient for resistivity is measured by “Per Degree Centigrade or per
Kelvin”.
Combinations of Resistors
Any two or more resistors can be combined to form an electric circuit with a source of P.D. (Battery) in
following two ways:
i. In Series
ii. In Parallel
1. Combination of Resistors in Series:
If any two or more resistors are connected with the ends of a battery in a manner that:
a) The strength of current through each resistor remains same.
b) The P.D. across any one resistor differs the P.D. across any other resistor.
Then this combination is called series combination.
Derivation for Equivalent Resistance of Series Combination:
i. The strength of current through each resistor= I.
ii. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance “R1”= Vab.
iii. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance “R2”= Vbc.
iv. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance “R3” = Vcd.
v. The P.D. across the resistor of resistance “Re” = Vad.
vi. The resistance of equivalent resistor= Re=?
According to the characteristics of series combination of resistors:
𝑉𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑏𝑐 + 𝑉𝑐𝑑
𝐼𝑅𝑒 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
𝐼𝑅𝑒 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
It means, “The sum of resistance of all the individual resistor will represent equivalent resistance of the
series combination”.
Thus, if “n” number of resistors are to be connected in series, then their equivalent resistance is to be
given as:
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ . +𝑅𝑛
𝑖=𝑛
𝑅𝑒 = ∑(𝑅𝑖 )
𝑖=1
2. Combination of Resistors in Parallel:
If any two or more resistors are connected with the opposite terminals of a battery in a manner that:
a) The P.D. across any resistor remains same.
b) The strength of current pass through any one resistor differs the current through any other resistor.
Then the combination of resistors with a source of P.D. is said to be “Parallel”.
Derivation for Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Combination:

i. The P.D. across each resistor= Vab.
ii. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “R 1”= I1
iii. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “R 2” = I2
iv. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “R 3” = I3
v. The strength of current passes through the resistor of resistance “Re” = I
vi. The resistance of equivalent resistor= Re=?
According to the characteristic of parallel combination of resistors,
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 ∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉
= + + ∴𝐼=
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅
𝑉𝑎𝑏 1 1 1
= 𝑉𝑎𝑏 ( + + )
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
It means, “The sum of reciprocal of resistance of all the individual resistor will represent reciprocal of
equivalent resistance of the parallel combination”.
Thus, if “n” number of resistors are to be connected in parallel, then reciprocal of their equivalent
resistance is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
𝑖=𝑛
1 1
= ∑( )
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1
Power Dissipation in Resistors:
When current is passed through a resistor the free electrons suffer collisions with the atoms of the
conductor due to which a part of their energy is transferred to the atoms of the conductor. The
amplitude of vibration of the atoms therefore increases, resulting in a rise in temperature of the
conductor. Hence electrical energy is converted into heat energy. The above fact can also be explained
by considering the work done by the free electrons to overcome the opposition appears as heat.
Let “I” be the current passed for “t” seconds, when the potential difference across the conductor is
“V”. By definition.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
P.D= V= Work done (Change in PE) per unit charge= 𝑄
Work done= Q V
𝑄
But Q = I t ∴𝐼= 𝑡
Work done= I t V ∴ 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
This work done appears as heat, hence,
Heat produced= V I t
Power is the rate of doing work or it is the rate of conversion of one form of energy into another form.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
But according to Ohm’s Law:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Now:
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑅𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
But
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
Now;
𝑉2
𝑃= .𝑅
𝑅2
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
The S.I. unit of power is “Watt” and commercial unit of power is Horse power (hp).
1 Horse Power (hp)= 746 Watts= 0.746 Kw.
Kilo watt-Hour (kWh):
On commercial scale electrical energy is usually measured in kilo watt- hour (kWh).
1 kWh is that amount of energy which is delivered by the electric current by constant power of 1 kW in
one hour.
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡
1kWh= 1kW x 1 hour
1kWh= 1000 W x 3600 s
1kWh=1000 J/s 3600 s
1kWh=3.6 x 106 J
“kWh is commonly known as a Unit of Electricity.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F)

An electric current is passed through an electric circuit, come electrical energy is said to be passed
through the resistor of the circuit. Thus, if we intend to drift conduction electrons continuously in an
electric circuit, then we must need a source of energy to do so.
Thus, after introducing source of energy in an electric circuit, conduction electrons experience a push
force from one end of conductor to the other end causes an electrical impulse in the circuit concern.
Such a force is often called, Electromotive Force and abbreviated as, “E.M.F”. In practice, the
magnitude of E.M.F directly depends on potential difference of the source and hence strength of E.M.F
is measured by the unit of potential difference i.e. “Volt”.
Definition of E.M.F:
“The energy per unit charge required to drive electric change round an electric circuit is called Electro
Motive Force (E.M.F)”.
E.M.F of a source is equal to “the potential difference across its terminals when no current is being
drawn from it”.
E.M.F may also be defined as “the work done per unit charge”.
Unit of E.M.F is Volt.
Origin of Producing E.M.F:
Some common methods of producing E.M.F are discussed below:
i. The main source of producing E.M.F is primary and secondary cells.
ii. An E.M.F of very low strength can be obtained by the interaction of substances having bitter
and acidic nature.
iii. An E.M.F of very low strength can be obtained across the junction of a thermos-couple.
iv. An E.M.F is broadly induced in a coil (Armature) by the action of magnetic influence such an
E.M.F is called “Induced E.M.F”.
Terminal Potential Difference: (Difference between EMF and TPD):
Whenever a source of P.D. sends conventional current from positive to negative terminal then same
nature of current will be passed through electrolyte of the source from its negative to positive
terminal. During flow of current through the electrolyte, the current faces some resistance due to
molecular arrangement of electrolyte. The resistance of electrolyte causes potential drop at the
terminals of battery, slightly less than the actual E.M.F generated by the battery. The E.M.F obtained at
the terminals of a battery is often called, “Terminal Potential Difference”. And symbolized by “V”.
To establish an expression for terminal P.D of a battery, let us assume that:
i. The actual E.M.F generated by the source= E.
ii. The strength of current passes through the circuit= I.
iii. The internal resistance caused by the electrolyte= r.
iv. The potential drop due to internal resistance= Ir.
Hence, the terminal potential difference of the battery is given by:
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
According to this expression, if greater be the value of either current or internal resistance of
electrolyte, lesser be the T.P.D of a battery.
Note:
i. When battery delivering current (on discharge):
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
ii. When battery receiving current (on charge):
𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑟
iii. When o current exists:
𝑉=𝐸
Q.1 Electrons leave a dry cell and flow through a lamp back to the cell. Which terminal the
positive of negative is the one from which electrons leave the cell? In which direction is the
conventional current?
Ans. Electrons leave the negative terminal of the cell and move towards the positive terminal.
However, as a convention, the conventional current is assumed to consist of positive charges
moving from a positive terminal to the negative terminal.
Q.2 Both P.D and E.M.F are measured in volts. What is the difference between these concepts?
Ans. The work done per unit charge across a resistor in a closed circuit is called p.d. but e.m.f can be
defined as the total p.d. across the circuit/combination and it refers to a source of current and
is greater than the potential drop in an external circuit across the resistors.
Q.3 Can you construct two wires of the same length, one of copper and one of iron, that would
have the same resistance at the same temperature?
Ans. yes, since resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. The resistivity of iron is
about 7 time higher than that of copper. Hence the iron wire must be 7 time thicker than a
copper of the same length to have the same resistance at the same temperature.
Q.4 Why does the resistance of a conductor increases with the rise in temperature?
Ans. As the temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude of the vibration of the atoms
increases This, increases the probability of their collision with free electrons. This affects the
drift of the electrons. Hence the resistance of the conductor increases.
Q.5 Why is heat produced in a conductor due to the flow of electric current?
Ans. As electric charge flows due to certain p.d through a conductor, it suffers loss of electrical
potential energy. The energy is delivered to the atoms; this energy is utilized in increasing their
viberational kinetic energy which appears as heat. Consequently, the temperature of the
conductor rises.
Q.6 It is sometimes said that an electrical appliance "Uses up" electricity. What does such an
appliance actually use in its operation?
Ans. An electrical appliance, in its operation, uses the kinetic energy carried by the moving electrons,
and not their quantity of charge.
Q.7 Do bands in a wire affect its resistance?
Ans. No, bands in a wire do not affect its resistance. However, it depends upon length, cross-
sectional area, temperature and nature of the material.
Q.8 Resistance of 100, 300 and 4On are connected in series. If the current in 1On resistance is
0.1A, what is the current through the other?
Ans. When resistors are connected in series, then the same current flows through each of them (as
there is only one path). Hence the current in this case will be 0.1A through all the three
resistors in series.
Q.9 Ten resistances of different values are connected in parallel If the p.d. across one of them is
SV, what is the p.d. across the remaining nine resistors?
Ans. When resistors are connected in parallel, then the same p.d exists across each of them as they
all connected to two common points. Hence the p.d. in this case will be 5V across all the nine
resistors in parallel.
Q.10 For a given potential difference V, how will the heat developed in a resistor depend on its
resistance R? Will the heat be developed at a higher rate in a larger or smaller R?
Ans. The heat developed in resistor is given by:
V2 1
Heat = x t, if V is constant then heat is inversely proportional to R. i.e. Heat ∝ R
R
For a constant p.d, the resistance R should be small to develop heat at a higher rate.
Q.11 Is there any electric field inside a conductor carrying an electric current? Explain motion of
charges here.
Ans. When a p.d is applied across a conductor by connecting it to a battery, an electric field is
established inside a conductor (Parallel to the conductor, directed from the positive toward the
negative terminal). The field exists here because the battery keeps the charges moving and
prevents them coming to equilibrium.
Q.12 How does the current flowing in a conductor depend on the number of mobile charge carriers
per unit length, on their average velocity and on the charge per carrier?
Ans. Current is given by;
q
I= t
ne
I= ∴ q = ne
t
Here; "n" is the no. of charge carrier and "e" is the charge on each carrier.
ne S L
Since, I= but S = vt => t = v = v
t
ne nev
Now I= L => I =
L
v
The current flowing in a conductor is;

1) Directly proportional to the number of mobile charges per unit length (n/L).
2) Directly proportional to the average drift velocity (V).
3) Directly proportional to the charge per carrier (e).
Q.13 What is the equivalent resistance of three 5Q resistors connected (i) Series and (ii) Parallel? If
potential difference of 60V is applied across series connection, what is the current in each
resistor?
Ans. (i) in series Re = 3R = 3 x 5 = 15Ω. (ii) In parallel Re = R/3 = 5/3 = 1.66Ω
In series connection, the current is the same through all resistors.
V 60
I = R = 15 = 4A
e
Q.14 Can the terminal voltage of a battery be zero?
Ans. Yes, when the battery is short-circuited, the existence of a negligibly small resistance in the
circuit makes terminal voltage zero but current to a maximum value.
Q.15 Why is the internal resistance of a cell not constant?
Ans. The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the resistance of electrolytes, due to chemical
changes (e.g absorption of hydrogen and sulphate ions) in the electrolyte during the process of
discharging, the resistance of the electrolyte increase. Thus the internal resistance of cell does
not remain constant.
CHAPTER#14
MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
MAGNET
It is a natural substance which attracts the things made up of iron, cobalt and nickel. If it is
suspended freely it always points towards geographical north and south.
Magnetic Poles:
Every magnet has two poles, a North seeking pole and a South seeking pole on its opposite
ends. If a magnet is allowed to rotate freely it will come to a rest position with one end facing
geographical North and the other end facing geographical South.
Magnetic Substances:
Those substances which are attracted by magnet or can be magnetized are called magnetic
substances. There are three magnetic substances:
i) Iron
ii) Cobalt
iii) Nickel
Ferromagnetic Substances or Ferro-magnets:
Those substances which behave like a magnet in the presence of a strong magnetic field are
called “Ferromagnetic Substances” or “Ferro-magnets”.
Soft Ferromagnetic Substances:
Those ferromagnetic substances which lose their magnetic effect when removed from the
magnetic field are called soft ferromagnetic substances. E.g. Soft iron.
Hard Ferromagnetic Substances:
Those ferromagnetic substances which retain their magnetic effect when removed from
magnetic field are called hard ferromagnetic substances. E.g. Steel.
Magnetic Field:
The region around the magnet in which its effect can be experienced is called magnetic field.
Magnetic Force:
The force experienced by a magnetic substances due to a magnet is called magnetic force.
Magnetic Lines of Force:
In the magnetic field the effect of magnet is caused by special lines of force which are called
magnetic lines of force.
Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force:
i) The magnetic lines of force start from the north pole and end at south pole.
ii) Inside the magnet, these lines continue from the south pole to the north pole.
iii) They do not intersect each other.
iv) They pass through iron more easily as compared to air.
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A STRAIGHT WIRE
When a current is flowing in a straight wire, a magnetic field is produced around the wire. It consists of
concentric circular magnetic lines.
Experimental Proof:
A wire is passed vertically though a hole in a cardboard.
The two ends of wire are connected to the terminals of a cell. Fine
iron fillings are sprinkled on the cardboard. The current is
switched on and the cardboard is tapped gently. The iron fillings
set in a series of concentric circles about the wire as center. It is
clear that the magnetic field is formed due to the current carrying
wire in the form of circular lines of force as shown in figure.
Note:
When electric charges are at rest they exert electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion on each other.
When the charges are in motion they still exert these electrostatic forces but, in addition, magnetic
forces appear because of motion. Isolated moving positive or negative charges create both electric and
magnetic fields but an electric current through a conductor produces only a magnetic field because the
electric field of moving electrons is neutralized by the field of fixed protons in the conductors.
FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

⃗ ” be projected across a uniform magnetic field
Let an isolated point charge “+q” moving with velocity “v
⃗ ”. It has been observed experimentally that the charged particle experiences a force
of flux density “B
which is perpendicular to velocity “v ⃗ ”. The magnitude of this force is
⃗ ” as well as magnetic field “B
directly proportional to the magnitudes of “q”, “v”, and “BSinθ”. Where “θ” is the angle between the
direction of magnetic field and velocity of the charge.
F ∝ qvBSinθ
F = (Constant)qvBSinθ
In this case the constant of proportionality is unity (1).
F = (1)qvBSinθ
F = qvBSinθ
Vector Form:
In vector form, above expression can be written as:
⃗F = q(v⃗ × ⃗B) … (i)
Equation (i) applies to a positive charge, for a negative charge particle, force will be given as:
⃗F = −q(v ⃗ × ⃗B) = −q(−B ⃗ ×v ⃗ ×v
⃗ ) = q(B ⃗ ) … . (ii) ∴ ⃗A × ⃗B = −B
⃗ × ⃗A
The direction of force for equation (i) and (ii) both is determined by right hand rule, which is
⃗ and ⃗B.
perpendicular to the plane containing v
Magnetic Force provides Centripetal Force to a Moving Charge. Why??
Force of magnetic field on a moving charge is perpendicular to velocity, therefore this force cannot
change the speed (magnitude of velocity). It only changes the direction of motion. Hence this force
provides centripetal force to a moving charge due to which the charge describes a circular path in a
uniform magnetic field.
Minimum and Maximum Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge:
The magnitude of magnetic force:
F = qvBSinθ
i. If the charge particle moves parallel to (or) opposite to the direction of magnetic field i.e. (θ= 0 0 or
1800)
∴ Sin 00 = Sin1800 = 0
Then, F= 0. (No force experienced by the charge particle)
ii. If the charge particle is moving a right angle (perpendicular) to the magnetic field, i.e. (θ= 90 0).
∴ Sin900 = 1
Then, F = qvB (maximum force experienced by the particle).
Radius of the Circular Path followed by the Moving Charge Particle in a Magnetic Field:
The path followed by a charged particle when it is projected across a uniform magnetic field is circular,
because force experienced by the particle is always perpendicular to the direction of its velocity. Force
which is always perpendicular to the direction of velocity changes the direction of velocity of the
particle it does not change its magnitude. As a result of which the particle follows a circular path with
uniform speed. This force provides the necessary centripetal force.
mv2
Centripetal force= r
Magnetic force= qvBSinθ
mv 2
qvBsinθ =
r
mv
r=
qBSinθ
Where “m” is the mass, “v” is the speed of the charged particle, “r” represents the radius of the
circular path followed by the particle in the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION
⃗ ” if the
Consider a positive charge which is entered in a magnetic field perpendicularly with velocity “v
strength of magnetic field is “B”, then force of induction is given by:
F = qvBsin900
F = qvB(1)
F = qvB
F
=B
qv
F
B=
qv
If q= 1 coulomb and v= 1 m/s
Then:
F
B=
(1)(1)
B=F
Hence,
“When a particle having 1 coulomb charge on it and it enters perpendicularly in a magnetic field with
velocity 1 m/s, then magnetic force acts on this particle is called “Magnetic Induction”.
Unit of Magnetic Field of Induction:
Unit of “B” is Tesla (also Weber/m2).
Force on a charge particle in a magnetic field is:
F = qvBSinθ
F
B=
qvSinθ
Hence,
1 Newton
1 Tesla =
1 Coulomb × 1 m⁄s
1 Newton
1 Tesla = ∴ amp = coul⁄sec
1Coulomb
× 1m
s
1 Newton N
1 Tesla = 1 ampere×1m Or 1 Tesla = 1 A.m
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
When a current carrying conductor is subjected to a magnetic field it experiences a force. If the
direction of current is reversed, the direction of force “F” also reverses. This force is actually
experienced by the charges which are flowing through the conductor (Force on the moving charges
arises due to the interaction between the magnetic field produced around them because of their
motion and the magnetic field in which they move).
IN order to derive a formula for force experienced by a current carrying conductor, consider a straight
current carrying conductor of length “L” and area of cross-section “A” subjected to a uniform magnetic
field of induction “B” such that the magnetic field makes a certain angle “θ” with the direction of
current “I”.
∴ Volume of the conductpr = A × L
Let “n” be the number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor causing current “I”, i.e.
n=N/AL then the total number of free electrons flowing through the conductor will be:
Total number of free electrons= N= n A L
If “e” is the charge on each electron, then the total charge flowing through the conductor is given by:
Q =nALe
Force experienced by charge “Q” flowing through the conductor or in this case force experienced by
the conductor is given by:
⃗ = Q(v
F ⃗ ×B⃗)
⃗F = n A L e (v
⃗ × ⃗B)
Straight current carrying conductor
Subjected to a uniform magnetic
Field at some angle
If charge “Q” takes “t” seconds to move from one end of the conductor to the other then its velocity
“v⃗ ” is given by:
⃗L ⃗S
⃗ = ∴v
v ⃗ =
t t
⃗
L
⃗ = n A L e ( × B)
F
t
nALe
⃗F = ⃗ × ⃗B)
(L
t
nALe Q
= = I (Q = total charge passed)
t t
Where “I” is the current flowing through the conductor.
⃗F = I(L
⃗ × ⃗B)
The magnitude of force experienced by a straight current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic
field is given by:
F = ILBSinθ
When conductor is perpendicular to the field θ= 900, force experienced by the conductor will be
maximum and is given by:
F = ILB (Sin90 = 1)
When the conductor is held parallel to the field θ= 00 then;
F = 0 (Sin0 = 0)
“Force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is always perpendicular to
length of the conductor as well as the magnetic field and its direction can be determined by right hand
rule”.
Torque on a Current Carrying Coil in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
When current is passed through a rectangular coil placed in
a magnetic field, a couple is developed which rotates the
coil. A rectangular coil “ABCD” is placed in a uniform
magnetic field ⃗B and capable of rotation about an axis xx’.
Let,
L = Length of coil
B = breadth of the coil
As current I passes through the coil, force is produced on each length of the coil.
⃗F = I(L
⃗ × ⃗B)
F = ILBSin90
F = BIL(1)
F = BIL
Torque of couple is given by,
τ = Force × Couple arm
τ= F×b
τ = BIL × b
τ = BI(L × b)
τ = BIA ∴ area = A = Lb
For coil of N turns; τ = BINA … (i)
Eq: (i) applies when the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of magnetic field. When the plane
of coil makes an angle “α” with the direction of magnetic field then;
τ = Force × Couple arm
τ = BIL × bcosα
τ = BIAcosα
For N turns:
τ = BINACosα
 Torque is maximum when the plane of coil is parallel to the magnetic field i.e. when α= 0.
 Torque is zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field i.e. α= 90.
MAGNETIC FLUX:
The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through the surface is called “Magnetic flux”. It
is a scalar quantity and denoted by “φm ”. Its S.I. unit is “Weber”.
Mathematical Definition:
Magnetic flux id equal to the dot product of magnetic field of induction “B⃗ ” and the vector area “∆A⃗”
of the surface, provided the magnetic field of induction is uniform over the given area of the surface. It
is denoted by “∆φm ”.
∆φm = B ⃗ . ∆A
⃗
∆φm = B∆Acosθ
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

“The magnetic flux per unit area of a surface which is held normal to the field is called Magnetic Flux
Density”.
It is denoted by “B”.
∆φm
B=
∆A
The unit of magnetic flux density is “W/m2” or “Tesla”.
J.J. THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT

IN 1897, Sir J.J. Thomson derived an expression for the ratio between the charge of electron to the
mass of electron. Foe this he used a device which is shown in following figure.
A tungsten filament is connected at one end of device which is heated up with a low tension battery.
Electrons are emitted out in dispersive form from the filament. These electrons passes through from a
cylinder “A” to make them inform of a line. A negative potential is applied across the cylinder “A” to
make electrons in a line, then these electrons again passed through to two plates which have narrow
hole on it. After passing through the plates, the electrons are inform of a straight line.
⃗ ” is applied perpendicularly in the tube. J.J. Thomson assumed that, when electrons
A magnetic field “B
emit out from plate “C” their velocity is zero, and K.E. is also zero. i.e. KE= 0. A voltage “V” is applied
between plate “C” and cathode, after this KE of electrons will be “1/2 mv 2” and their velocity is “V”.
According to law of conservation of energy:
∆PE
∆KE = ∆PE ∴ V =
q
1
( mv 2 − 0) = VeVq = ∆PE
2
1
mv 2 = Ve ∴ Ve = ∆PE
2
2Ve
v2 =
m
2Ve
v=√ … . (i)
m
This eq: shows the velocity of electrons. When these electrons enter in magnetic field, a force of
induction acts on these electrons. This force is given by:
⃗ = q(v
F ⃗ ×B ⃗)
Since:
⃗ ⊥ ⃗B, therefore, θ = 900
v
F = e(vBSinθ)
F = evBSin90
F = evB(1)
F = evB
When electrons enter in magnetic field they move on a circular path of radius “r”, magnetic force
provides a centripetal force.
i.e. F = Fc
mv2
Putting F = evB and Fc = r
mv 2
evB =
r
mv
eB =
r
e v
= … . (ii)
m Br
2Ve
Putting v = √ m
2Ve
e √ m
=
m Br
e 2Ve 1
=√ ×
m m Br
Squaring both sides
e2 2Ve 1
2
= × 2 2
m m B r
e2 e 2V
= ×
m2 m B 2 r 2
e 2V
= 2 2 … . . (iii)
m B r
Particle Selector Method to Find the Velocity of Electrons:
J.J. Thomson assumed that when electrons emitted out from plate “C” their velocity is zero. Later
scientists rejected this assumption. To fond the correct value of velocity of electrons a method is
designed, which is called “Particle Selector Method”.
In this method an electric field also applied in the tube which is opposite in direction of magnetic field.
This field is set such a way that its strength is equal to the strength of magnetic field.
i.e. Fm = Fe
Fe
∴ E = , Eq = Fe , ∴ Ee = Fe and Fm = evB
q
evB = Ee
E
v=
B
This value of “v” putting in eq: (ii)
e v
Eq: (ii) =>m = Br
e E 1
= ×
m B Br
e E
= 2 … . . (iv)
m B r
Eq: (iii) and Eq: (iv) represent the ratio between charge and mass of an electron.
Determination of Radius “r” of the Circular Path:
Let “a” be the shift of the spot on the screen from point “O” to “O’ “ and “b” be the distance between
the screen and the point at which electrons enter the magnetic field, then from the geometry of the
following fig. we have:
In right angle triangle COQ’. Applying Pythagoras theorem we get:

̅̅̅̅̅)2 = (CQ
(CO′ ̅̅̅̅)2 + (QO′
̅̅̅̅̅)2
̅̅̅̅̅ = r (radius of circle, CQ
But CO′ ̅̅̅̅ = (r − a)and QO′̅̅̅̅̅ = b
r 2 = r 2 − 2ar + a2 + b2
2ar = a2 + b2
Since “a” is very small as compared to the diameter of the circular path therefore, “a2” will be
negligible.
2ar = b2
b2
r=
2a
Knowing the value of “a” and “b” radius of the circular path can be calculated.
AMPERE’S LAW
Statement:
“The sum of the product of the tangential component of magnetic field of induction and the length of
an element of a closed curve taken in a magnetic field is “μo ” times the current which passes through
the area bounded by this curve”.
Mathematical Presentation:
i=n
⃗ . ∆L
∑(B ⃗ ) = μo × Current enclosed
i
i=1
Proof:
Consider a straight current carrying conductor through which current “I” is flowing. Experimentally, it
has been observed that the strength of the magnetic field produced at any point near the conductor is
directly proportional to twice of the current i.e. “2I” and inversely proportional to the distance “r” from
the conductor.
i.e. B ∝ 2I and B ∝ 1⁄r
By combining both observations,
2I
B∝
r
2I
B = (Constant)
r
μo 2I
B=.
4π r
μo
is the constant of proportionality, “μo ” is known as permeability of free space. The value of “μo ” is
4π
4π × 10−7 Web⁄Amp − m
μo I
B= … . . (i)
2πr
The above relation shows that the value of “B” at all the points on the circle will be same if a straight
conductor is at the center of the circle. Hence the magnitude of magnetic field of induction “B” at any
point on the surface of a circular path can be calculated with the help of equation (i) the above formula
is valid only for a circular closed path surrounding the conductor.
If we divide the circle into a large number of small elements each of length “Δl”. The tangential
component of magnetic field of induction for an element is “B cos θ” hence, the product of tangential
component of “B” and length of an element “Δl” is given as:
(Bcosθ)∆l = B ∆l cos θ
But, B ∆l cosθ = ⃗B. ∆l
The sum of these products for all the elements is given by:
∑B ⃗ . ∆l = ∑ B ∆l Cosθ
In this case the angle θ between ⃗B and ∆l at each and every point is zero, because the circular path
coincides exactly with the magnetic field.
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = ∑ B ∆l Cos(0)
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = ∑ B ∆l
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = B ∑ ∆l
μ I
∑ ∆l = 2πr (total length of the circular closed path). i.e. circumference of the path but B = o For
2πr
circular closed path, (from equation) (i).
μ I
⃗ . ∆l = o × 2πr
∑B
2πr
i=n
⃗ . ∆l)i = μo I … . . (ii)
∑(B
i=1
Equation (ii) shows the Ampere’s circular law.
APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S LAW

With the help of Ampere’s law the magnetic field of induction B due to a current can be determined
provided ∑ ⃗B. ∆l for an imaginary closed curve around the conductor is known.
Determination of “B” Inside a long Solenoid:
A straight cylinder covered by loops of insulated wire, is called “Solenoid”. When a strong current
passes through the loops a magnetic field is formed inside the core of Solenoid. Outside the core, the
field is very weak so that the force of induction is negligible outside the core. Consider a rectangular
loops “abcda”, the length of its sides are l1 , l2 , l3 and l4 . The l1 is parallel to solenoid or parallel to ⃗B, as
shown in figure.
To Determine the Line Integral of Magnetic Induction “ ∑ 𝐁⃗ . ∆𝐥”:
The line integral of magnetic induction on Amperian loop “abcda” is given by:
b c d a
∑ ⃗B . ∆l = ∑ ⃗B. ∆l1 + ∑ ⃗B. ∆l2 + ∑ ⃗B. ∆l3 + ∑ ⃗B. ∆l4 … . . (i)

a b c d
Now:
⃗B ∥ ∆l1
b b
⃗ . ∆l1 = ∑ B∆l1 cos(0)
∑B
a a
b b
⃗ . ∆l1 = ∑ B∆l1 (1)
∑B
a a
b b
∑ ⃗B. ∆l1 = B ∑ ∆l1

a a
b
∑ ⃗B. ∆l1 = Bl1

a
Now,
⃗B ⊥ ∆l2
c c
∑ ⃗B. ∆l2 = ∑ B∆l2 cos(90)

b b
c c
⃗ . ∆l2 = ∑ B∆l2 (0)
∑B
b b
c
∑ ⃗B. ∆l2 = (0)

b
Now,
d d
∑ ⃗B. ∆l3 = ∑ B∆l3 cos(180)

c c
For l3 the value of B is zero.
d d
∑ ⃗B. ∆l3 = ∑(0)∆l3 (−1)

c c
d
⃗ . ∆l3 = 0
∑B
c
Now:
⃗ ⊥ ∆l4
B
a a
⃗ . ∆l4 = ∑ B∆l4 cos(90)
∑B
d d
a a
∑ ⃗B. ∆l4 = ∑ B∆l1 (0)

d d
a
∑ ⃗B. ∆l4 = (0)

d
Now:
(i) => ∑ ⃗B. ∆l = Bl1 + 0 + 0 + 0
⃗ . ∆l = Bl1
∑B
To determine The Total Current Passes through Amperian Loop:

Suppose the no. of turns per unit length of solenoid is “n”, therefore the no. of turns on “l 1” is “nl1”. If
“I” be the current passes through one loop, hence total current passes through “nl1” loops will be
“nl1I”. Hence, total current enclosed by Amperian loop= nl1I
Now, applying Ampere’s Law:
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = μo (T current)
Bl1 = μo (nl1 I)
B = μo nl
The above relation shows that the value of “B” inside a solenoid is independent of position. In other
words, the magnetic field inside a long solenoid is uniform. But at the ends of the solenoid field is non-
uniform. The value of “B” is directly proportional to “I” and “n”. To increase the value of “B” by
increasing “n”, the non-overlapping turns must be wound close to each other. The direction of
magnetic field inside the solenoid depends upon the direction of current flowing through it. On looking
towards the circular turn of a solenoid if the current is in anti-clockwise direction then the end will be
north pole.
If a medium other than vacuum is present at the core of the solenoid the value of “B” is given by:
B = μnl
Where “μ” is the permeability of the medium.
Determination of “B” inside a Toroid:
If we connect the ends of a straight cylindrical inductor, then it is called “Toroid”. If a current passes
through the loops then a string magnetic field formed inside the core of toroid, its value outside the
core is negligible.
To Determine the Line Integral of Magnetic Induction “∑ 𝐁 ⃗ . ∆𝐥":
Consider a closed circular loop inside the core of toroid, its radius is “r”. The whole loop divided into a
large number of element length “∆l”. The value of line integral of magnetic induction is given by:
Since,
⃗ ||∆l ∴ ∆l = ds
B
And the angle between ⃗B and ∆l is zero, i.e. θ=0
⃗ . ∆l = ∑ B ∆l Cos(0)
∑B
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = ∑ B ∆l(1)
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = B ∑ ∆l … . . (i)
Here,∑ ∆l represents the circumference of Amperian circular loop.
i.e. ∑ ∆l = 2πr
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = B(2πr)
To Determine the Total Current Passes through Amperian Loop:
Suppose total no. of turns an Amperian loop is “N”. If “I” current passes through one loop, then total
current passes through the Amperian loop will be “NI”.
i.e. Total current= NI
Now applying Ampere’s Law,
∑ ⃗B. ∆l = μo (T. current)
B(2πr) = μo (NI)
μo NI
B=
2πr
This equation shows the value of “B” inside a narrow toroid. According to this equation the value of
“B” is directly proportional to total no. of turns and T. current, also it is inversely proportional to the
radius of Amperian loop.
Strength is maximum near the inner wall of toroid. To reduce the non-uniformity the toroid must be
wound on a narrow tube.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Changing of magnetic flux in a coil or loop produces an emf in it. This emf is
called induced emf and the phenomenon is known as electromagnetic
induction. Induced emf causes current in the loop which is called induced
current.
When the loop in the diagram is dragged across the magnetic field, magnetic
flux in the loop changes and emf is produced in it.
Faraday’s Law:
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
“The magnitude of e.m.f induced in a coil in magnetic field is directly proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux linked with the coil”.
∆φ
Hence (e. m. f)ind. ∝ − ∆t
∆φ
(e. m. f)ind. = −N
∆t
Where “N” is the constant of proportionality and it represents the number of turn of coil, ∆φ is the
change of magnetic flux in time Δt. The negative sign is introduced according to Lenz’s Law, to indicate
the direction of induced emf.
“N∆φ” is called Flux Linkage.
The emf will be induced as long as there is a change of magnetic flux, no emf will be induced if flux
either becomes zero or becomes constant.
Lenz’s Law:
According to Lenz’s Law:
“The direction of induced emf and hence the direction of induced current is always such that it
opposes the change which produces it”.
MUTUAL INDUCTION
When current is changed in a coil an emf is induced in a neighboring coil this phenomenon is
connected to a battery through a rheostat. This coil is known as “primary coil”, the other coil is called
as “secondary coil”. When current in the primary coil is changed with the help of rheostat, the
magnetic field produced also changes resulting in a change in magnetic flux passing through the
secondary coil. An emf is therefore induce in the secondary coil due to which the galvanometer
connected across it shows deflection.
The average emf induced in the secondary coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current
in the primary coil.
∆lp
ξs ∝ −
∆t
∆lp
ξs = −M
∆t
Where “M” is the constant of proportionality it is known as “Mutual Inductance”. “∆lp ” is the change in
current in the primary coil in the time Δt second. The negative sign indicates the direction of induced
emf in according to Lenz’s law.
The phenomenon of mutual induction plays an important role in the design of transformers and other
heavy electrical machinery.
Mutual Inductance:
“The ratio of emf induced in the secondary coil to the rate of change of current in the primary coil is
ξs
called Mutual Inductance. i.e. M = ∆lp
∆t
Value of mutual inductance depends upon following:
1. No. of turns in two coils.
2. Distance between two coils.
3. Shape of the coil.
4. Cross-sectional area of coil.
5. Magnetic properties of medium [resent between coils.
Unit of Mutual Inductance:
Volt−sec
The unit of mutual inductance is “Henry”. Which is equal to .
Amp
Definition of Henry:
“Mutual inductance of a pair of coils is said to be 1 Henry if an emf of one volt is induced in the
secondary coil when current in the primary is changed at the rate of 1 Ampere per second”.
SELF-INDUCTION
If the current passes through a coil is suddenly changed then the magnetic flux linked with the coil
itself also changes as a result which an emf is induced I it. This phenomenon is known as Self-Induction.
The emf induced in the coil also known as back emf because its direction is always such that it opposes
the cause of its induction (Len’s Law).
The magnitude of back emf or self-induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of current
in the coil:
∆I
ξ∝−
∆t
∆I
ξ = −L
∆t
Where “L” is the constant of proportionality known as “self-inductance” of the coil. The negative sign
indicates the direction of induced emf in according to Lenz’s law.
Self-Inductance:
“The ratio of induced emf to the rate of change current in the coil is called Self-Inductance”.
ξ
i.e. L = ∆l
∆t
The value of self-inductance depends upon the following:
1. The no. of turns in coil.
2. Area of cross section of the coil.
3. The magnetic properties of the material of coil.
Unit of Self-Inductance:
The unit of self-inductance is “Henry”.
“Self-inductance of a coil is said to be 1 Henry if a back emf of 1 volt is induced in it when the current is
changed at the rate of 1 Ampere per second”.
MOTIONAL E.M.F
When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, a potential difference is established between its
ends. He potential difference is called motional emf.
Explanation:
When the conductor is moved in a uniform magnetic field with velocity “v ⃗ ”, the free electrons in the
conductor also move along with it with same velocity. A magnetic force acts on each electron which is
given by:
⃗F = q(v
⃗ × ⃗B)
This force pushes the free electrons from end “b” to end “a” of the wire. As a result upper end
becomes more and more positive and lower end negative. Transfer of electrons stops when force F is
balanced by the electrostatic attraction between ends “a” and “b”. Hence, under given conditions, a
certain value of emf is obtained, between ends “a” and “b”, it is called motional emf.
Derivation of Formula:
Suppose:
q = Total charge transferred from end “b” to “a”.
B = Flux density of uniform magnetic field.
θ = Angle between v ⃗ and ⃗B.
l = Length of the conductor.
Force on charge “q” is:
⃗F = q(v⃗ × ⃗B)
F = qvBsinθ
Work done on the charge from “b” to “a”.
W=F×l
W = qBvsinθ × l
Motional emf is given by:
W qBvsinθ×l ∆PE
ξ= q = ∴V= q
q
ξ = Bvlsinθ
This equation shows that the magnitude of motional emf is directly proportional to the length and
velocity of conductor and also the perpendicular of magnetic field. i.e. “Bsinθ”.
Electromechanical Device:
An electromechanical device is that which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electric Motor:
A motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Generator:
A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
A.C GENERATOR
Definition:
A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principe:
When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an emf is induced in it. This emf is of alternating nature.
Construction:
A simple A.C Generator consists of a coil of insulated wire which is wound on a soft iron cylinder. It is
known as “armature”. The ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings. The slip rings are in contact
with two separate carbon brushes. The contact with external circuit is made through these carbon
brushes. Armature can be rotated freely on an axle between poles of a permanent, strong horse shoe
magnet.
Working:
When the coil is rotated in the magnetic field such that at a particular instant, its plane is perpendicular
to magnetic field, then its longer side will move parallel to the field, at this instant no emf is induced in
it. AS the coil continues the motion, component of linear velocity of longer sides perpendicular to the
field increases and becomes maximum when plane of the coil is parallel to the field.
During this quarter revolution, emf increases from zero to maximum value. Maximum emf is induced
when plane of the rotating coil is parallel to the field. During the next quarter revolution emf decreases
to zero when the plane of the coil again becomes perpendicular to the field. During the remaining half
revolution emf induced varies in the same manner but in opposite direction. Emf induced in the longer
sides of the coil is in opposite direction and sends current in the same direction through the coil hence
they add up whereas emf induced in the shorter sides is in the same direction and sends the current
through the coil in opposite direction hence the net emf induced in shorter sides is zero. In one
rotation of the coil one cycle of alternating emf is obtained. The number of cycles of alternating
current obtained per second is called “frequency of A.C”.
Derivation:
Let “I” be the length, “b” be the breadth of the coil and “v” be the instantaneous linear velocity of the
longer side of the coil in the magnetic field of flux density “B”, then emf induced in each longer side of
loop of wire is given by:
ξ = Bvlsinθ
Hence the total emf induced at any instant in each turn of the coil will be:
ξ = 2Bvlsinθ
If the coil has “N” turns, then total emf induced in it is given by:
ξ = 2NBvlsinθ … . (i)
If “ω” is the constant angular speed of the coil then:
v = rω
1
Putting r = 2 b
1
v = bω
2
θ
θ = ωt ∴ ω =
t
On substituting the above values of v and θ in equation (i), we get:
1
ξ = 2NB bωl sinωt
2
ξ = BNωlb sinωt
But, lb=A
ξ = BNωA sinωt … (ii)
Similarly angular velocity “ω” is related to frequency “f” by the following relation:
ω = 2πf
2π 1 2π
∴T= , = , ∴ ω = 2πf
ω f ω
ξ = BN2πfA sin2πft … . . (iii)
Equation (i), (ii) and (iii) give us the emf induced in the rotating coil at any instant.
Expression for Maximum emf:

The emf induced in the coil will be maximum when sin θ=1, which is possible when the angle “θ”
between v and B is 90, at this particular moment plane of the coil will be exactly parallel to the
magnetic field.
ξmax = 2NvBl
ξmax = BNωA
ξmax = 2πfBNA
Relation Between Instantaneous emf “ξ” and Maximum emf “ξ𝐦𝐚𝐱 ”:
The instantaneous and maximum emf induced in the coil are related by:
ξ = ξmax sinθ
ξ = ξmax sinωt
ξ = ξmax sin2πft
In the rotating coil emf induced changes its magnitude and direction with time, such an emf is known
as alternating emf. The current caused by alternating emf will also change continuously its magnitude
and direction. Under the influence of alternating emf free electrons of the conductor will simply
vibrate about their mean position.
TRANSFORMER
Transformer is an electric device which is used either to step up or step down an alternating emf
(voltage). It works on the principle of “Mutual Induction”.
Construction and Working:
A transformer consists of two coils known as “primary” and “secondary”. These coils of insulated
copper wires are wound one on top of the outer on a laminated soft iron core. On one of the coils,
known as the “primary coil”, an alternating emf (voltage) is applied. Due to self-induction an emf. “ξp ”
is induced in the primary coil, given by:
∆φ
ξp = −Np
… . (i)
∆t
∆φ
Where “Np” is the no. of turns in primary coil and ∆t is the rate of change of flux through primary coil.
Since, the secondary coil is wound on top of the primary coil, therefore the flux linked with the two
∆φ
coils will be practically equal. In other words, the rate of change of flux “ ∆t ” for both coils are same.
Due to mutual induction emf. Induced “ξs ” in the secondary coil is given by:
∆φ
ξs = −Ns … (ii)
∆t
Where “Ns” is the no. of turns in secondary coil.
Dividing eq: (i) and (ii)
∆φ
ξs −Ns
∆t
= ∆φ
ξp −Np
∆t
ξs N
= Ns
ξp p
Efficiency of Transformer:
Efficiency may be defined as:
“The ratio of power output to power input”.
Power Output= ξs Is
Power Input= ξp Ip ∴ P = VI as V = ξ
If the power loses in a transformer are neglected then,
Power Output= Power Input
ξs Is = ξp Ip
ξs Ip
=
ξp Is
This relation shows that in a step up transformer for which (ξs > ξp ), "Ip " will greater than “Is ”.
Similarly in step down transformer for which (ξs < ξp ), "Ip " will be less than "Is ".
Step Up Transformer:
If Ns > Np then "Is " will also be greater than "Ip ". A transformer in which ξs > ξp is known as “Step Up
Transformer”. It increases the applied voltage.
Step Down Transformer:
A transformer in which Ns < Np , gives lower emf through the secondary coil i.e. ξs < ξp is known as
“Step Down Transformer”. It decreases the applied voltage.
Uses of Transformer:
1. Step up transformer is used for sending electricity to log distance.
2. Step down transformer is used to decrease the large voltage up to 220 volts.
3. In electric bell the step down transformer is used to set the voltage up to 4 volts.
Power Loses in a Transformer:
1. Power loses in transformer is mainly due to resistance of its wires.
To minimize this source of power loss, thick copper wire is used in the coil which carries larger
current.
2. Eddy current induced on the surface of iron core due to the changing magnetic flux, produce
heating effect.
To minimize this effect core is made up of thin sheets of soft iron separated by a thin layer of
varnish.

Q.1 Charged particles fired in a vacuum tube hit a fluorescent screen. Will it be possible to know
whether they are positive or negative?
Ans. Yes, the charge on particles in motion can be found by applying magnetic field perpendicular to
the motion of the charges and by observing the deflection. A positive charge in an inward
perpendicular magnetic field is deflected upward, In an electric field, a positive charge will be
deflected towards the negative side (Cathode).
Q.2 Beam of electrons and protons moving with same velocity enter in a uniform magnetic field
at right angle, which suffer the more deflection? What will be the effect on the beam of
electrons if their velocity is doubled?
Ans. Since;
Fc = Fm
mv2
= qvB sin θ
r
For electron and proton; q=e
Given that 0 = 90°
Now
mv2
= evB sin 90°
r
mv = eBr
mv
r= eB
OR
r∝m
Above equation shows that radius is directly proportional to the mass of the particle. So the
particle of greater mass will deflect less and great will be the radius and vice versa. So we
conclude that electron will suffer more deflection then proton.
Q.3 Since radius is directly proportional to the velocity, therefore if we double the velocity of
electrons the radius will also be doubled, but the deflection is halved. Two identical loops,
one of copper and the other of aluminum, are similarly rotated in a magnetic field of
induction. Explain the reason for their different behavior. Is electric generator a "generator of
electricity? Where is the electricity before it is generated? What does such machine
generate?
Ans. Since the conductivities of copper and aluminum are different, they show different behavior
with the induced emf. As the conductivity of copper is higher than that of aluminum, so a
copper loop will have greater induced current than an identical aluminum loop moving with the
same speed in the same magnetic field.
An electric generator is not a generator of electricity (1.e. quantity of charge). Electricity is
present in the conducting coil of the generator before it was driven in an electoral circuit. A
generator provides emf to drift the free electrons in the conducting coil. In fact, a generator
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Q.4 What is the difference between magneto and A.C generator? What is meant by the frequency
of alternating current?
Ans. Any small generator employing a permanent magnet is commonly called magneto and it is used
in ignition system of petrol engines, motor bikes and motor boats, etc.
The field magnets of large generators are electromagnets and these generators are called
alternators. The performance of A.C generator is more satisfactory when the armature is
stationary and the field magnet rotates around the armature. Stationary armature is called
"stator" and rotating magnet is called rotor".
Alternating current (A.C) is produced by a voltage source whose terminal polarity reversed with
time. The number of cycles per second made by an A.C is called it frequency (f). Its unit is hertz
(Hz). We have f= 1/T. An A.C reverses its polarity 2f time per second. An A.C with frequency of
50HZ has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02 second. This A.C reaches at zero value every 0.01 second.
Q.5 What kind of fields do surround a moving charge and static charge.
Ans. When an electric charge is in motion, it is surrounded by an electric filed as well as a magnetic
field, but a static charge is surrounded by only an electric field.
Q.6 Can a current carrying coil be used as a compass?
Ans. A current carrying coil behaves as a bar magnet. Thus when it is suspended freely, it can be
used as a compass).
Q.7 How can you justify that magnetic force on a moving charge in a uniform magnetic field is the
centripetal force. Can magnetic force does work on the charge particle?
Ans. The magnetic force F = q(ü x B)or |F| = qVBsin (8), is perpendicular to velocity it will not affect
the magnitude of the velocity but only changes its direction. The magnitude of the velocity
remains constant. Since magnitude of q.V, B are constant magnetic force is the constant force.
Therefore it is a centripetal force which moves the charged along the circular path. Magnetic
force does not work on moving charge particle because it is always perpendicular to the
velocity of the particle.
Q.8 What changes occur inside the magnetic field of a solenoid carrying steady current?
If the length is doubled but the number of turns remains same.
If the number of turns is doubled but the length remain same.
Ans. Magnetic field inside a solenoid due to current I passing through it am given by:
B = μo nI
Where n = N/L where "N" is the total no of turns and "L' is the length of the solenoid.
Therefore
N
B = μo L I - - - - - - - - - - (i)
If the length of the solenoid is doubled we can write the equation (i)
N
B ′ = μo 2L I
1 N
B ′ = 2 (μo L I)
1
B′ = 2 B
Thus doubling the length of a solenoid the magnetic field is halved.
If the number of turns is doubled and "L" remains same the equation (1) can be written as;
2N
B ′ = μo ( L ) I
N
B ′ = 2μo ( L ) I
B ′ = 2B
This equation shows that magnetic field increases two times.
Q.9 Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a circuit?
Ans. According to Lenz's law the induced emf or back emf is always opposite to the cause that
production it. If the magnetic flux through the circuit is increasing then the induced emf acts to
decrease the magnetic flux. If the magnetic flux is decreasing than the induced emf acts to
increase the value of the magnetic flux. Hence the induced emf does not always act to decrease
the magnetic flux through the circuit. It can also increase the magnetic flux.
Q.10 Can an electron at rest be set in motion with a magnet?
Ans. No, when an electron is at rest, it has no magnetic field. So in, the absence of any magnetic field
of its own, it cannot interact with a magnet.
Q.11 In what ways can a voltage be induced in a wire?
Ans. 1) By moving a wire in a magnetic field.
2) By moving magnet near it.
3) By changing current through circuit near it.
CHAPTER#15
ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
GALVANOMETER:
It is an electromechanical instrument used for detecting or measuring a very small amount of electrical
current in a given circuit.
A Galvanometer is sub-divided into two types:
Moving Coil Galvanometer:
Principle:
In this type, a rectangular coil is rotated inside a radial field
of induction whereas, magnetic poles are set at rest.
Example: D’Arsonval Galvanometer and Weston
Galvanometer.
Moving Magnet Galvanometer:
Principle:
In this type, movement of magnetic poles (in form of needle)
is rotated on a dial whewreas; coils are set at rest. Example: Tangent Galvanometer.
Construction of Moving Coil Galvanometer:
The main parts of moving coil galvanometer are discussed below:
i. Magnetic Poles:
Concave type pole pieces are powerful horse shoe magnet are fixed to obtain strong magnetic
field.
ii. Soft Iron Cylinder:
A soft iron cylinder is set between pole pieces to provide radial magnetic field to the rotating
coil. (Radial field is a field in which the plane of rotating coil is always parallel to the magnetic
field). It is placed inside the coil, but could not move as the coil is rotated, such that the coil can
rotate freely about the cylinder without touching it.
iii. Rectangular Coil:
A number of turns of insulated copper wire are wound on a rectangular ivory frame inform of a
rectangular coil. The ends of copper wire are connected with meter movement and spiral spring
separately. A thin bronze strip is connected with each ends of wire, acted as input and output
lead to the flowing current.
iv. Meter Movement:
It consists of a very light pointer and a dial. When rectangular coil is rotated in presence of
couple of magnetic induction, the pointer rotates on dial and hence flow of current is detected.
v. Spiral Spring:
A soft helical spring is connected with the end of coil which is used to restore the pointer to its
initial position when the current is cut off.
Theory of Moving Coil Galvanometer:
To study the theory of moving coil galvanometer, let us consider a rectangular coil inside a radial field
of induction, ⃗B which remains parallel to the plane of coil.
Assume that:
i. The length of coil= L
ii. The breadth of coil= b
iii. The area of plane of coil= Lb
iv. The total number of turns in coil= N
v. The strength of current passes through the coil= I
vi. The strength of magnetic field= B
vii. The magnitude of deflecting torque on coil due to couple of
induction= BINA Cos α.
viii. The magnitude of restoring torque on coil due to elasticity of helical spring= Cθ.
Where “c” is the constant of proportionality, called “Couple per unit angular twist of the suspension
wire”. (As the coil rotates under the action of deflecting torque, the suspension wire is twisted and an
opposing torque is developed which is called restoring torque. It depends upon the deflecting angle of
the coil).
In case of a balanced galvanometer, the deflecting torque must be equal to the restoring torque on the
coil. Mathematically:
τ(deflecting) = τ(Restoring)
BINA Cos α = Cθ − − − −(i)
In case of radial field, α=0 and thus cos α= cos 0= 1.
Eq: (1) =>BINA = Cθ
BINA
=θ
C
BNA
θ=( )I
C
θ = (Constant)I
θ∝I
This relation express theory of a moving coil Galvanometer which states, “The angular twist
(deflection) of a coil is directly proportional to the strength of current passes through the turns of coil,
provided geometric constant of coil and strength of magnetic field remains same”.
Sensitivity of a Galvanometer:
In general, the amount of current per unit angular deflection shows current. Sentivity of a moving coil
galvanometer, it is symbolized by η. Mathematically:
BNA
θ=( )I
C
θ BNA
=( )
I C
I C
=
θ BNA
I C
η=( )=
θ BNA
In practice, A sensitive Galvanometer is one in which a small value of current produces large angular
I
deflection i.e. for which (θ) is small. For achieving this, either “C” should be made small or (B, N, A)
should be large.
⃗ up to a desirable
In order to have a sensitive Galvanometer, we normally increase the strength of B
value.
AMMETER
It is an electromechanical instrument used for measuring large current. It is symbolized by Figure: in
electric circuits.
Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer into an Ammeter:
A moving coil galvanometer of low resistance is used for measuring large magnitude of current. For
this, the resistance is decreased by shunting the coil with a very low resistance metallic strip. Thus,
most of the current passes through the shunt while only a limited and safe amount of current goes
through the coil which is, therefore, showed by a limited angular deflection. In shirt, “A moving coil
galvanometer with a parallel low resistance (shunt) is acted as an Ammeter”.
To determine Resistance of Shunt:

i. The range of ammeter= I
ii. The strength of current passes through the coil of galvanometer= I g
iii. The resistance of galvanometer= Rg
iv. The P.D across the galvanometer= Vg= Ig Rg
v. The strength of current passes through the low resistor (shunt)= Is= (I- Ig)
vi. The resistance of shunt= Rs=?
vii. The P.D across the shunt= Vs= Is Rs => Vs= (I - Ig) Rs
According to the characteristics of parallel combination of resistors:
Vs= Vg
Is Rs= Ig Rg
(I - Ig) Rs= Ig Rg
Ig R g
Rs =
(I − Ig )
This equation expresses theory of an ammeter. According to this theory, if range of ammeter,
resistance of coil and current through the coil of galvanometer are known, the resistance of shunt can
be determined.
VOLTMETER
It is an electromechanical instrument used for measuring the potential difference between any two
points in a given circuit through which a current is flowing. It is symbolized by in

electric circuits.
Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer into a Voltmeter:
A moving coil galvanometer of very high resistance is used for measuring P.D between two points in an
electrical circuit. For this, the resistance of coil galvanometer is increased by connecting a very high
resistance in series with it. Thus, most of the applied P.D is appeared across the series resistor, while
only a limited and safe P.D appears across the coil of galvanometer which is, therefore, showed by a
limited angular deflection.
In short, “A moving coil galvanometer with a series high resistor is acted as Voltmeter”.
To determine The Resistance of Series Resistor:

i. The range of voltmeter= V
ii. The strength of current passes through the coil of galvanometer= I g
iii. The resistance of galvanometer= Rg
iv. The P.D across the galvanometer= Vg= Ig Rg
v. The strength of current passes through the series resistor= I g
vi. The resistance of series resistor= Rx=?
vii. The P.D across the series resistor= Vx= Ig Rx
According to the characteristics of series combination of resistors:
V= Vg + Vx
V= Ig Rg + Ig Rx
V - Ig Rg= Ig Rx
V − Ig R g
Rx =
Ig
V Ig R g
Rx = −
Ig Ig
V
Rx = − Rg
Ig
This equation expresses theory of a voltmeter. According to this theory, if range of voltmeter,
resistance of coil and current through the coil of galvanometer are known, the series resistance can be
determined.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The Wheatstone bridge consists of four wires of resistance “R 1”, “R2”, “R3” and “R4” that are stretched
on a wooden bench inform of a quadrilateral loop, “ABCDA”. In this closed loop, the terminal “A” and
terminal “C” are connected with a key (K1) and battery of low P.D
whereas; the terminal “B” and terminal “D” are connected with
another key (K2) and a Galvanometer.
Balanced Wheatstone Bridge:
If electric potential at terminal “B” and terminal “D” is set at the
same value i.e. VB= VD, then no current will be passed through the
coil of Galvanometer and thus pointer of Galvanometer shows null
deflection. At this state, a Wheatstone Bridge is said to be
“Balanced”.
Theory of Wheatstone Bridge:
At the state of balanced Wheatstone bridge, VB= VD, therefore:
∆V(AB) = ∆V(AD)
I1 R1 = I2 R 3 … . (i)
Similarly,
∆V(BC) = ∆V(CD)
I1 R 2 = I2 R 4 … . (ii)
Now diving eq: (i) by eq: (ii)
I1 R1 I2 R 3
=
I1 R 2 I2 R 4
R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
This expression represents theory of a balanced Wheatstone Bridge. According to this expression, if
any three resistances of the bridge are known, then fourth unknown resistance can be determined.
METER BRIDGE
It is based on Wheatstone Bridge principle.
The apparatus has unknown resistance “X” between point A and B, a known resistance “R” from
resistance box between points B and C, a high resistance wire of uniform thickness and 1 m long
between points A and C, a Galvanometer between points B and D with a jockey k 2 and a cell between
point A and C with key k1.
Suppose no current passes through the Galvanometer when key k2 is at point D, then R1= x, R2= R, R3=
ρlx , R4= ρlR
Where: ρ= resistance per unit length of wire.
∴R∝L
R = (Constant)L
R = ρL
R
ρ=
L
R = ρL
Ix= Length of wire on the side of unknown resistance X
IR= Length of wire on the side of known resistance R
According to Wheatstone Bridge Principle:
R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
X ρlx X Ix
= => =
R ρlR R IR
IX
X= ×R
IR
Thus by measuring the length L x and IR the value of unknown resistance X can be calculated.
Q.1 What is the function of the concave pole pieces and the coaxial Soft-iron cylinder in the moving
coil galvanometer?
Ans. The concave magnetic poles provide magnetic field and the cylindrical core make the magnetic
field radial and stronger.
Q.2 Why is it necessary to have some form of controlling couple in the moving coil galvanometer?
Ans. Controlling couple is necessary to control the motion of the coil. It is proportional to the current
to be measured. It is produced by using spring control method, which consists of two hair
springs attached to a spindle wound in the opposite directions. As the coil rotates the spring
wind up and produces a counter torque. The coil comes to rest (the final deflection of the
pointer is given) when the deflecting torque (of magnetic torque) is counter balanced the
controlling torque (or restoring torque).
Q.3 What is meant by sensitivity of a galvanometer? On what factors does it depend? How can we
have large sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer?
Ans. A galvanometer is sensitive if it gives large deflection for a very small current. The sensitivity of
a galvanometer is the current per unit angular deflection.
𝐼 𝐶
i.e. 𝜂 = (𝜃) = 𝐵𝐴𝑁
sensitivity depends on "C" (couple per unit twist), "N"(number of turns), "A" (area of coil), "B"
(strength of magnetic field).
For large sensitivity, a soft-iron core (sphere or cylinder) is placed inside the coil and the poles
are made circular or cylindrical. This makes "B" stronger and radial.
Q.4 Which galvanometer usually has greater sensitivity, aluminum pointer and scale or lamp and
scale type? Why?
Ans. Lamp and scale type galvanometer has greater sensitivity, because it gives large deflection for a
very small current.
Q.5 We want to convert a galvanometer into a) an ammeter b) a voltmeter. What do we need to
do in each case?
Ans. a) To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, we connect a low resistance in parallel (called
Shunt). b) to convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, we connect a high resistance in a series.
Q.6 Why is it necessary for an ammeter to have zero or negligibly small resistance?
Ans. Because large current can flow through the ammeter.
Q.7 What is necessary condition must a voltage measuring device satisfy?
Ans. A voltage measuring device must contain a very high (in fact, infinite) resistance, so that it will,
practically, draw no current form the circuit across which it is connected.
Q.8 Why must an ammeter be connected to a circuit in series and a voltmeter in parallel.
Ans. An ammeter is a device of low resistance and it must be connected is series to measure full
scale deflection of the current passing through circuit. In this way we observe the actual current
passing through the circuit, whether if we connect in parallel it will act like a shunt and we will
not observe actual current through circuit.
In opposite, Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit or device for which
potential difference is required. If we connect the voltmeter in series (which not 50) then
maximum potential drop will across its terminals due to high resistance and we cannot observe
actual potential difference of the circuit.
Q.9 An ammeter and voltmeter of just suitable ranges are to be used in a circuit. What might
happen if by mistake their positions are interchanged?
Ans. If, by mistake, an ammeter is connected in parallel to a circuit, it acts as a shunt and it will not
be damaged.
When a voltmeter, by mistake, is connected in series to a circuit, its coil will be burnt out due to
heavy current, because of its extremely high resistance.
Q.10 The terminals of ammeters are usually made of thick and bare wire while those of voltmeters
are quite thin and well insulated. Explain why?
Ans. An ammeter must have very low resistance, So its terminals should have almost zero resistance.
Hence its terminals must be made of thick, bare wire. A voltmeter must have very high
resistance. So its terminals should be thin and well insulated to avoid sparking between the
terminals.
Q.11 In a balanced wheat stone bridge, will the balance be affected if the position of the cell and
the galvanometer are interchanged?
Ans. No.
Q.12 In a slide wire bridge( metre bridge), is it absolutely necessary to have the bridge wire one
meter long?
Ans. No. The length of wire may be 1m.
Q.13 A post office box is a compact wheat stone bridge. Then why is it so named?
Ans. A post office box is so named because it was originally used for measuring the resistance of
telegraphic wires and for fault-finding work in the post and telegraph office.
Q.14 Which is the more accurate instrument a metre bridge or a P.O. Box?
Ans. A P.O. Box is more accurate instrument then a metre bridge, because the higher the value of
the "ratio arm", the greater the accuracy in the measurement of the unknown resistance.
CHAPTER#16
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND ELECTRONICS
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Faraday discovered the law of magnetic induction that a magnetic field, which is changing with time,
causes an induced electric field. Maxwell showed that the opposite is also true. A changing electric
field causes an induced magnetic field. This symmetrical relationship between changing electric field
and magnetic fields is taking place through any region the electric and magnetic fields will propagate
out of this region in the surrounding space. Such moving electric and magnetic fields are known as
“Electromagnetic waves”. When an electromagnetic wave is passing through some point in space both
the electric and magnetic fields at that point are changing with time. Maxwell showed that the electric
field “E” and the magnetic induction “B” fluctuate. “E” and “B” are zero at the same time and they are
reverse direction together with each cycle. Another prediction of the Maxwell theory is that “E” and
“B” are mutually perpendicular to each other that both are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
Speed of Electromagnetic Wave:
Speed of an electromagnetic wave depends upon the permeability “µ” and permittivity “𝜖” of the
medium through which it travels. In vacuum speed of an electromagnetic wave is given by:
1
𝐶=√
𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜
But 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑊𝑒𝑏⁄𝐴 − 𝑚 𝜖𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 ⁄𝑁 − 𝑚2
1
𝐶=√
4𝜋 × 10 × 8.85 × 10−12
−7
𝐶 = 2.99 × 108 𝑚⁄𝑠

Hence speed of all electromagnetic waves including light waves in vacuum is 2.99 x 10 8 m/s (3 x 108
m/s).
Production of Electromagnetic Waves:
Electromagnetic waves can be produced only with the help of accelerated charged particles. Stationary
charge gives rise to stationary electric field whereas a charge moving with uniform velocity produces a
stationary magnetic field. Electric fields are radiate out in the form of electromagnetic waves when
charges have accelerated motion.
Modulation:
The process of combining audio frequency (a-f) and radio frequency (r-f) waves to accomplish
translation is called “Modulation”.
The higher frequency wave (i.e. r-f wave) of constant amplitude and frequency is called a carrier wave,
whereas audio frequency wave is called “Modulated Signal”.
SOLID STATE PHYSICS

The branch of physics in which we study about internal structure of solid and the electrical nature of
solid, is called “Solid State Physics”.
THE BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
According to Bohr’s theory of atomic structure the electron in an atom can occupy only allowed energy
levels. The lowest available energy level is called the ground state of the atom whereas the higher
energy level are called its excited states.
In a solid atoms are very close to each other so that their outer orbits overlap and spread out into
energy bands. These bands are of two types:
1) Valence Band
2) Conduction Band
Valence Band:
Valence band corresponds to the ground state of the atom. Electrons of outer orbitsare usually found
in the valence band where they are firmly held to individual atom.
Conduction Band: When electrons of valence band get energy from external source, they jump on a
higher energy level, this is called “Conduction Band”.
Forbidden Gap:
The space between valence band and conduction band is called “Forbidden Gap”. This gap does not
consist of any electron.
Classification of Solids:
By the help of band theory, solids are divided into three types:
1) Conductors
2) Insulators
3) Semi-Conductors
Conductors:
In conductors valence band overlaps the conduction band and the forbidden energy gap practically
does not exist or instead of two bands there is only one band which is not filled. Under these
conditions electrons can freely move causing electric current.
Insulators:
In an insulator valence band is full, the conduction band is empty and the two bands are separated by a
large forbidden energy gap. Under this condition electrons cannot move freely from valence to
conduction band. Hence current cannot be passed through these materials.
Semi-Conductors:
In Semi-Conductors, there is a narrow forbidden energy gap between the two bands. Under this
condition some high energy electrons may jump from valence to the conduction band, resulting a weak
conductivity.
Electrical conductivity of a semi-conductor can be increased by heating it or by adding a suitable
impurity in it. On heating a semi-conductor energy of electrons in the valence band increases and they
cross forbidden gap. Similarly, on adding suitable impurity more low energy states are formed thus
decreasing the width of forbidden energy gap, resulting in an increase in electrical conductivity of the
semi-conductor. In both cases the resistance of semi-conductor decreases.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors:
Elements of Group IV of the periodic table are semi-conductors. Atoms of this group are tetravalent. It
means that in the outer orbit of each atom there are four electrons. In pure form elements of this
group such as germanium and silicon have crystalline structure. In a crystal of these elements each
atom is surrounded by four other atoms. They for covalent bonds with their neighboring atoms, so that
the outer most orbit of each atom is completely filled (having 8 electrons). In pure form germanium
and silicon are called “Intrinsic Semi-Conductor”. They have a narrow forbidden energy gap. Due to
thermal excitation some electrons cross this narrow forbidden gap, resulting in very low electrical
conductivity. Their electrical conductivity lies between good conductor and insulators.
Electrical conductivity of semi-conductors can be improved by adding a suitable impurity in it. In semi-
conductors the charge carriers are electrons and holes.
A hole is a positively charges region produced by the removal of an electron.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductor/Doping:
On adding suitable impurity conductivity of a semi-conductor can be improved. Elements of group III
and V of the periodic table are added as an impurity. The process of addition of impurities in a semi-
conductor to improve its conductivity is called “Doping”. The doped semi-conductor material is called
“Extrinsic Semi-Conductors”.
Types of Doping:
There are two types of doping:
1) Acceptor Doping
2) Donor Doping
Acceptor Doping (p-type semi-conductor):
When a semi-conductor is doped with a group III element, such as aluminum, boron or gallium etc. a
deficiency of electron is produced in the semi-conductor. The deficiency o electron corresponds to a
positively charged region which is called a “hole”. The semi-conductor crystal thus becomes capable of
accepting extra electron. This process of producing a deficiency of electron in a semi-conductor is
called “Acceptor Doping”. The semi-conductor thus formed is called p-type semi-conductor.
In a p-type semi-conductor current is due to the flow of holes.
Donor Doping (n-type semi-conductor):
When a semi-conductor is doped with an element of group V such as arsenic, antimony or
phosphorous etc. an excess electron of the donor material is available for conduction. The doping
material is called “Donor Impurity” and the semi-conductor thus formed is called n-type semi-
conductor.
In an n-type semi-conductor current is due to the flow of electrons.
pn-JUNCTION (OR) SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE
When a block of p-type material is in contact with n-type material their junction is called “pn-junction”.
In n-type material there is a high concentration of free electrons whereas in p-type material there is a
high concentration of holes. Hence at the junction some electrons will diffuse from n-type to p-type
and holes from p-type to n-type./ Due to the diffusion of electrons from n-type to p-type a positive
charge appears on n-side of the junction, which prevents further diffusion of electrons. Similarly, on p-
side of the junction negative charge appears, which prevents further diffusion of holes. A kind of
barrier is set up at the junction that prevents the flow of electrons and holes across the junction. This
barrier is called “Potential Barrier”. Now a current can be made to flow across the junction only when a
potential difference enough to overcome this potential barrier is applied.
BIASING
The application of electric potential across a pn-junction is called “Biasing”.
Types of Biasing:
There are two types of biasing.
1) Forward Biasing
2) Reverse Biasing
Forward Biasing:
If the voltage applied externally across a pn-junction is such that it cancels the potential barrier and
helps the flow of current then it is called Forward Biasing. When a pn-
junction is forward biased it offers low resistance to the flow of current.
Forward biasing can be done by connecting positive terminal of the
battery with p-type and negative with n-type semi-conductor.
Reverse Biasing:
If the external voltage applied across the junction is such that it helps
potential barrier, it is called reverse biasing. When a pn-junction is
reverse biased it offers high resistance and does not conduct.
Reverse biasing can be done by connecting the negative terminal of a
battery with p-type and positive terminal with n-type material.
Rectification:
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is called “Rectification”. A Semi-
conductor pn-junction diode can be used as a “Rectifier”.
There are two types of Rectification:
1) Half Wave Rectification
2) Full Wave Rectification
Half Wave Rectification
When an alternating current or voltage is applied across a semi-conductor diode, during the positive
half cycle the junction is Forward Biased and offers low resistance hence it conducts. Whereas during
the negative half cycle it is reverse biased and offers high resistance so it does not conduct. Hence in
the external circuit current flows only when positive half cycle acts across the diode, no current flow
when negative half cycle acts across it. Hence only half cycle of A.C current or voltage is rectified, this is
called “Half Wave Rectification”. The circuit used for this process is called “Half Wave Rectifier”.
Circuit Diagram:
In this process a diode, transformer, load resistance and source of A.C is used. The input A.C signal is
sent through the primary coil of transformer and output D.C signal is taken out through the load
resistance.
Full Wave Resistance
In order to rectify the complete cycle of alternating voltage or current two semi-conductor diodes are
used. The two diodes alternatively supply current in the external circuit in one direction only. One
diode supplies direct current to the external circuit only during the positive half cycle whereas the
negative half cycle the second diode supplies direct current to the external circuit.
Circuit Diagram:
On this process two diodes “D1” and “D2”, transformer, load-resistance and source of A.C supply are
used.
For the half positive cycle of A.C signal the end “A” of secondary coil is positive whereas the end “B” is
negative, hence “D1” is forward biased but “D2” is reverse biased, “D1” conduct but “D2” does not
conduct.
Similarly, for the half negative cycle of A.C signal the end “A” is negative whereas the end “B” is
positive, hence “D1” is reversed but “D2” is forward biased, “D2” conducts but “D1” does not conduct.
The direction of current pass through the loud resistance in both case is same.
Photodiodes:
Certain semi-conductors convert light energy directly into electrical energy (Due to a process called
photo-electric effect). Diodes in which such materials are used are called “Photodiodes”. Photodiodes
are small in size and require low operating voltage.
Photodiodes are used to read computer punch cards and tapes, in light detection systems, light
operated switches etc.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A diode gives light when it is energized is called Light Emitting Diode (LED). It converts electrical energy
into light energy.
LEDs are used in every day appliances such as clocks, calculators etc.
By using suitable materials light of different colors can be obtained.
TRANSISTOR
It is as semi-conductor device used to amplify current it consists of three electrodes.
The word transistor has been derived from two words, “Transfer” and “Resistor”.
Types:
There are two types of Transistors:
1) P-N-P Transistor.
2) N-P-N Transistor.
Parts:
Transistors consists of three types.
The central part is “Base” and remaining two parts “Emitter” and “Collector”.
Three terminal are connected to three electrodes which connect to the circuit. P-n-p and n-p-n
transistors are shown in the above symbol where (→) shows the direction of current.
Operation of Transistor:
The Emitter-Base junction is forward biased whereas the Collector-Base junction is reversed biased. If
we ignore the Emitter-Base junction then due to reverse biasing no current pass through the Collector-
Base junction. Due to the forward biasing of Emitter-Base junction current passes through the
Collector-Base junction. It means collector current (lc) depends upon emitter current (lE).
Working of n-p-n Transistor:
In n-p-n transistor a thin p-type semi-conductor layer is sandwiched between two n-type layers. If the
negative terminal of a battery is connected to an n-type layer and the positive terminal of another
battery is connected to the other n-type layer, and remaining two terminals are connected to the p-
type layer, thin then the n-p junction (Emitter-Base Junction) is forward biased whereas p-n junction
(Collector-Base Junction) is reversed biased. Electrons flow from Emitter to Base, due to this “l E”
current is obtained. When electrons flow in p-type layer some electrons (less than 5%) combined with
holes +ve charge) and remaining electrons (more than 95%) flow to the conductor and produce “l C”
current. By combining the some electrons with the holes “l B” current is produced.
𝑙𝐸 = 𝑙𝐵 + 𝑙𝐶
In n-p-n transistor the flow of current is due to Electrons.
Working of p-n-p Transistor:

In p-n-p transistor a thin n-type semi-conductor layer is sandwiched between two p-types layers.
If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to a p-type layer and the negative terminal of another
battery is connected to the other p-type layer and remaining two terminals are connected to n-type
layer, then p-n junction (Emitter-Base Junction) is forward biased whereas n-p junction (Collector-Base
Junction) is reverse biased. Holes (+ve charges) flow from Emitter to Base, due to this “lE” current is
produced. When holes low in n-type layer some holes (less than 5%) combined with electrons, due to
this “lB” current is produced, and remaining holes (more than 95%) flow to the Collector and produce
“lC” current.
𝑙𝐸 = 𝑙𝐵 + 𝑙𝐶
In p-n-p transistor the flow of current is due to “Holes” (+ve charge).
Transistor As An Amplifier:
Amplifier is a device which converts the weak signal into the strong signal.
Transistors is used as an amplifier, for this a weak signal is supplied to Emitter-Base Junction whereas
the output signal is obtained at Collector-Base Junction, across a load resistance “RC”.
Emitter-Base Junction is made forward biased, for this A.C voltage is applied to input junction. This
voltage causes the input junction is forward biased.
As the resistance of input circuit is less, therefore the slightly variation in signal voltage causes a large
variation in Emitter Current (lE), which causes the same variation in Collector current (lC). lC current
flow in load resistance “RC” and provides a large amount of voltage. Hence a weak signal is converted
into a string signal.
Q.1 Under what circumstances does a charge radiate electromagnetic waves?
Ans. A charge radiates electromagnetic waves when it is accelerated.
Q.2 In an electromagnetic wave, what is the relationship, if any, between the variations in the
magnetic and electric fields?
Ans. In an electromagnetic wave, the transverse sinusoidal oscillating electric field and magnetic
field propagated at right angles to each other and to the direction of motion.
Q.3 A radio transmitter has a vertical antenna, Does it matter whether the receiving antenna
vertical or horizontal?
Ans. The receiving antenna should be vertical just like the transmitting antenna. A horizontal
receiving antenna will intercept much less radio frequency signals.
Q.4 Explain why are light waves able to travel through a vacuum, where as sound waves cannot?
Ans. Light waves are electromagnetic waves. Sound waves are produced due vibration of the
molecules of a medium. Hence sound waves require a medium, whereas light waves do not
require medium for their propagation.
Q.5 Explain the condition under which radiation of electromagnetic waves take place from a
certain source?
Ans. When a transmitting antenna is coupled with an alternating source of potential (known as
oscillator), charges (electrons) are accelerated up and down the antenna. This creates a
fluctuating electric flux, which generates a magnetic flux. Hence the waves propagates from the
antenna are electromagnetic waves.
Q.6 What are semiconductors? Describe the structure of germanium crystal.
Ans. In Semiconductors there is a narrow forbidden energy gap between the two bands. Under this
condition some high energy electrons may jump from valence to the conduction band, resulting
a weak conductivity. Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by heating it or
by adding a suitable impurity in it. In a crystal of these elements each atom is surrounded by
four other atoms. They form covalent bonds with their neighboring atoms, so that the outer
most orbit of each atom is completely filled (having 8 electrons).
Q.7 Can a diode be used for amplifying a weak signal?
Ans. Normally, a diode cannot be used for amplifying a weak signal. But specially constructed diode
(e.g tunnel diode) can be used as an amplifier and oscillator for microwave frequencies.
Q.8 What is the difference between n-type and p-type germanium?
Ans. See in notes.
Q.9 Are radio waves form of light?
Ans. Since both radio waves and visible light are electromagnetic in nature, hence we can say that
radio waves are a form of light (of frequency 4 x 1014 to 7.5 × 1014Hz).
Q.10 Give the energy band description of semiconductors.
Ans. See in notes.
Q.11 Discuss the effect of temperature on semiconductors.
Ans. On increasing the temperature of semiconductors, energy of electrons in the valence band
increases and thy cross forbidden gap, resulting in an increase in electrical conductivity of the
semiconductor, the resistance of semiconductor decreases.
Q.12 What is pn-junction? Explain the formation of potential barrier in pn-junction.
Ans. When a block of p-type material is in contact with n-type material their junction is called "pn-
junction". In n-type material there is a high concentration of free electrons whereas in p-type
material there is a high concentration of holes. Hence at the junction some electrons will
diffuse from n-type to p-type and holes from p-type to n-type. Due to the diffusion of electrons
from n-type to p-type a positive charge appears on n-side of the junction, which prevents
further diffusion of electrons. Similarly on p-side of the junction negative charge appears, which
prevents further diffusion of holes. A kind of barrier is set up at the junction that prevents the
flow of electrons and holes across the junction. This barrier is called "Potential Barrier". Now a
current can be made to flow across the junction only when a potential difference enough to
overcome this potential barrier is applied.
CHAPTER#17
ADVENT OF MODERN PHYSICS
FRAME OF REFERENCE
Any three dimensional co-ordinate system with respect to which physical measurements are
made is known as a frame of reference. It consists of three mutually perpendicular co-
ordinate axes.
Inertial Frame of Reference:
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s law of inertia is valid. Such a frame
moves with uniform velocity is a non-accelerating frame of reference.
All inertial frames of reference are equivalent from the point of view of making physical
measurements.
A physical quantity as measured by different observers moving with respect to each other
with different velocities in different frames of reference may have different values, but the
basic physical laws governing such measurements always remain the same. For example, if
two observers in different inertial frames measure the velocity and momentum of two
colliding bodies they may get their different values, but the basic laws such as law of
conservation of momentum and energy will remain same for both of them.
Non-inertial Frame of Reference:
A frame of reference having acceleration is called a non-inertial frame of reference. In this
frame the law of inertia is not valid.
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Theory of relativity is of two types:
i. Special theory of relativity, which deals with bodies or frames of reference moving
with uniform velocity with respect to each other.
ii. General theory of relativity, which deals with frames of reference in accelerated
relative motion.
Postulates of Einstein’s Theory of Relativity:
i. Absolute rest or absolute motion is nothing. All states of rest or motion are relative.
That is, an object at rest w.r.t. an observe may be in motion w.r.t to another observer.
Similarly, an object in motion w.r.t one observer may be at rest w.r.t to another
observer.
ii. All frames of reference moving with uniform velocity w.r.t each other are equivalent
for the statement and description of physical laws. It means that the observers in such
frames may not agree about the measurement of physical quantities such as
momentum, time, force etc. but they all agree about the basic laws of physics. For
example, they will all agreeabout the statement of the law of conservation of
momentum.
iii. Light is in absolute motion that is the speed of light in free space does not depend
upon the motion of source or the motion of observer. The speed of light in free space
is same for all observers.
RESULTS (CONSEQUENCES) OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Einstein’s special theory of relativity gives the following results:
1. Mass Variation:
If “mo” is the mass of a body at rest in observer’s frame of reference, then it’s mass “m” as
measured by an observer from another frame of reference moving with uniform velocity “v”
with respect to the body’s frame is given by:
𝑚𝑜
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
Here “C” is the velocity of light in free space or in air its value is 3 x 108 m/s.
The above relation shows that mass “m” of the body appears to increase to an observer
moving with velocity “v” with respect to the body. Hence mass of a body depends upon
whether the body is at rest or is in motion relative to the observer. This effect takes place
only if the relative velocity between the object and the observer is comparable to the speed
of light “C”. This effect is known as “Mass Variation””.
2. Length Contraction:
If “Lo” is the length of a rod when it is at rest relative to an observer then its new length “L”
when it is in motion with velocity “v” relative to the same observer, is given by:
𝑣2
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 √1 −
𝑐2
Hence length of the rod appears to reduce when there is relative motion between an
observer and the rod, provided the relative velocity is comparable to speed of light.
This effect is known as “Length Contraction”.
Length contraction takes place only along the direction of the body. There is no change in
length of the body perpendicular to the direction of its motion, hence change appears when
the length is parallel to direction of motion.
3. Time Dilation:
If “to” be the time interval between two events at a point in space as recorded by an
observer at rest with respect to that point. Then the time interval “t” recorded between the
same two events by another observer moving with velocity “v” relative to that point is given
by:
𝑡𝑜
𝑡=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
This effect is known as time dilation. “to” is called the proper time and “t” is called relativistic
time.
Above three effects take place only when the relative velocity “v” approaches the speed of
light in vacuum. The relative speed at which these effects become noticeable is called
“relativistic speed”.
𝑣2
Factor√1 − which appears in these equations is called “Lorentz Factor”. For ordinary
𝑐2
relative velocities this factor is practically unity (1). Hence relativistic effect cannot be
detected at ordinary velocities. These effects cannot be neglected if the relative speed is
comparable to the speed of light.
4. Mass Energy Relation:
Mass and energy are inter-convertible. A mass “m” is equivalent to energy “mc2”, where “c”
is the speed of light.
If “mo” is the rest mass of a body then its energy equivalent to m oc2.
When the body moves with relativistic speed “v” its mass becomes “m” which is equal to
energy “mc2”. This energy is greater than the rest mass energy by amount equal to K.E of the
body.
i.e. 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸
We write: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾
Where:
E = mc2 = total energy
Moc2 = Rest mass energy
K= Kinetic energy
BLACK BODY
A black body is one which absorbs all the radiations of
energy striking on its surface i.e. the absorption power of
a black body is 100%.
A hole in the wall of a cavity is very nearly black body
because any radiation which gets into this hole is almost
completely absorbed in the cavity by multiple reflection.
The surface of cavity is painted black to enhance its
absorption power.
Black Body Radiation:

When the walls of the cavity are heated from outside then radiations emitted from the hole
in the cavity is called black body radiation.
Since good absorbers are also good emitters therefore the hole cavity radiator has nearly
100% emissive power.
Spectrum of black body radiation is continuous. It means that black body radiation consists
of all wavelengths in a certain range.
Intensity or Monochromatic Emissive Power:
The energy of a particular wavelength emitted per unit time per unit area of a surface is
called intensity or monochromatic emissive power. It is denoted by E. Its unit is watt/m 2.
How does intensity of black body radiation vary with wavelength:
Graph shows the energy among different wavelengths. It is
clear that intensity of short wavelengths is low. As
wavelength increases, intensity also increases until the
intensity becomes maximum for a certain wavelength 𝜆𝑚 . The
dominant color in black body radiation is due to this
wavelength. As wavelength increases beyond 𝜆𝑚 then
intensity begins to decrease.
Emissive Power:
Total energy of all wavelengths emitted per unit time per unit area of a surface at a certain
temperature is called emissive power at that temperature. It is denoted by “E” and it is equal
to the area under the curve drawn between intensity and wavelength at a certain
temperature.
LAWS OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

1. Wien’s Displacement Law:
This law states that the wavelength of maximum intensity in black body radiation is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of black body i.e.
1
𝜆𝑚 ∝ 𝑇
1
𝜆𝑚 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ) 𝑇
𝜆𝑚 × 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Value of Wien’s constant is 0.0029 mk.
2. Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law or Forth Power Law:

The law states that the total energy of all wavelength radiated per unit time per unit area of
a surface i.e. emissive power is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature.
𝐸 ∝ 𝑇4
𝐸 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑇 4
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
Where: 𝜎 =5.67 x 10-8 watt/m2k4.
3. Rayleigh-Jean’s Law:
The law states that the intensity of black body radiation for a particular wavelength is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
1
𝐸𝜆 = 4
𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑡
𝐸𝜆 =
𝜆4
The law is obeyed by radiation of large wavelength but is a failure for short wavelength i.e.
for ultraviolet radiation.
The Rayleigh-Jean law gave values which were found to be much too large i.e. total energy
tending to acquire infinite value even at short wave lengths. This is called ultraviolet
catastrophe, because it is a serious discrepancy from physical point of view. That the energy
cannot be infinity. By common experience we know that hot bodies actually emits mostly
red light and hot ultraviolet and x-rays.
4. Plank’s Law:
In 1900, after the failure of Rayleigh-Jean’s law, Max Plank has made some bold step to
explain the phenomenon of absorption or emission of radiation.
He firmly believed that a new mechanics should be introduced to explain such a
phenomenon instead of applying classical mechanics.
He thus proposed three fundamental postulates to explain the phenomenon of emission of
radiation, often called Plank’s Law for Radiations.
1st Postulate:
The origin of emission of radiations from a cavity radiator is infact, harmonic oscillator of the
cavity.
2nd Postulate:
The emission or absorption of energy is not considered as a continuous phenomenon, but
infact it is Quantized.
3rd Postulate:
Only those harmonic oscillators emit energy inform of electromagnetic wave those minimum
energy must be equal to “hv” or integral multiple of “hv”.
Thus, Quantization of energy for nth harmonic oscillator can be written as:
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 ℎ𝑣
Where: n= 1, 2, 3, 4…..
h = Plank’s constant= 6.63 x 10-34 J-s and v= Frequency of harmonic oscillator.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz and Hallwach found that when electromagnetic radiations such as
visible light, Ultraviolet light, x-rays incident on a metal surface, particles are found to emit
out of the metal surface.
“The phenomenon of emission of particles from a metal surface when it is illuminated by
light of suitable frequency is known as “Photoelectric Emission”. Whereas the emitted
particles are called “Photo Particles”.
In practice, it was observed that Alkali-Metals like Na, K, Cs etc. are sensitive to only visible
light, but some other metals like Al, Zn, Cu, Cd etc. are sensitive to ultraviolet and x-rays
only.
Later on, Lenard has made an attempt to determine e/m of photo-particle, equal to e/m of
an electron. He suggested that photo-particles are infact “Electrons”, called “Photo-
Electrons”.
Experimental Arrangement:
The Hallwach’s experimental arrangement
consists of two zinc plates are fixed inside an
evacuated bulb. The plates are connected with
the positive and negative terminals of a battery
of known P.D. A micro-Am meter is connected
in the circuit to observe phenomenon of
emission of photo-electrons.
When ultraviolet light of suitable frequency
incident on cathode plate, a very feeble current
in few micro ampere flow in the circuit. But, when the same radiations incident on anode
plate no such current is found in the circuit concern.
Laws of Photoelectric Effect or Results of Photoelectric Effect:
After the number of experiment performed by the scientist some fundamental laws were
formulated about the emission of photoelectrons.
These laws are:
i. To every metal surface there must needed radiations in a particular frequency range,
below which no photoelectric emission takes place.
i. The minimum frequency needed to emit photoelectrons from a metal surface, is
referred as “Threshold Frequency”. It is symbolized by “v o”. Its value depends on,
nature of material of the metal surface.
ii. The strength of photoelectric current directly depends on intensity of radiation,
provided v > vo.
iii. The velocity and hence kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted out of metal surface
directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiations, provided v > v o.
iv. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous phenomenon. The time needed for
emission of a photo-electron from metal surface, is no more longer than 3 x 10-9
second.
EINSTEIN’S QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

After the failure of classical mechanics. Albert Einstein proposed a new ideology about the
nature of light on the basis of Plank’s Quantum Theory of Radiation.
According to him:
“A light ray of frequency “v” is composed of tiny packets of energy, called Photons. In
radiations of frequency (v) only those photons exist whose energy remains equal to (hv) or
integral multiple of hv”.
Hence, for quantization of energy in photons of radiations we may write as:
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 ℎ𝑣
Where: n= 1, 2, 3, 4,….
h= Plank’s constant= 6.63 x 10-34 J.s
v= Frequency of Light.
EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ON THE BASIS OF

EINSTEIN’S QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT
According to Einstein’s ideology:
When a ray of light of frequency “v” is incident on a metal surface such that v > v o, then
photon of radiations losses its energy completely into two ways.
i. Some part of photon’s energy is utilized in doing work against the lattice-energy of
surface.
ii. The rest of photon’s energy is used in imparting kinetic energy to the liberated
electron.
The energy of incident photon which is used to pull an electron out of the metal surface, is
referred as Photoelectric Work Function. It is symbolized by “𝝋𝒐 ”.
The magnitude of photoelectric work function directly depends on the threshold frequency
needed for metal surface.
Mathematically:
𝜑𝑜 ∝ 𝑣𝑜
𝜑𝑜 = ℎ𝑣𝑜
EINSTEIN’S EQUATION FOR PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Let us assume that:
i. The frequency of incident light= v
ii. The energy of incident photon= h v
iii. The threshold frequency for metal surface= vo
iv. The photoelectric work function needed for the metal surface= 𝜑𝑜 = ℎ𝑣𝑜
v. The K.E gained by the liberated electron
1 2
𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Now, applying law of conservation of energy,
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜑𝑜 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 2
ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣𝑜 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1 2
ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣𝑜 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1 2
1 2
ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 ) = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∴ 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜𝑒
2 2
𝑐
ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 ) = 𝑉𝑜𝑒 ∴ 𝑣 =
𝜆
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ ( − ) = 𝑉𝑜𝑒
𝜆 𝜆𝑜
Where Vo is stopping potential. (It is the voltage required to stop the fastest photoelectron
emitted having maximum K.E) and “e” is the charge on an electron.
Where “𝜆” is the wavelength of incident light and “𝜆𝑜 ” is the threshold or cut off wavelength
(Threshold wavelength or cut off wave length “𝜆𝑜 ” is the longest wavelength required to
initiate photoelectric effect, depends on the nature of the surface) and “c” is the speed of
light in vacuum.
PHOTOCELL
A photocell is a device used to produce photoelectric current.
Construction:
It consists of an evacuated glass tube fitted with two electrodes.
Cathode plate is made curved and coated with a thin layer of
some photosensitive metal such as “cesium” so that visible light
causes photoelectric emission. The anode is made of a thin rod so
as not to obstruct light falling on cathode. A source of light is
installed at a fixed distance light from the source falls on cathode
and the emitted photoelectrons converge at the anode to
produce photoelectric current.
Application or Uses of Photocell:
Photo cells work on the basis of photo electric effect. These are widely used in various
devices.
Some uses of photo cells are:
i. To count vehicles passing a road or to count the number of articles running on a
conveyer belt.
ii. To automatically open doors,
iii. To operate burglar.
iv. To automatically switch on and switch off street lights.
v. Small electric cars even small single sealer planes have been developed which make
use of solar panels consisting of a large number of photo cell, that convert solar
energy into electrical energy.
MOMENTUM OF PHOTON
Rest mass of photon is zero. However, photon has mass as well as momentum in motion. Its
velocity is equal to the velocity of light.
Energy of a photon may be given by:
E = h v (Einstein’s Quantum Theory).
And E = mc2 (Theory of Relativity).
Therefore;
𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑣
ℎ𝑣
𝑚𝑐 =
𝑐
But mc= p= momentum of photon
ℎ𝑣
Therefore: 𝑝= 𝑐
But 𝑐 = 𝑣𝜆
Therefore:
ℎ𝑣
𝑝=
𝑣𝜆
ℎ
𝑝=
𝜆
The momentum of photon is directly proportional to the frequency “v” and inversely
proportional to the wavelength “𝜆” of the radiation.
COMPTON EFFECT
IN 1922, A.H Compton has made a successful interaction of x-ray’s photon and free Electron
of material of low atomic number like “Carbon”. This photoelectron interaction is often
called “Compton Effect”.
Mechanism:
When a x-ray’s photon of every sharp frequency is incident on a carbon block, it gets
successful collision with a free electron, transfers energy to electron and scatters with rest of
energy. In this interaction, the energy and frequency of scattered photon will be less than
that of incident photon and hence, the wavelength of scattered photon will be increased
than that of incident photon.
The change in wavelengths of scattered photon and incident photon is called “Compton
Shift” in wavelength and symbolized as “Δ𝜆”.
Derivation for Compton Shift in Wavelength:
The collision between photon and electron is elastic, therefore momentum and energy both
are conserved.
For Conservation of Energy:
Total initial energy= Total final energy
ℎ 𝑣 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑣 ′ + 𝐸
ℎ 𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝐸
ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣 ′ ) + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝐸 … . . (𝑖)
h = Plank’s Constant
v = Frequency of incident photon
v’ = Frequency of scattered photon
moc2= Rest mass energy of electron
C = Speed of light
E = Energy of electron after collision.
For Conservation of Momentum:
Along original direction:
Total momentum before collision= Total momentum after collision
ℎ𝑣 ℎ 𝑣′
+0 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑐 𝑐
Multiply by “c”
ℎ 𝑣 = ℎ 𝑣 ′ cos 𝜃 + 𝑝𝑐. cos 𝜑
ℎ 𝑣 − ℎ𝑣 ′ cos 𝜃 = 𝑝𝑐. cos 𝜑 … . (𝑖𝑖 )
θ = Angle at which photon is scattered
𝜑 = Angle at which electron is scattered.
Perpendicular to original direction:
Total momentum before collision= Total momentum after collision
ℎ𝑣 ′
0+0= sin 𝜃 − 𝑝 sin 𝜑
𝑐
ℎ 𝑣′
sin 𝜃 = 𝑝 sin 𝜑
𝑐
ℎ 𝑣 ′ sin 𝜃 = 𝑝𝑐. sin 𝜑 … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii) simultaneously, we get:
(Note: the solution of these equations is not in our syllabus)
1 1 ℎ
= + (1 − cos 𝜃) … . (𝑖𝑣)
𝑣′ 𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Now:
𝑐 1 𝜆 1 𝜆′
𝐶 = 𝑣𝜆, 𝑐 = 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝜆 𝑣 𝑐 𝑣′ 𝑐
Therefore, eq: (iv) gives:
𝜆′ 𝜆 ℎ
= + (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Multiplying throughout by “c”
ℎ
𝜆′ = 𝜆 + (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
ℎ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
ℎ
Δ𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
Where, Δ𝜆 = Compton Shift in wavelength.
PAIR PRODUCTION
Under suitable conditions when a photon passes near a nucleus it disappears and an
electron-position pair is produced. This phenomenon is known as “Pair Production”.
Positron is a positively charged particle its charge and mass are equal to the charge and mass
of an electron, the only difference between the two particle is that positron is positive and
electron is a negative particle. Positron is the anti-particle of electron.
According to Einstein’s mass energy equation. The energy required to create an electron is
“moc2” (called rest mass energy of electron) when “mo” is the rest mass of an electron.
Hence the minimum energy required for pair production is “2moc2” which is:
2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2
2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 1.638 × 10−31 𝐽
1.638 × 10−31
2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝑒. 𝑉
1.6021 × 10−19
2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 1.022 × 106 𝑒. 𝑉
2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 1.022 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ∴ 1 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 106 𝑒𝑉
Pair production takes place only if the energy of the photon is equal or greater than 1.022
MeV. If the energy of the photon is greater than “2m oc2” then during the process “2moc2”
energy is used to create the electron-position pair whereas the remaining energy is carried
away by the two particles in the form of K.E. the two particles move in opposite direction
carrying equal amount of K.E.
∴ ℎ𝑣 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒− + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒+
If energy of the incident photon is less than “2moc2” no pair production will take place.
During this process energy, momentum and charge are all conserved.
Pair production is also known as “Materialization of Energy”.
ANNIHILATION OF MATTER
If an electron (a particle) and a positron (anti-particle) come close to each other they
combine and destroy each other. This process is the reverse process of pair production and
is known as “Annihilation of Matter”. During this process at least two photons are produced.
To conserve momentum these photons move in opposite direction. Charge and energy are
also conserved.
(𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− + (𝐾. 𝐸)𝑒− + (𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ + (𝐾. 𝐸)𝑒+ = 2ℎ𝑣
(𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒− is the rest mass energy of electron and (𝐾. 𝐸)𝑒− is its K.E, similarly (𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒+ is
the rest mass energy of positron and (𝐾. 𝐸)𝑒+ is its KE and hv is the energy of each photon.
DE-BROGLIE’S CONCEPT OF MATTER WAVES

IN 1924, a French physicist Louis-de-Broglie has proposed a new ideology about the nature
of light called “Dual Nature of Light”.
According to him, light has dual nature i.e. it exhibits wave nature and matter nature under
appropriate conditions. E.g. when light exhibits wave nature, it produces phenomenon like
Reflection, Refraction, Interference, Diffraction and Polarization etc.
Similarly, when light exhibits matter nature, it produces phenomenon like Photoelectric
effect and Compton effect.
He further added that “Matter” also has dual nature like radiations (Light). His ideology was
based on three basic postulates given below:
i. Nature loves symmetry.
ii. Strong Parallelism between mechanics and optics.
iii. Integral rules in atom and wave motion.
By the observations, De-Broglie found that the momentum of an electron and momentum of
a photon is equal.
i.e.
𝑃(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) = 𝑃(𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛)
ℎ
𝑚𝑣 =
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
Where: m= mass of matter particle like electron
v = velocity of particle
𝜆 = Wave length of matter wave.
This equation originally proposed for electrons are equally applicable to any other particle.
Hence wave length “𝜆” associated with any moving body can be calculated with the help of
above equation. Waves associated with the particles are known as De-Broglie’s waves.
Wavelength “𝜆” associated with ordinary bodies moving with ordinary velocities (such as a
car) is very long and hence do not represent any appreciable wave character. But the
wavelength “𝜆” associated with a fast moving light particle (such as electron etc.) lies within
the range of electromagnetic spectrum and cannot be neglected.
Davisson and Germer in 927 experimentally proved the existence of De-Broglie waves
associated with fast moving electrons. Experimentally measured value of the wavelength
associated with fast moving electrons matched with the value theoretically predicted by De-
Broglie. Later on same wave like behavior was observed with other particles such as protons,
neutrons, and atoms etc.
GERMER AND DAVISSON EXPERIMENT
In this experiment electrons showed their wave nature. Electrons emitted from a filament
pass through voltage “V” and gain K.E. These high speed electrons strike a nickel target and
reflect at different angles and the intensity of reflected
electron beam is measured by the moveable detector D.
It was found that the intensity of reflected electron beam was
different at different angles. This behavior of electrons was
explained by Davisson and Germer. When they assumed that
electrons were not particles but wave. The electrons were
showing diffraction and interference by making maxima and
minima of intensity.
Wavelength of Electrons:
Through the voltage, electrons gain K.E i.e.
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑞𝑜 Δ𝑉
1
𝑚 𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2 𝑜
2 𝑒𝑉
𝑣2 =
𝑚𝑜
2 𝑒𝑉
𝑣=√
𝑚𝑜
Now:
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑜 𝑣
ℎ
𝜆=
2 𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑜 √ 𝑚
𝑜
ℎ
𝜆=
2 𝑒𝑉
√𝑚𝑜2 𝑚
𝑜
ℎ
𝜆=
√2 𝑒𝑉𝑚𝑜
Where “e” is the charge and “mo” is the rest mass of electron.
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

For a microscopic particle it is impossible to measure accurately the momentum and position
simultaneously. The principle states that, “The product of uncertainty in the momentum of a
particle at a certain instant and the uncertainty in the position of the particle at the same
ℎ
instant is equal to or greater than 2𝜋
Mathematically:
ℎ ℎ
Δ𝑝 × ∆𝑥 ≥ ∴ℏ=
2𝜋 2𝜋
Or ∆𝑝 × ∆𝑥 ≥ ℏ
Or ∆𝑝 × ∆𝑥 ≈ ℏ
Where: Δp= Uncertainty in momentum
Δx = Uncertainty in position
H = Plank’s constant
Another form of uncertainty principle states that the product of uncertainty in the
measurement of energy and the time available for the measurement of energy is equal to or
greater than ℏ.
∆𝐸 ∝ ∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ
Or
∆𝐸 × ∆𝑡 ≈ ℏ
Why the Uncertainty is of no importance in our everyday life???
Because the value of Plank’s constant “h” is very small that the uncertainties in position and
momentum of even quite light objects far too small to be experimentally observed for
microscopic phenomenon such as atomic process, the displacements and momentum are
such that the uncertainty is critically applicable.

Q.1 Explain why the Compton Effect is not observable with visible light?
Ans. In Compton's experiment, x-ray of wavelength 1 °A, equivalent to energy 140eV, were directed
on a graphite block, where binding energies of bounded electrons were102eV. If visible light is
used, it possesses law of frequency and these photons have energies 0.1eV. This energy is too
small to be given to loosely bound electrons to get them scattered.
Q.2 In what why do the particles of light (photons) differ from the particles of matter, such as
electrons and proton?
Ans.
Particles of matter (electron, proton etc) Particles of light (Photons)
i. Non-zero rest mass. i. Zero rest mass.
ii. They possess inertia and contain no energy ii. They consist of waves in packets of
“packets”. discrete amounts (called “energy packets”
or quanta).
iii. Their speed is always less than c (speed of iii. They travel with speed equal to that of
light). light.
iv. Their energy proportional to the square of iv. Their energy is proportional to frequency
the speed (E = 1/2mv2). (E = hv).
v. They may be charged or uncharged. v. They are always electrically neutral.
vi. When in motion, they are guided by the vi. They are not guided by matter waves.
matter waves.
Q.3 In the photo electric effect, the energy of a photoelectron in less than that of incident
photon. Explain?
Ans. When radiation (a photon) strikes a metal surface, it deposits its entire energy on some
electron in the absorbing surface. If the energy of the photon (hv) exceeds the energy required
by the electron in work against the force binding it to the surface (∅o), it will be emitted with
some energy. As K.E = hv – Øo, hence K.E < hv.
Q.4 If we keep applying a force on a material object, can the object gain the speed of
Ans. If we keep applying a force which can produce a velocity equal to velocity of light (v = c), then
the mass of the material body would become infinite. This is not possible.
Q.5 Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain.

Ans. No, because this process requires a heavy nucleus to conserve momentum and energy of the
system. The heavy nucleus takes the recoil after stopping the photon.
Q.6 Can an intense beam of television waves focused on a metal cause photoemission?
Ans. No, because TV waves are low frequency, while a metal requires high threshold frequency for
photoemission.
Q.7 Both Photoelectric emission and Compton scattering are processes that involve interaction of
radiation with matter. How do they differ?
Ans. In photoelectric effect an energy photon (e.g. ultraviolet light) can lose all its energy on striking
an electrons and the photon vanishes. But in Compton Effect, a high energy photon (e.g. x-ray)
loses part of energy and a photon is scattered with the remaining energy (and hence frequency
decreases).
Q.8 What happens to total radiation from black body if its absolute temperature is doubled?
Ans. According to Stephen Boltzmann law the total radiation "E" from a black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E = σT4
When temperature is doubled T' = 2T
E’ = σ(T’)4
E’ = σ(2T)4
E’ = 16(σT)4
E’ = 16E
This shows the total radiation energy will be increase 16 times.
Q.9 Will higher frequency light ejects greater number of electron than low frequency
Ans. No, the number of photoelectrons does not depend upon the frequency of light but depend
upon the intensity of light. Therefore higher frequency light will not emit more electrons than a
low frequency light. It means both high and low frequency light emits the same number of
electrons.
Q.10 When a photon disappears in producing an electron and a position, is the energy of photon
equivalent to that of the particles produced? Explain.
Ans. No, the energy of photon is always greater that the rest mass energy of elements position pair
(1.02MEV). The surplus energy is taken by the two particles as their kinetic energy.
CHAPTER#18
THE ATOMIC SPECTRA
BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
In 1913, after the failure of Rutherford’s atomic theory, Neil Bohr has suggested another
ideology about the structure of an atom, called Bohr’s atomic theory. This ideology was
based on three principles stated below:
1. Electrostatic (or) Stationary State Principle:
In an atom, all electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits under the action of
coulomb’s electrostatic force.
An electron while in circular motion never emits energy and hence principles of classical
mechanics cannot applied to the revolving electrons. The orbits of such electrons are called
“Bohr’s Stationary Orbits”.
2. Angular Momentum Principle:
An electron while rotates in a circular orbit has specific angular momentum. Infact, only
those electrons occupy Bohr’s stationary orbits whose angular momentum remains equals to
ℎ ℎ
“2𝜋 ” (or) integral multiple of “2𝜋 ”.
Hence, angular momentum of an electron occupies nth Bohr’s orbit is given by:
ℎ
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑛( )
2𝜋
Where: n= 1, 2,3, 4,5 ….,∞. It is often called Principle Quantum Number.
H = 6.63 x 10-34 j-sec.
3. Frequency o Rule Principle:
According to this, when atom gets excited state, its electron will be shifted from ground
state orbit to an excited state orbit. It instantaneously returns back to its ground state orbit
after emitting energy inform of radiations. The amount of radiation energy would be equal
to the difference of energies of the two orbits in which transition of electron takes place.
If “Ei” and “Ef” be the energy of an excited state orbit ground state orbit respectively, then
by the Frequency Rule Principle we may write as:
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑣
Where: Ei> Ef and v is the frequency of emitted radiations.
RADIUS OF “NTH” ORBIT OF HYDROGEN ATOM

Consider Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom in which an electron is revolved around the nucleus in nth
circular orbit.
Assume that:
1. The magnitude of charge on electron= e.
2. The mass of electron= m.
3. The magnitude of charge on nucleus= Ze= (1) e= e.
4. The tangential velocity of revolving electron= v.
5. The radius of nth orbit= rn=?
When an electron revolves around the nucleus in circular orbit, the electrostatic pull
provides the necessary centripetal force to the revolving electron.
Mathematically:
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑐
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑒 2
∴ 𝐹𝑒 = = 2 = 2
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
∴ 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2
=
𝑟2 𝑟
2
𝑘𝑒
= 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2 × 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟𝑛 = … (𝑖)
𝑚𝑣 2
In this equation, “k” and “e” are the known values. Thus if tangential velocity revolving
electron is obtained, the radius of nth stationary orbit can be determined.
To find velocity, applying angular momentum which states:
ℎ
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑛( )
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 = ∴ 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑣=
2𝜋𝑚𝑟𝑛
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑣2 =
4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑟𝑛2
Substituting “v2” in eq: (i)
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑚 ( 2 2 2)
4𝜋 𝑚 𝑟𝑛
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑛2 ℎ2
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛2
𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑘𝑒 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛
2
1=
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑛2 ℎ2 = 𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑟𝑛
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟𝑛 = 2 2
𝑘𝑒 4𝜋 𝑚
ℎ2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛2 ( 2 2 )
𝑘𝑒 4𝜋 𝑚
ℎ2 (6.63×10−34 )2
Hence, 𝑘𝑒 2 4𝜋2 𝑚 = 4×(3.142)2(9×109 )1.6×10−19 )2(9.1×10−31 ) = 0.53 × 10−10 𝑚 = 0.53°𝐴
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛2 (0.53°𝐴)
This expression represents radius of nth Bohr’s stationary orbit for hydrogen atom.
ENERGY OF NTH ORBIT OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Suppose that an electron is revolving in a circular orbit of radius, “rn”. The revolving electron
has some kinetic energy due to its tangential velocity and some potential energy due to its
work which is done against the electrostatic force of attraction of nucleus.
The electrostatic attraction between electron and proton is given by:
𝑒. 𝑒
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘. 2
𝑟
𝑒2
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘. 2 … . (𝑖)
𝑟
Because electron is revolving n a circular orbit with the velocity “v” thus centripetal force is
equal to electrostatic force.
i.e. 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑘𝑒 2
= 2
𝑟 𝑟
2
2
𝑘𝑒
𝑚𝑣 =
𝑟
Multiplying by ½ both sides
1 2
1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 =
2 2 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝐾. 𝐸 =
2𝑟
Potential energy of electron is given by:
PE= work done against the field.
PE= - qV
𝑞 𝑒
For electron, 𝑞 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑟 = 𝑘 𝑟
Now:
𝑘𝑒
𝑃. 𝐸 = −𝑒.
𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑃. 𝐸 = −
𝑟
According to the Law of conservation of energy
𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
𝑘𝑒 2 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸= + (− )
2𝑟 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 − 2𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸=
2𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸=−
2𝑟
Or 𝐸 = −𝐾. 𝐸
Energy for nth orbit is given by:
𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸𝑛 = −
2𝑟𝑛
Putting:
K = 9 x 109 Nm2/c2
E = 1.6 x 10-19 c
rn = (0.53 oA) n2
rn= (0.53 x 10-10 m) n2
9×109 ×(1.6×10−19 )2
𝐸𝑛 = − 2(0.53×10−10 )𝑛 2
13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑛2 𝑒𝑉
This expression represents the energy of nth Bohr’s stationary orbit for hydrogen atom.
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT EMITTED BY HYDROGEN ATOM
According to Bohr’s theory when an electron jumps from an inner to an outer orbit it
absorbs energy but when it jumps from an outer to an inner orbit it emits energy. The
difference of energies between the two orbits is emitted in the form of a photon of energy
“hv”. Hence if “Ei” and “Ef” represent the energy of the electron in its initial (outer orbit) and
final (inner orbit) energy states respectively then,
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 = ℎ𝑣
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 1
𝑣= = (𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 ) … . (𝑖)
ℎ ℎ
The energy of nth orbit is given by:
13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − 2 𝑒𝑉
𝑛
13.6 𝑒𝑉 13.6 𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑖 = − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑓 = −
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓2
Putting in eq: (i)
1 13.6 𝑒𝑉 13.6 𝑒𝑉
𝑣= [− + ]
ℎ 𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑓2
𝐶 1 1 1
= [13.6𝑒𝑉 (− 2 + 2 )]
𝜆 ℎ 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓
1 1 1 1
= [13.6 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 (− 2 + 2 )]
𝜆 ℎ𝐶 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓
1 21.74 × 10−19 1 1
= [− 2 + 2 ]
𝜆 ℎ𝐶 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑓
Here:
21.74 × 10−19
= 1.0968 × 107 𝑚−1 = 𝑅𝐻
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
“RH” is known as Rydberg’s constant.
Now:
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖
This expression represents the wave length of the radiation emitted by hydrogen atom.
SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM

The experimentally measured values of wavelength of light emitted in different spectral
series of hydrogen can also be calculated by the wavelength formula obtained on the basis
of Bohr’s theory of atomic structure. This is done by giving different values to “n r” for each
spectral series.
1. Lyman Series:
This series lies in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum of hydrogen. In Lyman series all the
transitions from outer orbits end at the first orbit, so that n f= 1. Hence wavelength of light
obtained in this series can be calculated by giving different values to ni.
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 1 𝑛𝑖
Where: ni= 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ….∞
2. Balmar Series:
Balmar series lies in visible part of spectrum of hydrogen. In this series all the transitions
from outer orbits end at the second orbit (i.e. nf= 2)
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 2 𝑛𝑖
Where: ni= 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ….∞
3. Paschen Series:
This series lies in infra-red region of hydrogen spectrum, this series is obtained when the
electron jumps from outer orbits to the third orbit or hydrogen atom.
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 3 𝑛𝑖
Where ni= 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ….∞
4. Bracket Series:
This series lies in the far infra-red region of hydrogen spectrum. Bracket series is obtained
when the electron jumps from outer orbits to the fourth orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 4 𝑛𝑖
Where ni= 5, 6, 7, 8, ….∞
5. Pfund Series:
This series lies in the in the far infra-red region of hydrogen spectrum. This series is obtained
from the transition of electron from outer orbits to the fifth orbit of hydrogen atom.
1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 5 𝑛𝑖
Where ni= 6, 7, 8, …..∞
EXCITATION ENERGY AND EXCITATION POTENTIAL

To move an electron from ground state to an excited state energy must be supplied to it.
The energy supplied is equal to the difference of energy between the two states of the atom.
Amount of energy required to move an electron from ground state (for hydrogen atom
n=1) to an excited state (n = 2,3,….) is called excitation energy of the state.
An atom of gas can be excited by different methods such as by heating the gas, by passing an
electric discharge through the gas or by illuminating the gas by light of suitable frequency
etc. Usually atoms are excited by passing an electric discharge through a gas. In this method
free electrons are accelerated by suitable potential difference. These accelerated electrons
on colliding the electrons in the atom transfer energy required to excite them.
Accelerating potential difference required to move an electron from ground state to an
excited state is called excitation potential for the state.
Energy of the electron in the ground state of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 eV. Whereas in the
second orbit its energy is – 3.4 eV, hence to send the electron from ground state to the first
excited state (second orbit) of hydrogen atom energy needed will be - 3.4 – (- 13.6) = 10.2
eV. In other words, excitation energy for the second orbit of hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV. The
corresponding potential difference through which a free electron must be accelerated so
that it transfers 10.2 eV energy to the electron in the ground state of hydrogen will be 10.2
volt. In other words, the excitation potential for the second orbit with respect to the first
orbit of hydrogen atom is 10.2 volt.
IONIZATION ENERGY AND IONIZATION POTENTIAL
When an electron is completely removed from an atom, it is said to be ionized. The amount
of energy required to ionize an atom is called ionization energy and the corresponding
accelerating potential is called ionization potential and denoted by I.P. Energy of electron in
the ground state of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 eV. If 13.6 eV energy is supplied to the electron
it will jump to such an orbit for which n=∞ and it will no longer be bound to the atom. Hence
the ionization energy for hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV and the ionization potential will be 13.6
volts.
Types of Emission of Radiation from Atom:
1. Spontaneous Emission:
When a photon of energy E2 – E1 hits an atom in ground state then the electron is raised to
excited state. The electron in excited state instantaneously comes back to ground state and
emits a photon of energy E2 – E1. This emission is spontaneous emission.
2. Stimulated Emission:
When a photon of energy E2 – E1 hits an atom in excited state E2 then the atom emits out a
photon of same energy and the two photons combine together to form coherent photons.
This is stimulated emission.
L.A.S.E.R
In 1954, physicists developed a method of producing coherent waves in microwaves region
called M.A.S.E.R which means, “Microwaves Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiations”.
In 1958, the principle of M.A.S.E.R was upgraded to the visible region by Townes and
Schawlow, called L.A.S.E.R which means, “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiations”.
Principle of LASER:
When external photon of energy E3 – E1 hits
the atoms in ground state, the electrons are
raised to state E3. But the life time of E3 is
very small therefore electrons immediately
leave this state and comedown to state E2
which is meta stable. This process of raising
electrons from ground state to second
energy state via state E3 is called “Optical
Pumping”.
As the second energy state is meta stable, the electrons keep accumulating and large
number of electrons reach this state leaving the ground state vacant. This condition is
termed as “Population inversion”.
From the atoms in state E2, a few of them undergo spontaneous emission and release
photons of energy E2 – E1. These photons hit the other atoms which are still in state E 2 and
cause stimulated emission due to which coherent photons are produced. This is the laser
principle.
Production of LASER through Ruby Crystal:
Ruby is the crystal of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) having 0.05 percent of chromium atoms. The
second energy state in chromium atoms is meta stable. The ruby rode is surrounding by a
coil-shaped flash lamp which produces yellow light form optical pumping the ends of the rod
are exactly parallel to each other. One end is fully silvered while the other end is semi-
reflecting.
Flash lamp emits photons of energy E3 – E1 which hit the chromium atoms. The electrons
accumulate in the energy level E2 because they reach this state faster than they leave it.
When population inversion is obtained, a few chromium atoms undergo spontaneous
emission and the laser action begins. Coherent photons begin together by repeated
stimulated emission and by reflecting from the ends of the rod. In this way red light of
wavelength 694.3 nm having extremely high intensity can be obtained.
Coherent photons which are parallel to the axis of the tube are useful for producing laser
light while the other photons escape out from the sides of the rod.
Uses of LASER:
Some applications of LASER’s technology are discussed below:
1. The LASER beam is successfully used for long distance communications and as well as
the repair of data-processing.
2. In medicine, LASER’s beam is being used for delicate operations such as the repair of
detached retina in human eye.
3. The LASER technology is commonly used for sharp and fine audio-visual recordings.
4. A very high intensive LASER beam is used for cutting thick metallic sheets. Whereas;
very low intensive beam is used for welding purposes.
5. A very high intensive LASER beam can be bounced from the surface of moon like a
radar beam.
6. A LASER beam is commonly used in printing.
7. A LASER beam is used in the field of photography specially in the formation of three
dimensional images, holography.
8. LASER beam is used as a source of potential energy for inducing fusion reaction in
hydrogen.
X-RAYS (UNKNOWN MYSTERIOUS RADIATIONS)
When high speed electrons impinge on a metal surface then photon of ultraviolet light are
produced. This ultraviolet light is called X-rays.
Principle:
When high speed electrons are made to stop, their K.E is released in the form of photons.
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass tube. Filament F is heated by battery E to emit
electrons. The emitted electrons pass through very high voltage V supplied between filament
F and target T. The electrons gain K.E and hit the target and X-rays are produced.
Spectrum of X-rays is continuous. It shows that X-rays consist of all wavelengths in a certain
range.
X-rays of shortest wavelength and maximum frequency are produced by those electrons
which come to stop in one collision. For such electrons we have:
K.E of electron= Energy of photon
𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒𝑉 𝑐 𝑐
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠; 𝑣 = 𝑜𝑟: 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
ℎ 𝜆 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶 𝑒𝑉
=
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ
1 𝑒𝑉
=
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝐶
ℎ𝐶
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑒𝑉
This shows that the wavelength for X-rays is inversely proportional to applied P.D. The range
of wavelength of X-rays is 1Ao to 10Ao or 0.1 nm to 1 nm or 10-10 nm to 10-9 nm.
Uses of X-rays:
Some uses of X-rays are given below:
1. In medical science e.g. to check fracture of injured bones.
2. In Airports for checking and security purpose.
3. In industry e.g. For checking the quality control in rubber tyre and tube manufacturing.
4. X-rays are also used to check the quality of welded parts of a machine or tool.
5. In scientific research labs E.g. to study the crystalline structure of solids.
Q.1 If the hydrogen gas is bombarded by electron of energy 13.6eV, would you expected to
observe all the lines of hydrogen spectrum?
Ans. If a hydrogen atom is bombarded by electrons of energy 13 6eV, it gas ionized because 13.5eV
is the ground state energy, which is equivalent to the ionization energy As such, no spectral
lines of hydrogen will be observed.
Q.2 Hydrogen gas at room temperature absorbs light of wavelengths equal to the lines in the
Lyman series but not those of the Balmier series. Explain?
Ans. Hydrogen gas at room temperature contains electrons in ground state (n=1) If the energy
supplied to the electron is such that the electron is lifted from its ground state to one of the
higher allowed orbits, the atom will be excited and it will absorb energy equal to the difference
of the energies of the electron in the two states. Thus light of wavelength equal to the lines in
the Lyman series will be absorbed
Q.3 How are x-rays different from the visible radiation?
Ans. The wavelength of x-rays is 1 °A to 10 °A and the wavelength of visible light is 4000°A to 7000
°A, therefore x-rays are very shorter than visible light therefore, x-rays are highly penetrating.
They can pass through many opaque solids such as wood.
Q.4 What property of x-rays makes them so useful in seeing otherwise invisible Internal
structures?
Ans. In solids, the atoms are grouped together in a regular manner The inner atomic distance in a
crystal is of the order of the wavelength of x-rays. Hence a crystal is used as a "transmission
grating" to produce diffraction of x-rays This x-ray crystallography has helped to locate the
internal structure of crystal systems (called basic unit cells).
Recently developed internal imaging devices (for human body) include CT (computerized
tomography) scanning. MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission
tomography).
Q.5 Explain the difference between laser light and light from an incandescent amp (or bulb)?
Ans.
Laser Light Incandescent Light
i. It is produced due to stimulated i. It is produced due to spontaneous
emission of radiation. emission of radiation.
ii. Laser is highly mono chromatic. ii. Light from an incandescent bulb is a
iii. It consists of parallel ways in a narrow mixture of several wavelengths.
beam and is highly directional (i.e. iii. It is emitted in all directions and spread
moves straight without spreading). out.
Q.6 Hydrogen atom contains only a single electron and yet the hydrogen spectrum contains many
lines. Why is this so?
Ans: The atoms of hydrogen can excited to different energy levels. The excited electrons will not stay
there. These will jump to the inner orbits. One de-excitation, an electron does not necessarily
return to the ground state in a single jump. Rather, it may return by several jumps. Thus several
spectral lines of different frequencies are emitted, depending upon the differences of energies
between the levels for the transitions. So, the spectrum of hydrogen contains many lines.
Q.7 Why does laser usually emit only one particular color of light rather than several colors?
Ans: A laser beam is highly coherent and monochromatic, i.e. the emitted photons have the same
frequency and wavelength. As each and every color has got its own VILEC wavelength, so laser,
being monochromatic, emits only one particular color of light.
CHAPTER#19
THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS
Charge Number of Nucleus:
The number of photons present in the nucleus of an atom is called “Charge Number”. It is denoted by
“z”.
Mass Number of Nucleus:
Total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called “Mass Number”. It is
denoted by “A”.
Any nucleus X is represented as 𝑧𝑋 𝐴 . For example sodium nucleus is 11Na23.
No. of neutrons in a nucleus is given by:
𝑁 =𝐴−𝑍
Nuclear Mass:
Total mass of nucleons present inside the nucleus is called “Nuclear Mass”. Or The sum of the mass of
neutrons and the mass of protons is called nuclear mass. It is denoted y “M”.
Isotopes:
All such nuclei having same charge number Z but different values of mass number A are called
Isotopes.
For example, hydrogen has three isotopes:
i. Protium (1H1); Z= 1, A= 1, and N= 0.
ii. Deuterium (1H2); Z= 1, A= 2, and N= 1.
iii. Tritium (1H3); Z= 1, A= 3, and N= 2.
RADIOACTIVITY
The spontaneous emission of invisible rays from the elements having atomic number greater than 82 is
called radioactivity. The emitted rays are called radioactive rays and the elements which emit such rays
are called radioactive elements.
In 1896 Henry Becquerel discovered that uranium atom emits radiations these radiations cause
blackening of photographic plates they can penetrate into glass, water and thin layers of metal. The
nuclei of such heavy elements are unstable and disintegrate spontaneously.
RADIOACTIVE RAYS
Radioactive elements emit three types of rays:
(i) Alpha rays (ii) Beta rays (iii) Gamma rays
i. α-rays consist of positively charged particle. They are helium nuclei with charge number 2 and
mass number 4.
ii. β-rays consist of positively charged particles. They are electrons, emitted from a radioactive
nucleus.
iii. γ-rays are electromagnetic radiation. These are photons of ultraviolet light.
Properties of Alpha – Rays:
Some essential properties related to the α – rays are discussed below:
i. The α – rays are composed of positively charged particles called, “α – Particles”. Each α –
particle carries two units of positive charge i.e.
q = 2 x (Charge of proton) = 2 x 1.6 x 10-19 C= 3.2 x 10-19 c.
ii. An α – particle is a helium nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons.
iii. The mass of a α – particle is four times greater than that of a proton i.e. mass of α – particle= 4
x (mass of a proton). mα= 4 x (1.67 x 10-27)= 6.67 x 10-27 kg.
iv. The speed of α – particles was found from 1.4 x 107 m/sec to 1.7 x 107 m/sec.
v. α – particles produce intense ionization phenomenon when they are passed through the gases.
Their ionizing power is about 100 times greater than that of β-rays and about 10,000 times
greater than that of γ-rays.
vi. α – particles show very low penetrating power. They hardly penetrate 7.0 cm through the air.
vii. The ratio of charge and mass (e/m) of an α – particle is calculated to be one-half of the (e/m) of
a proton.
viii. α – particles produce fluorescence when they are incident on zinc sulphide and barium
platinocyanide.
ix. α – particles produce heating effects when they are incident on a metal surface.
x. α – particles affect a photographic plate, but their effects on plate are very feeble.
xi. α – particles can be deflected under the action of an electric field and magnetic field.
This characteristic shows that α –particles are infact, charged particles.
Properties of β – Rays:
Some essential properties related to the β-rays are discussed below:
i. The β-rays are composed of negatively charged particles, called “β – particles”. Each β Particle
carries one unit of negative charge i.e. q= e= -(1.6 x 10-19) C.
ii. The mass of a β – Particle is equal to the mass of an electron. i.e. mβ= me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg.
iii. The ratio of charge and mass (e/m) of a β – Particle is equal to that of electron, when velocity of
β – Particles is non-relativistic.
iv. The speed of β – Particles was found in the range from 0.3 c to 0.99 c.
v. β – Particles show low ionization phenomenon when they are passed through the gases. Their
ionizing power is about 100 times less than that of α – Particles.
vi. β – Particles show high penetration power. They can penetrate through 1.0 cm aluminum
sheet.
vii. β – Particles produce fluorescence when they are incident on calcium tungstate and barium
platinocyanide.
viii. β – Particles affect photographic plate more effectively. Their effect on photographic plate are
found more prominent than that of α – Particles.
ix. β – Particles can be deflected under the action of an electric field and magnetic field. The
direction of their deflection shows that they are negatively charged particles.
x. The magnitude of charge and mass of β – Particles shows that β – Particles are identical with
“Electrons”.
Properties of γ – Rays:
Some essential characteristics related to the γ – rays are discussed below:
i. The γ – rays are composed of packets of very high energy called, “γ – Photons”.
ii. γ – rays are the radiations of very shorter wavelength range from 0.005 Ao to 0.5 Ao.
iii. γ – rays does not show any deflection under the action of either electric field or magnetic field.
This property verifies that γ – rays are electromagnetic radiations.
iv. γ – rays can travel in space with the speed of light, 3 x 108 m/s.
v. γ – rays show very poor ionization phenomenon when they are passed through the gases, their
ionization power is about 10,000 times less than that of ∝-particles.
vi. γ – rays shows very high penetrating power. They can penetrate through an iron block of 30 cm
thickness.
vii. γ – rays produce fluorescence when they are incident on cadmium tungstate, zinc sulphide and
barium platinocyanide.
viii. γ – rays effect a photographic plate, their effect is greater than β – rays.
ix. γ – rays are diffracted by crystals and obey Bragg’s Equation for diffraction.
x. γ – rays show line spectrum consists of sharp spectral lines these lines indicate existence of a
number of energy levels in the nucleus.
LAW OF RADIOACTIVITY
In the process of radioactive disintegration, the original radio-atom (parent atom) disintegrates into a
new radio-atom (daughter atom) with the emission of nuclear radiation. In 1913, Soddy and Fajan
formulated some basic principles to explain the radioactive changes called,
“Displacement Law”. These principles are given below:
i. In all known radioactive series wither an alpha particle or a beta particle is emitted. It simply
means, neither more than one of each particle nor both particles are emitted at the same
instant.
ii. When an alpha particle is emitted from a radio atom, it disintegrates into a new daughter atom
whose mass number is less by four units and atomic number is less by two units.
i.e. 𝑧𝑋 𝐴 ⟶ 𝑧 − 2𝑌 𝐴−4 + 2𝐻𝑒 4 (𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
(Parent Nucleus) (daughter Nucleus)
328
e.g. 92𝑈 ⟶ 90𝑇𝐻324 (𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚)
iii. When a beta particle is emitted from a radio-atom, it disintegrates into a new daughter atom
whose mass number remains same but atomic number is increased by one unit.
i.e. 𝑧𝑋 𝐴 ⟶ 𝑧 + 1𝑌 𝐴 + −1𝛽 0 (𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
234
90𝑇𝐻 ⟶ 91𝑝𝑎234 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚)
iv. When a positive beta particle is emitted from a radio atom, it disintegrates into a new daughter
atom whose mass number remains same but atomic number is decreased by one unit.
i.e. 𝑧𝑋 𝐴 ⟶ 𝑧 − 1𝑌 𝐴 + 1𝛽 0 (𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑎 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)
234
90𝑇𝐻 ⟶ 89𝐴𝑐 234 (𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚)
v. When a gamma photon is emitted from a radio atom, it returns to the ground state with same
mass number and atomic number.
e.g. 𝑧𝑋 𝐴 ∗⟶ 𝑧𝑋 𝐴 + 𝛾(𝐺𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛)
(Excited State) (Ground State)
LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY OR DISINTEGRATION

Soddy and Rutherford analyzed that the rate at which a radio element disintegrates was independent
of any physical or chemical change, but depends on the total number of radio atoms contained by the
radioactive sample at the time of disintegration.
According to them, “the rate of decay of radioactive atoms at any instant is directly proportional to the
total number of radio atoms that exist at that instant”.
If “N” be the total number of radio atoms that present at any instant of “t”, then the rate of radio
atoms that heave decayed can be expressed mathematically as:
𝑑𝑁
−( ) ∝ 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Here, negative sign shows that number of radio atoms decreases with the passage of time.
𝑑𝑁
− ( ) = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Where “𝜆” is the constant of proportionality, called “Radioactive decay constant” or “Decrease in
activity” of the radio element. Its value depends on the nature of radio element.
Definition of Radioactive Decay Constant:
According to the law of radioactive disintegration:
𝑑𝑁
− ( ) = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
− ( 𝑑𝑡 )
𝜆=
𝑁
According to the equation, “the ratio of rate of radio atoms that have decayed to the total number of
radio atoms that exist at the time of decay, is called Radioactive decay constant”.
Unit of Radioactive Decay Constant:
𝑑𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
−( ) ( ) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 1 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐
As, 𝜆 = 𝜆= 𝜆= × 𝜆=
𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Hence, the radioactive decay constant is measured by “per second”.
Activity:
The number of disintegration per second is called activity and denoted by “A” and is taken as a positive
number. Hence, the activity at any time “t” may be expressed as:
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
Relative Activity:
The ratio of N/No is called relative activity. Where No is the number of parent nuclei at time t= 0.
Relative activity decreases as time passes.
EXPONENTIAL LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

A graph is plotted between time and relative activity N/No. At the
start the value of N/No is equal to 1. Graph shows that the
radioactive decay is fast in the beginning and as time passes, it slows
down. This is exponential behavior. The exponential behavior is
mathematically expressed as:
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
Where, e= 2.718 and 𝜆= decay constant.
HALF LIFE OF RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT

Half-life of a radioactive element is the time in which half of the existing parent nuclei decay into
daughter nuclei. It is denoted by𝑇1 .
2
Determination of Half Life of A Radioactive Element:
Suppose that we have radioactive sample of a radio element which contains “NO” number of radio
atoms at t= 0. If “N” be the total number of radio atoms that exists after any instant “t”, then according
to the law of exponential disintegration we may write as:
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 × 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 … . (𝑖)
𝑁𝑜
If 𝑁 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑇1
2 2
𝑁𝑜 −𝜆𝑇1
Eq: (i) => = 𝑁𝑜 × 𝑒 2
2
1 −𝜆𝑇1
=𝑒 2
2
𝜆𝑇1
2=𝑒 2
Taking “In” both sides,

𝐼𝑛(2) = 𝜆𝑇1
2
𝐼𝑛(2)
𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
0.693
Or 𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
According to this equation, if radioactive decay constant of a radio element is known to us, the half-life
of that element can be determined.
Note:
Noted that; radio elements have different range of their half-lives e.g. Uranium has half-life of about
4.9 x 109 years, polonium has a half-life of about 140 day and Radium “Ra” has a half-life of about 10-6
seconds. It means some radio elements have very high, some have moderate and some have very short
range of half-lives.
Nuclear Force:
In order to hold positively charged protons and neutral neutrons together inside a nucleus a very
strong force exists between them. This force is known as nuclear force; it is stronger than the repulsive
coulomb force between the positively charged protons. Nuclear force is short range and is
independent of charge on the particle. It means that this force is effective over a very short distance
(its range is of the order of size of the nucleus). Hence inside a nucleus each nucleon is attracted by the
other irrespective of its charge with a very strong short range nuclear force.
Mass Defect:
Mass of a stable nucleus is less than the combined mass of its constituent particles in free state. This
difference in mass is called mass defect.
Example: A deuterium nucleus (deuteron) is made up of one proton and one neutron. Combined mass
of one proton and one neutron in free state is greater than the mass of deuteron.
Calculation of Mass Defect:
Mass of one proton= 1.6724 x 10-27 kg.
Mass of one neutron= 1.6748 x 10-27 kg.
Combined mass of proton and neutron= 3.3472 x 10-27 kg.
Mass of deuteron= 3.343 x 10-27 kg.
Mass defect= 3.3472 x 10-27 – 3.343 x 10-27
Δm= 0.0042 x 10-27 kg.
Binding Energy:
The amount of energy released during the formation of a nucleus is called binding energy of that
nucleus. It is the energy equivalent of mass defect. If Δm is mass defect, then binding energy is ΔmC 2.
Example: mass defect of deuterium nucleus is:
Δm= 0.0042 x 10-27 kg.
Therefore, binding energy of deuteron is:
B. E= ΔmC2
B. E= (0.0042 x 10-27) (3 x 108)2
B. E= 3.69 x 10-13 J
Or B. E= 3.69 x 10-13/ 1.6 x 10-19 eV
B. E= 2.3 x 106 eV
𝐵. 𝐸 = 2.3 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ∴ 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 106 𝑒𝑉
Packing Fraction:
Binding energy per nucleon is called Packing Fraction. For example, binding energy of deuteron is 2.3
MeV. It is the energy of two nucleons (one proton and one neutron). Therefore, packing fraction of
deuteron is:
2.3
𝑃. 𝐹 = = 1.15 𝑀𝑒𝑉⁄𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛
2
NUCLEAR REACTION
The nuclear reaction means, “Transmutation of a stable nucleus into another stable nucleus by
interaction with a particle or photon”.
Bohr’s Scheme for Nuclear Reaction:
After successful completion of some nuclear reactions, Neil Bohr suggested a general scheme for
nuclear reaction. According to him,
“When a projectile (A) hits a target nucleus (B), it combines to form a new unstable nucleus, called
compound nucleus (C). The unstable nucleus spontaneously disintegrates into a stable nucleus (D) and
outgoing particle is (P) or a photon”.
Reaction:
𝐵 + 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶 ∗⟶ 𝐷 + 𝑃
Symbolic Form:
B (A, P) D
The nuclear reaction is often denoted by two symbols inside a parentheses, (A, P); first symbol
represents the projectile and second expresses an outgoing particle. E.g. (∝, 𝑃) nuclear reaction shows
that projectile is an “∝ particle” and outgoing particle is a “proton”.
In a nuclear reaction, projectile may be neutral or charge particle of photon. Neutron is the most
effective one, as it can easily enter into a nucleus without experiencing any repulsion. Whereas,
proton, deuteron and ∝ particle etc., has to be accelerated before they are able to overcome the
repulsion of target nucleus.
Q – Value of Nuclear Reaction:
In general, a nuclear reaction is expressed by the following scheme,
𝑋+𝑎 ⟶ 𝑌+𝑏+𝑄
Where, “a” is the incident projectile. “X” is the target nucleus. “Y” is the product nucleus. ‘b’ is the
outgoing particle. “Q” is the energy either released or absorbed during nuclear reaction, called “Q –
Value of the nuclear reaction”. The Q – Value may be positive or negative, depends on the condition
whether energy is evolved out of the nuclear reaction or absorbed into the nuclear reaction.
i. If K.E of the products of nuclear reaction is greater than the K.E of the reactants, then energy is
evolved out of the nuclear reaction and thus it is referred as “Exothermic” or “Exoergic” nuclear
reaction. In this case, Q – Value of nuclear reaction will be “Positive”.
ii. If K.E of the reactants of nuclear reaction is less than the K.E of the products, then some energy must
be needed to initiate the nuclear reaction and thus it is referred as “Endothermic” or “Endoergic”
nuclear reaction. In this case, Q – Value of nuclear reaction will be “Negative”.
NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION
“The process of splitting a nucleus into smaller nuclei with the release of energy is known as nuclear
fission”.
During the fission of 92U235 with a slow neutron krypton and barium of roughly equal size are produced
along the three neutrons and large amount of energy.
235
92U + 0n1⟶36Kr89 + 56Ba144 + 3 0n1 + energy
89 144
36Kr and 56Ba are called fission fragments.
In general fission reaction may be written as:
1 235
0n + 92U ⟶ (92U236)* ⟶ X + Y + neutrons + energy
(92U236) * is exited or compound nucleus of uranium formed after the capture of a neutron, whereas X
and Y are the fission fragments. Fission fragments may also be radioactive and may decay in number of
ways into stable nuclei.
Due to mass defect between Uranium and fission fragments the total mass of fission fragments is less
than the mass of Uranium nucleus. This loss of mass (mass defect) is converted into energy according
to Einstein’s mass energy relation. In the above reaction about 200 MeV energy per fission is released.
Fission Chain Reaction:
During each fission reaction some neutrons are also emitted. These neutrons are of high energy, hence
if they are slowed down then on colliding with other Uranium nuclei they will produce further fission.
This continuous fission process in known as nuclear “Chain Reaction”. Material used for slowing down
fast moving neutrons is known as a Moderator. Graphite or ordinary water are commonly used as
moderators, while heavy water is the best moderator. Number of neutrons available for fission
reaction will keep on increasing. In this manner a chain reaction is established. Chain reaction, is
therefore, a self-sustaining reaction. The rate of reaction or in other words, the speed with which chain
reaction proceeds can be controlled by controlling the number of neutrons available. This can be done
by using suitable neutron absorbing rods.
The minimum quantity of fissionable material required to sustain nuclear fission at a uniform rate is
known as Critical Mass. Chain reaction will die if mass of Uranium is less than the critical mass, similarly
it proceeds at a faster rate and releases more energy if mass of Uranium is more than its critical mass.
NUCLEAR REACTOR
In a nuclear reactor energy released during nuclear fission is converted into useful electrical energy.
During fission reaction energy released is in the form of heat. The rate of fission reaction is controlled
by using suitable neutron absorbing boron or cadmium rods, so that heat is obtained at a steady rate.
Huge quantity of heat released is removed with the help of a coolant. The choice of coolant material
depends upon type of reactor. Usually ordinary water, heavy water, mercury, liquid sodium etc., are
used as coolants. Heat carried by the coolant is then used to operate turbines to produce electricity.
Neutron absorbing rods used to control the rate of reaction are called control rods.
Fission of (92U235) takes place with slow neutrons, hence fast moving neutron released during fission
reaction are to be slowed down before they can produce further fission. A suitable material, such as
heavy water, used for slowing down fast moving neutrons is known as Moderator.
Nuclear reactors are intense source of neutron and gamma radiations which are extremely dangerous
for life. Hence two kinds of shielding are required. Biological shielding and thermal shielding. Biological
shield is required to protect scientists working in the reactor area. Six to eight feet thick concrete layer
can be used as biological shield, it absorbs neutrons and gamma rays. Thermal shield is required for
reactors operating at high power.
The Atom Bomb
In an atom bomb the rate of fission reaction is left uncontrolled. This is done by taking mass of uranium
more than its critical mass. Under these conditions fission reaction proceeds at such a rapid
uncontrolled rate that the large amount of energy released produces an explosion. The atomic bomb
explosion can easily destroy a small city.
Strong shock waves produced during atom bomb explosion destroy buildings etc. whereas large
quantity of strong nuclear radiations (Gamma rays) emitted are extremely harmful for life.
Nuclear Fusion
“The process of combining two or more light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus with the release of
energy is called Nuclear Fusion”.
Heavier nucleus formed after combining lighter nuclei has more mass defect in other words mass of
the heavier nucleus is less than the sum of masses of the lighter nuclei. Mass lost during this process is
converted into energy according to Einstein’s mass energy relation. During a nuclear fusion more
energy per nucleon is released as compared with the energy released during fission reaction.
Consider the fusion reaction between a deuterium and a tritium nucleus,
2 3 4 1
1H + 1H ⟶2He + 0n + energy
During the above fusion reaction, a helium nucleus is produced along with a release of about 17.6 MeV
energy.
Fusion reaction can therefore produce abundant energy using deuteron as raw material. It is a very
difficult to produce fusion reaction because the positively charged smaller nuclei repel each other
before they can fussed and the repulsive force increases as they are brought close to each other.
Fusion reaction takes place at a very high temperature (more than a million degrees centigrade).
Hydrogen bomb utilizes fusion reaction, releases more energy, therefore, it has more destructive
power than an atom bomb. Scientists have not been able to control fusion reaction as yet, hence the
enormous amount of energy released could not be converted into electricity.
Fusion Reaction in Sun and Stars:
The enormous amount of energy produced by the sun and other stars is due to fusion reaction.
Temperature on the surface of the sun and other stars is very high (more than million degrees
centigrade). Under these conditions fusion reaction can easily take place. To explain fusion reaction
taking place on the sun and other stars proton-proton cyclic process was proposed. In each such cycle
energy released is estimated to be about 25 MeV.
Another cyclic fusion process, called carbon cycle, assumed to be taking place on the surface of the sun
was proposed by Bethe. In this cycle energy released is estimated to be about 26.7 MeV. The reaction
which takes place in the sun utilizes four hydrogen nuclei to form a helium nucleus in the following
manner.
1 1 2 0
i. 1H + 1H ⟶1H + 1β + v (neutrino)
1 2 3
ii. 1H + 1H ⟶2He + γ
iii. 1H1 + 2He3⟶2He4 + 1β0 + v
Carbon Cycle: Bethe proposed solar fusion to occur in the following manner:
12 1 13
i. 6 C + 1 H ⟶7 N + γ
13 13 0
ii. 7 N ⟶6 C + 1 β + v
iii. 6C13 + 1H1⟶7N14 + γ

iv. 7N14 + 1H1⟶8O15 + γ
15 15 0
v. 8 O ⟶7 N + 1 β + v
vi. 7N15 + 1H1⟶6C12 + 2He4

In this cycle carbon acts as Catalyst.
Q.1 Do α, β and gamma rays come from the same element, Why do we find all three in many
radioactive samples?
Ans. A radioactive element either emits α -particle or β-particle, but never both Gamma radiations
generally accompany β emission and in some cases with α emission. A radioactive element (or
sample) is mixture of various nuclides of different relative abundances and with different
modes of disintegration. Hence we can find an the activates in a radioactive sample at the same
time For example, R 226 is an α emitter, but Ra-25 is α, β emitter.
Q.2 It is more difficult to start fusion reaction that fission. Why?
Ans. Fission is caused by captured of neutrons by heavy nuclei Neutron, being electrically neutral, is
highly penetrating particle for nuclei. But in fusion of two light nuclei, the positively charged
nuclei are repelled by the repulsive forces. So work has to be done against the repulsive forces
of the nuclei.
Q.3 Is it possible, that fusion of two small nuclei may occur without collision at extremely high
energy?
Ans. No, two nuclei must collide with sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate their mutual "Columb
Barrier" and come within the range of the nuclear forces.
Q.4 Explain how a nuclear reactor produces heat as result of fission?
Ans. In fission the difference of binding energies of reactants and products in converted into energy.
The difference of mass (0.22u) appears as energy (200MeV). If fission takes place in a bulk solid,
most of the disintegration energy appears as an increase in the internal energy of the solid,
which shows a corresponding rise in temperature. This thermal energy is carried away to the
heat exchange by circulating the coolant through the reactor.
Q.5 Can a conventional fission reactor ever explode like a bomb does? Why?
Ans. In a nuclear reactor, a fission explosion is not possible, because the amount of fuel (e.g U-235
or py-239) is of sub critical mass and it can shut off control rods in emergency. Also, liquid
"piston" can be inserted directly into the moderator if other safely devisees fail
Q.6 Consider a sample of 1000 radioactive nuclei with a half-life T. approximately, how many will
be left after a time 3T?
Ans. The number of nuclei decayed in one half-life (T1/2 = T) are 500 Also, the number of nuclei which
decay in three period of half-life are 1000/23, Hence the number of nuclei left is 125.
Q.7 Why is heavy water more efficient moderator than ordinary water?
Ans. Heavy water (D20) has much lower probability of capturing neutrons but it can slow neutrons.
In fact, heavy water is 1600 times more efficient as moderator than ordinary water (H20).
CHAPTER#20
NUCLEAR RADIATIONS
WILSON’S CLOUD CHAMBER
In 1912, C.T.R “Wilson” inverted a particle detector called “Cloud Chamber”. It enables us to
visualize the track of charge particles in their paths.
Basic Principle:
This detector is based on the fact that if there is a sudden expansion of saturated vapor in a
chamber, super cooling of the vapors occurs. Tiny droplets will be formed by condensing
over the dust particles presents in the chamber. If, therefore, we have completely dust free
and saturated air and there occurs a sudden adiabatic expansion, then condensation will not
take place there. But, if ions are available in the chamber during the expansion, they serve as
nuclei for condensation. Hence, if an ionizing particle passes through the chamber during an
adiabatic expansion, ions are produced along its path and droplets condense on these ions
and thus the “Track” of the particle becomes visible.
Construction:
The cloud chamber consists of a closed chamber having glass top and moveable piston at its
bottom. Two glass windows are provided in the walls of the chamber opposite to each other.
A high volatile liquid such as alcohol is placed above the piston in the chamber. A strong
source of light, subatomic particles source and high speed sensitive camera are also
provided.
Working:
Some quantity of volatile liquid having low boiling point such as alcohol is placed in the
chamber above the piston. The piston is at first moved up, so that the air inside the chamber
is cleaned up and then it is suddenly moved down, so that the internal pressure is dropped.
The vapors in the chamber are thus cooled adiabatically. The super saturated vapors
condense in the form of fog. At the right moment the particle to study is allowed to enter
into the chamber and an intense beam of light is used to illuminate the chamber. The
ionizing particle leaves positive and negative ions all along its track and tiny fog droplets
condense each ion. The whole track can be seen and photographed in bright light.
A strong electric or magnetic field can be applied to later the path. From the path diagram of
particles path length, thickness, continuity or discontinuity and the influence of magnetic
field, the ionizing power, penetrating power and e/m can be determined.
The path diagram of α, β and γ rays show that path of α-particles looks like a continuous
streak. It shows that the ionizing power of α-particle is very large. The path diagram of β-
particles is not continuous and less prominent. It shows that their ionizing power is less than
α-particles. The path diagram of γ-particles is an adiabatic track which shows their weakest
ionization power.
GEIGER COUNTER
Geiger counter (also known as G.M. tube) is a portable device widely used as a detector of
ionizing particles or radiations.
Construction:
It is simple, small portable device. It consists of a hollow metallic cylinder, one end of which
is closed by an electric insulation. At the other end there is a thin foil of mics through which
radiations can enter. The cylinder usually contains a mixture of argon and alcohol at suitable
pressure. A large potential difference of about 1000V is established between the cylinder
wall and the wire. This gives a strong electric field in the cylinder. Cylinder walls are used as
cathode and wire as anode.
Working:
When ionizing particles enter the counter through the window, it produces ions and
electrons in the gas. These electrons are accelerated by the electric field. The accelerated
ions suffer collisions with other molecules and produce further ionization. This gives rise to a
discharge in the tube and the gas becomes conducting. A current starts flowing through the
circuit. The voltage drops is amplified and recorded by a loudspeaker or by an electric
counter. There is a mechanism in the counter which makes it again conducting and ready to
record another particle. Every ionizing particle as a trigger. The number of particles entering
the counter are recorded by the recorder. The number of counts recorded by the counter is
a measure of strength of the radiations.
Effects of Radiations:
When a living tissue is exposed to radiations, the energy absorbed may produce chemical
changes in the cells which affect cell metabolism. Large molecules may be broken up into
free radicals, capable of initiating chemical changes. These changes may become sufficient
enough to damage the cells which lead to the death of cell. Which results in abnormalities in
growing character of new cells.
The biological effects are generally of two types, somatic and genetics. Somatic effects an
individual directly. Some of the common somatic effects of radiation are skin-burn, loss of
hair, ulceration, stiffening of lungs, an induction of cataract in the eyes etc. The most feared
somatic effect of radiations is the induction of many types of cancer.
Radiation damage the cells of the reproductive organs of either sex thus damage the genes.
This damage can be transmitted to generation after generation in the form of birth defects
and abnormalities. Thus, genetic affects effect the generation.
Uses of Nuclear Radiations;
Nuclear radiations are widely used for different purposes in various fields and the results ar
every encouraging some of these are:
1. Tracer Technique:
The tracer technique has made it possible to understand the chemistry of complex
reactions in the biological organisms, which has helped to diagnose and to curve some
unknown diseases. 6C14 and 1H3 are used in tracing digestion of various food
molecules.
Tracer studies reveals that 53I131 can be used for treating thyroid cancer, 20Ca45 for
treating bone cancer and 11Na24 for tracing rate of flow of blood. Radio isotope 6C14 is
used for tracing absorption of CO2 the seat of photosynthesis and distribution of plant
food by a technique called Auto-Radiography.
2. Radio Process in Space:
The new range of sensitive detectors has made it possible to analyze in details the
study of cosmic rays entering the earth’s atmosphere from outer space. Radio signals
emanating from the starts reflect radiations of such frequencies that indicate the
presence of particular types of molecules.
3. Polymerization:
The radiation process in polymerization has helped to evolve new plastic materials,
pesticides and some complex compounds.
4. Sterilization:
A beam of β-particles or gamma rays can destroy germs and is thus helpful to sterilize
surgical instruments and other medical appliances.
5. Food Preservation:
The length of time that a food material can be store depends on the microbial activity
that attacks the food and causes it to spoil. Radiation treatment has shown better
results for preservation and storage of food staff.
6. Treatment of Cancer:
Radiation can be destroy rapidly growing cancer cells. The process is called Radiation
Therapy, which is of two types:
a. External Therapy: In this process cancerous cells are destroyed by passing
radiations. For example, in treating a localized cancerous tumor a narrow beam
of gamma rays from cobalt-60 is oftenly used.
b. Internal Therapy: In this process radioactive particles are made to enter
surgically in the cancerous tumor where they remain deposited for a long time.
For example, radio isotopes of 53I131is injected in the blood from where they
deposit in thyroid glands and thus provide treatment of thyroid cancer.
7. Gauging and Control:
In paper, glass, metal industries, a beta ray source is used to measure thickness and
controlling their sheets without interrupting the production.
8. Radiation Methods on Archeology:
Radiation technique made it possible to measure the age of the specimen, i.e. the
time elapsed. This process is called radio-carbon dating as isotope 6C14 called carbon
date is used for this purpose.
Q.1 Explain how you would test whether the radiation from a radioactive source is a, ß or gamma
radiation?
Ans. When radiations are allowed to pass through an electric field. The a and B particles are
deflected while gamma rays pass through un-deflected. This technique helps to identify the
radiation.
Q.2 A particle which produces more ionization is les penetrating. Why?
Ans. When particle ionizes an atom, it losses a part of its energy. Since the greater is the ionizing
power, the greater is the loss of energy and hence, the smaller is its penetrating power.
Q.3 In how many ways can gamma rays produce ionization of the atom?
Ans. Gamma rays only ionize an atom by collision. Being high energy photon, it can be produce
ionization in three ways.
1. It may lose all its energy in a single collision with the electron of an atom (photoelectric
effect).
2. It may lose only a part of its energy in a collision (Compton effect).
3. It may be stopped by a heavy nucleus giving rise to electron positron pair (materialization of
energy).
Q.4 Name different electromagnetic radiations which are capable of producing ionization of atoms.
By what process do they ionizer?
Ans. 1. Ultraviolet rays
2. X rays
3. Gamma rays
The rays interact with matter in elastically. They remove electrons from the atoms of the target
material.
Q.5 Lead is heavier and denser than water, Yet water is more effective shield against neutrons?
Ans. To be stopped or slowed down, a neutron must undergo a direct collision an (elastic) with a
nucleus or some other particle that has a mass comparable to that of neutron. Water contains
hydrogen. Thus nuclear protons of hydrogen atoms, after collision, move; while neutron is
owed down. But when neutrons collide with nucleus of lead, it bounces neutrons back almost
with the same speed Hence water is a better shield against neutrons than lead.
Q.6 In a cloud chamber photograph, the path of an α particle is a thick and continuous line
whereas that of a β particle is a thin and broken line. Why?
Ans. An α particle is highly ionizing than β particle.
Q.7 Why do gamma rays not give line track in the cloud chamber photograph?
Ans. Gamma rays do not produce ionization directly. They interact with atoms to eject electrons.
These electrons, like ß particles, produce irregular cloud tracks to their own which branch out
from the direction of gamma rays.
Q.8 Which of α, β and gamma rays would you advise for treatment of (i) skin cancer (ii) the cancer
of flesh just under skin (ii) a cancerous tumor deep inside the body?
Ans.
1. For the treatment of skin cancer, we use a particles; as their penetration is small.
2. For the treatment of cancer of flesh just under skin, B particles should be used because of
their medium penetration power.
3. For the treatment of deep infection in the body, gamma rays should be used, as they are
highly penetrating
Q.9 Two radioisotopes of an element are available: one of long half-life and the other of short
half-life. Which isotopes is advisable for the treatment of a patient and why?
Ans. For treatment, radio isotopes of short half-life should be used so that any material remaining in
the body quickly decays away
CHAPTER#11
EX#11.1
1. The average translational Kinetic energy of the molecules of a body determines _____________.
(a) Heat (b) Temperature (c) Internal Energy (d) None of these
2. The sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the molecules of a body determines
__________.
(a) Heat (b) Temperature (c) Internal Energy (d) None of these
3. The S.I Unit of heat is ____________.
(a) Joule (b) Calorie (c) Centigrade (d) Fahrenheit
4. In Celsius scale 1 oC in magnitude equal to _____________.
(a) 32 oF (b) 16 oF (c) 1.8 oF (d) None of these
5. The formula for interconversion of centigrade and Fahrenheit scale is ______________.
32 F−32 C 32 C
(a) C − 9 (b) 9 = 5 (c) F − 9 = 9 (d) None of these
6. The coefficient of linear expression is equal to _______________.
L ∆L L∆T
(a) α = ∆L∆T (b) α = L∆T (c)α = ∆L (d) None of these
7. The coefficient of volume expansion is equal to ______________.
V V∆T ∆V
(a) β = ∆V∆T (b) β = ∆V (c) β = V∆T (d) None of these
8. The unit of coefficient of linear expansion or volume expansion is _______________.
(a) K (b) K-1 (c) CK-1 (d) None of these
9. Linear expansion occurs in _______________.
(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Both (d) None of these
10. The relation between coefficient of linear expansion and volume expansion is given by
_____________.
1
(a) α = 3β (b) α = β (c)β = 2α (d) None of these
3
11. The energy transfers from one point to another due to temperature difference is called
______________.
(a) Light (b) Heat (c) Sound (d) None of these
12. ____________ is related to the internal energy of body.
(a) Heat (b) Temperature (c) Both A and B (d) None of these
13. The S.I Unit of temperature is _________________.
(a) Degree Celsius (b) Degree Fahrenheit (c) Kelvin (d) None of these
14. Tk + Tc + _________________.
(a) 273 (b) 237 (c) 372 (d) 732
15. Temperature is measured by ________________.
(a) Calorimeter (b) Barometer (c) Thermometer (d) None of these
16. In _______________ heat transfer from atom to atom.
(a) Conduction (b) Convection (c) Radiation (d) None of these
17. The transfer of heat by _______________ requires the movement of molecules from one place to
another.
18. The mode of heat transfers in which no material medium is required, is called ___________.
19. The heat from sun reaches the earth by _________________.
20. _____________ of a substance is a measure of its ability to conduct heat energy.
(a) Thermal conductivity (b) Thermal resistivity
(c) Both A and B (d) None of these
21. The fractional change in length per unit change in temperature is called __________________.
(a) Coefficient of linear expansion (b) Coefficient of cubic expansion
22. Coefficient of cubical thermal expansion is _________ times the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion.
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Ten
23. __________ are used in thermostat.
(a) Bimetallic strips (b) Thermometer (c) Fire alarm (d) None of these
24. The device which controls temperature in a certain space is called _______________.
(a) Thermometer (b) Thermostat (c) Fire alarm (d) None of these
25. 1 calorie= __________________.
(a) 4.1 J (b) 4.2 J (c) 4.3 J (d) None of these
26. 1 B.T.U= _________________.
(a) 1055 J (b) 252 J (c) 4200 J (d) None of these
27. 1 B.T.U= ________________.
(a) 225 cal (b) 525 cal (c) 252 cal (d) None of these
EX#11.2
1. Volume is inversely proportional to pressure of a given mass of a gas provided that its temperature is
kept constant is called _________________.
(a) Charle’s Law (b) Boyle’s Law (c) General Gas Law (d) None of these
2. Volume of a gas of a gas is directly proportion to absolute temperature of gas provided pressure is
kept constant is called ____________.
(a) Charle’s Law (b) Boyle’s Law (c) General Gas Law (d) None of these
3. The value of universal gas constant R is _______________.
(a) 8.314 JK-1 mole (b) 8.314 J mole-1K-1 (c) 83.14 Jmole-1K-1 (d) None of these
4. The temperature at which all gases becomes liquid is _____________.
(a) 273 K (b) – 273 K (c) Absolute Zero (d) None of these
5. In the formula PV=nRT “n” denotes _____________.
(a) Number of molecules (b) Number of moles
(c) Avogadro Number (d) None of these
6. – 273 oC is called _______________.
(a) Absolute Zero (b) Absolute temperature
7. At – 273 oC the volume of a gas is ________________.
(a) 273 m3 (b) Maximum (c) Zero (d) None of these
8. According to general gas equation PV= _________________.
(a) Constant (b) RT (c) nRT (d) None of these
EX#11.1
1. The average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of gasses at absolute temperature T is
_____.
2 3 1
(a) 3 kT (b) 2 kT (c) 2 kT (d) None of these
2. Root mean square velocity of a gas molecules in a container can be calculated as ___________.
3m 3kT kT
(a) Vrms = √ kT (b) Vrms = √ m
(c) Vrms = √ m (d) None of these
3. The universal gas constant per molecule is called ____________.
(a) Stefen’s constant (b) Boltzmann’s constant
(c) Gravitational constant (d) None of these
4. The value of Boltzmann’s constant is __________.
(a) 1.6x 10-23 Jk-1 (b) 3.85x10-23 Jk-1 (c) 1.38x10-23 Jk-1 (d) None of these
5. If a molecule with momentum mvx strikes a wall and rebounds, then the change in Momentum will
be:
(a) 2mvx (b) – 2mvx (c) mvx (d) None of these
EX#11.4
1. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by unit degree is called _________.
(a) Specific heat capacity (b) Heat capacity
(c) Molar heat capacity (d) None of these
2. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by unit degree is
called _______________.
(a) Specific heat (b) Heat capacity (c) Molar heat capacity (d) None of these
3. The unit(s) of heat capacity is _________________.
(a) Jk-1 (b) JoC-1 (c) Both (d) None of these
4. The unit(s) of specific heat capacity is ______________.
(a) JKg-1K-1 (b) JKg-10C-1 (c) Both (d) None of these
5. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of substance by unit Kelvin _____.
(a) Specific heat (b) Heat capacity (c) Molar heat capacity (d) None of these
6. The unit of molar specific heat is ___________.
(a) Jmole-1K-1 (b) Jmole-10C-1 (c) Both (d) None of these
7. For gases ___________.
(a) Cp> Cv (b) Cp < Cv (c) Cp= Cv (d) None of these
8. The difference between Cp and Cv is equal to __________________.
(a) Universal gas constant (b) Boltzmann constant
(c) Stefen’s constant (d) None of these
9. Specific heat of polyatomic gases ___________.
(a) Less than monoatomic gases (b) Higher than monoatomic gases
(c) Equal than monoatomic gases (d) None of these
10. To determine molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) a required system has ___________.
(a) A cylinder with movable piston (b) A cylinder with fixed piston
(c) Both (d) None of these
11. To determine molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv) a required system has ____________.
(a) A cylinder with movable piston (b) A cylinder with fixed piston
12. First law of thermodynamics is merely a statement of law of conversion of ________________.
(a) Angular momentum (b) Energy (c) Linear momentum (d) None of these
13. The system in which transformation of neither matter nor energy take place is called _____________.
(a) Open system (b) Closed system (c) Isolated system (d) None of these
14. Mathematical expression for first law of thermodynamics ____________________.
(a) ΔU= ΔQ + ΔW (b) ΔU= ΔQ – ΔW (c) ΔW= ΔQ + ΔU (d) None of these
15. When work is done by the system. It is taken as ___________________.
(a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Zero (d) None of these
16. When work is done on the system it is taken as ______________.
17. In an isothermal process the internal energy of the system ______________.
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains constant (d) None of these
18. The maximum work done can be measured in the process is called ________________.
(a) Isobaric (b) Adiabatic (c) Isothermal (d) None of these
19. First law of thermodynamics when applied to an adiabatic process becomes ___________.
(a) ΔW= ΔU (b) ΔW= ΔQc (c) ΔW= - ΔU (d) None of these
20. For an isobaric process ________________.
(a) ΔW= 0 (b) ΔW= ΔUc (c) ΔW= PΔV (d) None of these
21. For an isochoric process ________________.
(a) ΔW= 0 (b) ΔU= 0 (c) ΔQ= 0 (d) None of these
EX#11.5
1. It is impossible to cause heat flow from a cold body to hot body without expenditure of work is ____.
(a) Clausius statement (b) Kelvin statement (c) Both (d) None of these
2. The statement which shows that two bodies at different temperatures are essential for working of a
heat engines _________________.
(a) Clausius statement (b) Kelvin statement (c) Both (d) None of these
3. The law of thermodynamics which discusses the condition under which heat energy is converted into
an equivalent amount of work is _________________.
(a) 1st law (b) 2nd law (c) 3rd law (d) None of these
4. Carnot cycle is _________________.
(a) Reversible (b) Irreversible (c) Both (d) None of these
5. The efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon _______________.
(a) Temperature of source only (b) Temperature of source and sink
6. The ratio of output work per cycle to input energy per cycle is called ___________________.
(a) Entropy (b) Internal energy (c) Efficiency (d) None of these
7. If the temperature difference between the hot body and cold body is greater the heat engine is
______.
(a) Less efficient (b) More efficient (c) Not efficient (d) None of these
8. If the temperature of the sink is decreased efficiency of Carnot engine ______________.
(a) Remains constant (b) Increase (c) Decrease (d) None of these
9. The efficiency of practical heat engine _______________.
(a) Can be 100% (b) Cannot be 100% (c) Is always zero (d) None of these
10. The efficiency of Carnot engine is ________________.
Q T
(a) (1 − 1 ) × 100 (b) (1 − 1 ) × 100 (c) Both (d) None of these
Q2 T2
11. Entropy measures the _______________.
(a) Disorder of the system (b) Orderliness of the system
(c) Energy of the system (d) None of these
12. When disorder of the system increases, its entropy ________________.
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Remains same (d) None of these
13. The change in disorder of the system is equal to _______________.
∆T ∆Q ∆Q
(a) ∆S = Q (b) ∆S = T (c) ∆S = ∆T (d) None of these
14. Entropy change for reversible process remains constant in _______________.
(a) Isothermal process (b) Isobaric process (c) Adiabatic process (d) None of these
15. Total entropy change during any reversible cycle is_____________.
(a) Zero (b) Infinite (c) Both (d) None of these
CHAPTER#12
EX#12.1
1. The law is used to determine electrostatic force between two point charges is called _________.
(a) Faraday’s law (b) Gauss’ law (c) Coulomb’s law (d) None of these
2. Mathematical expression for Coulomb law is ______________.
m m q q m m
(a) F = K 1r2 2 (b) F = K 1r2 2 (c) F = G 1r2 2 (d) None of these
3. Coulomb law most closely resembles with ____________.
(a) Law of conservation of energy (b) Newton’s second law of motion
(c) Newton’s law of Gravitation (d) None of these
4. The value of K is ______________.
(a) 8.82 x 10-12 C2Nm-2 (b) 9x 109 Nm2C-2 (c) 9 x 109 Nm2C2 (d) None of these
5. 𝛜𝐨 is called ______________.
(a) Permittivity of free space (b) Relative permittivity
(c) Dielectric constant (d) None of these
6. 𝛜𝐫 is called _______________.
(a) Permittivity of free space (b) Relative permittivity
(c) Dielectric constant (d) None of these
7. The unit of charge in S.I unit system ____________.
(a) Ampere (b) Volt (c) Coulomb (d) None of these
8. If the distance between two charge bodies is halved the force between them becomes ________.
(a) One forth (b) Double (c) Four times (d) None of these
9. The space around a charged body in which its influence can be felt is called an ____________.
(a) Atmosphere (b) Electric field (c) Gravitational field (d) None of these
10. Electric intensity of a charged body is equal to _____________.
(a) Work done by unit charge (b) Force experienced by a unit charge
(c) Force between the two charged bodies (d) None of these
11. The S.I unit of Electric Intensity is ______________.
(a) NC-2 (b) NC-1 (c) N2C-2 (d) None of these
12. The direction of the electric field intensity is _____________.
(a) Away from all negative charge (b) Toward all negative charges
(c) The same as the direction of an electric field (d) None of these
13. The electric intensity at a point at a distance “r” from the source charge is ______________.
q2 q q q
(a) K r2 (b) K 1r2 2 (c) K r2 (d) None of these
14. The nature of test charge is _____________.
(a) Negative (b) Neutral (c) Positive (d) None of these
15. The path along which a unit positive charge moves in an electric field is ____________.
(a) Magnetic field line (b) Electric field (c) An electric field line (d) None of these
16. The lines of force can be never _____________.
(a) Interchange (b) Intersect (c) Exchange (d) None of these
17. The electric field lines terminate on a ______________.
(a) Negative charge (b) Positive charge (c) Both (d) None of these
18. The electric field lines originate from a _____________.
(a) Negative charge (b) Positive charge (c) Both (d) None of these
19. The measure of a number of field lines passing through a certain element of area in an electric field is
called ___________.
(a) Electric intensity (b) Electric flux (c) Electric force (d) None of these
20. Electric Flux is _________.
(a) ∆∅ = ⃗E. ∆A⃗ (b)∆∅ = ⃗C. ∆A ⃗ (c)∆∅ = ⃗B. ∆A ⃗ (d) None of these
21. The electric flux through any closed surface depends upon _______________.
(a) Shape of the surface (b) Medium only (c) Charge only (d) None of these
22. Flux passing through an area will be maximum when the angle between 𝐄 ⃗ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∆𝐀⃗ is ______________.
0 0 0
(a) 90 (b) 180 (c) 0 (d) None of these
23. Flux passing through an area will be minimum when the angle between 𝐄 ⃗ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∆𝐀⃗ is ______________.
0 0 0
24. The flux through any closed surface is 𝟏⁄𝛜𝟎 times the total charge enclosed in it. Is known as ______.
(a) Ampere’s law (b) Gauss’ law (c) Ohm’s law (d) None of these
25. The S.I unit of electric flux is ______________.
(a) N2m2C-1 (b) Nm2C-1 (c) Nm2C2 (d) None of these
26. Gauss’ law is applicable only on ____________.
(a) Spherical surface (b) Cylindrical surface (c) any closed surface (d) None of these
27. Gauss’ law can be used to evaluate ___________.
(a) Electric intensity (b) Electric flux (c) Both (d) None of these
28. If the charge +q is placed at the center of sphere then flux through the surface of sphere is ________.
ϵ q
(a) q ϵ0 (b) q0 (c) ϵ (d) None of these
0
29. Electric intensity of a charged sphere on its surface is _____________.
2σ σ σ
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
ϵ0 2ϵ0 ϵ0
30. The value of electric field intensity inside the charged sphere if charge is uniformly distributed over
the surface is _______________.
F
(a) E = q (b) E = 0 (c) Infinite (d) None of these
31. Charge per unit area is called ____________.
(a) Charge density (b) Flux density (c) Electric intensity (d) None of these
32. The S.I unit of charge density is _____________.
(a) NC-1 (b) Cm-2 (c) C-1m-2 (d) None of these
33. Electric intensity due to infinite sheet of charge is equal to ___________.
σ σ σ
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
2ϵ0 ϵ0 3ϵ0
34. Electric intensity between two oppositely charged parallel plates is _______________.
σ σ σ
(a) 2ϵ (b) ϵ (c)3ϵ (d) None of these
0 0 0
35. The value of resultant electric intensity at a point between two parallel plates with similar and equal
charges is _______________.
(a) Zero (b) Infinite (c) Both (d) None of these
EX#12.2
1. The work done on a unit charge moving against electric field intensity is called ____________.
(a) Electric field (b) Electric potential (c) Electric current (d) None of these
2. Electric potential due to point charge q at a distance r is _____________.
q 1 q 1 q
(a) K 2 (b) . (c) . 2 (d) None of these
r 4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r
3. The S.I unit of Electric Potential is _______________.
(a) Ampere (b) Ohm (c) Volt (d) None of these
4. Electric Potential is a ______________.
(a) Vector (b) Scalar (c) Neither scalar nor vector (d) Both
5. The relation between electric field intensity “E” and electric potential is _____________.
dV
(a) E = (b) E = ∆Vr (c) E = r⁄V (d) None of these
dr
6. Work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to a point against the electric field intensity
is:
(a) Absolute potential (b) Electric current (c) Electric Potential (d) None of these
7. Absolute potential at any point p at a distance r is ___________.
1 q 1 q
(a) . 2 (b) . (c) Both (d) None of these
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r
8. The earth’s potential is considered as _____________.
9. The charge on capacitor is expressed as ___________.
Q C
(a) Q = CV (b) C = V (c) V = Q (d) None of these
10. Capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to _______________.

(a) Area of plats (b) Separation between the plates
(c) Thickness of plates (d) None of these
11. Capacitance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to _____________.
(a) Force between the plates (b) Separation between plates
(c) Thickness of plates (d) None of these
12. S.I unit of capacitance is __________________.
(a) Volt (b) Ohm (c) Farad (d) None of these
13. One Farad is equal to _______________.
(a) 1coulomb/1volt (b) 1joule/1volt (c) 1 volt/1coulomb (d) None of these
14. The presence of a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor results in ______________.
(a) Decrease in capacitance (b) Increase in capacitance
(c) Remains same (d) None of these
15. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with air or vacuum as medium between the plates is ______.
ϵ ϵ ϵ d
(a) A 0d r (b) A d0 (c) ϵ (d) None of these
0
16. Capacitance of capacitors with dielectric as medium between the plates is ______________.
ϵ ϵ ϵ d
(a) A 0d r (b) A d0 (c) ϵ (d) None of these
0
17. We can increase the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor by ________________.
(a) Increasing the area of the plates (b) Decreasing the distance between the plates
(c) Using dielectric of higher permittivity (d) All of them
18. The capacitance of two capacitors increases when they are connected in _______________.
(a) Series (b) Parallel (c) Both (d) None of these
19. The capacitance of two capacitors decreases when they are connected in _______________.
(a) Series (b) Parallel (c) Both (d) None of these
20. When the capacitance C1, C2, C3 are connected in parallel equivalent capacitance is equal to ______.
1 1 1 1
(a) C = C + C + C (b) Ceq = C1 × C2 × C3 (c) Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 (d) None of these
eq 1 2 3
21. When the capacitance is connected in series equivalent capacitance is equal to ______________.
1 1 1 1
(a) = + + (b) Ceq = C1 × C2 × C3 (c) Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 (d) None of these
Ceq C1 C2 C3
22. Two capacitors of 4µF are joined in series the combined capacitance is ____________.
(a) ½ µF (b) 2µF (c) 8µF (d) None of these
23. If two capacitors of 5µF and 7µF are joined in parallel the combined capacitance is ______________.
(a) 12µF (b) 0.12µF (c) 2.9µF (d) None of these
CHAPTER#13
EX#13.1
1. The rate of flow of charges is called _________.
(a) Voltage (b) Resistance (c) Current (d) None of these
2. The relation between charges “Q” and current “I” is given by ________________.
l
(a) Q = t (b) Q=lt (c) Q = l2 t (d) None of these
3. The S.I unit of Electric current is _________________.
(a) Ohms (b) Volt (c) ampere (d) None of these
4. Conventional direction of current is ______________.
(a) The direction in which the electron drift (b) The direction of flow of positive charges
(c) The direction opposite to the flow of positive charges (d) None of these
5. The velocity of the electron which causes the current is _____________.
(a) Terminal velocity (b) Drift velocity (c) Average velocity (d) None of these
6. The potential difference V across a conductor is directly proportional to the current (I) flowing through
it provided the physical state does not change is called _____________.
(a) Ampere’s law (b) Ohm’s law (c) Faraday’s law (d) None of these
7. Ohm’s law is only valid for _____________.
(a) Metallic conductor (b) Non-metallic conductors (c) Electrolytes (d) None of these
8. The current through a metallic conductor is due to motion of ________.
(a) Proton (b) Electron (c) Neutron (d) None of these
9. Mathematical form of Ohm’s law _____________.
I R
(a) V = RI (b) V = R (c) V = I (d) None of these
10. The Graphical representation of Ohm’s law ____________.
(a) Parabola (b) Hyperbola (c) Straight line (d) None of these
11. Resistance of a conductor produces due to ___________.
(a) Collision of free electrons of a conductor with the atoms (b) Collision of atoms of a conductor
12. The S.I unit of resistance is ___________.
(a) Ampere (b) Volt (c) Ohms (d) None of these
13. The resistance of a conductor increase with increase in its _________.
(a) Diameter (b) Length (c) Area of cross section (d) None of these
14. The resistance of a conductor decrease with increase in its _____________.
(a) Diameter (b) Length (c) Area of cross section (d) Both A and C
15. If one volt is required to causes a current of one ampere to flow in a conductor its resistance is ____.
(a) One Ohm (b) One Volt (c) One Ampere (d) None of these
16. Reciprocal of resistance is called _________.
(a) Inductance (b) Capacitance (c) Resistivity (d) None of these
17. The S.I unit of conductance is __________.
(a) Ohms (Ω) (b) Per Ohm (Ω−1 ) (c) Per sq. Ohm (Ω−2 ) (d) None of these
18. If the resistance of the conductor is increased, then current will _____________.
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Remains same (d) None of these
19. The resistance offered by the unit length of the wire of a unit area of cross section is called _______.
(a) Temperature coefficient of resistance (b) Specific resistance
(c) Conductance (d) None of these
20. The S.I unit of resistivity is __________.
(a) Ω⁄m (b) m⁄Ω (c) Ωm (d) None of these
21. Specific resistance of wire depends upon _____________.
(a) Length (b) Cross section area (c) Both (d) Temperature
22. ⁄
The inverse of resistivity (𝟏 𝛒) is called ___________.
(a) Inductivity (b) Conductivity (c) Resistance (d) None of these
23. The S.I unit of conductivity is ___________.
(a) (Ωm)−1 (b) (Ω⁄m)−1 (c) (Ωm)−2 (d) None of these
24. The change in resistance per unit resistance per degree rise of temperature is called ___________.
(a) Temperature coefficient of resistance (b) Resistivity
(c) Conductivity (d) None of these
25. Expression of temperature coefficient of resistance is ______________.
Rt −Ro o R R ∆T
t
(a) α = Ro ∆T
(b) α = R −R∆T (c) α = R−R (d) None of these
t t
26. The unit of temperature coefficient of resistance is ____________.
(a) Ω⁄K (b) °C−1 or K −1 (c) ℉−1 or K −1 (d) None of these
27. When resistor are connected in series their equivalent resistance is given by the ___________.
(a) Sum of the individual resistances (b) Product of the individual resistances
(c) Sum of half of the individual resistances (d) None of these
28. The current across each resistance in series combination is ___________.
(a) Different (b) Same (c) Zero (d) None of these
29. The potential difference across each resistance in series combination is __________.
30. Three resistance each of 10𝛀 are connected in series across 30 volts battery the current flowing
through them will be ____________.
(a) 1A (b) 15A (c) 30A (d) 50A
31. If the resistance of 2 ohm and 4 ohm are connected in series the equivalent resistance will be ______.
(a) 4Ω (b) 6Ω (c) 8Ω (d) None of these
32. When resistance are connected in parallel their equivalent resistance is given by the ________.
(a) Sum of the individual resistances (b) Sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances
(c) Sum of half of the individual resistance (d) None of these
33. The current across each resistance in parallel combination is _____________.
34. The potential difference across each resistance in parallel combination is _________.
35. Two resistance of 6 Ohm each are connected in parallel with third resistance of 3 Ohm in series the
equivalent resistance will be ____________.
(a) 3Ω (b) 4Ω (c) 6Ω (d) 10 ohm
36. There are three equal resistors. How many difference combinations of these resistances are possible:
(a) Three (b) Four (c) Six (d) Ten
37. If the resistance of 𝟐𝛀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟒𝛀 are connected in parallel their equivalent resistance will be ________.
(a) 6Ω (b) 4Ω (c) 1.33Ω (d) None of these
38. The rate of doing work is called _____________.
(a) Energy (b) Power (c) Voltage (d) None of these
39. The energy dissipated as heat in the conductor is equal to the ____________.
(a) Loss of K.E by the charges (b) Loss of P.E by the charges
40. P.D, “V” is applied the two ends of a conductor and charge “Q” flow through it the energy dissipated
as heat is ____________.
(a) Q/V (b) V/Q (c) Q x V (d) None of these
41. Power dissipated as heat in a conductor of resistance “R” due to electric current “I” is given by _____.
v2
(a) P = I2 R (b)P = R (c) Both (d) None of these
42. A resistor carries current “I” the power dissipated is “P” the power dissipated if the same resistor
carries the current 3I is ____________.
(a) P (b) 3P (c) 9P (d) None of these
43. The e.m.f. is defined as ____________.
∆V ∆w
(a) ∆q (b) ∆qE (c) ∆q (d) None of these
44. The S.I unit of e.m.f. is ___________.
(a) Ohm (b) Coulomb (c) Volt (d) None of these
45. The P.D between the terminals of a source of electrical energy when no current is drawn from it is
called:
(a) Power (b) Terminal voltage (c) Electromotive force (d) None of these
46. The terminal potential difference “V” of a cell is _____________.
E
(a) V = E + Ir (b) V = r (c) V = E − IR (d) None of these
CHAPTER#14
EX#14.1
1. Which is not magnetic substance _________.
(a) Cobalt (b) Nickel (c) Copper (d) None of these
2. A substance which behaves like a magnet in the presence of a strong magnetic field is called ______.
(a) Magnetic substance (b) Ferromagnetic (c) Magnet (d) None of these
3. The best and quickest method of making magnets is the ___________.
(a) Electrical method (b) Singe touch method (c) Both (d) None of these
4. The most efficient method of demagnetizing a magnet is to use ____________.
(a) Heat (b) Alternating current (c) Direct current (d) None of these
5. Opposite poles of magnets ___________ each other.
(a) Attract (b) Repel (c) Both (d) None of these
6. The direction of magnetic lines was given by ____________.
(a) Newton (b) Christian Orested (c) Maxwell (d) None of these
7. A magnet which can be energized by an electric current is called ___________.
(a) Bar magnet (b) Electrical magnet (c) Electromagnet (d) None of these
8. Heavy pieces of iron are lifted by _____________.
(a) Hydraulic lift (b) Electromagnet (c) Solenoid (d) None of these
9. ____________ is a device which converts electric energy into sound energy.
(a) Electromagnet (b) Electric bell (c) Telephone receiver (d) None of these
10. A/An __________ force is experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
(a) Mechanical (b) Electrical (c) Magnetic (d) None of these
11. The branch of physics which deals with the study of magnetic field associated with moving charges or
current is called ___________.
(a) Current electricity (b) Magnetism (c) Electromagnetism (d) None of these
12. Magnetic field of induction is a ____________.
(a) Scalar quantity (b) Vector quantity (c) Both (d) None of these
13. The lines of force of induced magnetic field in the region surrounding a current carrying straight wire
are.
(a) Hyperbolic (b) Parabolic (c) Circular (d) None of these
14. “According to right hand rule when a current carrying conductor is griped with the right hand, a
thumb indicates the direction of current”.
(a) Middle finger will indicate the direction of magnetic field
(b) A thumb will indicate the direction of magnetic field
(c) Curl of fingers will indicate the direction of magnetic field
(d) None of these
15. The direction of the magnetic lines of force can be found by ____________.
(a) Left hand rule (b) Right hand rule (c) Ampere’s rule (d) None of these
16. Force on a moving charge (q) in a uniform magnetic field is given by ____________.
⃗ = q(v
(a) F ⃗ ×B⃗) ⃗ | = qVBsinθ
(b) |F (c) Both (d) None of these
17. Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is ____________.
⃗ and B
(a) Parallel to both V ⃗ ⃗ and B
(b) Perpendicular to both V ⃗
18. When a charge particle (q) moving with velocity V in a magnetic field perpendicular to B, force exerted
on it is __________.
(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Infinity (d) None of these
19. When a charge particle (q) moving with velocity V in a uniform magnetic field parallel to B, force
exerted on it is ___________.
(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Infinity (d) None of these
20. The force exerted on a wire of length one meter carrying one ampere current place at right angle to
the field is called ____________.
(a) Inductance (b) Magnetic induction
(c) Electromagnetic induction (d) None of these
21. The S.I unit of magnetic induction is ____________.
(a) Weber (b) Weber/Meter (c) Tesla (d) None of these
22. The force experienced by a charge particle is maximum when charge particle is projected at an angle:
23. The force experienced by a charge particle is zero when charge particle is projected at an angle:
24. Force on conductor carrying current in a uniform magnetic field is given by ___________.
(a)⃗⃗F = I(L
⃗ ×B ⃗) (b) F = BILsinθ (c) Both (d) None of these
25. Force on current carrying conductor in B is _____________.
(a) Parallel to both L and B (b) Perpendicular to both L and B
26. When the current carrying conductor is kept perpendicular within the uniform magnetic field force
exerted on is ____________.
(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Infinite (d) None of these
27. When the current carrying conductor is kept parallel within the uniform magnetic field force exerted
on is:
(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Infinite (d) None of these
28. Force on current carrying conductor maximum when it is kept at angle ___________.
29. Force on current carrying conductor Zero when it is kept at an angle ____________.
30. Force exerted on current carrying conductor of unit length is ___________.
(a) F = BILsinθ (b) F = BIsinθ (c) F = BAsinθ (d) None of these
31. Torque on a current carrying coil in magnetic field is ___________.
(a) τ = BINAsinα (b) τ = BINAcosα (c) τ = BINA (d) None of these
32. The number of magnetic lines of force crossing surface area normally is called ______________.
(a) Magnetic intensity (b) Magnetic flux (c) Magnetic force (d) None of these
33. Magnetic flux is a ____________.
(a) Vector quantity (b) Scalar quantity (c) Both (d) None of these
34. Magnetic flux is defined as ____________.
⃗⃗
B
(a) ∆φm = ⃗B × ∆A ⃗ (b) ∆φm = ⃗B. ∆A⃗ (c) ∆φm = ⃗⃗
(d) None of these
∆A
35. The magnetic flux will be maximum when the angle between B and ΔA is _____________.
36. The magnetic flux will be Zero when the angle between B and ΔA is ____________.
37. The magnetic flux per unit area and area at right angle to the magnetic field is called ___________.
(a) Magnetic flux (b) Magnetic flux density
(c) Magnetic intensity (d) None of these
38. The S.I unit of magnetic flux is _____________.
(a) Tesla (b) Weber (c) Henry (d) None of these
39. The S.I unit of magnetic flux density is ____________.
(a) Tesla (b) Henry (c) Weber/meter2 (d) None of these
40. 1 Weber is equals to _____________.
(a) 1N-1mA-1 (b) 1NmA-1 (c) 1N2m2A-1 (d) None of these
41. 1 Tesla is equals to____________.
(a) 1 Wm-2 (b) 1 W-1m-1 (c) 1 W2m2 (d) None of these
EX#14.2
1. Magnetic force exerts by the magnetic field on a moving charge particle behaves as __________.
(a) Centripetal force (b) Electric force (c) Both (d) None of these
2. When charge particle is projected perpendicular to uniform magnetic field its path is __________.
(a) Elliptical (b) Circular (c) Straight line (d) None of these
3. Which one of the following particles moving in the magnetic field can’t be deflected?
(a) Neutron (b) Electron (c) Proton (d) None of these
4. The magnetic force acts on a charge particle only when it is in ___________.
(a) Motion (b) Rest (c) Equilibrium (d) None of these
5. When an electron enters in a magnetic field with a velocity V its magnitude of velocity will be _____.
(a) Changed (b) Unchanged (c) Zero (d) None of these
6. The magnitude a velocity of a particle will not changed because the magnetic force is __________.
(a) Perpendicular to velocity (b) Parallel to velocity
(c) Opposite to velocity (d) None of these
7. The magnitude of F remains constant because __________.
(a) “q, V and B are constant (b) V and B are constant
(c) Only B is constant (d) None of these
8. The e/m of an electron moving in a circular path in a magnetic field is equal to __________.
V V V
(a) Br (b) B2r2 (c) Br2 (d) None of these
9. When electron is accelerated through a potential difference V o energy gained by the electron is given
by:
(a) Vo2e (b) ½ Voe (c) Voe (d) None of these
10. The kinetic energy of electron is equal to ___________.
1
(a) 1⁄2 mV 2 = Voe (b) 1⁄2 mV 2 = 2Voe (c) 2Voe = mV 2 (d) None of these
11. The velocity of electron determined by P.D method is given by ___________.
2Voe 2m Voe
(a) V = √ m
(b) V = √Voe (c) V = √ m
(d) None of these
12. In particle velocity selector method of a beam of electron is passes through ___________.
(a) Magnetic field (b) Electric and magnetic field
(c) Electric field (d) None of these
13. In particle velocity selector method electron moves un deflected along a straight line because _____.
(a) The electric force equal to magnetic force (b) Electric force is greater than magnetic force
(c) Magnetic force is greater than electric force (d) None of these
14. Velocity of electron determined by particle velocity selector method is ____________.
B E E
(a) V = E (b) V = B (c) V = D (d) None of these
15. The radius of the circular path can be determined by the ___________.
(a) Shift “a” of light spot from its original path
(b) The distance “b” from the point of deflection of the beam in magnetic field
16. The radius of the circular path in magnetic field is ___________.
b2 mV
(a) r = 2a (b) r = Bq
EX#14.3
𝛍𝐨 𝐈
1. The equation 𝐁 = is known as ____________.
𝟐𝛑𝐫
(a) Gauss’s law (b) Biot-Savrat’s law (c) Ampere’s law (d) None of these
2. Ampere’s law is applicable for steady current passing through any surface bounded by the closed path
called ___________.
(a) Amperian loop (b) Ampere’s loop (c) Ampere’s path (d) None of these
3. Ampere’s law used to calculate _____________.
(a) Magnetic flux (b) Electric field intensity
(c) Magnetic flux density (d) None of these
4. The relation between the tangential component of magnetic field of induction at points on closed
curve and the net current through the area bounded by the curve is given by ______________.
(a) Ampere’s theorem (b) Gauss’s Theorem (c) Biot-Savrat’s Theorem (d) None of these
5. A long wire wound around a cylinder frame of non-magnetic material is a __________.
(a) Toroid (b) Solenoid (c) Rectangular coil (d) None of these
6. When current passes through a solenoid it behaves like a ____________.

(a) Loop (b) Bar magnet (c) Conductor (d) None of these
7. The magnetic flux intensity due to current carrying solenoid is calculated by using __________.
(a) Ampere’s law (b) Gauss’s law (c) Faraday’s law (d) None of these
8. Magnetic flux density “B” of a solenoid having “n” no of turns per unit length and current “I” through
each turn is given by ____________.
μ0 I
(a) B = μ0 n2 I (b) B = μ0 nI (c) B = 2πr (d) None of these
9. The magnetic field inside a solenoid due to current is _____________.
(a) Strong and uniform (b) Weak (c) Non-uniform (d) None of these
10. The magnetic field outside the solenoid due to current is ___________.
(a) Strong (b) Uniform (c) Zero (d) None of these
11. A coil of insulated copper wire wound on circular frame is called __________.
(a) Solenoid (b) Toroid (c) Circular solenoid (d) None of these
12. Magnetic flux density “B” of a toroid is equal to ____________.
μ0NI μ0 I
(a) B = μ0 nI (b) B = 2πr (c) B = 4πr (d) None of these
13. If the Amperian loop is within the core of toroid, then __________.
μ NI μ I
(a) B = 0 (b) B = 0 (c) B = 0 (d) None of these
2πr 4πr
14. If Amperian loop is outside the core of toroid, then ___________.
μ0NI μ0 I
(a) B = 2πr (b) B = 4πr (c) B = 0 (d) None of these
15. The value of B is non-uniform within the toroidal coil, because.
(a) Magnetic field “B” varies as the inverse or radius (B∝ 1⁄r)
(b) Magnetic field “B” is directly proportional to radius
(c) Magnetic field does not depend on radius (d) None of these
EX#14.4
1. Electric current can be produced by changing magnetic field. This phenomenon is called __________.
(a) Electromagnetic induction (b) Magnetic induction
(c) Induction (d) None of these
2. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was discovered by ____________.
(a) Orested (b) Faraday (c) Ampere’s (d) Both A and B
3. Induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux through a loop of wire is called ___.
(a) Faraday’s law (b) Lenz’s law (c) Gauss’s law (d) None of these
4. Mathematical expression for Faraday’s law is given by ___________.
∆φ ∆φ
(a) ξ = (b) ξ = −N (c) ξ = −N∆φ (d) None of these
∆t ∆t
5. The direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the causes which produced is known as ____.
(a) Faraday’s law (b) Lenz’s law (c) Gauss’s law (d) None of these
6. When e.m.f induced across the conductor the current generated is called __________.
(a) Alternating current (b) Induce EMF (c) Induced current (d) None of these
7. The process in which a change of current in one coil causes an induced e.m.f in another coil nearby it
is called ___________.
(a) Self-induction (b) Mutual induction (c) Mutual EMF (d) None of these
8. If the current in the primary coil is changed by varying the resistance of the rheostat the magnetic flux
will:
(a) Remains same (b) Change (c) Zero (d) None of these
9. Induced e.m.f in the secondary coil is directly proportional to ______________.
(a) Rate of change of current in the secondary coil
(b) Rate of change of current in the primary coil
(c) Rate of change of e.m.f in the primary coil
(d) None of these
10. The ratio of induced e.m.f in secondary to the rate of change of current in the primary is called _____.
(a) Self-inductance (b) Mutual inductance (c) Induced current (d) None of these
11. Mathematical expression for mutual inductance is given by _____________.

ξ ∆I ∆φ
(a) M = − ∆Isp (b) M = − ( p ) ξs
∆t
(c) M = s ∆t
(d) None of these
( )
∆t
12. The S.I unit of mutual inductance is ____________.
(a) Weber (b) Henry (c) Tesla (d) None of these
13. The mutual inductance of the pair of coils in which a rate of change of current one ampere per second
in the primary coil causes an induced e.m.f of one volt in the secondary coil is equal to ________.
(a) One Henry (b) One Ampere (c) One Volt (d) None of these
14. The phenomenon of producing e.m.f in the coil due to change of current in the coil itself is called __.
(a) Self-induction (b) Mutual induction (c) Self flux change (d) None of these
15. The S.I unit of self-inductance is ________________.
(a) Weber (b) Tesla (c) Henry (d) None of these
16. The ratio of self-induced e.m.f to the rate of change of current in coil itself called __________.
(a) Self-inductance (b) Mutual inductance (c) Induction current (d) None of these
17. Mathematical expression for self-induction is ____________.
ξ ξ ∆I
(a) L = ∆I (b) − (c)− ( ) (d) None of these
( ) ∆t ∆t
∆t
18. Self-inductance of the coil depends upon ___________.
(a) Number of turns of coil (b) Cross-sectional area of coil
19. An e.m.f setup across a conductor when it moves across magnetic field is called __________.
(a) Potential difference (b) Motional EMF (c) EMF (d) None of these
20. The motional e.m.f developed in the conductor of length “L” when it moves in a magnetic field with a
velocity “V” in the magnetic field strength “B”.
(a) ξ = VBLsinθ (b) ξ = VBsinθ (c) ξ = VBLcosθ (d) None of these
21. The motional e.m.f developed in the conductor when it moves in a magnetic field perpendicular to
“B” is given by _____________.
(a) ξ = VB (b) ξ = VBL (c) ξ = VL (d) None of these
22. The motional e.m.f develops in the conductor because.
(a) Due to magnetic force on each electron it transfers from one end to the other end of the conductor
(b) Due to motion of electric field
(c) Due to motion of magnetic field
(d) None of these
EX#14.5
1. A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa is called ___________.
(a) Electric device (b) Mechanical device (c) Electromechanical device (d) None of these
2. A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is _____________.
(a) Electric motor (b) A.C generator (c) D.C generator (d) None of these
3. Generator converts mechanical energy into ____________.
(a) Heat energy (b) Electrical energy (c) K.E (d) None of these
4. When a coil is rotated in a magnetic field an emf of alternating nature is induced in it. This the
principle of:
(a) A.C generator (b) D.C generator (c) Electric motor (d) None of these
5. In A.C generator a coil of insulated wire wound on a soft iron cylinder is called __________.
(a) Brush (b) Slip ring (c) Armature (d) None of these
6. When the plane of rotating coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, then the e.m.f induced in it is:
(a) Zero (b) Maximum (c) Negative (d) None of these
7. When the velocity of longer side is perpendicular to magnetic field then the induce e.m.f is ________.
(a) Zero (b) Maximum (c) Negative (d) None of these
8. A device which is used for changing A.C voltages is called ___________.
(a) Capacitor (b) Inductor (c) Transformer (d) None of these
9. A transformer is based on the principle of ___________.
(a) Self-induction (b) Magnetic induction (c) Mutual induction (d) None of these
10. Transformer are used in circuits containing _________.
(a) A.C alone (b) D.C alone (c) Both (d) None of these
11. A transformer consists of an iron core with ____________.
(a) Primary coil (b) Secondary coil (c) Both (d) None of these
12. The best material for the core of transformer is ___________.
(a) Stainless steel (b) Hard steel (c) Soft iron (d) None of these
13. Soft iron core is used in a transformer to ____________.
(a) Decrease the magnetic flux (b) Increase the magnetic flux
14. The transformer equation is given by ____________.
Vp NS Vs NS Vs
(a) = (b) = (c) = Np Ns (d) None of these
Vs NP Vp NP Vp
15. If the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than the primary coil (NS> NP) the transformer is
called _________.
(a) Step-up (b) Step-down (c) Both (d) None of these
16. If the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the primary coil (N S< NP) the transformer is
called:
(a) Step-up (b) Step-down (c) Both (d) None of these
17. The efficiency of a transformer is given by _____________.
power input power output
(a) η = power output × 100% (b) η = power input × 100%
voltage in secondary
(c) η = voltage in primary
× 100% (d) None of these
18. The current in primary “Ip” and the current in the secondary “Is” are __________.
(a) Inversely proportional to respective voltage (b) Directly proportional to voltages
(c) They are proportional to voltages (d) None of these
19. The relation between the current and voltage of the primary and the secondary is given by ________.
Vs Is Vs Ip Vp Ip
(a) = (b) = (c) = (d) None of these
Vp Ip Vp Is Vs Is
CHAPTER#15
EX#15.1
1. Galvanometer is a/an_________ instrument.
(a) Electronic (b) Mechanical (c) Electromechanical (d) None of these
2. Galvanometer is sub-divided into _________ types.
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) None of these
3. In moving magnet galvanometer __________ are rotated on a dial.
(a) Coil (b) Magnetic Pole (c) Both (d) None of these
4. Galvanometer is an instrument used to measure _____________.
(a) Resistance (b) EMF (c) Small Current (d) None of these
5. When current flow through the coil of a galvanometer it experiences _______________.
(a) Force due to electric field (b) Electric force
(c) Couple (d) None of these
6. Usually internal resistance of galvanometer is ________________.
(a) High (b) Very low (c) Zero (d) None of these
7. A soft-iron cylinder is placed inside the coil of a galvanometer to make the magnetic field __________.
(a) Stronger and radial (b) Only stronger (c) Only radial (d) None of these
8. The current passing through the coil of a galvanometer is _____________.
(a) Inversely proportional to the angle of deflection (b) Directly proportional to the angle of deflection
(c) Does not depend on angle of deflection (d) None of these
9. The magnitude of deflection of coil decreases with time is called ____________.
(a) Damping (b) Sensitivity (c) Resistance (d) None of these
𝐂
10. The galvanometer can be made sensitive if the value of the factor 𝐁𝐀𝐍 is _______________.
(a) Large (b) Small (c) Constant (d) None of these
MCQs based on Ammeter.

1. Ammeter is used to measure ____________.
(a) Small current (b) Large current (c) Voltage (d) None of these
2. Shunt resistance “RS” is equal to ____________.
Ig Ig R g Ig Rg
(a) I−I (b) I−I (c) I (d) None of these
g g g −I
3. Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting ___________.
(a) High resistance in series (b) Low resistance in parallel
(c) Low resistance in series (d) None of these
4. The low value of resistor which is connected parallel to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter is
called __________.
(a) Conductance (b) Inductance (c) Shunt (d) None of these
5. A resistance of galvanometer is 6𝛀, maximum current of 2A is measured by it. The required resistance
to convert into an ammeter reading up to 6A will be _____________.
(a) 4Ω (b) 3Ω (c) 6Ω (d) None of these
6. An ammeter is always connected ___________.
(a) In series with the circuit through which current is to measured
(b) In parallel with the circuit through which current is to measured
(c) In series with the circuit across which potential difference is to be measured
(d) None of these
7. A galvanometer has resistance 50 ohms and deflects full scale when a current of 10mA flows on it.
What shunt resistance is required to convert it into an ammeter of range 10A ____________.
(a) 5Ω (b) 0.05Ω (c) 0.005Ω (d) None of these
MCQ based on Voltmeter.

1. A voltmeter is used to measure __________.
(a) Current (b) Potential difference (c) Resistance (d) None of these
2. For the conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter we connect a ______________.
(a) Low resistance in series with galvanometer (b) High resistance in parallel with galvanometer
(c) High resistance in series with galvanometer (d) None of these
3. A resistance used in galvanometer to make it voltmeter is called ____________.

(a) Low resistance (b) Multiplier (c) Both of these (d) None of these
4. A voltmeter is always connected in _____________.
(a) Series with circuit (b) Parallel to circuit (c) Both of these (d) None of these
5. Which of the following must be high resistance instrument _______________?
(a) Ammeter (b) Voltmeter (c) Galvanometer (d) None of these
6. Mathematical expression for high resistance which is connected in series with galvanometer is given
by:
Rg V Ig
(a) R x = Ig
−V (b) R x = (I ) − R g (c) R x = (V ) − R g (d) None of these
g g
MCQs based on Wheatstone bridge.

1. Wheatstone bridge used to determine unknown ______________.
(a) Capacitance (b) Voltage (c) Current (d) None of these
2. In using Wheatstone bridge the quantity which is to be balanced is _______________.
(a) Voltage (b) Resistance (c) Current (d) None of these
3. The condition under which no current will flow through the galvanometer is called ______________.
(a) A balance condition (b) Null point (c) Both of these (d) None of these
4. Wheatstone bridge is balanced when ___________________.
(a) Current through galvanometer is maximum (b) P.D across galvanometer is maximum
(c) P.D across the ends of galvanometer is zero (d) None of these
5. Wheatstone bridge is balanced for which ________________.
(a) Current through galvanometer may be zero (b) Current through galvanometer must be zero
(c) Resistance of galvanometer must be zero (d) None of these
6. Under balanced condition the expression for Wheatstone bridge is given by _______________.
R R R R R R
(a) 1 = 2 (b) 1 = 3 (c) 2 = 4 (d) None of these
R3 R4 R2 R4 R1 R1
MCQs based on Meter Bridge.

1. A meter bridge is used to determine unknown __________________.
(a) Resistance (b) Current (c) Voltage (d) None of these
2. A meter bridge is the instrument based on the principle of ______________.
(a) Potentiometer (b) Wheatstone bridge (c) P.O. Box (d) None of these
3. Meter bridge is also called _____________.
(a) Slide wire (b) Wheatstone bridge (c) Resistance bridge (d) None of these
4. The length of the wire of the meter bridge ____________.
(a) May be one meter (b) Must be one meter (c) Must be less than one meter (d) None of these
5. If the unknown resistance “X” is connected in one gap and the known resistance “R” is connected in
the other gap of the meter bridge hen for balanced condition unknown resistance is given by
__________.
L L L
(a) X = R ( X ) LR
(b) X = R ( R)Lx
(c) X = LX ( R) (d) None of these
R
MCQS based on Potentiometer.
1. Potentiometer is used to find out _______________.
(a) Unknown resistance (b) Unknown potential between points of a circuit
(c) Both unknown resistance and potential (d) None of these
2. The instrument used to compare the EMFs of two cells is called _______________.
(a) Ohm meter (b) Potentiometer (c) Voltmeter (d) None of these
3. The length of the wire of potentiometer ______________.
(a) Must be one meter (b) May be one meter (c) May be 10 meter (d) None of these
4. A potentiometer is a kind of _____________.
(a) Ammeter (b) Voltmeter (c) Ohm meter (d) None of these
5. Under balanced condition the expression for potentiometer is given by ____________.
E I E I E I
(a) EX = I S (b) ES = IX (c) EX = IX (d) None of these
S X X S S S
6. The larger the length of wire of potentiometer, the __________ is the accuracy of measurement.
(a) Greater (b) Smaller (c) Does not depend on length (d) None of these
Miscellaneous MCQs:
1. Post office box is used to find unknown ______________.
(a) Current (b) P.D (c) Resistance (d) None of these
2. P.O. Box is based on the principle of ______________.
(a) Galvanometer (b) Wheatstone bridge (c) Mutual induction (d) None of these
3. Which was first introduced for finding the resistance of telegraph ______________.
(a) Wheatstone bridge (b) Meter bridge (c) P.O. Box (d) None of these
4. Which one is the useful device for quick measurement of resistance ____________.
(a) Ohmmeter (b) Wheatstone bridge (c) P.O. Box (d) None of these
5. A single device used to measure current, voltage and resistance is called _____________.
(a) Multi meter (b) AVO-meter (c) Both a and b (d) None of these
CHAPTER#16
EX#16.1
11. In_________ we study about electron emitting devices.
(a) Electricity (b) Electronics (c) Electrostatics (d) None of these
12. Germanium and silicon belong to group _____________.
(a) IIIA (b) IV A (c) V A (d) None of these
13. If Ge or Si is doped with pentavalent element, then _________ substance is formed.
(a) N-type (b) P-type (c) Both a and b (d) None of these
14. If Ge or Si is doped with a _______ element, then p-type substance is formed.
(a) Trivalent (b) Tetravalent (c) Pentavalent (d) None of these
15. P-type impurity is also called _______________ impurity.
(a) Acceptor (b) Donner (c) Pentavalent (d) None of these
16. ____________ impurity is also called donner impurity.
(a) P-type (b) N-type (c) Both (d) None of these
17. P-type substance can accept _________________.
(a) Protons (b) Holes (c) Electrons (d) None of these
18. P-type substance have free ______________.
(a) Protons (b) Holes (c) Electrons (d) None of these
19. _________ is an electronic device consists of a p-n junction.
(a) Diode (b) Triode (c) Transistor (d) None of these
20. Transistor consist of __________ p-n junction.
21. Diode is used as a/an ____________.
(a) Amplifier (b) Modifier (c) Rectifier (d) None of these
22. _____________ p-n junction has the lowest electrical resistance.
(a) Normal (b) Forward biased (c) Reversed biased (d) None of these
23. ______________ p-n junction is the most insulated.
(a) Normal (b) Forward biased (c) Reversed biased (d) None of these
24. For full-wave rectification we use ___________ diodes in circuit.
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) None of these
25. For _____________ wave rectification we use only one diode.
(a) Half (b) Full (c) Double (d) None of these
26. _____________ converts A.C into D.C.
(a) Transistor (b) Amplifier (c) Rectifier (d) None of these
27. ______________ can be used as an amplifier.
(a) Diode (b) Transistor (c) Both (d) None of these
28. ______________ changes a small voltage input into a large voltage output.
(a) Amplifier (b) Rectifier (c) Modifier (d) None of these
29. Every modern airport is equipped with a/an ___________________.
(a) Amplifier (b) Rectifier (c) Radar system (d) None of these
30. We can watch a cricket match live from England in Pakistan due to ______________.
(a) Radar system (b) Telecommunication (c) Communication satellite (d) None of these
−𝟏
31. The substance that have intermediate value of resistivity (𝟏𝟎 𝛀𝒎) are called _________________.
(a) Conductor (b) Insulator (c) Semi-conductor (d) None of these
32. A pure semiconductor is called _________________.
(a) Intrinsic semi-conductors (b) Extrinsic semi-conductors
(c) Both of these (d) None of these
33. In case of semiconductors _______________.
(a) There is a wide forbidden gap between conduction band and valance band
(b) Conduction band and the valance band overlap each other
(c) There is narrow forbidden gap between conduction band and valance band
(d) None of these
34. The process of addition of impurities to a pure semi-conductor is called _____________.
(a) Doping (b) Welding (c) Mixing (d) None of these
35. The doped semi-conductor materials are called ____________.
(a) Intrinsic semiconductors (b) Extrinsic semiconductors
36. When tri-valent substances are added to germanium or silicon he semi-conductor formed is called.
(a) P-type (b) N-type (c) PN-type (d) None of these
37. When pentavalent substance are added to germanium or silicon the semi-conductor formed is called:
(a) P-type (b) N-type (c) PN-type (d) None of these
38. Acceptor impurities are impurities of _______________.
(a) Group IV (b) Group V (c) Group III (d) None of these
39. Donor impurities are impurities of _______________.
(a) Group IV (b) Group V (c) Group III (d) None of these
40. In P-type semi-conductors majority charge carries are ______________.
(a) Electrons (b) Holes (c) Protons (d) None of these
41. In N-type semi-conductors majority charge carries are ______________.
(a) Electrons (b) Holes (c) Protons (d) None of these
42. A hole of a semi-conductor is treated as ____________.
(a) Positive charge (b) Negative charge (c) Neutral (d) None of these
43. In semi-conductor material, current flows due to _____________.
(a) Positive charge (b) Negative charge (c) Both of these (d) None of these
44. The junction which is formed by melting P-type and N-type semi-conductor by a special manufacturing
process (Thermo compression) is called _____________.
(a) P-n junction (b) Junction diode (c) Both of these (d) None of these
45. Depletion region consist of______________.
(a) Holes only (b) Electrons only (c) Neither holes nor electrons (d) Both electrons and holes
46. When p-type is connected to positive terminal and N-type is connected to negative terminal of
battery is called ______________.
(a) Forward biasing (b) Reverse biasing (c) Biasing only (d) None of these
47. When p-type is connected to negative terminal and N-type is connected to positive terminal of the
battery is called ___________.
(a) Forward biasing (b) Reverse biasing (c) Biasing only (d) None of these
48. When p-n junction is connected forward biased its junction resistance becomes _____________.
(a) Low (b) High (c) Both of these (d) None of these
49. When p-n junction is reverse biased its junction resistance becomes _____________.
(a) Low (b) Zero (c) High (d) None of these
50. A semi-conductor diode conducts when it is _____________.
(a) Forward biased (b) Reverse biased (c) Both of them (d) None of these
51. During the positive half-cycle of half wave rectification the diode _____________.
(a) Does not conduct (b) Conducts (c) Either of these (d) None of these
52. Output of rectifier is _______________.
(a) Alternating current (b) Direct current (c) Pulsating direct current (d) None of these
53. The word transistor means _____________.
(a) Trans conductance (b) Transforming conductor
(c) Transfer resistor (d) None of these
54. In a transistor if the central region is p-type then this type of transistor is known as _____________.
(a) p-n-p transistor (b) n-p-n transistor (c) Either of these (d) None of these
55. In a transistor if the central region is n-type then this type of transistor is known as _____________.
(a) p-n-p transistor (b) n-p-n transistor (c) Either of these (d) None of these
56. The transistor consists of _____________.
(a) Two layers of doped semiconductors (b) Three layers of doped semiconductors
(c) Four layers of doped semiconductors (d) None of these
57. In sequence the three layers of a transistor are called ____________.
(a) Base, emitter, collector (b) Emitter, base, collector
(c) Collector, base, emitter (d) None of these
58. For normal operations of a transistor _____________.

(a) Emitter-base junction forward biased and collector-base junction reverse biased
(b) Emitter-base junction reverse biased and collector-base junction forward biased
59. In N-P-N transistor arrowhead is directed _____________.
(a) Outward (b) Inward (c) Has no direction (d) None of these
60. In P-N-P transistor arrowhead is directed_____________.
(a) Outward (b) Inward (c) Has no direction (d) None of these
61. In a P-N-P transistor emitter current is equal to ____________.
(a) IB + IC (b) IB − IC (c) IC − IB (d) None of these
CHAPTER#17
EXERCISE#17.1
1. A frame of reference moving with constant velocity is called ___________.
(a) None initial frame of reference (b) Inertial frame of reference
(c) Constant frame of reference (d) None of these
2. Apparent motion observed in different frames of reference by an observer ___________.
(a) Are same (b) Are different (c) Both (d) None of these
3. The co-ordinate transformation of one frame of reference into another frame of reference,
moving with uniform velocity is called ______________.
(a) Newton’s transformation (b) Galilean transformation
(c) Neither of these (d) None of these
4. For two frames of reference moving relative to each other the relation V= V + V’ for velocity is
called ______.
(a) Newton’s transformation for velocities (b) Galilean transformation for velocities
5. An accelerating frame of reference is called _____________.
(a) Inertial frame of reference (b) Non inertial frame of reference
6. An inertial frame is that frame in which ___________.
(a) a > 0 (b) a = 0 (c) a < 0 (d) None of these
7. In inertial frame of reference _______________.
(a) Newton’s law of motion are valid (b) Newton’s law of motion are not valid
(c) Both of them are true (d) None of these
8. The famous special theory of relativity is proposed by _______________.
(a) Maxwell (b) Coulomb (c) Einstein (d) None of these
9. The special theory of relativity is based on _______________.
(a) One postulate (b) Two postulates (c) Three postulates (d) None of these
10. The assumption that all frames of references moving with uniform velocity relative to each
other are equivalent for the statement of description of physical law is called the
_______________.
(a) Principle of Newton’s law (b) Principle of motion
(c) Principle of relativity (d) None of these
11. According to the special theory of relativity mass of an object of rest mass m o moving at
speed is given by ______.
mo mo v2
(a) m = v
(b) m = 2
(c) m = mo √1 − c2 (d) None of these
√1− c √1− v2
c
12. According to the special theory of relativity the expression for time dilation is given by
____________.
v2 to to
(a) t = t o √1 − c2 (b) t = 2
(c) t = v
(d) None of these
√1−v2 √1− c
c
13. According to the special theory of relativity the length of a rod Lo in moving frame appear to
an observer in another frame is _______________.
Lo v2 Lo
(a) L = 2
(b) L = Lo √1 − c2 (c) L = v
(d) None of these
√1−v2 √1− c
c
14. In different inertial frames of reference the velocity of an object observed by observers in
their respective frames will be _____________.
(a) Same (b) Different (c) Opposite (d) None of these
15. The special theory of relativity is related to the ________________.
(a) Non inertial frame (b) Inertial frame of reference
16. The general theory of relativity treats problems involving _______________.
(a) Inertial frame of reference (b) Accelerated frames of reference
17. The speed of light is same for all observers _______________.
(a) In same frames of reference (b) In different frames of reference
18. The description of physics laws for all inertial frames are ________________.
(a) Equivalent (b) Not equivalent (c) Neither of these (d) None of these
19. Einstein’s mass of energy relation is given by _______________.
m
(a) E = m2 c 2 (b) E = 2
(c) E = mc 2 (d) None of these
√1−v2
c
20. If the rest mass of particle is mo and relativistic mass is m then its K.E will be ______________.
1
(a) mo c 2 − mc 2 (b) mc 2 − mo c 2 (c) 2 mo v 2 (d) None of these
21. According to the special theory of relativity a moving clock:
(a) Ticks faster (b) Ticks slower (c) Neither runs faster nor slower (d) None of
these
22. If a body of rest mass mo moving with the speed of light ((c) then its mass becomes _______.
(a) Zero (b) Double (c) Infinite (d) None of these
23. According to the special theory of relativity space and time have _____________.
(a) Absolute meaning (b) Relative meaning (c) Selective meaning (d) None of these
EXERCISE#17.2
1. The radiant energy emitted per second per unit area in a unit wavelength range is called ___.
(a) Radiant energy power (b) Monochromatic Emissive power (Eλ )
(c) Radiation power of black body (d) None of these
2. Radiations emitted by black body depend on ____________.
(a) Temperature only (b) Material of the body
3. When a black body is heated the radiations from the hole of the cavity is called ________.
(a) Black body radiation (b) Cavity radiation
4. A perfect black body is _____________.
(a) Hollow metallic cavity whose exterior walls are blacked
(b) Hollow metallic cavity with narrow opening whose interior walls are blacked
5. The value of Stephen constant for a black body radiation is given by _____________.
(a) 5.6 x10-8 Wm-2k-4 (b) 5.6 x 10-6Wm-2k-4 (c) 2.9 x 10-3 mk (d) None of these
6. According to Stephen’s law about black body _____________.
1
(a) E ∝ T4 (b) E ∝ T 2 (c) E ∝ T 4 (d) None of these
7. According to Wein’s displacement law of black body radiation wavelength of maximum
intensity and temperature are related by _______________.
1
(a) λm ∝ T (b) λm ∝ T (c) λm ∝ T 2 (d) None of these
8. Wein’s formula is excellent for radiations of _____________.
(a) Shorter wavelength (b) Longer wavelength
9. According to Rayleigh-jeans law of black body energy associated with a particular wavelength
is related to wavelength by ______________.
1 1
(a) Eλ ∝ λ (b) Eλ ∝ λ4 (c) Eλ ∝ λ2 (d) None of these
10. According to Max Plank, the energy of each quanta is given by:
h
(a) E = v (b) E = hv (c) E = √hv (d) None of these
11. Rayleigh jean formula is valid for _____________.
(a) Shorter wavelength (b) Longer wavelength
12. Planks formula for the energy distribution in black body radiation best fits for ___________.
(a) Short wavelength (b) Long wavelength
EXERCISE#17.3
1. The minimum frequency of the incident radiations below which no electrons are emitted
from the metal surface is known as ______________.
(a) Minimum frequency (b) Work function
(c) Threshold frequency (d) None of these
2. The emission of electrons when certain metal surface is exposed to electromagnetic
radiations are called ______.
(a) Compton effect (b) Photoelectric effect
(c) Pair-production (d) None of these
3. The minimum energy of photon required to dislodge an electron from metal without giving it
any K.E is known as ______________.
(a) Work function (b) Maximum frequency
(c) Threshold frequency (d) None of these
4. Photoelectric effect is discovered by ________.
(a) Einstein (b) Maxwell (c) Hertz (d) None of these
5. The negative potential at which the ejection of photoelectrons just stops is called ________.
(a) Maximum potential (b) Stopping Potential
(c) Potential (d) None of these
6. In photoelectric emission the number of photo electrons emitted per second depends on:
(a) Wavelength of incident light (b) Frequency of incident light
(c) Intensity of incident light (d) None of these
7. The strength of the photoelectric current depends on _______________.
(a) Frequency of incident light (b) Intensity of incident light
(c) Angle of incidence (d) None of these
8. The Einstein’s photoelectric equation is ____________.
1
(a) hv = 2 mv 2 − ϕo (b) hv = Vo e + ϕo (c) hv = mo c 2 + ϕo (d) None of these
9. The photoelectric emission takes place if _____________.
(a) hv < ϕo (b) hvo < ϕo (c) hv > ϕo (d) None of these
10. Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of following assumptions:
(a) Light has particle nature (b) Light consist of photons or quanta
(c) Light has wave nature (d) None of these
11. The Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation in terms of threshold frequency is written as:
(a) K. Emax = hv + hvo (b) K. Emax = hv − hvo
hv−hvo
(c) K. Emax = 2 (d) None of these
12. The maximum energy of photoelectron is given by __________.
1 1
(a) Vo e = 2 mv (b) Vo e = mgh (c) Vo e = 2 mv 2 (d) None of these
EXERCISE#17.4
1. Compton derived the expression for the change in wavelength 𝚫𝛌 for scattering angle θ is
given by _________.
h h
(a) Δλ = m c (1 − sin θ) (b) Δλ = m c (1 − cos θ)
o o
h
(c) Δλ = (1 − sin θ) (d) None of these
c
2. When electromagnetic radiation falls on a stationary electron for the frequency of the
scattered radiation decreases this effect called ______________.
(a) Photoelectric effect (b) Compton effect
(c) Radiation (d) None of these
3. The change in wavelength of the scattered photon in Compton effect is called _________.
(a) Wavelength shift (b) Frequency shift (c) Compton shift (d) None of these
4. The wavelength of incident radiation in Compton effect _______________.
(a) Decreases (b) Increases (c) Remain same (d) None of these
5. Compton scattering confirms _______________.
(a) Quantum theory (b) Wave particle duality
6. In Compton effect the law of conservation of energy and momentum ________________.
(a) Are valid (b) Only one is valid (c) Both of them are not valid (d) None of these
EXERCISE#17.5
1. The conversion of photon into an electron and position pair when it passes very closer to
heavy stable nucleus is called ______________.
(a) Annihilation of matter (b) Compton effect
(c) Pair production (d) None of these
2. In order to produce pair production, a photon must have energy _____________.
(a) 0.511 Mev (b) 0.256 Mev (c) 1.02 Mev (d) None of these
3. The pair production equation can written as ______________.
(a) hv = 2mo c 2 + K. E(e− ) (b) hv = 2mo c 2 + K. E(e+ )
(c) hv = 2mo c 2 + K. E(e− ) + K. E(e+ ) (d) None of these
4. In order to create an electron position pair minimum energy of photon should be _______.
1
(a) mo c 2 (b) 2mo c 2 (c) 2 mo c 2 (d) None of these
5. The inter conversion of mass energy according to relation 𝐄 = 𝐦𝐜 𝟐 is proved by the
phenomenon of __________.
(a) Pair production (b) Compton effect
(c) Plank’s Quantum theory (d) None of these
6. When a particle (Electron) and its anti-particle (position) moving in opposite direction come
close to each other their mass in converted into photons this phenomenon is known as:
(a) Pair production (b) Annihilation of matter
(c) Photoelectric effect (d) None of these
7. When an electron and position combined two photons produced are of energy _________.
(a) 1.02 Mev (b) 5.02 Mev (c) 0.51 Mev (d) None of these
8. Energy conservation equation of annihilation of matter is represented by ____________.
(a) (mo c 2 )e− + (mo c 2 )e+ + KEe− + KEe+ = 2hv (b) (mo c 2 )e− + (mo c 2 )e+ = hv
(c) (mo c 2 )e− + (mo c 2 )e+ = 2h (d) None of these
9. In annihilation of matter two photons produced _________________.
(a) Move along same direction (b) Move along opposite direction
(c) Do not move (d) None of these
EXERCISE#17.6
1. It is impossible to determine both the position and momentum of particle simultaneously
with accuracy this principle is known as ______________.
(a) Law of conservation of energy (b) Law of conservation of momentum
(c) Uncertainty principle (d) None of these
2. Mathematical expression for uncertainty principle is given by _______________.
ℏ
(a) ΔxΔρ ≈ 2 (b) ΔxΔρ ≈ 2ℏ (c) ΔxΔρ ≈ ℏ (d) None of these
3. Uncertainty principle was proposed by _____________.
(a) Einstein (b) Compton (c) Heisenberg (d) None of these
4. The form of uncertainty principle which related energy of a particle and the time at which it
had the energy is given by ______________.
(a) ΔEℏ ≈ Δt (b) ΔEΔℏ ≈ 2Δt (c) ΔEΔt ≈ ℏ (d) None of these
5. The dimensional representation of Plank’s constant is some of that of ____________.
(a) Momentum (b) Torque (c) Angular momentum (d) None of these
CHAPTER#18
EXERCISE#18.1
1. Energy required by an atom to move from ground state to higher state is called ________.
(a) Ionization of energy (b) Excitation of energy
2. If an electron jumps from lower to higher orbit it will _____________.
(a) Absorb energy (b) Absorb as well as emit energy
(c) Neither absorb emit energy (d) None of these
3. Hydrogen atom spectrum consists of lines in ________________.
(a) Ultraviolet (b) Visible (c) Infra-red (d) All of these
4. According to Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom only those orbits around the nucleus allowed
along which angular momentum of electron is ____________.
h h 2π
(a) r = (2π) (b) n (2π) (c) n ( h ) (d) None of these
5. The value of Plank’s constant h= ________________.
(a) 6.65 x 10-34 J/k (b) 8.65 x10-34J. s (c) 6.625 x 10-34j.s (d) None of these
6. When electron goes from higher orbit of energy En to a lower orbit of energy Ep then the
frequency of the emitted radiation is given by _________________.
E
(a) v = (En − Ep )⁄h (b) hv = p (c) v = (Ep − En )⁄h (d) None of these
En
7. The radius of 1st orbit of hydrogen atom is ___________.
(a) 2.120 oA (b) 0.92 oA (c) 0.53 oA (d) None of these
8. The radius rn of allowed orbit of hydrogen atom are related to principle quantum number as:
1
(a) rn ∝ n (b) rn ∝ n (c) rn ∝ n2 (d) None of these
9. The numerical value of ground state energy level for hydrogen atom is _____________.
(a) -13.6 eV (b) -10.6 eV (c) 5.6 eV (d) None of these
10. The potential energy of electron at a distance r from the positive charge is given by ________.
Ke3 Ke2 Ke2
(a) − (b) − (c) (d) None of these
r2 r r
11. The kinetic energy of electron at a distance r from the positive charge is given by _________.
Ke3 Ke2 Ke2
(a) 2r (b) 2r2 (c) 2r (d) None of these
12. The Paschen series is obtained when an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit to
lower orbit where “n” is equal to ______________.
13. Layman series is obtained when an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit to
lower orbit where “n” is equal to ______________.
nd
14. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit to 2 orbit the set of lines
emitted is called ______.
(a) Pound series (b) Balmar series (c) Layman series (d) None of these
15. When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from higher orbit to 5 th orbit the set of lines
emitted is called_______.
(a) Pound series (b) Balmar series (c) Layman series (d) None of these
16. Which of the following series in hydrogen atom lies in the ultraviolet region:
(a) Balmar series (b) Bracket series (c) Layman series (d) None of these
17. Which of the following series in hydrogen atom lies in the visible region:
18. Which of the following series in hydrogen atom lies in the IR region:
19. When higher energy electron strikes a metal surface of (high atomic weight like tungsten) it
gives rise to _________.
(a) β − rays (b) X − rays (c) Gamma rays (d) None of these
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
20. The formula𝛌 = 𝐑 𝐇 (𝟏𝟐 − 𝐧𝟐 ) where n= 2, 3, 4, 5 …. The ___________.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
21. The formula 𝛌 = 𝐑 𝐇 (𝟒𝟐 − 𝐧𝟐 ) where n= 5, 6, 7,…., given the ___________.
22. The value of Rydberg’s constant RH is ______________.
(a) 1.097 x 10-7 m-1 (b) 1.097 x 107 m-1 (c) 1.097 x 107 m (d) None of these
23. X-rays are _____________.
(a) Stream of negatively charged particles (b) Stream of positively charged particles
(c) Electromagnetic waves (d) None of these
24. X-rays are not deflected by _________________.
(a) Electric field (b) Magnetic field (c) Both of these (d) None of these
25. The name of the scientists who accidently invented X-rays is _______________.
(a) Faradays (b) Newton’s (c) Rontgen (d) None of these
26. X-rays continuous spectrum is produced by ________________.
(a) Accelerating protons to high speed (b) Heating filament to a high temperature
(c) Decelerating of high velocity electrons (d) None of these
27. The production of X-rays can be termed as inverse of _____________.
(a) Compton effect (b) Photoelectric effect (c) Both (d) None of these
28. The wavelength of X-rays is in the range _____________.
(a) 0.01 nm to 0.1 nm (b) 1 oA to 10 oA
(c) 0.001 nm to 0.01 nm (d) None of these
29. The light amplification simulated emission of radiations is known as _____________.
(a) X-rays (b) Laser (c) Gamma rays (d) None of these
30. Characteristic of laser beam is ________________.
(a) Highly intense (b) Monochromatic (c) Coherent (d) All of these
31. Ruby is a crystal of _______________.
(a) CaCo3 with the impurity of CI ions (b) Al2O3 with impurity of Cr
(c) NaCl with impurity of Ca ions (d) None of these
32. Laser operation consists of ________________.
(a) Population inversion (b) Stimulated emission
(c) Optical pumping and amplification (d) All of these
CHAPTER#19
1. The spontaneous emission of radiations from heavy nucleus is called _______________.
(a) Nuclear fission (b) Nuclear fusion (c) Radioactivity (d) None of these
2. Alpha particles are _______________.
(a) Protons (b) Positrons (c) Negatively charge (d) Helium nuclei
3. When a nucleus emits an Alpha particle, its charge number decreases by _______________.
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 5
4. Beta particles are like _______________.
(a) Protons (b) Electrons (c) Positrons (d) Both b and c
5. Beta particles carry a charge _______________.
(a) 2e (b) -2e (c) –e (d) +e
6. The emission of beta particle from the radioactive substance, results in the production of
another atom of ____.
(a) A higher mass no. and a high atomic no. (b) The same mass no. and high atomic no.
(c) The same mass no. and lower atomic no. (d) The lower mass no. And lower atomic
no.
7. When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its atomic mass decreases by ______________.
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 4 (d) 3
8. Gamma rays carry a charge _____________.
(a) –e (b) +e (c) no charge (d) -2e
9. The equation 𝐳𝐗 𝐀 →𝐳+𝟏 𝐘 𝐀 + −𝐞𝐨 represents ______________.
(a) Beta emission (b) Alpha emission (c) Gamma emission (d) None of these
𝐀 𝐀−𝟒 +
10. The equation 𝐳𝐗 →𝐳−𝟐 𝐘 + 𝟐𝐇𝐞 represents ______________.
11. The equation 𝐳𝐗 𝐀 ∗→𝐳 𝐗 𝐀 + 𝛄 represents _______________.
12. The law of radioactive decay is _______________.
N N
(a) N = e−λt (b) No = ΔNe−λt (c) No = e−λt (d) None of these
o
13. Activity is given by:
ΔN ΔN
(a) N (b) λN (c) (d) Both b and c
o Δt
14. In radioactive decay, the new element which is formed due to the disintegration of original
element is called ________________.
(a) Element (b) Daughter element (c) Parent nuclei (d) None of these
−𝛌𝐭
15. In radioactive decay, 𝐍 = 𝐍𝐨 𝐞 𝛌 represents ________________.
(a) Wavelength (b) Half life
(c) Mass of radioactive sample (d) Decay constant
16. The rate of decay of radioactive element _______________.
(a) Increases with increase in time (b) Decreases with increase in time
(c) Decreases exponentially with time (d) Remains constant with increase in time
17. Number of nuclei disintegration per second is called ________________.
(a) Half life (b) Decay constant (c) Activity (d) None of these
18. Decay rate is high if decay constant is _____________.
(a) Small (b) Large (c) Medium (d) None of these
19. The rate of decay in radioactive process is directly proportional to number of __________.
(a) Parent nuclei (b) Daughter nuclei (c) Electrons (d) None of these
20. The time in which half of the atoms of the parent element decay into daughter element is
called:
(a) Decay constant (b) Mass deficit (c) Amount of substance (d) None of these
21. The half-life of radioactive substance depends upon _____________.
(a) Pressure (b) Temperature (c) Amount of substance (d) No external
influences
22. Which of the following material has a smaller half-life _______________.
(a) Uranium (b) Polonium (c) Radium (d) Radon
23. Half-life of a radioactive substance is given by ______________.
(a) T1⁄2 = 0.396⁄λ (b) T1⁄2 = λN (c) T1⁄2 = 0.693λ (d) T1⁄2 = 0.693⁄λ
24. What determines the half-life of a radioactive element:
(a) Atomic number (b) Mass number (c) Temperature (d) None of these
25. The decrease in the mass of the nucleus when constituent nucleons are combined to form a
nucleus is called _____________.
(a) Atomic mass (b) Molecular mass (c) Mass defect (d) None of these
26. The energy released when nucleons bound together to form a nucleus is called
_____________.
(a) Atomic energy (b) Kinetic energy (c) Potential energy (d) Binding energy
27. The binding energy per nucleon is called ___________.
(a) Packing fraction (b) Binding fraction (c) Proper fraction (d) None of these
28. The binding energy (B.E) is given as _______________.
(a) B. E = mc 2 (b) B. E = mo c 2 (c) B. E = Δmc 2 (d) None of these
29. The process of splinting a heavy nucleus into fragments is called _____________.
(a) Fission reaction (b) Fusion reaction (c) Nuclear reaction (d) None of these
30. Nuclear fusion is the source of energy is ____________.
(a) Nuclear reactor and sun (b) Sun and hydrogen bomb
(c) Nuclear reactor and atomic bomb (d) None of these
31. Sun releases energy by the process of _____________.
(a) Nuclear fission (b) Nuclear fusion (c) Nuclear radiation (d) None of these
32. The fusion of deuterium and tritium under high temperature with the release of tremendous
amount of energy is termed as _______________.
(a) Atom bomb (b) Hydrogen bomb (c) Neutron bomb (d) None of these
33. Fusion reaction that occurs at b=very high temperature is also termed as _____________.
(a) Chemical reaction (b) Thermonuclear reaction
(c) Nuclear reaction (d) None of these
34. The process of nuclear fission was explained by ____________.
(a) Stresemann and Hann (b) Bohr and Wheeler
(c) Rutherford (d) None of these
35. The mass of fissionable material required for self-sustaining chain reaction is called ________.
(a) Atomic mass (b) Critical mass (c) Molecular mass (d) None of these
36. Fission chain reaction is controlled by introducing ______________.
(a) Iron rods (b) Cadmium rods (c) Graphite rods (d) Platinum rods
37. The number of neutrons produced per fission reaction are _____________.
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) Two or three
38. The materials used to slow down neutrons are of low atomic numbers and are known as ___.
(a) Reflectors (b) Critical masses (c) Moderators (d) None of these
39. The moderator used in a nuclear reactor is _______________.
(a) Aluminum (b) Radium (c) Calcium (d) Cadmium
40. A chain reaction is continuous due to ______________.
(a) Large mass defect (b) Large energy
(c) Production of more neutrons in fission reaction (d) None of these
41. Good moderators have ___________________.

(a) Low atomic number and large slowing down power
(b) High atomic number and low slowing down power
(c) Low atomic number and low slowing down power (d) None of these
42. In the nuclear reactor _____________.
(a) Fusion reaction takes place (b) Fission reaction takes place
43. The rod which is used to absorb neutrons in the nuclear reaction is made of ____________.
(a) Calcium (b) Sulphur (c) Uranium (d) Cadmium
44. The rod which is used to absorb neutrons is called _____________.
(a) Moderator (b) Reflector (c) Control rods (d) None of these
45. The part of nuclear reactor which consists of fissionable material is called ______________.
(a) Core (b) Moderator (c) Control rods (d) Reflectors
46. The substances that are used as coolants ________________.
(a) Hydrogen gas (b) Oxygen gas (c) Helium, CO2 (d) None of these
47. A breeder reactor does not require _____________.
(a) Reflector (b) Core (c) Coolants (d) Moderators

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Ayaz Ali Official (YOUTUBE)

Mathematics and Physics Walla

RELATION BETWEEN “Α” AND “Β”

Applying Charle’s law we get:

For One Molecule:

Since the rate of change of momentum is equal to force.

v = √vx2 + vy2 + vz2

Or v 2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2

Hence for a given mass of a gas:

Boltzmann’s Constant (k):

HEAT CAPACITY (C)

MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT OR MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (C)

The P-V-Diagram of an isobaric process will describe a horizontal straight line.

Condition of the Process:

The P-V-Diagram of an Isochoric Process will describe a vertical straight line.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Derivation for the Theoretical Efficiency of Carnot Engine:

The Efficiency of Carnot Engine never becomes 100%:

Derivation for the Equivalent Capacitance of Series Combination of Capacitors:

Where, A= area of the plates.

DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE ON DIMENSIONS OF CONDUCTOR

Derivation for Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Combination:

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F)

The current flowing in a conductor is;

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

J.J. THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT

In right angle triangle COQ’. Applying Pythagoras theorem we get:

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE’S LAW

∑ ⃗B . ∆l = ∑ ⃗B. ∆l1 + ∑ ⃗B. ∆l2 + ∑ ⃗B. ∆l3 + ∑ ⃗B. ∆l4 … . . (i)

∑ ⃗B. ∆l1 = B ∑ ∆l1

∑ ⃗B. ∆l1 = Bl1

∑ ⃗B. ∆l2 = ∑ B∆l2 cos(90)

∑ ⃗B. ∆l2 = (0)

∑ ⃗B. ∆l3 = ∑ B∆l3 cos(180)

∑ ⃗B. ∆l3 = ∑(0)∆l3 (−1)

∑ ⃗B. ∆l4 = ∑ B∆l1 (0)

∑ ⃗B. ∆l4 = (0)

To determine The Total Current Passes through Amperian Loop:

Expression for Maximum emf:

SHORT REASONING QUESTIONS

To determine Resistance of Shunt:

points in a given circuit through which a current is flowing. It is symbolized by in

To determine The Resistance of Series Resistor:

𝐶 = 2.99 × 108 𝑚⁄𝑠

SOLID STATE PHYSICS

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Working of p-n-p Transistor:

Black Body Radiation:

LAWS OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

2. Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law or Forth Power Law:

EINSTEIN’S QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ON THE BASIS OF

EINSTEIN’S EQUATION FOR PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

DE-BROGLIE’S CONCEPT OF MATTER WAVES

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

SHORT REASONING QUESTIONS

Q.5 Can pair production take place in vacuum? Explain.

RADIUS OF “NTH” ORBIT OF HYDROGEN ATOM