Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01488-4

STATE-OF-THE-ART PAPER

Strength evaluation of sustainable concrete incorporating pelletized

plastic aggregates: a remedy for growing plastic wastes issue
Khan Shahzada1 · Akhtar Gul1 · Yousef Alqaryouti2 · Marc Azab2 · Tariq Ali3 · Sajjad Wali Khan1 · Tayyaba Bibi1 ·
Shams ul Islam1

Received: 6 October 2023 / Accepted: 11 April 2024

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Abstract
The polyethylene terephthalate bottles used for cold drinks are disposed of as waste material worldwide, causing environ-
mental pollution. For remedial measures to address this issue, the wasted polyethylene terephthalate bottles were recycled
and used as pelletized aggregates in concrete. For performance evaluation, concrete with recycled ethylene terephthalate
aggregates, with volume fractions of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%, was tested and compared with regular concrete.
Laboratory tests were conducted to assess—composite and conventional concrete’s fundamental mechanical properties,
thermal conductivity, and ductility. The test results revealed that with the increase in recycled ethylene terephthalate aggre-
gates, the workability of the concrete significantly decreases along with other associated mechanical properties. Consider-
ing the limited compressive strength, Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) based concrete can be used in concrete elements,
which requires the lower compressive strength value specified by the ACI code. Due to the lower unit weight and thermal
conductivity value, this composite concrete can be used for up to 30% in the construction industry, subject to the lower value
of desired strength.

Keywords Polyethylene terephthalate bottles · Plastic waste · Sustainable concrete · Mechanical properties · Thermal
conductivity · Physical properties

Introduction There are different types of plastic, such as thermoplastic

Disposal of goods is a major problem globally due to
improper waste management, causing environmental dam-
age and soil productivity loss [1, 2]. Plastic-based materials
have a low degradation rate [3, 4], yet their use has increased
from 5 million tons to 100 million tons in the last few dec-
ades [5]. Western Europe generates 23 million tons of plastic
waste yearly [6], while the US generates 11 million tons [7].
Plastic usage is highest in Asia, particularly China, Pakistan,
and India [8].
* Akhtar Gul
akhtarwazir@uetpeshawar.edu.pk
1
Civil Engineering Department, University of Engineering
and Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan
2
College of Engineering and Technology, American
University of the Middle East, 54200 Egaila, Kuwait
3
Civil Engineering Department, University of Engineering
and Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastic plastics, including
Polystyrene (PS), Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene (PE),
and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) [9], can melt and
harden at different temperatures. On the other hand, ther-
mosetting plastics do not have this property [10]. PET is a
type of polymer with a semi-crystalline structure known for
its toughness, high mechanical strength, and chemical resis-
tivity. Due to its lightweight and inertness towards chemi-
cals, PET materials are commonly used for packing differ-
ent products. These unique characteristics of PET materials
make them highly valuable in the global polymer market.
The global polymer market recognizes the significance of
PET materials [11]. According to the United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency (USEPA), Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) generated in the US amounted to 254.1 million tons,
with waste plastic accounting for 12.8% [12]. Table 1 pro-
vides further details on the types and quantities of MSW
generated in the US each year [10–12].
Researchers in concrete investigated PET wastes in sev-
eral forms, such as fillers or aggregates, and PET waste has

Vol.:(0123456789)
174 Page 2 of 14
Table 1  Thermoplastics and thermosetting materials present in MSW
[10–12]
Thermoplastics Thermosetting Quantity (millions
of metric tons)
High-density polyethylene Alkyd resins 8.576
(HDPE)
Polypropylene (PP) Epoxy resins 2.580
Low-density polyethylene Formaldehyde 5.010
(LDPE)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polyesters 2.000
Polystyrene (PS) Polyurethane 1.990
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) Melamine 1.900
resins
Polyethylene terephthalate Bakelite 1.700
(PET)
also been used as a binder material in concrete, called poly-
mer concrete [13]. The PET-based polymer concrete exhib-
ited excellent compressive and flexural behavior compared
to standard concrete [14]. PET fibers in Fiber reinforced
concrete obtained from PET waste bottles enhance the resist-
ance to plastic shrinkage cracking and the durability of con-
crete, as it will take more than 100 years for complete deg-
radation [15, 16]. Some researchers have studied the effect
of temperature on the degradation of PET in concrete and
their consequent influence on the mechanical properties [17,
18]. From their studies, it can be concluded that at specific
percentage of PET (up to which different strength properties
are increased) is not affected by the normal temperature as
the degradation of PET requires a high range of temperature.
In cement-based composites, the prevailing source of plas-
tic shrinkage cracking reduces the overall performance and
colossally drops the durability [19, 20].
The construction industry increasingly values Recycled
PET material for reducing economic costs and environmen-
tal impacts [21, 22]. Its importance is growing as it provides
an alternative to natural aggregates because natural aggre-
gate is the most used material by volume in concrete mix-
tures, which is a problem for a sustainable environment [23,
24]. Nowadays, lightweight concrete is increasingly used in
construction to improve mechanical and physical properties
while reducing weight and enhancing thermal insulation [25,
26]. To achieve this, one alternative is to substitute normal
aggregates with lightweight ones [27]. Authors [28, 29] are
still exploring the use of waste in concrete to reduce the
negative effects of waste disposal and improve the sustain-
ability of concrete.
Thermal conductivity is the measurement of the ability
of a material to conduct heat. It is important in buildings,
especially in hot weather or areas. Low thermal conductiv-
ity is preferred, and researchers use lightweight materials
and recycled plastic waste in concrete to achieve this [30].
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174
Buildings constructed using recycled PET composites pos-
sess higher comfort levels and are more energy efficient than
conventional buildings [31]. Significant reduction in micro-
crack propagation can be achieved using PET with 0%, 10%,
15%, and 20% replacement by weight of fine aggregates in
concrete mixtures [32]. According to Ghally and Gill [33],
when PET waste is incorporated into concrete as a partial
replacement by mass of coarse aggregates, the compres-
sive strength of the concrete reduces. The digital images
show that the samples incorporating a greater area of plas-
tic aggregate chips in a given section had low compressive
strengths and vice versa.
Different research studies have been performed to evalu-
ate the performance of concrete provided with plastic aggre-
gates influenced by the recycling process [34, 35], the size
and shape of plastic aggregates [36, 37], types of plastic
aggregates, and different mix proportions of all the plastic
waste aggregates [38, 39]. All these research studies high-
light the factors that affect the basic mechanical properties
of concrete provided with partial replacement of plastic
aggregates.
The resulting concrete properties could be significantly
improved because of low thermal conductivity, good abra-
sion resistance, and high plastic toughness [40, 41]. The
plastic aggregates, being light in weight, also form concrete
with less density [42, 43]. Thus, we can also use plastic
aggregates to prepare lightweight concrete. Plastic aggre-
gates can also be incorporated in buildings prone to earth-
quakes because reducing dead weight lowers the risk of
buildings against earthquakes [44]. Despite many encour-
aging impacts on the mechanical and physical properties
of concrete [45], the use of plastic aggregates has adverse
effects on the workability of concrete [46, 47]. The poor
mechanical behavior due to the addition of an optimum
amount of PET is due to the lack of proper bonding between
the plastic aggregates and cement pastes [48]. The utilization
of PET as a bitumen modifier was discussed by [49], and the
authors proved that incorporating PET waste as a modifier
of grade bitumen can improve pavement mixtures. Simi-
larly, [50] studies the utilization of bitumen modified with
molten PET waste as an alternative binder in paving blocks.
The study showed that the modified bitumen had improved
the blocks’ compressive strength and the skid resistance.
Another study conducted by [45] showed that incorporating
PET waste, along with rice husk ash, enhanced the work-
ability of concrete but reduced the mechanical properties.
The waste management overburden on local municipali-
ties and the environmental pollution impact of plastic waste
is becoming a challenge for the managing departments in
Pakistan [51, 52]. In the recent past, floods hit many cit-
ies in Pakistan, in which a strong reason for Karachi city
was the clogging of drains [53, 54]. Plastic waste is the pri-
mary source of clogging and choking of drains [55, 56].
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174 Page 3 of 14 174

In response, the government banned plastic bags, but the Table 2  Physical properties of cement (ASTM C150/C150M)
disposable plastic bottles used in different products are still S. No Properties Test results
a threatening tool for havoc floods [50, 57]. The Higher Edu-
cation Commission Pakistan launched different programs 1 Standard consistency (% by 28
weight of the cement)
to convert plastic wastes into different reusable products
2 Initial setting time (min) 132
[58], which resulted in the establishment of many plas-
Final setting time (min) 219
tic recycling factories [59]. Amongst the other industries
3 Specific gravity 3.15
that can utilize recycled plastic aggregate, the construction
Compressive strength (MPa)
industry is one of the largest. It can accommodate ample
4 3-days 27
plastic aggregate in concrete masses [60]. To date, a lot of
7-days 39.2
research work has been carried out to provide the construc-
28-days 54.55
tion industry with an affordable and sustainable mix of con-
crete containing recycled plastic aggregate while having the
lowest possible reduction in its mechanical properties [36,
46, 61]. However, decisive concord still needs to provide
Table 3  Chemical structure of Oxide % Content
a final mixed ratio to the construction industry [18, 62]. OPC
Different research studies proposed different percentages SiO2 21.22
of replacement for optimal results, such as 20 to 40% by Al2O3 5.60
Tayyab et al. [4], up to 75% by Himo et al. [35], up to 10 Fe2O3 3.20
to 50% by Belmokaddem et al. [63], up to 30% by Ferratto CaO 64.01
et al. [64] and 10 to 20% by Ali et al. [18]. The overburden MgO 0.88
on local municipalities, flood hazards, and lack of research SO3 2.39
consensus about the most favorable replacement percentages LOI 1.4
of plastic aggregate trigger the need for further experimental IR 0.725
assessment of concrete having plastic aggregates with dif-
ferent percentages of replacements. PET in concrete is the
need of the day to mitigate environmental pollution from
waste and to provide a sustainable solution to the extensive OPC was evaluated for its physical (Table 2) and chemical
use of natural aggregate. Therefore, based on the previous properties (Table 3). The quartz fine aggregates in uncrushed
research recommendations about the comparatively good form with a maximum size of not more than 4 mm and
performance of PET [3, 60, 65] and plentiful availability crushed good quality coarse aggregates of 16 mm size were
of PET wastes, the Recycled PET (RPET) aggregates were selected for this research work. The gradation of fine and
used as a partial replacement of conventional aggregates in coarse aggregates is shown in Fig. 1. The fineness modulus,
concrete. For performance evaluation, its ductility and ther- bulk specific gravity, and water absorption were measured
mal conductivity along with other mechanical properties like according to ASTM standards and are shown in Table 4.
compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, PET is a semi-crystalline polymer of thermoplastic poly-
failure pattern and modulus of elasticity were assessed and ester with a flexural and tensile modulus of elasticities of 2.4
compared with conventional concrete. The RPET aggre- GPa and 2.9 GPa, respectively. The melting point of PET
gates were obtained from the already established factories material is 260 °C and has a temperature of 70 to 80 °C for
of waste PET bottles. glass transition. The normal range of PET material density
is about 1.3 to 1.4 g/cm3 [67].
The waste PET bottles and similar PET products were
obtained and grinded into small pieces to make them suit-
Experimental scheme able for heating and melting. Once melted, they are fed into
molding plates and left for 24 h for cooling. The molded
Materials and methods PET materials were removed from the molds and appropri-
ately crushed with a steel hammer to obtain coarse aggre-
The locally available and commonly in practice materials gates of the required dimensions. The final PET aggregates
have been used in composite and conventional concrete. This are shown in Fig. 2. The particle size distribution of the PET
study used the Grade 53 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) materials obtained is shown in Table 5.
of a locally available manufacturer (Kohat Cement Com-
pany) confirming to ASTM C-150 [66]. For the verification
and fulfilment of the requirements of ASTM standards, the
 174 Page 4 of 14 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174

Fig. 1  Sieve Analysis of coarse Coarse Aggregates Fine Aggregates

and fine aggregates employed
100
90

Percentage passing by weight

80
70
60

(100 %)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Par cle size (mm)

Table 4  Properties of aggregates Mix proportions of concrete

Description FA CA RPA
Mix proportion of concrete for various percentages of PET
Fineness modulus 1.78 – – was designed per the standard practice of ACI Committee
Bulk specific gravity 2.44 2.72 1.21 211.1 [68]. The percentages of PET material incorporated as
Water absorption 0.88% 1.2% 1.8% a partial replacement of coarse aggregates by volume were
0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%. For one (1) cubic
meter of concrete, the mix proportion was designed and is
given in Table 6. The water-to-cement ratio of 0.52 was
decided based on previous research works [36, 60, 69], in
order to get a slump of 50 to 100 mm (medium workability).

Specimen preparation

Different specimens were prepared per the ASTM standards

[70]. The test details and the number of specimens prepared
are shown in Table 7. The fresh concrete was prepared as per
the standard practice of ACI procedure. The fresh proper-
ties of concrete were checked by measuring the consistency
using the slump test method. The specified test specimens
Fig. 2  PET aggregates
were then filled with normal and modified concrete and were
left for 24 h in a controlled environment of 27 °C. The speci-
Table 5  PET aggregates Particle size range PET % mens were then kept in a curing tank for 28 days.
gradation (mm)
dmax dmin
Results and discussions
15.87 13.50 5
13.50 12.70 64 Consistency fresh concrete
12.70 9.52 22
9.52 6.35 7 Slump test
6.35 No. 4 2
Total 100 The slump for all the concrete specimens was measured per
the ASTM C-143 [74]. Figure 3 shows an inverse correlation
between the increase in RPET content and slump values.
This observation is consistent with the study conducted by
Gu et al. [47]. The slump values decrease with an increase
in PET content dosage, which shows PET's adverse effect
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174 Page 5 of 14 174

Table 6  Approximate Mix ID PET % Unit weight (kg/m3)

composition of concrete per
cubic meter OPC Fine. Coarse PET Water W/C ratio
aggregates aggregates

M0 0 375 690 1022 0 195 0.52

M1 5 375 690 971 23 195 0.52
M2 10 375 690 874 46 195 0.52
M3 15 375 690 743 69 195 0.52
M4 20 375 690 594 92 195 0.52
M5 25 375 690 446 115 195 0.52
M6 30 375 690 312 138 195 0.52

Table 7  Detail of test specimens Test No. of samples Size of mold Specification
for each
batch of tests

Compressive 3 Diameter = 150 mm and height = 300 mm ASTM C-39 [70]

Strength
Unit weight 3 -Same- ASTM C-138 [71]
Split tensile 3 -Same- ASTM C-496 [72]
strength
Flexural 3 Width = 150 mm, height = 150 mm and ASTM C-78 [73]
strength length = 750 mm
Thermal con- 3 -Same-
ductivity
Modulus of 3 Diameter = 150 mm and height = 300 mm ASTM C469-02 [74]
elasticity

on the workability of concrete. The decrease in slump is due Hardened concrete

to the low density of PET compared to the coarse aggregate,
which affects the fluidity of the mix [75]. Dry unit weight (dry density)

After the curing period, the specimens were removed from

the curing tank. Surfaces were dried with a towel, and
unit weights of all the specimens were calculated. It was

Fig. 3  Variation in slump for various percentages of RHA Fig. 4  Dry unit weight of RPET composites
174 Page 6 of 14
observed that the unit weight decreased linearly as the per-
centage of RPET aggregates in concrete increased. This
decrease in the unit weight is due to the low weight of RPET
aggregates which are PET lightweight aggregates with a low
density compared to normal aggregates. The values of the
dry unit weight of concrete were found after 28 days before
testing for compressive strength. After completing the curing
period, the concrete samples were dried in an oven for 24 h
per ASTM standards’ recommendations [76]. The dry unit
weight of RPET composites is in the range of 896–2014 kg/
m3, as shown in Fig. 4. The dry unit weight of RPET speci-
mens with 10–30% replacements was observed to be lower
than 1850 kg/m3, i.e., which classifies these specimens in
the category of lightweight concrete as per ACI 213R [68].
Similar observations have also been reported by Akçaözoğlu
et al. [77], and Ismail and Al-Hashmi [78].
Compressive strength of concrete
Conventional and composite concrete specimens with RPET
aggregate were tested after 28 days of curing to assess their
compressive strength. The results are described graphically
in Fig. 5, from which it is observed that the compressive
strength of the composite concrete decreases linearly with
an increment in the percentage of RPET aggregates used
as a replacement for conventional aggregates. A strength
reduction of 47% was measured for specimen M6, having a
30% replacement of RPET. It can also be observed that the
compressive strength of concrete with 5%, 10%, 15%, and
20% RPET aggregates is higher than the specified structural
lightweight concrete of 17 MPa [79]. The unit weight of
5% RPET is higher than 1850 kg/m3. Therefore, 10% and
15% of RPET concrete are also categorized as lightweight
concrete. The main reason for the drop in concrete com-
pressive strength is the lack of proper bonding between the
RPET aggregates and cement paste as compared to conven-
tional aggregates in concrete [3, 77, 80]. The decrease in
Fig. 5  28-Days compressive strength of RPET composites
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174
Table 8  Comparison compressive strength with other studies (Units
are MPa, and parenthesis values show percent decrease)
Current Záleská Hannawi Tayyab Kumar Ferrotto
study et al. [36] et al. [30] et al. [4] et al. [56] et al. [64]
16 (47%) 13.2 23 (50%) 19.28 28 (30%) 15 (37%)
(73%) (50%)
compressive strength is relatively high at lower PET dosage
values. This can be attributed to the introduction of weak
zones in the concrete, which serve as initiating points for
the first crack in the mass.
Compressive strength results at 30% replacement can
be compared with other closely similar studies, as shown
in Table 8. The values of compressive strength are lower
than the values reported by Hannawi et al., 2010 and Kumar
et al., 2015, due to the difference in the cement contents,
which directly influence the bond between PET and cement
paste. Physical properties of PET aggregate, such as size and
shape, gradation, surface texture, and specific gravity, are the
key points that affect the overall strength of the PET based
concrete. In Table 8, All the units are in MPa, and the per-
centage in the parenthesis shows the decrease corresponding
to their relative control specimens.
Flexural strength (three point loading test)
Beam specimens of specified dimensions, as shown in
Table 7, were tested for the evaluation of flexural strength.
Figure 6 shows the flexural strength and the flexural
strength reduction for the tested specimen, recorded every
time from the testing of three specimens. We can observe
a sharp reduction in the flexural strength, ranging from
19% for RPET5 to 83% for RPET30. The same trend was
observed by Akçaözoğlu [81]. The decrease in flexural
Fig. 6  Flexural strength for various composites of RPET
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174
Table 9  Comparison of flexural strength with other studies (Units are
MPa, and parenthesis values show percent decrease)
Current Bachtiar Záleská Hannawi Kumar
study et al. [82] et al. [36] et al. [30] et al. [83] et al. [38]
1.25 1.3 (60%) 3.1 (62%) 4.5 (14%) 5.3 (24%) 5.2 (27%)
(83%)
strength is attributed to the incorporation of weak zones
in concrete, which results from the weak bond between the
PET aggregate and cement paste. The presence of weak
bonds in concrete is the cause of cracks at low load val-
ues, leading to a diminished capacity in terms of stress
transformation in the flexural tension zone of beams. A
comparison of the flexural strength reduction obtained
in our study is compared with previous research findings
in Table 9. The percentage decrease varies for different
research studies due to the size of PET aggregates, water/
cement ratio, curing time, and mix proportion of other
ingredients.
Split tensile strength
To evaluate the tensile capacity of concrete, ASTM C-496
[72] recommends performing a split tensile strength test.
Eight cylindrical specimens, having 152.4 mm (6″) diam-
eter and 304.8 mm (12″) length, were prepared, and then
tested according to the same standard. For each percent-
age of replacement, three tests were conducted, and the
averages of these tests were recorded. Figure 7 displays
the variation of the split tensile strength for the tested
specimens. Similar to the compressive strength, the split
tensile strength was also reduced when the percentage of
RPET was increased. Specimen M6, having a percentage
of replacement of 30%, recorded the sharpest decrease of
70.6%, when compared with the control specimen M0. It
is worth noting, however, that the split tensile strength
values of specimens M1 (having RPET = 5%) and M2
Fig. 7  Split tensile strength for RPET composites at 28 days
Page 7 of 14 174
Farhan
Fig. 8  Relation between compressive, flexural, and split tensile
strengths
(having RPET = 10%) are within the limits of structural
lightweight concrete [79]. In general, the increase in the
RPET percentage decreases the splitting tensile strength
of concrete due to its lower density [43]. Another factor
for lower tensile strength at a high dosage of RPET is the
quality of the bond between cement paste and aggregate
[84].
Relation between compressive, flexural, and split tensile
strength
The compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths of
RPET composite concrete are closely related, as shown in
Fig. 8. When the compressive strength of RPET compos-
ite concrete decreases, there is a subsequent decrease in
both flexural and split tensile strength. The graph in Fig. 8
clearly indicates that as RPET increases, both flexural and
split strengths follow a similar decreasing trend.
Rate of heat transfer
This test evaluated the thermal resistance of RPET aggre-
gates in concrete. A locally made electric apparatus, which
measures the rate of flow heat through concrete specimens,
was used in this study. The apparatus measurement was
based on the second law of thermodynamics, which states
that “heat flows from a higher medium to a lower one”.
The assemblage of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 9. The
apparatus consists of two plates of 8 × 8 inches; one acts as
an emitter of temperature to the concrete specimen and the
other as a sensor showing the heat flux through the speci-
men. The concrete specimens were Styrofoam enveloped
174 Page 8 of 14
Fig. 9  Assemblage of the appa-
ratus used for rate of heat
Fig. 10  Variation of heat flux and heat flux reduction with the
increase in RPET replacement
to avoid heat loss during the test. The input and output are
recorded on the apparatus’s digital screen. The concrete
cubic specimens of all the percentages of RPET aggregates
were placed in the apparatus to measure the heat transfer
rate. The heat transferred through specimens after each
hour was adequately recorded for a maximum duration of
8 h. The rate of heat transfer through the specimens was
calculated using the following equation:
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174
T 2 − T1
Δ= (1)
t
where T2 − T1 = Difference of heat at 0 h and after 8 h, t =
Total duration of the test, i.e., 8 h, Δ = Rate of heat transfer
through the concrete specimen in °C per hour.
The variation between heat flux, heat flux reduction, and
the percentage replacement of RPET is shown in Fig. 10.
The heat flux, through the tested specimen, decreased lin-
early with the increase in RPET replacement. A 20 to 32%
decrement was observed in the heat transfer rate from 15
to 30% replacement of RPET aggregates. Generally, RPET
aggregates are believed to decrease the heat transfer rate in
concrete due to low thermal conductivity coefficient [30]
[85]. This is a promising observation showing replacing
of coarse aggregate with plastic waste will decrease the
heat transfer and, subsequently will reduce the heating and
cooling requirements for buildings and structures.
Relation between dry unit weight and rate of heat flow
The results in Fig. 11 show that with the increase in RPET
aggregates, the dry unit weight and rate of the heat of
concrete flow decrease sequentially. With the decrease in
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174
Fig. 11  Variation of heat flux reduction and dry unit weight of con-
crete, with the increase in RPET replacement
Fig. 12  Failure patterns, a Conventional aggregates internal mass; b
30% RPET Composite Concrete internal mass; c failure of conven-
tional concrete; d failure of 30% RPET composite concrete
the dry unit of RPET composite concrete, the flow rate
decreases due to the low density of RPET aggregates com-
pared to conventional aggregates. For RPET composite
concrete with a lower dry unit weight of 833 kg/m3, a net
reduction of 32% in heat flow was recorded at 30% RPET
aggregate.
Page 9 of 14 174
Failure pattern of controlled and plastic recycled concrete
All the failed concrete specimens were adequately
observed for the failure pattern of concrete after the suc-
cessive completion of compressive tests under UTM (Uni-
versal Testing Machine). The failure pattern of conven-
tional aggregate concrete and RPET composite concrete
is shown in Fig. 12a, b. The failure pattern indicates that
concrete with conventional aggregates has a brittle failure
(as seen in a large crack in sample Fig. 12c. However, this
behavior was significantly reduced for RPET aggregates
(as the cracks are uniformly divided in Fig. 1d. In RPET
composite concrete, the cracks do not follow through the
PET aggregates as usually takes place in conventional
aggregates concrete but go around the plastic aggregates.
This is due to a weak bond between the PET aggregates
and cement paste. Poor bonding also reduces composite
concrete's strength properties like compressive, flexural,
and tensile strength [86]. The ductility of concrete is one
of the factors that influence its the performance [87]. The
PET aggregates reduce the brittleness and enhance the
ductile behavior of concrete, indicating. The increment in
RPET aggregates in concrete also increases the ductility,
and this result was also evaluated by some researchers
experimentally [33, 88]. Similarly, the flexure failure pat-
tern of the 30% RPET concrete beam was ductile com-
pared to the control beam. At ultimate load, the RPET
beams were experiencing failure without sudden breakup,
while the control beams at ultimate loads broke down
suddenly, which shows brittle failure mode. Figure 13a, b
show the flexural failure patterns of concrete specimens.
Stress–strain relationship
The stress–strain relationship for all types of concrete was
investigated to assess the ductility of RPET composite
concrete under various curing stages, i.e., 7, 14, and 28
days. The testing sample, along with the deflection gauge,
is shown in Fig. 14. The results revealed an increase in the
Fig. 13  Flexural failure; a Control beam; b 30% RPET composite
concrete beam
 174 Page 10 of 14 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174

35 0
30
5%

Stress (MPa)
25
10%
20
15%
15
10 20%
5 25%
0 30%
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006
Strain

Fig. 17  Stress–strain curve of RPET composites concrete for 28 days

of curing

Table 10  Static modulus of elasticity for RPET composite concrete

RPET % Compres- Dry density (kg/m3) Static modu-
sive strength lus of elasticity
(MPa) (MPa × ­104)

0 30.47 2252.00 2.54

Fig. 14  Testing of concrete cylinder
5 24.32 2014.00 1.92
10 20.82 1783.00 1.48
15 17.82 1549.00 1.11
25 0
20 17.25 1276.00 0.81
5%
20 25 16.82 1080.00 0.63
Stress (MPa)

10%
15 30 16.00 833.00 0.41
15%
10 20%
5 25% RPET aggregates in concrete, as shown in Figs. 15, 16 and
0 30% 17 for 7, 14, and 28 days, respectively.
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006
Strain Modulus of elasticity

Fig. 15  Stress–strain curve of RPET composites concrete for 7 days The modulus of elasticity can be obtained from the
of curing stress–strain curve of concrete under uniaxial compression as
per ASTM C469 [74]. The modulus of elasticity of concrete
mainly depends upon the types of aggregates, the volume of
30 0 cement, and the water/binder ratio. The modulus of elasticity
25 5% can be obtained from the stress–strain curve of the cylindri-
Stress (MPa)

20 10% cal specimen, given in “Stress–strain relationship” section.

15 15% To obtain the modulus of elasticity, the following equation
10 20% is used:
5
25% √
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006
30% Ec = 0.043w1.5c fc� , (2)
Strain
w h e r e Ec = Modulus of elasticity , wc = Unite weight
Fig. 16  Stress–strain curve of RPET composites concrete for 14 days (density) of concrete in Kg∕m3 , fc′ = 28 days compressive
of curing strength of concrete [77].
Using Eq. (2), the static modulus of elasticity was cal-
culated for all the RPET composite concrete, as shown in
stress–strain profile with an increase in the curing period. Table 10. The results showed that with the increment of RPET
However, at all the curing stages, the stress value of con- aggregates in concrete, the modulus of elasticity decreases
ventional aggregate concrete is considerably higher than significantly. However, the increase in the curing period suc-
that of RPET composite concrete. Also, it was observed cessively increases the modulus of elasticity. The main factor
that ductility increases with the increase in the content of that decreases the modulus of elasticity of RPET composite
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174 Page 11 of 14 174

Fig. 18  Relationship of com-

pressive strength and modulus
of elasticity

concrete is the lowest density of RPET aggregates due to its Table 11  Static modulus of elasticity for RPET composite concrete
lightweight compared to conventional concrete [89]. Standard ACI Eurocode British Stand- Indian Standard
ard

Relationship between compressive strength and static √

Relations FS = 0.62 CS FS = 0.2CS FS = 0.6 CS FS = 0.7 CS
√ √
modulus of elasticity
FS Flexural strength, CS Compressive strength
To evaluate the relationship between compressive strength
and static modulus of elasticity of RPET composite con-
decrease has a linear relationship with static modulus of
crete, two linear equations were derived from the graphical
elasticity.
relationship of compressive strength and modulus of elas-
ticity for lightweight aggregate concrete as per ACI 213R-
03 [79]. The minimum and maximum modulus of elasticity
equations are shown in Eqs. (3) and (4), respectively.

Ec min = 0.0091fc� + 1.432 (3)

Ec max = 0.0217 fc� + 1.483 (4)

ACI code indicates minimum and maximum modulus of

elasticity, as shown in Fig. 18. The graph indicates that the
control specimen, devoid of PET, exhibits a higher modulus
of elasticity than the range specified by ACI 123R-03. This
is expected, as it lacks lightweight aggregates. In contrast,
mix M1, incorporating 5% PET, falls within the acceptable
range defined by ACI 213R-03. However, other specimens
with 10% or more PET display a reduced modulus of elastic-
ity below the acceptable threshold set by ACI 213R-03. This
decline can be attributed to the comparatively low modu-
lus of elasticity of PET when compared to conventional
concrete. Figure 18 illustrates that compressive strength
Fig. 19  Relation between flexural and compressive strengths
174 Page 12 of 14
Relationship between compressive strength and flexural
strength
Various standards provide recommendations for esti-
mating the modulus of rupture, also known as the flex-
ural strength, of plain concrete based on its compressive
strength. It is important to note that these values are
only recommendations and may not apply to all concrete
types. A table summarizing these relations can be found
in Table 11.
In Fig. 19, we have plotted the flexural strength of our
concrete specimens and compared them with the values
calculated using the standards mentioned in Table 11. As
shown in Fig. 19, the flexural strengths of our specimens,
which have replacement up to 20%, are either within or
above the recommendations from different standards. This
is because replacing aggregates with PET improves the
ductility of concrete and increases its tensile and flexural
strengths. However, when the replacement percentage goes
above 20% RPET, the flexural strengths of our specimen
fall below what is recommended by the standards. This can
be attributed to the weakening bonds between the concrete
matrix and the aggregates.
Conclusions and recommendations
In this research study, RPET was used to partially replace
coarse aggregates in concrete to improve its thermal con-
ductivity, ductility, and other mechanical and physical
properties. The main goal of this study was to recycle waste
material beneficially and protect the environment from its
harmful effects. The following conclusions were drawn from
the results of this study:
• The workability and dry unit weight of concrete decrease
linearly as the percentage of RPET aggregates increases.
• Adding RPET aggregates in concrete decreases compres-
sive, flexural, and split tensile strength due to lower unit
weight and inertness towards cement paste. According
to the ACI code, concrete containing 10% or 15% RPET
aggregates is classified as lightweight.
• The rate of heat transfer decreases as the percentage of
RPET aggregates in concrete increases. The rate of heat
transfer was reduced by 20–32% when RPET aggregates
were used to replace 15–30% of the total aggregates.
• RPET aggregates in concrete increase concrete’s ductil-
ity, thus increasing the non-elastic behavior and energy
absorption at ultimate loads.
• The amount of RPET aggregates in concrete affects its
static modulus of elasticity due to its lightweight and
low density. To keep the modulus of elasticity within the
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:174
limits of the ACI code, the RPET content above 5% does
not govern.
• The cracks in RPET composite concrete occur around the
surface of the aggregates, unlike conventional concrete,
where the cracks pass through the aggregate.
• Using RPET aggregates in concrete can reduce the brittle
failure pattern observed in conventional concrete.
• The bond between PET aggregates and cement paste
needs improvement and further research is needed to
prevent RPET composite concrete failure.
• Concrete made with up to 30% PET replacement can be
used for structural and non-structural elements requir-
ing lower ACI code values due to limited compressive
strength. However, it is important to conduct durability
tests before utilizing it to evaluate its long-term perfor-
mance.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Higher Education
Commission (HEC) Islamabad and University of Engineering and
Technology Peshawar for their support in this research study.
Author contributions Conceptualization, KS, AG, YA, and TA; meth-
odology, MA, KS, TA, AG and SWK; validation, TA, KS, AG, SWK
and MA; formal analysis, TA; investigation, SWK, TA, AG, S.I and
MA; resources, YA; writing—original draft preparation, KS, AG, SI,
TB, and MA; writing—review and editing, AG, TB, and MA, project
administration, KS.
Declarations
Conflict of interest All the authors declare that they have no conflict
of interest.
Ethical approval The article does not contain any studies with human
participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed consent For this study no formal consent was required.
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